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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Heat | What Heat | ["1 Track listing","2 Personnel","3 References"] | 2018 studio album by Bokanté Metropole OrkestWhat HeatStudio album by Bokanté + Metropole OrkestReleasedSeptember 2018RecordedJanuary 6–8, 2018StudioMuziekcentrum van de Omroep (MCO), Dreamland Recording Studios, Atlantic Sound StudiosLabelReal WorldBokanté chronology
Strange Circles(2016)
What Heat(2018)
Metropole Orkest chronology
If You Really Want(2018)
What Heat(2018)
Djesse Vol. 1(2018)
Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingThe Guardian
What Heat is an album by Bokanté plus Metropole Orkest, released in September 2018.
This album was nominated for Best World Music Album in the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards.
Track listing
All compositions by Malika Tirolien and Michael League except track 4, lyrics on folkloric rhythm.
"All The Way Home" – 5:17
"Fanm (The Woman)" – 7:14
"Lè An Gadé-w En Zyé (When I Look in Your Eyes)" – 5:43
"Réparasyons (Reparations)" – 5:33
"Bòd Lanmè Pa Lwen (The Beach Is Not Far)" – 6:03
"Don’t Do It" – 7:05
"Chambre à Échos (Echo Chamber)" – 7:51
"La Maison En Feu (House On Fire)" – 7:18
Personnel
Jules Buckley – Conductor
Bokanté
Malika Tirolien – lead vocals
Michael League : guitar, bass, percussion, vocals
Chris McQueen – guitars, vocals
Bob Lanzetti – guitars, vocals
Roosevelt Collier – steel pedal guitar, vocals
Weedie Braimah – djembe, vocals
Jamey Haddad – percussion
Keita Ogawa – percussion
André Ferrari – percussion
Metropole Orkest
Saxophone, clarinet – David Kweksilber, Leo Janssen, Marc Scholten, Max Boeree, Nils Van Haften, Paul van der Feen, Sjoerd Dijkhuizen
Flute – Janine Abbas, Janneke Groesz, Mariël van den Bos
Horn – Felix Peijnenborgh, Lies Molenaars, Pieter Hunfeld, René Pagen
Trombone – Jan Bastiani, Jan Oosting, Martijn Sohier
Bass Trombone – Martin van den Berg
Double Bass – Arend Liefkes, Erik Winkelmann, Tjerk de Vos
Percussion – Eddy Koopman, Murk Jiskoot
Cello – Annie Tångberg, Emile Visser, Jascha Albracht, Maarten Jansen
Viola – Iris Schut, Isabella Petersen, Julia Jowett, Mieke Honingh, Norman Jansen, Wouter Huizinga
Violin – Arlia De Ruiter, Casper Donker, Christina Knoll, David Peijnenborgh, Denis Koenders, Pauline Terlouw, Sarah Koch, Vera Laporeva
Violin – Ewa Zbyszynska, Herman Van Haaren, Jasper van Rosmalen, Merel Jonker, Robert Baba, Ruben Margarita, Wim Kok
References
^ a b Cornwell, Jane. "Releases: What Heat". Real World. Archived from the original on 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2020-03-10.
^ a b "Bokanté + Metropole Orchestra , conducted by Jules Buckley – What Heat". discogs. Archived from the original on 2021-11-15. Retrieved 2021-11-15.
^ Spencer, Neil (September 30, 2018). "Bokanté & Metropole Orkest: What Heat review – righteous and clever". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2020-02-20.
^ "2019 Grammy Winners & Nominees". GRAMMY.com. Archived from the original on 2019-11-20. Retrieved 2020-02-18.
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group
This 2010s jazz album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bokanté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bokant%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Metropole Orkest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropole_Orkest"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-real_world-1"},{"link_name":"Best World Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_World_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"62nd Annual Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/62nd_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"What Heat is an album by Bokanté plus Metropole Orkest, released in September 2018.[1]\nThis album was nominated for Best World Music Album in the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards.[4]","title":"What Heat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malika Tirolien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malika_Tirolien"},{"link_name":"Michael League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_League"}],"text":"All compositions by Malika Tirolien and Michael League except track 4, lyrics on folkloric rhythm.\"All The Way Home\" – 5:17\n\"Fanm (The Woman)\" – 7:14\n\"Lè An Gadé-w En Zyé (When I Look in Your Eyes)\" – 5:43\n\"Réparasyons (Reparations)\" – 5:33\n\"Bòd Lanmè Pa Lwen (The Beach Is Not Far)\" – 6:03\n\"Don’t Do It\" – 7:05\n\"Chambre à Échos (Echo Chamber)\" – 7:51\n\"La Maison En Feu (House On Fire)\" – 7:18","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jules Buckley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Buckley"},{"link_name":"Malika Tirolien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malika_Tirolien"},{"link_name":"Michael League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_League"},{"link_name":"steel pedal guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedal_steel_guitar"},{"link_name":"djembe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djembe"},{"link_name":"Jamey Haddad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamey_Haddad"},{"link_name":"Keita Ogawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keita_Ogawa"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%8F%E5%B7%9D%E6%85%B6%E5%A4%AA"}],"text":"Jules Buckley – ConductorBokantéMalika Tirolien – lead vocals\nMichael League : guitar, bass, percussion, vocals\nChris McQueen – guitars, vocals\nBob Lanzetti – guitars, vocals\nRoosevelt Collier – steel pedal guitar, vocals\nWeedie Braimah – djembe, vocals\nJamey Haddad – percussion\nKeita Ogawa [ja] – percussion\nAndré Ferrari – percussionMetropole OrkestSaxophone, clarinet – David Kweksilber, Leo Janssen, Marc Scholten, Max Boeree, Nils Van Haften, Paul van der Feen, Sjoerd Dijkhuizen\nFlute – Janine Abbas, Janneke Groesz, Mariël van den Bos\nHorn – Felix Peijnenborgh, Lies Molenaars, Pieter Hunfeld, René Pagen\nTrombone – Jan Bastiani, Jan Oosting, Martijn Sohier\nBass Trombone – Martin van den Berg\nDouble Bass – Arend Liefkes, Erik Winkelmann, Tjerk de Vos\nPercussion [Orchestral] – Eddy Koopman, Murk Jiskoot\nCello – Annie Tångberg, Emile Visser, Jascha Albracht, Maarten Jansen\nViola – Iris Schut, Isabella Petersen, Julia Jowett, Mieke Honingh, Norman Jansen, Wouter Huizinga\nViolin [1st] – Arlia De Ruiter, Casper Donker, Christina Knoll, David Peijnenborgh, Denis Koenders, Pauline Terlouw, Sarah Koch, Vera Laporeva\nViolin [2nd] – Ewa Zbyszynska, Herman Van Haaren, Jasper van Rosmalen, Merel Jonker, Robert Baba, Ruben Margarita, Wim Kok","title":"Personnel"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Cornwell, Jane. \"Releases: What Heat\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biffen_Lecture | Biffen Lecture | ["1 Lecturers","2 See also","3 References"] | This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Biffen Lecture" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2021)
The Biffen Lecture is a lectureship organised by the John Innes Centre, named after Rowland Biffen.
Lecturers
Source: John Innes Centre
2001 John Doebley
2002 Francesco Salamini
2003 Steven D. Tanksley
2004 Michael Freeling
2006 Dick Flavell
2008 Rob Martienssen – 'Propagating silent heterochromatin with RNA interference in plants and fission yeast'
2009 Susan McCouch, Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Cornell University – 'Gene flow and genetic isolation during crop evolution'
2010 Peter Langridge, University of Adelaide, Australia – 'Miserable but worth the trouble: Genomics, wheat and difficult environments'
2012 Sarah Hake, Plant Gene Expression Center, USDA-ARS – 'Patterning the maize leaf'
2014 Professor Pamela Ronald, Department of Plant Pathology & The Genome Center, University of California, Davis – ‘Engineering crops for resistance to disease and tolerance of stress’
2015 Professor Lord May, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford – ‘Unanswered questions in ecology, and why they matter’
2016 Edward Buckler, US Department of Agriculture – ‘Breeding 4.0? Sorting through the adaptive and deleterious variants in maize and beyond’
2022 Professor Venkatesan Sundaresan, University of California, Davis – ‘Gametes to zygotes to self-cloning plants: The importance of being egg-centric’
2023 Professor Beat Keller, University of Zurich – ‘From the field, to the field: molecular characterization and breeding application of wheat resistance to fungal diseases’
2024 Professor Ken Giller, Wageningen University – ‘Land sparing and land sharing: regenerative agriculture, populism and the role of science’
See also
Bateson Lecture
Chatt Lecture
Darlington Lecture
Haldane Lecture
List of genetics awards
References
^ "The Biffen Lecture", The Biffen Lecture, John Innes centre, archived from the original on 3 November 2013, retrieved 29 November 2013 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lectureship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectureship"},{"link_name":"John Innes Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Innes_Centre"},{"link_name":"Rowland Biffen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland_Biffen"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JIC-1"}],"text":"The Biffen Lecture is a lectureship organised by the John Innes Centre, named after Rowland Biffen.[1]","title":"Biffen Lecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Innes Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jic.ac.uk/about-us/friday-seminars/the-biffen-lecture/"},{"link_name":"John Doebley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doebley"},{"link_name":"Steven D. 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Tanksley\n2004 Michael Freeling\n2006 Dick Flavell\n2008 Rob Martienssen – 'Propagating silent heterochromatin with RNA interference in plants and fission yeast'\n2009 Susan McCouch, Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Cornell University – 'Gene flow and genetic isolation during crop evolution'\n2010 Peter Langridge, University of Adelaide, Australia – 'Miserable but worth the trouble: Genomics, wheat and difficult environments'\n2012 Sarah Hake, Plant Gene Expression Center, USDA-ARS – 'Patterning the maize leaf'\n2014 Professor Pamela Ronald, Department of Plant Pathology & The Genome Center, University of California, Davis – ‘Engineering crops for resistance to disease and tolerance of stress’\n2015 Professor Lord May, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford – ‘Unanswered questions in ecology, and why they matter’\n2016 Edward Buckler, US Department of Agriculture – ‘Breeding 4.0? Sorting through the adaptive and deleterious variants in maize and beyond’\n2022 Professor Venkatesan Sundaresan, University of California, Davis – ‘Gametes to zygotes to self-cloning plants: The importance of being egg-centric’\n2023 Professor Beat Keller, University of Zurich – ‘From the field, to the field: molecular characterization and breeding application of wheat resistance to fungal diseases’\n2024 Professor Ken Giller, Wageningen University – ‘Land sparing and land sharing: regenerative agriculture, populism and the role of science’","title":"Lecturers"}] | [] | [{"title":"Bateson Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateson_Lecture"},{"title":"Chatt Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatt_Lecture"},{"title":"Darlington Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlington_Lecture"},{"title":"Haldane Lecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldane_Lecture"},{"title":"List of genetics awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetics_awards"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Biffen Lecture\", The Biffen Lecture, John Innes centre, archived from the original on 3 November 2013, retrieved 29 November 2013","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131103072953/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/whats-on/named-lectures/biffen.htm","url_text":"The Biffen Lecture"},{"url":"http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/whats-on/named-lectures/biffen.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biffen_Lecture&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Biffen+Lecture%22","external_links_name":"\"Biffen Lecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Biffen+Lecture%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Biffen+Lecture%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Biffen+Lecture%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Biffen+Lecture%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Biffen+Lecture%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.jic.ac.uk/about-us/friday-seminars/the-biffen-lecture/","external_links_name":"John Innes Centre"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131103072953/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/whats-on/named-lectures/biffen.htm","external_links_name":"The Biffen Lecture"},{"Link":"http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/whats-on/named-lectures/biffen.htm","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regan_(King_Lear) | Regan (King Lear) | ["1 Role in play","2 Performance on screen","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"] | Character in King Lear
Fictional character
ReganKing Lear characterGoneril and Regan by Edwin Austin AbbeyCreated byWilliam ShakespeareIn-universe informationFamilyLear (father)Goneril (sister)Cordelia (sister)SpouseDuke of Cornwall
Regan is a fictional character in William Shakespeare's tragic play King Lear, named after a King of the Britons recorded by the medieval scribe Geoffrey of Monmouth.
Shakespeare based the character on Regan, a personage described by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudo-historical chronicle Historia regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain", c. 1138) as one of the British king Lear's three daughters, alongside Goneril and Cordelia (the source for Cordelia), and the mother of Cunedagius.
Role in play
She is the middle child of King Lear's daughters and is married to the Duke of Cornwall. Similarly to her older sister Goneril, Regan is attracted to Edmund. Both sisters are eager for power and convince their father with false flattery to hand over his kingdom.
"Sir, I am made
Of the self same metal that my sister is,
And prize me at her worth. In my true heart,
I find she names my very deed of love;
Only she comes too short, that I profess
Myself an enemy to all other joys,
Which the most precious square of sense possesses,
And find I am alone felicitate
In your dear highness' love."
-Regan's falsely flattering speech to King Lear, King Lear 1.1.67–74.
Later in the play, Lear leaves his kingdom to live with Goneril. She rejects him. After Lear leaves Goneril's house, he asks Regan to take him in. She tells him he has too many servants and knights, just as Goneril had. Unwilling to budge, Regan drives Lear into the storm.
In Act 3, Scene 7, after learning that the Earl of Gloucester has helped Lear escape to Dover, Regan, Goneril, and the Duke of Cornwall discuss what Gloucester's fate should be. While Regan suggests that they "hang him instantly," (3.7. 4), Goneril orders that his eyes be plucked out. After Goneril and Edmund leave, Regan watches as her husband plucks out Gloucester's eyes. When a servant attempts to stop the Duke of Cornwall, Regan kills him. She then leads her wounded husband offstage, where he dies.
After her husband's death, Regan attempts to woo Edmund, who is now the Earl of Gloucester. While Goneril seems romantically interested in Edmund, it is unclear whether Regan's affections are sincere. She says that Edmund is more "convenient" (4.6. 31) for her hand that for Goneril's, implying that her desire is at least partly political in nature. In the final act, Goneril poisons Regan's drink after learning that they share a desire for Edmund. Regan cries "Sick, O sick!" to which Goneril replies in an aside "If not, I'll ne'er trust medicine," (5.3. 97–98). Regan quickly becomes ill and dies offstage.
Regan, like her elder sister, is unnecessarily cruel. After Gloucester's eyes have been plucked out, she orders to "Go, thrust him out the gates, and let him smell/his way to Dover." (3.7. 94–95). Stanley Cavell notes Regan's characteristic relish building upon and outdoing others' evils: "he has no ideas of her own, her special vileness is always to increase the measure of pain that others are prepared to inflict; her mind itself is a lynch mob" (291).
Performance on screen
Emily Watson. King Lear (2018) (TV) Dir. Richard Eyre
Monica Dolan. King Lear (2009) PBS Dir. Sir Trevor Nunn and Chris Hunt
Claire Laurie. King Lear (1999) Dir. Brian Blessed & Tony Rotherham
Amanda Redman. Performance King Lear (1998) Dir. Richard Eyre
Diana Rigg. King Lear (1983) (TV) Dir. Michael Elliott
Penelope Wilton. King Lear (1982) (TV) Dir. Jonathan Miller
Ann Lynn. King Lear (1976) (TV) Dir. Tony Davenall
Ellen Holly. King Lear (1974) (TV) Dir. Edwin Sherin
Susan Engel. King Lear (1971 UK Film) Dir. Peter Brook
Galina Volchek. Korol Lir (1971 USSR Film) Dir. Grigori Kozintsev & Iosif Shapiro
Margaret Phillips. King Lear (1953) (TV) Dir. Andrew McCullough
References
^ Auden, W.H. Lectures on Shakespeare. Ed. Kirsch, Arthur. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 2000. 219–230.
^ a b Shakespeare, William. King Lear. The Norton Shakespeare: Tragedies. Ed. Greenblatt, Cohen, Howard, Maus. W.W Norton and Company, 1997. 707–781.
^ a b Shakespeare, William (2016). Greenblatt, Stephen (ed.). King Lear. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 812. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Cavell, Stanley. The Avoidance of Love. Must We Mean What We Say?. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1976. 267–353.
Further reading
Smiley, Jane. A Thousand Acres. Ivy Books, 1996. Print.
Fischlin, Daniel and Fortier, Mark. Adaptations of Shakespeare. Feinstein, Elaine and the Women's Theatre Group. Lear's Daughters. 215–232. Routledge, 2000. Print
External links
King Lear – Watch the Play -PBS Production of King Lear
Results for "King Lear" at imdb.com -King Lear Films
King Lear (1971), directed by Peter Brook -King Lear Video Clips
The True Chronicle Historie of King Leir Text (1605) by Anonymous
The History of King Lear (1681) by Nahum Tate Archived 8 June 2001 at the Wayback Machine
vteWilliam Shakespeare's King LearCharacters
King Lear
Cordelia
Goneril
Regan
Edmund
The Fool
Sources
Historia Regum Britanniae (1136)
The Mirror for Magistrates (1555)
Holinshed's Chronicles (1577)
King Leir (1594)
"Water and Salt"
Related
Llŷr
Leir of Britain
Cordelia of Britain
AdaptationsPlays
The History of King Lear (1681)
The Yiddish King Lear (1892)
Safed Khoon (1907)
Lear (1971)
King Lear (1978)
Novels
La Terre (1887)
A Thousand Acres (1991)
Fool (2009)
Operas
Re Lear (Libretto only) (1896)
Lear (1978)
Vision of Lear (1998)
Kuningas Lear (2000)
Films
King Lear (1910)
King Lear (1916)
Gunasundari Katha (1949)
King Lear (1971 USSR)
King Lear (1971 UK)
Ran (1985)
King Lear (1987)
A Thousand Acres (1997)
Gypsy Lore (1997)
King Lear (1999)
My Kingdom (2001)
Television
King Lear (1953)
BBC Television Shakespeare (1982)
King Lear (1983)
King of Texas (2002)
Second Generation (2003)
King Lear (2008)
King Lear (2018)
Story within a story
The Dresser (1980 play)
The Dresser (1983 film)
The Dresser (2015 film)
Other
Tiriel (1789, poem)
The Prince of the Pagodas (1957, ballet)
The Tragedy of King Lear (screenplay)
vteGeoffrey of MonmouthWorks
Prophetiae Merlini (c. 1135)
Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136)
Vita Merlini (c. 1150)
Translations
Roman de Brut
Layamon's Brut
Brut y Brenhinedd
Breta sögur
Merlínússpá
Characters
Aeneas
Saint Alban
Albanactus
Alhfrith of Deira
Allectus
Ambrosius Aurelianus
Amphibalus
Andragius
Archgallo
Archmail
King Arthur
Arvirargus
Ascanius
Augustine of Canterbury
Aurelius Conanus
Bedivere
Beldgabred
Beli Mawr
Belinus
Bladud
Bledric ap Custennin
Bledudo
Brennius
Brutus Greenshield
Brutus of Troy
Budic II of Brittany
Cadfan ap Iago
Cadoc
Cador
Cadwaladr
Cadwallon ap Cadfan
Camber (legendary king)
Cap of Britain
Capetus Silvius
Capoir
Caracalla
Caradocus
Carausius
Cassivellaunus
Catellus
Catigern
Cherin
Claudius
Cledaucus
Clotenus
Coel Hen
Coilus
Conan Meriadoc
Constans II (son of Constantine III)
Constantine the Great
Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)
Constantine (Briton)
Constantius Chlorus
Cordelia of Britain
Corineus
Cunedagius
Cunobeline
Danius
Saint David
Digueillus
Diocletian
Dionotus
Dunvallo Molmutius
Ebraucus
Edadus
Edern ap Nudd
Edwin of Northumbria
Eldol
Eldol, Consul of Gloucester
Elidurus
Eliud
Enniaunus
Estrildis
Eudaf Hen
Ferrex
Fulgenius
Gawain
Gerennus
Goffar the Pict
Gogmagog (folklore)
Goneril
Gorboduc
Gorbonianus
Gorlois
Gracianus Municeps
Guiderius
Guinevere
Guithelin
Gurgintius
Gurguit Barbtruc
Gurgustius
Gwenddoleu ap Ceidio
Gwenddydd
Queen Gwendolen
Helena (empress)
Helenus
Hengist and Horsa
Hoel
Humber the Hun
Iago ap Beli
Idvallo
Igraine
Ingenius of Britain
Innogen
Jago of Britain
Julius and Aaron
Julius Asclepiodotus
Julius Caesar
Sir Kay
Keredic
Kimarcus
Kinarius
Latinus
Lavinia
Leil
Leir of Britain
Locrinus
King Lot
Lucius of Britain
Lucius Tiberius
Lud son of Heli
Maddan
Maelgwn Gwynedd
Magnus Maximus
Mandubracius
Queen Marcia
Marganus
Marganus II
Marius of Britain
Mempricius
Merianus
Merlin
Millus
Mordred
Morgause
Morvidus
Myrddin Wyllt
Nennius of Britain
Octa of Kent
Oenus
Oswald of Northumbria
Oswiu of Northumbria
Owain mab Urien
Pandrasus
Penda of Mercia
Peredur
Peredurus
Pir of the Britons
Porrex I
Porrex II
Publius Septimius Geta
Quintus Laberius Durus
Redechius
Redon of Britain
Regan (King Lear)
Rhydderch Hael
Rience
Rivallo
Rud Hud Hudibras
Runo
Sawyl Penuchel
Septimius Severus
Silvius (mythology)
Sisillius I
Sisillius II
Sisillius III
Son of Gorbonianus
Taliesin
Tasciovanus
Trahern
Turnus
Urianus
Uther Pendragon
Venissa
Vespasian
Vortigern
Vortimer
Vortiporius
Wulfhere of Mercia
Ywain
Æthelberht of Kent
Æthelfrith of Northumbria
Œthelwald of Deira
Topics
Avalon
Battle of Arfderydd
Battle of Badon
Battle of Camlann
Battle of Guoloph
Brut y Tywysogion
Excalibur
Gesta Regum Britanniae
Lailoken
List of legendary kings of Britain
List of legendary rulers of Cornwall
Logres
Matter of Britain
Molmutine Laws
Nennius
Pridwen
Riothamus
River Malvam
Siege of Exeter (c. 630)
Locations associated with Arthurian legend
Treason of the Long Knives
Trinovantum
Trojan genealogy of Nennius
Vera historia de morte Arthuri
Walter of Oxford
Wikiquote
Wikisource texts
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear"},{"link_name":"King of the Britons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey of Monmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey of Monmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth"},{"link_name":"Historia regum Britanniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_regum_Britanniae"},{"link_name":"British king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_legendary_kings_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leir_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Goneril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goneril"},{"link_name":"Cordelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordelia_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Cordelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordelia_(King_Lear)"},{"link_name":"Cunedagius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunedagius"}],"text":"Fictional characterRegan is a fictional character in William Shakespeare's tragic play King Lear, named after a King of the Britons recorded by the medieval scribe Geoffrey of Monmouth.Shakespeare based the character on Regan, a personage described by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his pseudo-historical chronicle Historia regum Britanniae (\"History of the Kings of Britain\", c. 1138) as one of the British king Lear's three daughters, alongside Goneril and Cordelia (the source for Cordelia), and the mother of Cunedagius.","title":"Regan (King Lear)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Goneril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goneril"},{"link_name":"Edmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_(King_Lear)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shakespeare-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"aside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aside"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shakespeare-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"She is the middle child of King Lear's daughters and is married to the Duke of Cornwall. Similarly to her older sister Goneril, Regan is attracted to Edmund.[1] Both sisters are eager for power and convince their father with false flattery to hand over his kingdom.\"Sir, I am made\nOf the self same metal that my sister is,\nAnd prize me at her worth. In my true heart,\nI find she names my very deed of love;\nOnly she comes too short, that I profess\nMyself an enemy to all other joys,\nWhich the most precious square of sense possesses,\nAnd find I am alone felicitate\nIn your dear highness' love.\"\n\n-Regan's falsely flattering speech to King Lear, King Lear 1.1.67–74.[2]Later in the play, Lear leaves his kingdom to live with Goneril. She rejects him. After Lear leaves Goneril's house, he asks Regan to take him in. She tells him he has too many servants and knights, just as Goneril had. Unwilling to budge, Regan drives Lear into the storm.In Act 3, Scene 7, after learning that the Earl of Gloucester has helped Lear escape to Dover, Regan, Goneril, and the Duke of Cornwall discuss what Gloucester's fate should be. While Regan suggests that they \"hang him instantly,\" (3.7. 4),[3] Goneril orders that his eyes be plucked out. After Goneril and Edmund leave, Regan watches as her husband plucks out Gloucester's eyes. When a servant attempts to stop the Duke of Cornwall, Regan kills him. She then leads her wounded husband offstage, where he dies.After her husband's death, Regan attempts to woo Edmund, who is now the Earl of Gloucester. While Goneril seems romantically interested in Edmund, it is unclear whether Regan's affections are sincere. She says that Edmund is more \"convenient\" (4.6. 31) for her hand that for Goneril's, implying that her desire is at least partly political in nature. In the final act, Goneril poisons Regan's drink after learning that they share a desire for Edmund. Regan cries \"Sick, O sick!\" to which Goneril replies in an aside \"If not, I'll ne'er trust medicine,\" (5.3. 97–98).[2] Regan quickly becomes ill and dies offstage.Regan, like her elder sister, is unnecessarily cruel. After Gloucester's eyes have been plucked out, she orders to \"Go, thrust him out the gates, and let him smell/his way to Dover.\" (3.7. 94–95).[3] Stanley Cavell notes Regan's characteristic relish building upon and outdoing others' evils: \"[S]he has no ideas of her own, her special vileness is always to increase the measure of pain that others are prepared to inflict; her mind itself is a lynch mob\" (291).[4]","title":"Role in play"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emily Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Watson"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear_(2018_film)"},{"link_name":"Monica Dolan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monica_Dolan"},{"link_name":"Claire Laurie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claire_Laurie&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear_(1999)"},{"link_name":"Brian Blessed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Blessed"},{"link_name":"Tony Rotherham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Rotherham"},{"link_name":"Amanda Redman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Redman"},{"link_name":"Diana Rigg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Rigg"},{"link_name":"Penelope Wilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelope_Wilton"},{"link_name":"Ann Lynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Lynn"},{"link_name":"Ellen Holly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Holly"},{"link_name":"Susan Engel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Engel"},{"link_name":"Margaret Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Phillips_(actress)"}],"text":"Emily Watson. King Lear (2018) (TV) Dir. Richard Eyre\nMonica Dolan. King Lear (2009) PBS Dir. Sir Trevor Nunn and Chris Hunt\nClaire Laurie. King Lear (1999) Dir. Brian Blessed & Tony Rotherham\nAmanda Redman. Performance King Lear (1998) Dir. Richard Eyre\nDiana Rigg. King Lear (1983) (TV) Dir. Michael Elliott\nPenelope Wilton. King Lear (1982) (TV) Dir. Jonathan Miller\nAnn Lynn. King Lear (1976) (TV) Dir. Tony Davenall\nEllen Holly. King Lear (1974) (TV) Dir. Edwin Sherin\nSusan Engel. King Lear (1971 UK Film) Dir. Peter Brook\nGalina Volchek. Korol Lir (1971 USSR Film) Dir. Grigori Kozintsev & Iosif Shapiro\nMargaret Phillips. King Lear (1953) (TV) Dir. Andrew McCullough","title":"Performance on screen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Thousand Acres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Thousand_Acres"}],"text":"Smiley, Jane. A Thousand Acres. Ivy Books, 1996. Print.\nFischlin, Daniel and Fortier, Mark. Adaptations of Shakespeare. Feinstein, Elaine and the Women's Theatre Group. Lear's Daughters. 215–232. Routledge, 2000. Print","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Shakespeare, William (2016). Greenblatt, Stephen (ed.). King Lear. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 812.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/episodes/king-lear/watch-the-play/487/","external_links_name":"King Lear – Watch the Play"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/find?s=all&q=king+lear","external_links_name":"Results for \"King Lear\" at imdb.com"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j4-fQbVohQ4","external_links_name":"King Lear (1971), directed by Peter Brook"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/truechroniclehis00greeuoft#page/n21/mode/2up","external_links_name":"The True Chronicle Historie of King Leir Text (1605) by Anonymous"},{"Link":"http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/tatelear.html","external_links_name":"The History of King Lear (1681) by Nahum Tate"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010608055924/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/tatelear.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007590643405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2010011182","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udis | Udi people | ["1 History","2 Udi villages","3 Language","3.1 Dialects","3.2 History","4 Population and changes","5 Notable Udi people","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | Ethnic group
Ethnic group
UdisUdi women from Vartashen (now Oğuz), 1900Total populationc. 10,000Regions with significant populations Russia4,267 (2010) Azerbaijan4,100 Ukraine592 Armenia202 Georgia174LanguagesUdi, Azerbaijani, and RussianReligionAlbanian-Udi Church, Eastern Orthodox ChristianityRelated ethnic groupsOther Northeast Caucasian-speaking peoplesEspecially Aghuls, Lezgins, and Tabasarans
Udis (endonym Udi or Uti) are a native people of the Caucasus that currently live mainly in Russia and Azerbaijan, with smaller populations in Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and other countries. Their total number is about 10,000 people. They speak the Udi language, which belongs to the Northeast Caucasian language family. Some also speak Azerbaijani, Russian, Georgian, or Armenian, depending on where they reside. Their religion is Christianity.
History
The Udi are considered to be one of the 26 tribes of the Caucasian Albania of late antiquity. According to the classical authors, the Udi inhabited the area of the eastern Caucasus along the coast of the Caspian Sea, in a territory extending to the Kura River in the north. There was also province of the Kingdom of Armenia, Utikʻ (later annexed by Caucasian Albania), which likely bore the name of the ancestors of the Udis.
Since the 5th century, the Udi people are often mentioned in the Armenian sources. More extensive information is given in The History of the Land of Ałuank by Movsēs Kałankatuatsʻi. The Udi were one of the predominating Caucasian Albanian tribes.
Udi woman as depicted by Max Karl Tilke
Due to their Caucasian Udi language and their Christian faith, the Udis are regarded as the last remnants of the old Caucasian Albanians. Under Arab and later Persian rule, some of them converted to Islam, and soon adopted the Azeri language. Others assimilated into the Georgians or Armenians. The Armenian Apostolic Church held services exclusively in the Armenian language and refused to ordain a local Udi priest, against which Udis protested:...our strong desire is that our pastor be a representative of our people, for although we belong to the Church of St. Gregory the Enlightener, our language is different: we are the Uti and we know that these people live nowhere except for the villages of Nizh and Vardashen. We do not have the slightest command of the Armenian language; nor have we any idea about what the Gospel says...Today, most Udis belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church, while in Nij, they belong to the Armenian Apostolic (or Gregorian) Church and used to conduct services in Armenian. Centuries of life in the Armenian, Iranian, and Turkish spheres influenced their culture, as is expressed in Udi folk traditions and their material culture.
Whereas the Udis of Vartashen remained in the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Udi Christians of Nij changed from the Armenian to the Russian Orthodox Church soon after the beginning of Russian rule. In 2003, the “Albanian-Udi Christian Religious Community” was founded in Azerbaijan, which seeks to restore the Albanian Apostolic Church as a church independent from the Armenian Apostolic Church.
Udi villages
Until 1991, the main Udi villages were Vartashen (now Oğuz) and Nij in Azerbaijan, as well as the village of Zinobiani in Georgia. In the recent past, Udi people also lived in Mirzabeily, Soltan Nuha, Jourlu, Mihlikuvah, Vardanli (now Karimli), Bajan, Kirzan, and Yenikend. In contemporary times they have mostly assimilated with the people of Azerbaijan.
Vartashen was mainly a Udi village, where the Vartashen dialect of the Udi language was spoken by about 3000 people in the 1980s. The Udis of Vartashen belonged to the Armenian Apostolic Church and had Armenian surnames. During the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, the Udis as well as the Armenians left to Armenia. Some 50 Udi people remained among some 7000 ethnic Azeris in the town, which was renamed to Oghuz.
Today the only places of concentrated Udi settlement are the village of Nij in Azerbaijan and the village of Zinobiani in Georgia, which was founded by Udi refugees from Vartashen in the 1920s.
A significant group of Udi lives in the Georgian village of Zinobiani, founded by Udi from Vartashen in the 1920s. Small groups reside in Russia in the Rostov region (Shahty, Taganrog, Rostov-na-Donu, Azov, Aleksandrovka); in the Krasnodar territory (Krasnodar, areas of Dinskoy, Leningrad, Kushchevsky); in the Stavropol Territory (Minvody, Pyatigorsk); in the Volgograd region (Volgograd, Dubovy Ovrag); and also in Sverdlovsk, Ivanovo, Kaluga areas, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Astrakhan; in Georgia in the outskirts of Tbilisi, Poti, Rustavi, in Armenia mainly in the Lori Province, and Aktau in Kazakhstan. Some also live in Ukraine's Kharkiv oblast.
Language
Main article: Udi language
The Udi language is a Northeast Caucasian language of the Lezgic branch. The two primary dialects are Nij (Nidzh) and Vartashen. The people today also speak Azerbaijani, Russian, and Georgian. The Udi are commonly bilingual, and less frequently trilingual, depending on residence and work. Many use Udi only in daily life, but for official purposes, the Udi use the language of the country in which they reside, such as Azerbaijani, Russian, or Armenian.
Dialects
The Udi language has two dialects: Nidzh and Vartashen. Nidzh dialect has sub-dialects that are divided into three subgroups - bottom, intermediate, top. Linguists believe the dialects originated according to geographic groupings of the Udi from the Tauz region: the villages of Kirzan and Artzah (Karabah, v. Seysylla, Gasankala) moved to Nidzh and Oguz. The Vartashen dialect has two sub-dialects: Vartashen and Oktomberry.
History
In the past the Udi language was one of the widespread languages of Caucasian Albania, on the basis of which in the 5th century the Caucasian Albanian script was created by the Armenian monk Mesrop Mashtots. The alphabet had 52 letters. The language was widely used, as major Bible texts were translated into the Caucasian Albanian language. Church services were conducted in it. After the fall of the Albanian state, the Caucasian Albanian liturgical language was gradually replaced by Armenian in church.
Population and changes
In 1880, the population of the Udi people living in the area around Qabala in northern Azerbaijan was estimated at 10,000. In the year 1897, the number of the Udi people was given around 4,000, in 1910, it was around 5,900. They were counted as 2,500 in the census of 1926, as 3,700 in 1959, as 7,000 in 1979, and in 1989, the Udi people numbered 8,652. In census of 1999 in Azerbaijan, there were 4,152 Udis.
In the 2002 Russia Census, 3,721 residents identified as Udi. Most of the Udi people (1,573 persons) in Russia have been registered in Rostov region.
Notable Udi people
Stepan Pachikov, co-founder of ParaGraph Intl., Parascript, Evernote Corp. among other software companies which contributed heavily to the development of handwriting recognition and VRML technologies.
George Kechaari, Udi writer, educator, public figure and scientist.
Voroshil Gukasyan, Soviet linguist, Caucasologist and specialist in the Udi language and Caucasian Albanian inscriptions.
Movses Silikyan, major general of the Russian Imperial Army during World War I and then of the army of the First Armenian Republic.
Zinobi Silikashvili, founder of Udi village of Zinobiani
See also
Caucasian Albania
Romans in Caucasian Albania
Ingiloy people
References
^ "Ethnic Groups in Georgia # 3 – Udis". The Georgian Times. 17 April 2008. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2008.
^ State statistics committee of Ukraine - National composition of population, 2001 census (Ukrainian)
^ "Muslim Kurds and Christian Udis". Hetq Online. 13 November 2006. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
^ "Ethnic composition of Georgia 2014". 23 July 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
^ Shnirelman, Viktor A. (2003). Memory Wars: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia (in Russian). Moscow: Academkniga. pp. 226–228. ISBN 5-94628-118-6.
^ Hewsen, Robert H. (1983). "The Kingdom of Artsakh". In Samuelian, T.; Stone, M. (eds.). Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "Movses Kagancatvasiy, The History of Aluank (в 3-х книгах)". Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
^ "K. V. Trever K voprosu o kul'ture Kavkazskoy Albanii (doklad na XXV Mezhdunarodnom kongresse vostokovedov, 1960 god)" К. В. Тревер К вопросу о культуре Кавказской Албании (доклад на XXV Международном конгрессе востоковедов, 1960 год) (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
^ a b Karapetian, Samvel. "A Brief Historical Introduction on Nizh Village". Research on Armenian Architecture. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018.
^ "The Red Book of Peoples: The Udis". eki.ee.
^ Agha, Javid (7 June 2021). "Perspectives | Who were the Caucasian Albanians?". eurasianet.org. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
^ a b "Igor' Kuznetsov. Udiny" Игорь Кузнецов. Удины (in Russian).
^ Avetisyan, Armine. "Fading - On Being Udi in Armenia". Chaikhana.
^ a b c Schulze, Wolfgang (2005). "Towards a History of Udi" (PDF). International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics. 1: 55–91.
^ Игорь Кузнецов. Удины.
^ И. В. Кузнецов. Заметки к изучению агванского (кавказско-албанского) письма
^ Jost Gippert and Wolfgang Schulze. Some Remarks on the Caucasian Albanian Palimpsests (2007) pp. 210.
^ Map showing in dark green the Udi area in 1800
^ Петрушевский И. П., Очерки по истории феодальных отношений в Азербайджане и Армении в XVI – начале XIX в.в., Л., 1949, с. 28
External links
Udis and Udi language.
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Udi
See Also: Demographics of Azerbaijan | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Azerbaijan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Udi language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udi_language"},{"link_name":"Northeast Caucasian language family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages"},{"link_name":"Azerbaijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language"},{"link_name":"Armenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"}],"text":"Ethnic groupUdis (endonym Udi or Uti) are a native people of the Caucasus that currently live mainly in Russia and Azerbaijan, with smaller populations in Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and other countries. Their total number is about 10,000 people. They speak the Udi language, which belongs to the Northeast Caucasian language family. Some also speak Azerbaijani, Russian, Georgian, or Armenian, depending on where they reside. Their religion is Christianity.","title":"Udi people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caucasian Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_Albania"},{"link_name":"late antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Kura River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kura_(Caspian_Sea)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)"},{"link_name":"Utikʻ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utik"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceC-6"},{"link_name":"The History of the Land of Ałuank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_the_Caucasian_Albanians"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Movsēs Kałankatuatsʻi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movses_Kaghankatvatsi"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Udi_woman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Max Karl Tilke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Karl_Tilke"},{"link_name":"Georgians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgians"},{"link_name":"Armenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Armenian Apostolic (or Gregorian) Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church"},{"link_name":"Armenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Culture"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_culture"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-red_book-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Albanian Apostolic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Caucasian_Albania"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The Udi are considered to be one of the 26 tribes of the Caucasian Albania of late antiquity. According to the classical authors, the Udi inhabited the area of the eastern Caucasus along the coast of the Caspian Sea, in a territory extending to the Kura River in the north. There was also province of the Kingdom of Armenia, Utikʻ (later annexed by Caucasian Albania), which likely bore the name of the ancestors of the Udis.[5][6]Since the 5th century, the Udi people are often mentioned in the Armenian sources. More extensive information is given in The History of the Land of Ałuank[7] by Movsēs Kałankatuatsʻi. The Udi were one of the predominating Caucasian Albanian tribes.[8]Udi woman as depicted by Max Karl TilkeDue to their Caucasian Udi language and their Christian faith, the Udis are regarded as the last remnants of the old Caucasian Albanians. Under Arab and later Persian rule, some of them converted to Islam, and soon adopted the Azeri language. Others assimilated into the Georgians or Armenians. The Armenian Apostolic Church held services exclusively in the Armenian language and refused to ordain a local Udi priest, against which Udis protested:[9]...our strong desire is that our pastor be a representative of our people, for although we belong to the Church of St. Gregory the Enlightener, our language is different: we are the Uti and we know that these people live nowhere except for the villages of Nizh and Vardashen. We do not have the slightest command of the Armenian language; nor have we any idea about what the Gospel says...Today, most Udis belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church, while in Nij, they belong to the Armenian Apostolic (or Gregorian) Church and used to conduct services in Armenian. Centuries of life in the Armenian, Iranian, and Turkish spheres influenced their culture, as is expressed in Udi folk traditions and their material culture.[10]Whereas the Udis of Vartashen remained in the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Udi Christians of Nij changed from the Armenian to the Russian Orthodox Church soon after the beginning of Russian rule.[9] In 2003, the “Albanian-Udi Christian Religious Community” was founded in Azerbaijan, which seeks to restore the Albanian Apostolic Church as a church independent from the Armenian Apostolic Church.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oğuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C4%9Fuz_(city)"},{"link_name":"Nij","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nij,_Azerbaijan"},{"link_name":"Zinobiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinobiani"},{"link_name":"Mirzabeily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirz%C9%99b%C9%99yli"},{"link_name":"Soltan Nuha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soltannuxa"},{"link_name":"Jourlu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corlu,_Azerbaijan"},{"link_name":"Mihlikuvah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%B1xl%C4%B1qovaq"},{"link_name":"Vardanli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%99rimli,_Oghuz"},{"link_name":"Yenikend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenik%C9%99nd,_Qabala"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kuznetsov-12"},{"link_name":"Vartashen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C4%9Fuz_(city)"},{"link_name":"Udi language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udi_language"},{"link_name":"Armenian Apostolic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church"},{"link_name":"Nagorno-Karabakh conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict"},{"link_name":"Armenians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_Azerbaijan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schulze-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schulze-14"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kuznetsov-12"},{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Rostov region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostov_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Taganrog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taganrog"},{"link_name":"Rostov-na-Donu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostov-na-Donu"},{"link_name":"Azov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azov"},{"link_name":"Krasnodar territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai"},{"link_name":"Krasnodar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar"},{"link_name":"Stavropol Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stavropol_Krai"},{"link_name":"Volgograd region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Volgograd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd"},{"link_name":"Sverdlovsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Astrakhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)"},{"link_name":"Tbilisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi"},{"link_name":"Poti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poti"},{"link_name":"Rustavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustavi"},{"link_name":"Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia"},{"link_name":"Lori Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Province"},{"link_name":"Kazakhstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Kharkiv oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkiv_oblast"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schulze-14"}],"text":"Until 1991, the main Udi villages were Vartashen (now Oğuz) and Nij in Azerbaijan, as well as the village of Zinobiani in Georgia. In the recent past, Udi people also lived in Mirzabeily, Soltan Nuha, Jourlu, Mihlikuvah, Vardanli (now Karimli), Bajan, Kirzan, and Yenikend. In contemporary times they have mostly assimilated with the people of Azerbaijan.[12]Vartashen was mainly a Udi village, where the Vartashen dialect of the Udi language was spoken by about 3000 people in the 1980s. The Udis of Vartashen belonged to the Armenian Apostolic Church and had Armenian surnames. During the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, the Udis as well as the Armenians left to Armenia.[13] Some 50 Udi people remained among some 7000 ethnic Azeris in the town, which was renamed to Oghuz.[14]Today the only places of concentrated Udi settlement are the village of Nij in Azerbaijan and the village of Zinobiani in Georgia, which was founded by Udi refugees from Vartashen in the 1920s.[14][12]A significant group of Udi lives in the Georgian village of Zinobiani, founded by Udi from Vartashen in the 1920s. Small groups reside in Russia in the Rostov region (Shahty, Taganrog, Rostov-na-Donu, Azov, Aleksandrovka); in the Krasnodar territory (Krasnodar, areas of Dinskoy, Leningrad, Kushchevsky); in the Stavropol Territory (Minvody, Pyatigorsk); in the Volgograd region (Volgograd, Dubovy Ovrag); and also in Sverdlovsk, Ivanovo, Kaluga areas, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Astrakhan; in Georgia in the outskirts of Tbilisi, Poti, Rustavi, in Armenia mainly in the Lori Province, and Aktau in Kazakhstan. Some also live in Ukraine's Kharkiv oblast.[14]","title":"Udi villages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Udi language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udi_language"},{"link_name":"Northeast Caucasian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages"},{"link_name":"Lezgic branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezgic_languages"},{"link_name":"Azerbaijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Georgian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgian_language"}],"text":"The Udi language is a Northeast Caucasian language of the Lezgic branch. The two primary dialects are Nij (Nidzh) and Vartashen. The people today also speak Azerbaijani, Russian, and Georgian. The Udi are commonly bilingual, and less frequently trilingual, depending on residence and work. Many use Udi only in daily life, but for official purposes, the Udi use the language of the country in which they reside, such as Azerbaijani, Russian, or Armenian.","title":"Language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Dialects","text":"The Udi language has two dialects: Nidzh and Vartashen. Nidzh dialect has sub-dialects that are divided into three subgroups - bottom, intermediate, top. Linguists believe the dialects originated according to geographic groupings of the Udi from the Tauz region: the villages of Kirzan and Artzah (Karabah, v. Seysylla, Gasankala) moved to Nidzh and Oguz.[15] The Vartashen dialect has two sub-dialects: Vartashen and Oktomberry.","title":"Language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caucasian Albanian script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Mesrop Mashtots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesrop_Mashtots"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"In the past the Udi language was one of the widespread languages of Caucasian Albania, on the basis of which in the 5th century the Caucasian Albanian script[16] was created by the Armenian monk Mesrop Mashtots.[17] The alphabet had 52 letters. The language was widely used, as major Bible texts were translated into the Caucasian Albanian language.[citation needed] Church services were conducted in it. After the fall of the Albanian state, the Caucasian Albanian liturgical language was gradually replaced by Armenian in church.[citation needed]","title":"Language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qabala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qabala"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"2002 Russia Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_Russia_Census"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 1880, the population of the Udi people living in the area around Qabala in northern Azerbaijan[18] was estimated at 10,000. In the year 1897, the number of the Udi people was given around 4,000, in 1910, it was around 5,900. They were counted as 2,500 in the census of 1926, as 3,700 in 1959, as 7,000 in 1979, and in 1989, the Udi people numbered 8,652. In census of 1999 in Azerbaijan, there were 4,152 Udis.[19]In the 2002 Russia Census, 3,721 residents identified as Udi. Most of the Udi people (1,573 persons) in Russia have been registered in Rostov region.[citation needed]","title":"Population and changes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stepan Pachikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepan_Pachikov"},{"link_name":"George Kechaari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgy_Kechaari"},{"link_name":"Voroshil Gukasyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voroshil_Gukasyan"},{"link_name":"Movses Silikyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movses_Silikyan"},{"link_name":"First Armenian Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Armenian_Republic"},{"link_name":"Zinobi Silikashvili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinobi_Silikashvili"}],"text":"Stepan Pachikov, co-founder of ParaGraph Intl., Parascript, Evernote Corp. among other software companies which contributed heavily to the development of handwriting recognition and VRML technologies.\nGeorge Kechaari, Udi writer, educator, public figure and scientist.\nVoroshil Gukasyan, Soviet linguist, Caucasologist and specialist in the Udi language and Caucasian Albanian inscriptions.\nMovses Silikyan, major general of the Russian Imperial Army during World War I and then of the army of the First Armenian Republic.\nZinobi Silikashvili, founder of Udi village of Zinobiani","title":"Notable Udi people"}] | [{"image_text":"Udi woman as depicted by Max Karl Tilke","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Udi_woman.jpg/220px-Udi_woman.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Caucasian Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_Albania"},{"title":"Romans in Caucasian Albania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romans_in_Caucasian_Albania"},{"title":"Ingiloy people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingiloy_people"}] | [{"reference":"\"Ethnic Groups in Georgia # 3 – Udis\". The Georgian Times. 17 April 2008. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080829083551/http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=9467","url_text":"\"Ethnic Groups in Georgia # 3 – Udis\""},{"url":"http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=9467","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Muslim Kurds and Christian Udis\". Hetq Online. 13 November 2006. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114938/http://archive.hetq.am/eng/society/0611-udis.html","url_text":"\"Muslim Kurds and Christian Udis\""},{"url":"http://archive.hetq.am/eng/society/0611-udis.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ethnic composition of Georgia 2014\". 23 July 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://pop-stat.mashke.org/georgia-ethnic-loc2014.htm","url_text":"\"Ethnic composition of Georgia 2014\""}]},{"reference":"Shnirelman, Viktor A. (2003). Memory Wars: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia (in Russian). Moscow: Academkniga. pp. 226–228. ISBN 5-94628-118-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-94628-118-6","url_text":"5-94628-118-6"}]},{"reference":"Hewsen, Robert H. (1983). \"The Kingdom of Artsakh\". In Samuelian, T.; Stone, M. (eds.). Medieval Armenian Culture. Chico, CA.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Movses Kagancatvasiy, The History of Aluank (в 3-х книгах)\". Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180612211440/http://udins.ru/%20index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=103","url_text":"\"Movses Kagancatvasiy, The History of Aluank (в 3-х книгах)\""},{"url":"http://udins.ru/%20index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=103","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"K. V. Trever K voprosu o kul'ture Kavkazskoy Albanii (doklad na XXV Mezhdunarodnom kongresse vostokovedov, 1960 god)\" К. В. Тревер К вопросу о культуре Кавказской Албании (доклад на XXV Международном конгрессе востоковедов, 1960 год) [K. V. Trever On the question of the culture of Caucasian Albania (report at the XXV International Congress of Orientalists, 1960)] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180612211027/http://udins.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=25&Itemid=95","url_text":"\"K. V. Trever K voprosu o kul'ture Kavkazskoy Albanii (doklad na XXV Mezhdunarodnom kongresse vostokovedov, 1960 god)\" К. В. Тревер К вопросу о культуре Кавказской Албании (доклад на XXV Международном конгрессе востоковедов, 1960 год)"},{"url":"http://udins.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=25&Itemid=95","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Karapetian, Samvel. \"A Brief Historical Introduction on Nizh Village\". Research on Armenian Architecture. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180115215858/http://www.raa-am.com/Nizh/NIZH_E_1.htm","url_text":"\"A Brief Historical Introduction on Nizh Village\""},{"url":"http://www.raa-am.com/Nizh/NIZH_E_1.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Red Book of Peoples: The Udis\". eki.ee.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/udis.shtml","url_text":"\"The Red Book of Peoples: The Udis\""}]},{"reference":"Agha, Javid (7 June 2021). \"Perspectives | Who were the Caucasian Albanians?\". eurasianet.org. Retrieved 14 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-who-were-the-caucasian-albanians","url_text":"\"Perspectives | Who were the Caucasian Albanians?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Igor' Kuznetsov. Udiny\" Игорь Кузнецов. Удины [Igor Kuznetsov. Udine] (in Russian).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/kagantv/udiny.html","url_text":"\"Igor' Kuznetsov. Udiny\" Игорь Кузнецов. Удины"}]},{"reference":"Avetisyan, Armine. \"Fading - On Being Udi in Armenia\". Chaikhana.","urls":[{"url":"https://chai-khana.org/en/fading-on-being-udi-in-armenia","url_text":"\"Fading - On Being Udi in Armenia\""}]},{"reference":"Schulze, Wolfgang (2005). \"Towards a History of Udi\" (PDF). International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics. 1: 55–91.","urls":[{"url":"http://udilang.narod.ru/papers/Schulze_History-of-Udi.pdf","url_text":"\"Towards a History of Udi\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080829083551/http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=9467","external_links_name":"\"Ethnic Groups in Georgia # 3 – Udis\""},{"Link":"http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=9467","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/results/nationality_population/nationality_popul1/select_5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=100&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20&n_page=5","external_links_name":"State statistics committee of Ukraine - National composition of population, 2001 census"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114938/http://archive.hetq.am/eng/society/0611-udis.html","external_links_name":"\"Muslim Kurds and Christian Udis\""},{"Link":"http://archive.hetq.am/eng/society/0611-udis.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://pop-stat.mashke.org/georgia-ethnic-loc2014.htm","external_links_name":"\"Ethnic composition of Georgia 2014\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180612211440/http://udins.ru/%20index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=103","external_links_name":"\"Movses Kagancatvasiy, The History of Aluank (в 3-х книгах)\""},{"Link":"http://udins.ru/%20index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=103","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180612211027/http://udins.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=25&Itemid=95","external_links_name":"\"K. V. Trever K voprosu o kul'ture Kavkazskoy Albanii (doklad na XXV Mezhdunarodnom kongresse vostokovedov, 1960 god)\" К. В. Тревер К вопросу о культуре Кавказской Албании (доклад на XXV Международном конгрессе востоковедов, 1960 год)"},{"Link":"http://udins.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=25&Itemid=95","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180115215858/http://www.raa-am.com/Nizh/NIZH_E_1.htm","external_links_name":"\"A Brief Historical Introduction on Nizh Village\""},{"Link":"http://www.raa-am.com/Nizh/NIZH_E_1.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/udis.shtml","external_links_name":"\"The Red Book of Peoples: The Udis\""},{"Link":"https://eurasianet.org/perspectives-who-were-the-caucasian-albanians","external_links_name":"\"Perspectives | Who were the Caucasian Albanians?\""},{"Link":"http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/kagantv/udiny.html","external_links_name":"\"Igor' Kuznetsov. Udiny\" Игорь Кузнецов. Удины"},{"Link":"https://chai-khana.org/en/fading-on-being-udi-in-armenia","external_links_name":"\"Fading - On Being Udi in Armenia\""},{"Link":"http://udilang.narod.ru/papers/Schulze_History-of-Udi.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Towards a History of Udi\""},{"Link":"http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/kagantv/udiny.html","external_links_name":"Игорь Кузнецов. Удины."},{"Link":"http://www.vehi.net/istoriya/armenia/kagantv/yazyk.html","external_links_name":"И. В. Кузнецов. Заметки к изучению агванского (кавказско-албанского) письма"},{"Link":"http://lingvarium.org/maps/caucas/13.gif","external_links_name":"Map showing in dark green the Udi area in 1800"},{"Link":"http://udilang.narod.ru/","external_links_name":"Udis and Udi language."}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Meredith | Anna Meredith | ["1 Career","2 Discography","3 References","4 External links"] | For the academic, see Anna Meredith (veterinary surgeon). For the artist, see Anne Meredith Barry.
Anna MeredithAnna Meredith at the Barbican in 2022Background informationBorn (1978-01-12) 12 January 1978 (age 46)Tufnell Park, North London, EnglandGenresModern classicalexperimentalYears active2008–presentLabelsMoshi MoshiWebsiteannameredith.comMusical artist
Anna Howard Meredith MBE (born 12 January 1978) is a Scottish composer and performer of electronic and acoustic music. She is a former composer-in-residence with the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and former PRS/RPS Composer in the House with Sinfonia ViVA.
In 2016, Meredith released her debut studio album, Varmints, to widespread critical acclaim. An electronica-based release, the album won the 2016 Scottish Album of the Year Award.
Career
Meredith was born in Tufnell Park, North London and moved to South Queensferry, Scotland at the age of two. She read for a degree in music at University of York, where she was awarded first class honours, and gained her master's degree from the Royal College of Music. In 2003, aged 24, she was made the Constant and Kit Lambert junior fellow of the Royal College of Music.
Meredith first came to widespread public attention through her work froms created for the 2008 BBC Last Night of the Proms which was broadcast to 40 million people. She has since written another BBC Prom commission, her first opera (Tarantula in Petrol Blue – with libretto by Philip Ridley) and collaborated with the beatboxer Shlomo, writing the Concerto for Beatboxer and Orchestra. Meredith has been a judge for BBC Young Musician of the Year, a mentor to Goldie for the TV show Classical Goldie and is a frequent guest and commentator for the BBC Proms and other BBC Radio 3 and 4 shows.
She was the classical music nominee for the 2009 Times Breakthrough Award and won the 2010 Paul Hamlyn Foundation Award for Composers.
Meredith's pieces include Four Tributes to 4am for orchestra, electronics and visuals by (her sister) Eleanor Meredith, and HandsFree, a PRS NewMusic20x12 Commission for the National Youth Orchestra, which received warm reviews after being performed as part of the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in the Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool.
Meredith has moved into electronic music, which she has performed throughout Europe alongside a diverse range of artists including supporting These New Puritans in Berlin, James Blake, Seb Rochford and Max de Wardener at Ether 2011 and a solo set at La Carrière de Normandoux. In 2012 Meredith released her debut EP Black Prince Fury, on Moshi Moshi Records, which a reviewer compared favourably to the work of the avant-garde jazz composer Moondog. In August 2013, Moshi Moshi Records and VF Editions released Meredith's second EP, Jet Black Raider. In an interview with Pitchfork, Meredith noted that her second EP featured "clarinets, singing, glocks, drums, lots of cello," unlike Black Prince Fury, which was entirely synthesised.
Meredith's debut album, entitled Varmints, was released in March 2016.
She featured in the First Night of the 2018 Proms with a new collaboration, Five Telegrams, with 59 Productions. Meredith produced the soundtrack for the 2018 film Eighth Grade. She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to music.
Anna Meredith and her band performing live at Fabric, London on 10 November 2021, in support of the album Fibs. From left to right are Meredith (keys, electronics, percussion, clarinet), Tom Kelly (tuba), Sam Wilson (drums), Jack Ross (electric guitar) and Maddie Cutter (cello).
Her second studio album, Fibs, was released on 25 October 2019. The album was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize 2020. With her band, she toured in support of the album in 2021.
Discography
Studio albums
Varmints (2016)
Anno (2018)
Fibs (2019)
Bumps Per Minute: 18 Studies for Dodgems (2021)
Nuc (2023), with the Ligeti Quartet
EPs
Black Prince Fury (2012)
Jet Black Raider (2013)
Soundtracks
Eighth Grade (2018)
Living With Yourself (2019)
The End We Start From (2023)
Tuesday (2023)
References
^ a b c Chilton, Martin (5 January 2012). "A concert without musical instruments". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ a b c Snapes, Laura (3 July 2013). "Rising: Anna Meredith". Pitchfork. Pitchfork Media Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "Sinfonia Viva to feature Derby's 'night sounds'". BBC News. 7 October 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ a b c "Composer Anna to spend two years with Viva". Derby Telegraph. 24 December 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ a b c Bruce, Keith (2 October 2003). "Anna is calling the tune; The Royal College of Music is breaking with tradition to award Scot Anna Meredith its composers' fellowship". Glasgow Herald. p. 17.
^ Hewett, Ivan (11 September 2008). "Anna Meredith: daring, challenging -and a recipe for chaos". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ Barber, Martin (24 February 2009). "National award for dancer Sillis". BBC News. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "Previous awards". Paul Hamlyn Foundation. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "About Viva". Sinfonia Viva. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ Ashley, Tim (6 January 2012). "NYO/Daniel – review". Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 15 August 2013. It's a tour de force for the NYO, who performed it from memory and were greeted with a standing ovation, richly deserved.
^ "Press Release: Ether 2011" (PDF). Southbank Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "Anna Meredith Composer in the House" (PDF). Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ Black Prince Fury at MusicBrainz (list of releases)
^ Powell, Mike. "Anna Meredith: Black Prince Fury". Pitchfork Media Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2013. like Moondog... Meredith's music feels dense, busy and isolated, but essentially fun, as though it was designed first and foremost to amuse the people making it
^ "ELECTRONIC COMPOSER ANNA MEREDITH RETURNS WITH STRIKING SECOND EP "JET BLACK RAIDER"". The Vinyl Factory. 23 July 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "Anna Meredith – Jet Black Raider EP". Moshi Moshi Records. Archived from the original on 15 August 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
^ "LISTEN: Anna Meredith Announces Debut Album". Moshi Moshi Records. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
^ "Proms 2018 Prom 1: First Night of the Proms - BBC Proms". BBC. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
^ "Eighth Grade (2018)". Retrieved 9 November 2018 – via www.imdb.com.
^ "No. 62666". The London Gazette (Supplement). 8 June 2019. p. B19.
^ Minsker, Evan (10 July 2019). "Anna Meredith Announces New Album FIBS, Shares New Song: Listen". Pitchfork. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
^ "The final day of Mutations Festival acts are reviewed". 14 November 2021.
External links
Official website
Anna Meredith discography at MusicBrainz
Anna Meredith at AllMusic
Anna Meredith at IMDb
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Latvia
Artists
MusicBrainz | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anna Meredith (veterinary surgeon)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Meredith_(veterinary_surgeon)"},{"link_name":"Anne Meredith Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Meredith_Barry"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-1"},{"link_name":"electronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music"},{"link_name":"acoustic music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_music"},{"link_name":"BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Scottish_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitchfork-2"},{"link_name":"Sinfonia ViVA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinfonia_ViVA"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DerbyTel-4"},{"link_name":"Varmints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmints_(album)"},{"link_name":"electronica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica"},{"link_name":"2016 Scottish Album of the Year Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Album_of_the_Year_Award"}],"text":"For the academic, see Anna Meredith (veterinary surgeon). For the artist, see Anne Meredith Barry.Musical artistAnna Howard Meredith MBE (born 12 January 1978)[1] is a Scottish composer and performer of electronic and acoustic music. She is a former composer-in-residence with the BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra[2] and former PRS/RPS Composer in the House with Sinfonia ViVA.[3][4]In 2016, Meredith released her debut studio album, Varmints, to widespread critical acclaim. An electronica-based release, the album won the 2016 Scottish Album of the Year Award.","title":"Anna Meredith"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tufnell Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufnell_Park"},{"link_name":"South Queensferry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Queensferry"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GH-5"},{"link_name":"University of York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_York"},{"link_name":"Royal College of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GH-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GH-5"},{"link_name":"Last Night of the Proms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Night_of_the_Proms"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DerbyTel-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Philip Ridley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Ridley"},{"link_name":"Shlomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shlomo_(beatboxing_artist)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-1"},{"link_name":"BBC Young Musician of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Young_Musician_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Goldie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldie"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DerbyTel-4"},{"link_name":"Times Breakthrough Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bank_Sky_Arts_Award"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Paul Hamlyn Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hamlyn#Paul_Hamlyn_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"2012 Cultural Olympiad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics#Cultural_Olympiad"},{"link_name":"Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philharmonic_Hall,_Liverpool"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitchfork-2"},{"link_name":"These New Puritans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/These_New_Puritans"},{"link_name":"James Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Blake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Seb Rochford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seb_Rochford"},{"link_name":"Max de Wardener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_de_Wardener"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"La Carrière de Normandoux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=La_Carri%C3%A8re_de_Normandoux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Moshi Moshi Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshi_Moshi_Records"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Moondog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moondog"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitchfork-2"},{"link_name":"Varmints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmints_(album)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Proms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Proms"},{"link_name":"59 Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/59_Productions"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Eighth Grade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Grade_(film)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Member of the Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"2019 Birthday Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anna_Meredith_band,_10_November_2021.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fibs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibs_(album)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fbs-21"},{"link_name":"Mercury Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Prize"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Meredith was born in Tufnell Park, North London and moved to South Queensferry, Scotland[5] at the age of two. She read for a degree in music at University of York, where she was awarded first class honours, and gained her master's degree from the Royal College of Music.[5] In 2003, aged 24, she was made the Constant and Kit Lambert junior fellow of the Royal College of Music.[5]Meredith first came to widespread public attention through her work froms created for the 2008 BBC Last Night of the Proms which was broadcast to 40 million people.[4][6] She has since written another BBC Prom commission, her first opera (Tarantula in Petrol Blue – with libretto by Philip Ridley) and collaborated with the beatboxer Shlomo, writing the Concerto for Beatboxer and Orchestra.[1] Meredith has been a judge for BBC Young Musician of the Year, a mentor to Goldie for the TV show Classical Goldie[4] and is a frequent guest and commentator for the BBC Proms and other BBC Radio 3 and 4 shows.She was the classical music nominee for the 2009 Times Breakthrough Award[7] and won the 2010 Paul Hamlyn Foundation Award for Composers.[8]Meredith's pieces include Four Tributes to 4am for orchestra, electronics and visuals by (her sister) Eleanor Meredith,[9] and HandsFree, a PRS NewMusic20x12 Commission for the National Youth Orchestra, which received warm reviews after being performed as part of the 2012 Cultural Olympiad in the Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool.[1][10]Meredith has moved into electronic music,[2] which she has performed throughout Europe alongside a diverse range of artists including supporting These New Puritans in Berlin, James Blake, Seb Rochford and Max de Wardener at Ether 2011[11] and a solo set at La Carrière de Normandoux.[12] In 2012 Meredith released her debut EP Black Prince Fury, on Moshi Moshi Records,[13] which a reviewer compared favourably to the work of the avant-garde jazz composer Moondog.[14] In August 2013, Moshi Moshi Records and VF Editions released Meredith's second EP, Jet Black Raider.[15][16] In an interview with Pitchfork, Meredith noted that her second EP featured \"clarinets, singing, glocks, drums, lots of cello,\" unlike Black Prince Fury, which was entirely synthesised.[2]Meredith's debut album, entitled Varmints, was released in March 2016.[17]She featured in the First Night of the 2018 Proms with a new collaboration, Five Telegrams, with 59 Productions.[18] Meredith produced the soundtrack for the 2018 film Eighth Grade.[19] She was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2019 Birthday Honours for services to music.[20]Anna Meredith and her band performing live at Fabric, London on 10 November 2021, in support of the album Fibs. From left to right are Meredith (keys, electronics, percussion, clarinet), Tom Kelly (tuba), Sam Wilson (drums), Jack Ross (electric guitar) and Maddie Cutter (cello).Her second studio album, Fibs, was released on 25 October 2019.[21] The album was shortlisted for the Mercury Prize 2020. With her band, she toured in support of the album in 2021.[22]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Varmints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varmints_(album)"},{"link_name":"Fibs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibs_(album)"},{"link_name":"Eighth Grade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Grade_(film)"},{"link_name":"Living With Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_with_Yourself"},{"link_name":"The End We Start From","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_We_Start_From"},{"link_name":"Tuesday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuesday_(2023_film)"}],"text":"Studio albumsVarmints (2016)\nAnno (2018)\nFibs (2019)\nBumps Per Minute: 18 Studies for Dodgems (2021)\nNuc (2023), with the Ligeti QuartetEPsBlack Prince Fury (2012)\nJet Black Raider (2013)SoundtracksEighth Grade (2018)\nLiving With Yourself (2019)\nThe End We Start From (2023)\nTuesday (2023)","title":"Discography"}] | [{"image_text":"Anna Meredith and her band performing live at Fabric, London on 10 November 2021, in support of the album Fibs. From left to right are Meredith (keys, electronics, percussion, clarinet), Tom Kelly (tuba), Sam Wilson (drums), Jack Ross (electric guitar) and Maddie Cutter (cello).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anna_Meredith_band%2C_10_November_2021.jpg/220px-Anna_Meredith_band%2C_10_November_2021.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Chilton, Martin (5 January 2012). \"A concert without musical instruments\". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8994621/A-concert-without-musical-instruments.html","url_text":"\"A concert without musical instruments\""}]},{"reference":"Snapes, Laura (3 July 2013). \"Rising: Anna Meredith\". Pitchfork. Pitchfork Media Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://pitchfork.com/features/rising/9154-anna-meredith/","url_text":"\"Rising: Anna Meredith\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sinfonia Viva to feature Derby's 'night sounds'\". 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Glasgow Herald. p. 17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12529960.anna-is-calling-the-tune-the-royal-college-of-music-is-breaking-with-tradition-to-award-scot-anna-meredith-its-composers-fellowship-by-keith-bruce/","url_text":"\"Anna is calling the tune; The Royal College of Music is breaking with tradition to award Scot Anna Meredith its composers' fellowship\""}]},{"reference":"Hewett, Ivan (11 September 2008). \"Anna Meredith: daring, challenging -and a recipe for chaos\". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3560242/Anna-Meredith-daring-challenging-and-a-recipe-for-chaos.html","url_text":"\"Anna Meredith: daring, challenging -and a recipe for chaos\""}]},{"reference":"Barber, Martin (24 February 2009). \"National award for dancer Sillis\". BBC News. 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Retrieved 15 August 2013. It's a tour de force for the NYO, who performed it from memory and were greeted with a standing ovation, richly deserved.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jan/06/nyo-daniel-review","url_text":"\"NYO/Daniel – review\""}]},{"reference":"\"Press Release: Ether 2011\" (PDF). Southbank Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185646/http://www.southbankcentre.co.uk/sites/default/files/press_releases/Ether_2011_-_8_Feb_2011.pdf","url_text":"\"Press Release: Ether 2011\""},{"url":"http://www.southbankcentre.co.uk/sites/default/files/press_releases/Ether_2011_-_8_Feb_2011.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Anna Meredith Composer in the House\" (PDF). Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vivaorch.co.uk/pdf%20docs/Anna%20Meredith%20biography.pdf","url_text":"\"Anna Meredith Composer in the House\""}]},{"reference":"Powell, Mike. \"Anna Meredith: Black Prince Fury\". Pitchfork Media Inc. Retrieved 15 August 2013. like Moondog... Meredith's music feels dense, busy and isolated, but essentially fun, as though it was designed first and foremost to amuse the people making it","urls":[{"url":"http://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/17400-black-prince-fury/","url_text":"\"Anna Meredith: Black Prince Fury\""}]},{"reference":"\"ELECTRONIC COMPOSER ANNA MEREDITH RETURNS WITH STRIKING SECOND EP \"JET BLACK RAIDER\"\". The Vinyl Factory. 23 July 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thevinylfactory.com/vinyl-factory-news/electronic-composer-anna-meredith-returns-with-striking-second-ep-jet-black-raider/","url_text":"\"ELECTRONIC COMPOSER ANNA MEREDITH RETURNS WITH STRIKING SECOND EP \"JET BLACK RAIDER\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anna Meredith – Jet Black Raider EP\". Moshi Moshi Records. Archived from the original on 15 August 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130815134019/http://moshimoshimusic.com/portfolio/anna-meredith-jet-black-raider-ep/","url_text":"\"Anna Meredith – Jet Black Raider EP\""},{"url":"http://moshimoshimusic.com/portfolio/anna-meredith-jet-black-raider-ep/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"LISTEN: Anna Meredith Announces Debut Album\". Moshi Moshi Records. Retrieved 12 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://moshimoshimusic.com/2015/11/12/listen-anna-meredith-announces-debut-album/","url_text":"\"LISTEN: Anna Meredith Announces Debut Album\""}]},{"reference":"\"Proms 2018 Prom 1: First Night of the Proms - BBC Proms\". BBC. Retrieved 9 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/events/e8j3v2","url_text":"\"Proms 2018 Prom 1: First Night of the Proms - BBC Proms\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eighth Grade (2018)\". Retrieved 9 November 2018 – via www.imdb.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt7014006/fullcredits","url_text":"\"Eighth Grade (2018)\""}]},{"reference":"\"No. 62666\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 8 June 2019. p. 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Retrieved 11 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://pitchfork.com/news/anna-meredith-announces-new-album-fibs-shares-new-song-listen/","url_text":"\"Anna Meredith Announces New Album FIBS, Shares New Song: Listen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitchfork_(website)","url_text":"Pitchfork"}]},{"reference":"\"The final day of Mutations Festival acts are reviewed\". 14 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brightonandhovenews.org/2021/11/14/the-final-day-of-mutations-festival-acts-are-reviewed/","url_text":"\"The final day of Mutations Festival acts are reviewed\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://annameredith.com/","external_links_name":"annameredith.com"},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8994621/A-concert-without-musical-instruments.html","external_links_name":"\"A concert without musical instruments\""},{"Link":"http://pitchfork.com/features/rising/9154-anna-meredith/","external_links_name":"\"Rising: Anna Meredith\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/derby/hi/people_and_places/arts_and_culture/newsid_9070000/9070265.stm","external_links_name":"\"Sinfonia Viva to feature Derby's 'night sounds'\""},{"Link":"http://www.thisisderbyshire.co.uk/story-11586196-detail/story.html","external_links_name":"\"Composer Anna to spend two years with Viva\""},{"Link":"https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12529960.anna-is-calling-the-tune-the-royal-college-of-music-is-breaking-with-tradition-to-award-scot-anna-meredith-its-composers-fellowship-by-keith-bruce/","external_links_name":"\"Anna is calling the tune; 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cagliari_railway_station | Cagliari railway station | ["1 History","2 Structure and transport","3 Other station","4 Photogallery","5 See also","6 Notes and references","7 External links"] | Coordinates: 39°12′56″N 9°6′32″E / 39.21556°N 9.10889°E / 39.21556; 9.10889CagliariExterior of the station building.General informationLocationPiazza Matteotti09123 CagliariCagliari, Cagliari, SardiniaItalyCoordinates39°12′56″N 9°6′32″E / 39.21556°N 9.10889°E / 39.21556; 9.10889Operated byRete Ferroviaria ItalianaCentostazioniLine(s)Cagliari-Oristano-Olbia-Golfo AranciPlatforms4 (8 tracks)Train operatorsTrenitaliaConnections
CTM trolleybuses, and CTM and ARST buses
HistoryOpened1879; 145 years ago (1879)LocationCagliariLocation within Sardinia
Cagliari is the main railway station of the Italian city of Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia. It is owned by the Ferrovie dello Stato, the national rail company of Italy, and is the most important station of its region. The station is sometimes unofficially named Cagliari Centrale and Cagliari Piazza Matteotti. This second name is due to the station's position on Giacomo Matteotti Square.
History
The station was inaugurated in July 1879, as terminus of the central Sardinian line to Oristano, Ozieri and Olbia. In 1893 it was linked to the port for freight traffic. In the late 1980s, due to the construction of a second track on the Cagliari-Decimomannu line, the station was renovated and a fourth platform (to host a total of 8 passenger tracks) was built.
Structure and transport
Cagliari station is located in the middle of the city and counts a railway depot 200 m in the north and parallel to the line. The station building has three floors and, at the top, a sculpture representing the coat of arms of the city and the inscription "FERROVIE DELLO STATO".
The station, which like the other stations in Sardinia is not electrified, is served by regional trains linking it to almost all the island towns, excluding some as Nuoro or Alghero.
Other station
Cagliari had a separate railway station, for Ferrovie della Sardegna (FdS), at Piazza della Repubblica. However, in 2008, the FdS line from Mandas was cut back to Monserrato, and the track beyond was taken over by trams of the Cagliari light rail system.
Photogallery
View of the platforms
A diesel Minuetto at the station
ATR 365
See also
Trolleybuses in Cagliari
Sassari railway station
Railway stations in Italy
List of railway stations in Sardinia
Rail transport in Italy
History of rail transport in Italy
Notes and references
^ Links to Ozieri-Sassari-Porto Torres and Decimomannu-Iglesias/Carbonia lines
^ Part of the line to Olbia and Golfo Aranci
^ An Italian railway map showing electrified and not-electrified lines
^ due to the break-of-gauge between FS (1,435 mm) and FdS (950 mm) lines
External links
Media related to Cagliari railway station at Wikimedia Commons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_Soccer_2002 | Super Soccer | ["1 Gameplay","1.1 Shooting","1.2 Passing","1.3 Crossing","2 Series","3 Reception","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Football (soccer) video game for SNES
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1991 video gameSuper Soccer Super Formation SoccerNorth American box artDeveloper(s)Human EntertainmentPublisher(s)JP: Human EntertainmentWW: NintendoProgrammer(s)Ryoji AmanoArtist(s)Akihiro HataYuka MiyamotoComposer(s)Hiroya NiwayamaHironori TanakaMasamichi YamazakiTetsuji OhtaniPlatform(s)Super NESReleaseJP: December 13, 1991NA: May 1992EU: April 11, 1992Genre(s)Sports, football (soccer)Mode(s)Single-player, multiplayer
Super Soccer, known in Japan as Super Formation Soccer (スーパーフォーメーションサッカー), is a football (soccer) video game developed by Human Entertainment for the Super NES. Human published the game by themselves in Japan whereas Nintendo did it overseas. It was released in Japan in 1991 and in the United States and Europe in 1992. It was on the Super NES launch lineup in Europe, due to the sport's popularity. In 2017, it was rereleased in Japan as part of the Japanese Super NES Classic Edition. The game has also been included in the SNES app available for Nintendo Switch Online subscribers.
Gameplay
The referee showing a red card (Japanese version).
The game consists of exhibition games and tournament games. In exhibition, one can choose to play either a match or a shootout (which is not available in the Japanese version). In tournament mode, one plays until one beats all other teams. After beating all the national teams, the player must play one final team, Nintendo (Human in the Japanese version). When the tournament has been won, the player receives a code to play the game in a more advanced mode.
Shooting
The Gameplay provides a wide range of shooting options. It is possible to do a low shot by pressing the passing button. The shoot can be straight or bented in either way to make the shoot wider or closer. The same thing is possible by shooting higher. A shot that would normally be too wide, central or narrow can be bent.
Passing
These are the options:
Passing the ball to a selected team member. The ball will move automatically to him.
Straight, sharp, low passes. They can be bent to make them more precise if needed.
Passing via pressing the shooting bottom. This is useful for wide vertical or horizontal passes or closer passes to a team member with good ball control. By means of bending, high accuracy can be achieved which can accelerate the attack and create space.
Crossing
Crosses can be made while the player stands horizontally or diagonally towards the goal line.
Standing horizontally, the ball can be bent inwardly to make a dangerous cross.
Standing diagonally, the cross can be bent both ways: inwardly (the ball bends towards the goal line, which makes the cross shorter) or outwardly (making the cross longer). Outward Crosses are an effective way to score goals by a header.
Series
Originally, Formation Soccer was a PC Engine native game that was released before the 1990 FIFA World Cup. The series was then carried over to Super Nintendo, with the addition of the prefix "Super". Meanwhile, two sequels of Formation Soccer for the PC Engine were spawned. In 1995, Hyper Formation Soccer was released for the PlayStation, and later it was released two more Formation Soccer games for that console. In 2002, Formation Soccer 2002 was released by Spike, for the Game Boy Advance.
Super Formation Soccer spawned four sequels, all of them developed and published by Human in Japan only.
Super Formation Soccer II (1993)
Kept largely the same structure of the original game, only with some teams changed: Ireland, Yugoslavia and Uruguay are replaced with Spain, Denmark and Sweden.
Super Formation Soccer 94 (1994)
Was made specially for the then-upcoming 1994 FIFA World Cup, including the 24 teams that partook it, plus Japan.
Super Formation Soccer 95: della Serie A (1995)
Instead of national teams, this game featured all clubs from the Italian Serie A (SEASON 1994-95 Serie A).
Super Formation Soccer 96: World Club Edition (1996)
It was the last game to date in the series. It featured 18 fictitious club teams (13 European, four Latin American and one Japanese) from around the world, based on well-known teams by the time.
Reception
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2020)
ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreGameRankings79.50% (3 reviews)Super Gamer gave an overall review score of 63% writing "Once one of the best footie sims, competition from more recent releases has made this seem painfully slow and unsophisticated."
See also
Super Goal! 2
References
^ "Super Soccer Review Score". Archived from the original on 2019-05-04.
^ "Super Soccer Review". Super Gamer (2). United Kingdom: Paragon Publishing: 123. May 1994. Retrieved March 23, 2021.
External links
Super Soccer at MobyGames
Super Formation Soccer at superfamicom.org
(in French) 1UP, differences between the Japanese and the Western versions.
(in Japanese) スーパーフォーメーションサッカー / Super Formation Soccer at super-famicom.jp | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"football (soccer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Human Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Super NES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Super NES Classic Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_NES_Classic_Edition"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch_Online"}],"text":"1991 video gameSuper Soccer, known in Japan as Super Formation Soccer (スーパーフォーメーションサッカー), is a football (soccer) video game developed by Human Entertainment for the Super NES. Human published the game by themselves in Japan whereas Nintendo did it overseas. It was released in Japan in 1991 and in the United States and Europe in 1992. It was on the Super NES launch lineup in Europe, due to the sport's popularity. In 2017, it was rereleased in Japan as part of the Japanese Super NES Classic Edition. The game has also been included in the SNES app available for Nintendo Switch Online subscribers.","title":"Super Soccer"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Super_formation_soccer_sfc.png"},{"link_name":"referee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referee_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"red card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misconduct_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The referee showing a red card (Japanese version).The game consists of exhibition games and tournament games. In exhibition, one can choose to play either a match or a shootout (which is not available in the Japanese version). In tournament mode, one plays until one beats all other teams. After beating all the national teams, the player must play one final team, Nintendo (Human in the Japanese version). When the tournament has been won, the player receives a code to play the game in a more advanced mode.[citation needed]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Shooting","text":"The Gameplay provides a wide range of shooting options. It is possible to do a low shot by pressing the passing button. The shoot can be straight or bented in either way to make the shoot wider or closer. The same thing is possible by shooting higher. A shot that would normally be too wide, central or narrow can be bent.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Passing","text":"These are the options:Passing the ball to a selected team member. The ball will move automatically to him.\nStraight, sharp, low passes. They can be bent to make them more precise if needed.\nPassing via pressing the shooting bottom. This is useful for wide vertical or horizontal passes or closer passes to a team member with good ball control. By means of bending, high accuracy can be achieved which can accelerate the attack and create space.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Crossing","text":"Crosses can be made while the player stands horizontally or diagonally towards the goal line.Standing horizontally, the ball can be bent inwardly to make a dangerous cross.\nStanding diagonally, the cross can be bent both ways: inwardly (the ball bends towards the goal line, which makes the cross shorter) or outwardly (making the cross longer). Outward Crosses are an effective way to score goals by a header.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PC Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Engine"},{"link_name":"1990 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"Spike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_(company)"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Super Formation Soccer II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Formation_Soccer_II"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_men%27s_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Super Formation Soccer 94","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Formation_Soccer_94"},{"link_name":"1994 FIFA World Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup"},{"link_name":"Super Formation Soccer 95: della Serie A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Formation_Soccer_95:_della_Serie_A"},{"link_name":"Serie A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serie_A"},{"link_name":"1994-95 Serie A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994-95_Serie_A"},{"link_name":"Super Formation Soccer 96: World Club Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Formation_Soccer_96:_World_Club_Edition"}],"text":"Originally, Formation Soccer was a PC Engine native game that was released before the 1990 FIFA World Cup. The series was then carried over to Super Nintendo, with the addition of the prefix \"Super\". Meanwhile, two sequels of Formation Soccer for the PC Engine were spawned. In 1995, Hyper Formation Soccer was released for the PlayStation, and later it was released two more Formation Soccer games for that console. In 2002, Formation Soccer 2002 was released by Spike, for the Game Boy Advance.[citation needed]Super Formation Soccer spawned four sequels, all of them developed and published by Human in Japan only.Super Formation Soccer II (1993)\nKept largely the same structure of the original game, only with some teams changed: Ireland, Yugoslavia and Uruguay are replaced with Spain, Denmark and Sweden.\nSuper Formation Soccer 94 (1994)\nWas made specially for the then-upcoming 1994 FIFA World Cup, including the 24 teams that partook it, plus Japan.\nSuper Formation Soccer 95: della Serie A (1995)\nInstead of national teams, this game featured all clubs from the Italian Serie A (SEASON 1994-95 Serie A).\nSuper Formation Soccer 96: World Club Edition (1996)\nIt was the last game to date in the series. It featured 18 fictitious club teams (13 European, four Latin American and one Japanese) from around the world, based on well-known teams by the time.","title":"Series"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GameRankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameRankings"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreGameRankings79.50% (3 reviews)[1]Super Gamer gave an overall review score of 63% writing \"Once one of the best footie sims, competition from more recent releases has made this seem painfully slow and unsophisticated.\"[2]","title":"Reception"}] | [{"image_text":"The referee showing a red card (Japanese version).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/54/Super_formation_soccer_sfc.png/220px-Super_formation_soccer_sfc.png"}] | [{"title":"Super Goal! 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Goal!_2"}] | [{"reference":"\"Super Soccer Review Score\". Archived from the original on 2019-05-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190504093256/https://www.gamerankings.com/snes/588754-super-soccer/index.html","url_text":"\"Super Soccer Review Score\""},{"url":"https://www.gamerankings.com/snes/588754-super-soccer/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Super Soccer Review\". Super Gamer (2). United Kingdom: Paragon Publishing: 123. May 1994. Retrieved March 23, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/super-gamer-02/page/122/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Super Soccer Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom","url_text":"United Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragon_Publishing","url_text":"Paragon Publishing"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Super+Soccer%22","external_links_name":"\"Super Soccer\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Super+Soccer%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Super+Soccer%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Super+Soccer%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Super+Soccer%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Super+Soccer%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Super_Soccer&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190504093256/https://www.gamerankings.com/snes/588754-super-soccer/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Super Soccer Review Score\""},{"Link":"https://www.gamerankings.com/snes/588754-super-soccer/index.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/super-gamer-02/page/122/mode/2up","external_links_name":"\"Super Soccer Review\""},{"Link":"https://www.mobygames.com/game/super-soccer_","external_links_name":"Super Soccer"},{"Link":"http://superfamicom.org/info/super-formation-soccer/","external_links_name":"Super Formation Soccer"},{"Link":"http://www.1up-games.com/snes/supersoccer/superformationsoccer.html","external_links_name":"1UP"},{"Link":"http://www.super-famicom.jp/data/su/su_0151.html","external_links_name":"スーパーフォーメーションサッカー / Super Formation Soccer"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumbok_Lada | Tumbok lada | ["1 Description","2 See also","3 References"] | Knife / dagger Tumbok lada A tumbok lada gading, a typical weapon of Aru Karo kingdom and east coast Sumatran Malays.Typeknife / daggerPlace of originIndonesia (Sumatra), Malaysia (Malay Peninsula)Service historyUsed byBatak (Karo people), Malay people, Minangkabau peopleSpecificationsLengthoverall length: approx. 22–29 cm (8.7–11.4 in)Blade typeSheepsfoot point blade with a single convex edgeHilt typeWoodScabbard/sheathWood
A tumbok lada or tumbuk lada is a traditional slightly curved dagger that originates in the eastern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia but also found in the western coast of Malay Peninsula, Malaysia.
The name comes from tumbok meaning to grind or crush, and lada meaning pepper. Thus name is derived from the handle of the Tumbok Lada, which is shaped like a traditional mortar and pestle and is used to grind peppercorns. It is thought that the Tumbok Lada may have first being introduced in a bronze prototype.
Description
Tumbok lada has a slightly curved, single-edged blade. The blade narrows slightly from the hilt to the tip. The cutting edge is on the concave side of the blade. The blades are often made from pattern welded steel and usually have one or more hollow grinds that run just below the spine of the blade. The blades are made almost exactly like the sewar blades, but they are wider and thicker. The place is pointed or rounded. The hilt has no guard and is made of ivory. The scabbards are usually made of wood and decorated with carvings, or covered with silver sheet. Some tumbok lada possesses hilt made of solid gold or silver.
See also
Indonesia portalMalaysia portal
Badik
Si Euli
Piso Halasan
References
^ "Tumbok Lada" (PDF). Muzium Kesenian Islam Malaysia. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
^ Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham (1881). Vocabulary of the English and Malay Languages: With Notes · Volume 1. G.P.O, Singapore. OCLC 13976937.
^ a b Albert G Van Zonneveld (2002). Traditional Weapons of the Indonesian Archipelago. Koninklyk Instituut Voor Taal Land. p. 149. ISBN 90-5450-004-2.
^ H. G. Quaritch Wales (2023). Ancient South-East Asian Warfare. HOW Academics. p. 13. ISBN 978-93-955-2216-8.
^ "Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: Volume 52, Part 1. The Branch. 1979. p. 33.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tumbuk Lada.
vteIndonesian traditional weapons, armors, and premodern gunpowder-based weaponsTraditional weaponSwords (Pedang) & cutlasses (Klewang)
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CategoryTraditional weapons
Weapons of pencak silat
vteMalaysian traditional weapons and bladed toolsWeapons of silatSwords (Pedang) & cutlasses (Kelewang)
Buaya Berenang
Cenangkas
Felepet
Kelantanese klewang
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Terabai | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sumatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Malay Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"mortar and pestle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWOTIA149-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"A tumbok lada or tumbuk lada is a traditional slightly curved dagger[2] that originates in the eastern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia but also found in the western coast of Malay Peninsula, Malaysia.The name comes from tumbok meaning to grind or crush, and lada meaning pepper. Thus name is derived from the handle of the Tumbok Lada, which is shaped like a traditional mortar and pestle and is used to grind peppercorns.[3] It is thought that the Tumbok Lada may have first being introduced in a bronze prototype.[4]","title":"Tumbok lada"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pattern welded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_welding"},{"link_name":"sewar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWOTIA149-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Tumbok lada has a slightly curved, single-edged blade. The blade narrows slightly from the hilt to the tip. The cutting edge is on the concave side of the blade. The blades are often made from pattern welded steel and usually have one or more hollow grinds that run just below the spine of the blade. The blades are made almost exactly like the sewar blades, but they are wider and thicker. The place is pointed or rounded. The hilt has no guard and is made of ivory. The scabbards are usually made of wood and decorated with carvings, or covered with silver sheet.[3] Some tumbok lada possesses hilt made of solid gold or silver.[5]","title":"Description"}] | [] | [{"title":"Indonesia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Indonesia"},{"title":"Malaysia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Malaysia"},{"title":"Badik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badik"},{"title":"Si Euli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si_Euli"},{"title":"Piso Halasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piso_Halasan"}] | [{"reference":"\"Tumbok Lada\" (PDF). Muzium Kesenian Islam Malaysia. Retrieved 2023-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://iamm.org.my/storage/2023/01/Tumbok-Lada-Activities.pdf","url_text":"\"Tumbok Lada\""}]},{"reference":"Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham (1881). Vocabulary of the English and Malay Languages: With Notes · Volume 1. G.P.O, Singapore. OCLC 13976937.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13976937","url_text":"13976937"}]},{"reference":"Albert G Van Zonneveld (2002). Traditional Weapons of the Indonesian Archipelago. Koninklyk Instituut Voor Taal Land. p. 149. ISBN 90-5450-004-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5450-004-2","url_text":"90-5450-004-2"}]},{"reference":"H. G. Quaritch Wales (2023). Ancient South-East Asian Warfare. HOW Academics. p. 13. ISBN 978-93-955-2216-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-955-2216-8","url_text":"978-93-955-2216-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch\". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: Volume 52, Part 1. The Branch. 1979. p. 33.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://iamm.org.my/storage/2023/01/Tumbok-Lada-Activities.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Tumbok Lada\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13976937","external_links_name":"13976937"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walls_Have_Eyes | Walls Have Eyes | ["1 Background","1.1 Writing credits","1.2 Recording","1.3 Reception","2 Track listing","3 Personnel","3.1 Production","4 References"] | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Walls Have Eyes" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
1985 studio album by Robin GibbWalls Have EyesStudio album by Robin GibbReleasedNovember 1985RecordedAugust – September 1985StudioCriteria Studios and Middle Ear Studios (Miami, Florida)GenreNew wavesynthpopLanguageEnglishLabelEMI America (US) Polydor (UK)ProducerMaurice GibbTom DowdRobin Gibb chronology
Secret Agent(1984)
Walls Have Eyes(1985)
Magnet(2003)
Singles from Walls Have Eyes
"Like a Fool"Released: November 1985
"Toys"Released: February 1986
Walls Have Eyes is the fourth solo album released by singer Robin Gibb. It was released in November 1985 on EMI America Records in the US and Polydor Records throughout the rest of the world, and produced by Maurice Gibb and Tom Dowd. The two singles from the album, "Like a Fool" and "Toys", did not chart in the US and UK. Gibb did not release a solo album in eighteen years until 2003 with Magnet. Unlike Secret Agent which contains dance numbers, this album contains mostly ballads.
Background
Writing credits
Barry Gibb co-wrote eight of the ten songs, and contributed a part lead vocal to "Toys". The credits for the songs are precisely stated as R. B. & M. Gibb in most cases, and B. R. & M. Gibb in others. Although the songs all have Robin's signature simplicity of form, Barry's hand is evident in the melody lines, especially in the verses.
Recording
Like the previous album Secret Agent, it was recorded in Criteria Studios rather than the Middle Ear Studio which was owned by the Bee Gees. The only regulars from previous Gibb recordings was George Terry on guitar with Steve Farris of Mr. Mister. Session musician Phil Chen was credited as the bass player on the song "Gone with the Wind".
The album was produced by Atlantic Records engineer and producer Tom Dowd. The copyright registrations on the songs span only between 28 August to 16 September 1985, and a period of just a few weeks keys in with what Dowd recalled a tight budget. On the sessions, there was one outtake, "Modern Girls"; Gibb later said that this "did not fit".
Reception
The album did not chart as well as the lead single "Like a Fool", and failed to chart in the US and UK. However, "Like a Fool" was a smash hit in Brazil and the single "Toys" did reach #27 on the Canada Adult Contemporary chart. Promo videos were also made for "Like a Fool" and "Toys". Walls Have Eyes is rare on compact disc giving its distinction as the last solo album recorded by any of the Gibb brothers issued on vinyl until Barry's In the Now in 2016. Polydor copies of the album which were converted onto CD were found, but because of low sales, it was not later reissued on CD internationally. Barry later stated that Robin didn't receive the feedback he wanted.
A remixed version of "Toys" appeared on the Tales from the Brothers Gibb box set in 1990.
Track listing
All songs written by Robin, Barry and Maurice Gibb, except where noted.
Side oneNo.TitleLength1."You Don't Say Us Anymore" (Robin Gibb, Maurice Gibb)4:052."Like a Fool"3:583."Heartbeat in Exile"4:134."Remedy"3:265."Toys"5:03
Side twoNo.TitleLength1."Someone to Believe In"3:312."Gone with the Wind" (Robin Gibb, Maurice Gibb)3:353."These Walls Have Eyes"4:204."Possession"3:075."Do You Love Her?"3:13
Personnel
Robin Gibb – lead vocals and backing vocals
Maurice Gibb – synthesizers, bass and backing vocals
Mitchell Froom – synthesizers
Duane Hitchings – synthesizers
Scott Glasel – sampler and MIDI programming
Steve Farris – guitars
George Terry – guitars
Phil Chen – bass
Sandy Gennaro – drums
Valter Antunes – percussions
Ed Calle – horns
Alto Reed – horns
Production
Tom Dowd – producer
Maurice Gibb – producer
Dennis Hetzendorfer – recording
Leslie Shapiro – recording assistant
Bill Schnee – mixing at Studio 55 (Los Angeles, California)
Glen Holguin – mix assistant
John Moran – digital editing at Digital Services (Houston, Texas)
Doug Sax – mastering at The Mastering Lab (Hollywood, California)
Dick Ashby, Eddie Choran, Ken Graydon, Tom Kennedy, Neal Kent, Bob Koske and Ivy Skoff – project coordination
Maximilian S.W. Kirsten – art direction
The Cream Group – design
Tim O'Sullivan – photography
References
^ a b c d Joseph Brennan. "Gibb Songs: 1985".
^ Discogs.com. "Robin Gibb - Walls Have Eyes (original release)". Discogs.
^ "Songs Written by the Gibb Family on the International Charts" (PDF). brothersgibb.org. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
vteRobin GibbStudio albums
Robin's Reign
How Old Are You?
Secret Agent
Walls Have Eyes
Magnet
My Favourite Christmas Carols
50 St. Catherine's Drive
Extended plays
Robin Gibb
Singles
"Saved by the Bell"
"One Million Years"
"August October"
"Oh! Darling"
"Help Me!"
"Juliet"
"Another Lonely Night in New York"
"How Old Are You"
"Boys Do Fall in Love"
"Secret Agent"
"Toys"
"Please"
"Wait Forever"
"My Lover's Prayer"
"First of May"
"Too Much Heaven"
"Ellan Vannin"
"I Am the World"
Related articles
Discography
Bee Gees
Sing Slowly Sisters
Hither Green rail crash
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robin Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Gibb"},{"link_name":"EMI America Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI_America_Records"},{"link_name":"Polydor Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydor_Records"},{"link_name":"Maurice Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Gibb"},{"link_name":"Tom Dowd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Dowd"},{"link_name":"Magnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_(album)"},{"link_name":"Secret Agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Agent_(Robin_Gibb_album)"},{"link_name":"ballads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentimental_ballad"}],"text":"1985 studio album by Robin GibbWalls Have Eyes is the fourth solo album released by singer Robin Gibb. It was released in November 1985 on EMI America Records in the US and Polydor Records throughout the rest of the world, and produced by Maurice Gibb and Tom Dowd. The two singles from the album, \"Like a Fool\" and \"Toys\", did not chart in the US and UK. Gibb did not release a solo album in eighteen years until 2003 with Magnet. Unlike Secret Agent which contains dance numbers, this album contains mostly ballads.","title":"Walls Have Eyes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barry Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Gibb"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mister-1"}],"sub_title":"Writing credits","text":"Barry Gibb co-wrote eight of the ten songs, and contributed a part lead vocal to \"Toys\". The credits for the songs are precisely stated as R. B. & M. Gibb in most cases, and B. R. & M. Gibb in others. Although the songs all have Robin's signature simplicity of form, Barry's hand is evident in the melody lines, especially in the verses.[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Secret Agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Agent_(Robin_Gibb_album)"},{"link_name":"Criteria Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criteria_Studios"},{"link_name":"George Terry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Terry_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mr. Mister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Mister"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mister-1"},{"link_name":"Phil Chen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Chen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Tom Dowd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Dowd"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mister-1"}],"sub_title":"Recording","text":"Like the previous album Secret Agent, it was recorded in Criteria Studios rather than the Middle Ear Studio which was owned by the Bee Gees. The only regulars from previous Gibb recordings was George Terry on guitar with Steve Farris of Mr. Mister.[1] Session musician Phil Chen was credited as the bass player on the song \"Gone with the Wind\".[2]The album was produced by Atlantic Records engineer and producer Tom Dowd. The copyright registrations on the songs span only between 28 August to 16 September 1985, and a period of just a few weeks keys in with what Dowd recalled a tight budget. On the sessions, there was one outtake, \"Modern Girls\"; Gibb later said that this \"did not fit\".[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adult Contemporary chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPM_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"vinyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP_record"},{"link_name":"In the Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Now"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mister-1"},{"link_name":"Tales from the Brothers Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_from_the_Brothers_Gibb"}],"sub_title":"Reception","text":"The album did not chart as well as the lead single \"Like a Fool\", and failed to chart in the US and UK. However, \"Like a Fool\" was a smash hit in Brazil and the single \"Toys\" did reach #27 on the Canada Adult Contemporary chart.[3] Promo videos were also made for \"Like a Fool\" and \"Toys\". Walls Have Eyes is rare on compact disc giving its distinction as the last solo album recorded by any of the Gibb brothers issued on vinyl until Barry's In the Now in 2016. Polydor copies of the album which were converted onto CD were found, but because of low sales, it was not later reissued on CD internationally.[1] Barry later stated that Robin didn't receive the feedback he wanted.A remixed version of \"Toys\" appeared on the Tales from the Brothers Gibb box set in 1990.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"All songs written by Robin, Barry and Maurice Gibb, except where noted.Side oneNo.TitleLength1.\"You Don't Say Us Anymore\" (Robin Gibb, Maurice Gibb)4:052.\"Like a Fool\"3:583.\"Heartbeat in Exile\"4:134.\"Remedy\"3:265.\"Toys\"5:03Side twoNo.TitleLength1.\"Someone to Believe In\"3:312.\"Gone with the Wind\" (Robin Gibb, Maurice Gibb)3:353.\"These Walls Have Eyes\"4:204.\"Possession\"3:075.\"Do You Love Her?\"3:13","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maurice Gibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Gibb"},{"link_name":"Mitchell Froom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Froom"},{"link_name":"Steve Farris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Mister"},{"link_name":"George Terry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Terry_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Phil Chen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Chen"},{"link_name":"Sandy Gennaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Gennaro"},{"link_name":"Ed Calle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Calle"},{"link_name":"Alto Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alto_Reed"}],"text":"Robin Gibb – lead vocals and backing vocals\nMaurice Gibb – synthesizers, bass and backing vocals\nMitchell Froom – synthesizers\nDuane Hitchings – synthesizers\nScott Glasel – sampler and MIDI programming\nSteve Farris – guitars\nGeorge Terry – guitars\nPhil Chen – bass\nSandy Gennaro – drums\nValter Antunes – percussions\nEd Calle – horns\nAlto Reed – horns","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bill Schnee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Schnee"},{"link_name":"Doug Sax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Sax"}],"sub_title":"Production","text":"Tom Dowd – producer\nMaurice Gibb – producer\nDennis Hetzendorfer – recording\nLeslie Shapiro – recording assistant\nBill Schnee – mixing at Studio 55 (Los Angeles, California)\nGlen Holguin – mix assistant\nJohn Moran – digital editing at Digital Services (Houston, Texas)\nDoug Sax – mastering at The Mastering Lab (Hollywood, California)\nDick Ashby, Eddie Choran, Ken Graydon, Tom Kennedy, Neal Kent, Bob Koske and Ivy Skoff – project coordination\nMaximilian S.W. Kirsten – art direction\nThe Cream Group – design\nTim O'Sullivan – photography","title":"Personnel"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Joseph Brennan. \"Gibb Songs: 1985\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beegees/85.html","url_text":"\"Gibb Songs: 1985\""}]},{"reference":"Discogs.com. \"Robin Gibb - Walls Have Eyes (original release)\". Discogs.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.discogs.com/Robin-Gibb-Walls-Have-Eyes/release/1816519","url_text":"\"Robin Gibb - Walls Have Eyes (original release)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discogs","url_text":"Discogs"}]},{"reference":"\"Songs Written by the Gibb Family on the International Charts\" (PDF). brothersgibb.org. Retrieved 11 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.brothersgibb.org/download/page-5.pdf","url_text":"\"Songs Written by the Gibb Family on the International Charts\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22","external_links_name":"\"Walls Have Eyes\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Walls+Have+Eyes%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beegees/85.html","external_links_name":"\"Gibb Songs: 1985\""},{"Link":"http://www.discogs.com/Robin-Gibb-Walls-Have-Eyes/release/1816519","external_links_name":"\"Robin Gibb - Walls Have Eyes (original release)\""},{"Link":"http://www.brothersgibb.org/download/page-5.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Songs Written by the Gibb Family on the International Charts\""},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/release-group/01e32991-90c6-4718-abae-69d3da0c22ff","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz release group"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardman_(Soulcalibur) | Characters of the Soulcalibur series | ["1 Overview and development","2 Character appearances","3 Introduced in Soul Edge","3.1 Cervantes","3.2 Hwang","3.3 Inferno/Soul Edge/Nightmare","3.4 Li Long","3.5 Mitsurugi","3.6 Rock","3.7 Seong Han-myeong","3.8 Seong Mi-na","3.9 Siegfried","3.10 Sophitia","3.11 Taki","3.12 Voldo","4 Introduced in Soulcalibur","4.1 Arthur","4.2 Astaroth","4.3 Edge Master","4.4 Ivy","4.5 Kilik","4.6 Lizardman","4.7 Maxi","4.8 Nightmare","4.9 Xianghua","4.10 Yoshimitsu","5 Introduced in Soulcalibur II","5.1 Cassandra","5.2 Charade","5.3 Yun-Seong","5.4 Necrid","5.5 Raphael","5.6 Talim","6 Introduced in Soulcalibur III","6.1 Amy/Viola","6.2 Night Terror","6.3 Olcadan","6.4 Setsuka","6.5 Tira","6.6 Zasalamel","7 Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny","7.1 Algol","7.2 Dampierre","7.3 Hilde","8 Introduced in Soulcalibur V","8.1 Elysium/Soul Calibur","8.2 Leixia","8.3 Natsu","8.4 Patroklos","8.5 Pyrrha","8.6 Xiba","8.7 Z.W.E.I.","9 Introduced in Soulcalibur VI","9.1 Azwel","9.2 Grøh","10 Critical reception","11 References"] | Fictional character
Soulcalibur seriesThe cast of Soulcalibur. The series features a variety of characters and fighting styles.First appearanceSoul Edge (1996)Last appearanceSoulcalibur VI (2018)Created byBandai NamcoDesigned byProject Soul
The following is a comprehensive list of characters from the Soulcalibur series of video games, beginning with Soul Edge (Soul Blade in PlayStation version) in 1995.
Overview and development
Soulcalibur is a weapon-based fighting game franchise developed by Namco Bandai's Project Soul division. Set in the period of late 16th to early 17th century, the plot of the games revolve around Soul Edge, a cursed sword able to possess its wielder and devour souls. Its spirit is called Inferno, and his avatar/host is called Nightmare. Soul Calibur, a holy sword and Soul Edge's antithesis, also has a spirit called Elysium.
When creating characters for the series, they started with the weapon first, aiming to choose one that would feel unique amongst the cast. The character concepts themselves are then built around the chosen weapon, with their movement, animations and personality designed to fit it. According to series creator Hirokai Yotoriyama, movement is the first element they focus on, deciding how the character will attack, and how mobile they are. Afterwards the character is defined down to their weight, height, age, and gender, and then developed by the concept artists. Afterwards a 3D model team is assigned to work on that character exclusively, with little overlap between the individual teams. Motion capture is then utilized for character movement and animation, though in select cases the design team will animate the character by hand instead. During the phase the designers will work with the story creators, refining the character's role in the plot as necessary. During the course of the series some characters have been an exception to this process, such as Necrid, a character co-produced with Todd McFarlane that appears in Soulcalibur II.
Starting with Soulcalibur II, guest characters from other franchises or companies were introduced for different home ports of the game, with The Legend of Zelda's Link appearing for the GameCube version, comic book character Spawn for the Xbox, and Tekken's Heihachi Mishima for the PlayStation 2. Despite rumors of Devil May Cry's Dante's inclusion in Soulcalibur III, developers confirmed no plans for the inclusion of guest characters for the title, with series producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama stating "It's my policy to never do the same thing twice." However, under new producer Katsutoshi Sasaki the concept was revisited in later titles in the series, with Tales of Symphonia's Lloyd Irving appearing in Soulcalibur Legends, Star Wars characters The Apprentice, Yoda and Darth Vader appearing in Soulcalibur IV, with the latter two exclusively to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions respectively until later released as downloadable content, God of War's Kratos for Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny, and Ezio Auditore da Firenze from the Assassin's Creed franchises for Soulcalibur V. Devil Jin from Tekken was also added to Soulcalibur V as a non-playable character and his moveset can only be accessed by creating a character that uses his style of fighting. Soulcalibur VI added Geralt of Rivia from The Witcher, 2B from Nier: Automata and Haohmaru from Samurai Shodown as guest characters.
Character appearances
Below is a table of all the notable characters and their appearances throughout the series, as either playable characters or bosses.
Character
Weapon
Soul Edge
Soulcalibur
II
III
IV
V
VI
Legends
Broken Destiny
Lost Swords
Unbreakable Soul
Algol
Sword
Amy/Viola
Rapier/Crystal ball
DLC
Arthur
Katana
Astaroth
Battle axe
Azwel
Enchanted gauntlets
Cassandra
Sword and shield
DLC
Cervantes
Sword
Charade
Various
Dampierre
Daggers
DLC
Edge Master
All
Elysium
Sword
Grøh
Sabre
Hilde
Sword and spear
DLC
Hwang
Chinese sword
DLC
Inferno
Various
Ivy
Snake sword
Kilik
Bō staff
Leixia
Jian
Li Long
Nunchaku
Lizardman
Sword and shield
Maxi
Nunchaku
Mitsurugi
Katana
Natsu
Kodachi
Necrid
Enigma
Night Terror
Sword
Nightmare
Zweihander
Olcadan
All
Patroklos
Sword and shield
Pyrrha
Sword and shield
Raphael
Rapier
Rock
Battle axe
Seong Mi-na
Naginata
Setsuka
Iaitō/umbrella
DLC
Siegfried
Zweihänder
Sophitia
Sword and shield
Taki
Kodachi
Talim
Tonfa
Tira
Ring blade
DLC
Voldo
Katars
Xianghua
Jian
Xiba
Bō staff
Yoshimitsu
Katana
Yun-Seong
Chinese sword
Zasalamel
Scythe
Z.W.E.I.
Sword
Introduced in Soul Edge
Cervantes
Voiced by (English): Warren Rodgerson (SCII)
Voiced by (Japanese): Takashi Nagasako (SC~SCIII); Jin Urayama (SCL~SCV); Hiroshi Shirokuma (SCVI)
Cervantes de Leon (セルバンテス・デ・レオン, Serubantesu de Reon) was a privateer who was sent on a mission by the King of Spain to loot in the name of Spain. Following a disastrous attack on an English warship that killed Philip, Cervantes forsook his allegiance to his king and became a pirate. Receiving an order from a wealthy merchant to find the cursed sword Soul Edge, Cervantes voyaged through the sea and eventually found the sword in the possession of an English dealer. However, the sword gradually corrupted him until his soul was devoured by it. Having murdered all of his crew, Cervantes boarded his ghost ship on a reign of terror for twenty years until he was defeated and killed by the combined efforts of Greek warrior Sophitia and Japanese ninja Taki.
However, Cervantes was accidentally resurrected without his memory by Nightmare because of the Soul Edge fragments lodged in his body. For the next three years, he decided to search for the cursed sword despite knowing that it had robbed him of his free will while slowly recovering his memories. Upon the shattering of Soul Edge, Cervantes began his quest on collecting the fragments of the cursed sword for four years which melded to form a weapon for him, attacking other ships that came close to his sea. When the presence of Soul Edge's other half vanished, Cervantes's body began to weaken as the fragments that sustained him crumbled. He was informed by a servant of Soul Edge, Tira, that a powerful entity was the one responsible, so Cervantes sought to defeat the entity and preserve his life. Eventually, Soul Edge summoned all pieces of itself back to it. Cervantes followed its trail, intending to wield the sword once it completed itself. Along the way, he devoured the soul of his illegitimate daughter, Ivy, but after the latter had survived thanks to her artificial soul, Ivy retaliated and defeated Cervantes, releasing all souls he had consumed, including hers. His body beaten and his mind shattered, Cervantes was swallowed by a dimensional rift opened by Soul Edge.
Seventeen years later, during the wake of the 17th century, people reported the presence of Cervantes' ship, voyaging through the sea; Cervantes had been released from the rift, now free from Soul Edge's control and at his height of power.
In the non-canonical Gauntlet storyline of Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny, Cervantes' soul was required as payment for Ivy to create a potion for character Hilde and her party to cure her father. Though they attempted to renegotiate, they were forced to find and take Cervantes' soul by force.
Hwang
In this Korean name, the family name is Hwang.
Voiced by (English): SungWon Cho (SCVI (Version 2.30))
Voiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Morikawa (SE (Arcade)); Wataru Takagi (SE (Console)~SC); Naoki Imamura (SCIII); Subaru Kimura (SCVI (Version 2.30))
Hwang Seong-gyeong (ファン・ソンギョン, Fan Songyon, Korean: 황성경; Hanja: 黄星京), a man with a strong sense of justice, joined Korea's coast guard and was sent to find the "Sword of Salvation", which in reality is the cursed sword Soul Edge, in order to protect his country. However he returned after learning of an impending Japanese invasion of his homeland, bringing his friend's daughter, Seong Mi-Na, back with him. When he set out after her again, he discovered the true nature of the sword and informed his superiors of it. They dismissed him as a result, but upon learning that the Japanese were also after the sword he was instead sent to stop them. Heading westward, he plans to join forces with Mi-na to destroy the blade. In Soulcalibur IV, he was in Ostrheinsburg when he crossed paths with Hong Yun-seong, a student of the Seong dojo. Hwang tried to warn him the danger of Soul Edge, though the young warrior did not heed his warning and continued his journey to find the sword. After Soul Edge is destroyed, he is deemed a national hero and begins training in the new generation alongside Mi-Na and Yun-seong.
In a new timeline depicted in Soulcalibur VI, Hwang was forcefully being implanted with the evil seed and almost transformed into a malfested by Won Gabok, a servant of Soul Edge. He managed to injure himself and was thought to have committed suicide. However, Hwang survived and was saved by Woo Soo-yun, an ally of the Aval Organization and by extension, the Wolfkrone Kingdom, including Hwang's deceased parents. Hwang masters taoism for three months to suppress the malfestation from taking over his body and countermeasure any other malfestation threats.
During development several weapons were considered, including a zhanmadao like Seong Mi-Na's and a bladed nunchaku like Li Long's. Several different outfit components were also considered at this time, such as the inclusion of head and/or arm guards and an arm bandana. With Hwang's appearance in Soulcalibur his attire was changed. Chinese style costumes were considered, including an outfit with an open jacket and a bandaged design with a Chinese martial artist's attire. The developers based his look around the concept of a traveler, implementing subtle hints such as his torn pant legs. Hwang appears in Soulcalibur VI, although he was not playable until being made available as downloadable content. He eventually learns a taoism to combine its power with his original sword technique.
Inferno/Soul Edge/Nightmare
Inferno (インフェルノ, Inferuno) is the physical manifestation of the cursed sword Soul Edge's own soul and the true antagonist within Soul series as his Nightmare incarnation, where it mostly started out as the final boss in Soul Edge (originally listed as "SoulEdge") until Soulcalibur II, including the reboot/retelling game Soulcalibur VI. It fights using the attack style of other fighters from its memories of past battles and will switch to a random one at the start of each round. Though it exists in its own dimension, Astral Chaos (a realm where time and space never exist), it has used duplicity such as in the case of tricking Siegfried into expanding its will, and in more extreme cases utilized Cervantes' flaming corpse and later the remnants of Nightmare's armor to create an avatar for itself. Within Astral Chaos, Inferno can manifest itself as a flaming and mostly skeletal body for itself, creating weapons to match whichever fighting style it currently uses, particularly Siegfried's being its primary likeness at most part.
Inferno, along with Soul Edge is destroyed by Siegfried at the end of Soulcalibur IV, though its will continues to live in the leftover shards of Soul Edge and later manifests itself in a new Soul Edge. However, after the new Nightmare,Graf Dumas(heavily hinted to be Raphael Sorel) was slain, Inferno choose Pyrrha as its new host until being defeated by her brother and Soul Edge along with Soul Calibur were both sealed away in the astral chaos. Its will and power has, directly and indirectly, affected several other characters in the series, such as the Evil Seed event that caused many to turn somewhat evil or insane. It has also caused the creation of several life forms or modification of them, such as Ivy's sword, Charade, Necrid and Abyss.
In Soulcalibur VI, Inferno's gameplay is similar to his original Soul Edge counterpart, as being more of an enhanced version of certain Soul Edge wielders than as a mimic fighter; in this case, its main alter-ego Nightmare instead of Cervantes. Due to his final boss role despite being an unlockable character, Inferno is banned from online matches and official tournaments.
Li Long
Voiced by (Japanese): Jin Yamanoi (SE); Masaya Takatsuka (SCIII)
Li Long (リ・ロン, Ri Ron, Chinese: 李龍) is an assassin sent by the Emperor of China to kill a pirate lord, but failed. Badly injured, he was rescued by a female ninja named Chie and eventually they fell in love. One day, her former comrades caught up with them and she was believed to be dead. Told falsely Heishiro Mitsurugi was responsible, he set out after Soul Edge knowing Mitsurugi was also after the blade. Along the way he takes the weapons of other fighters he defeats, repurposing some for his own use. Upon finding and defeating Mitsurugi, he realized the swordsman had no part in the attack upon Chie, and continued his goal of searching for Soul Edge. He located its wielder, Cervantes, but was beaten severely and lost an eye. In Soulcalibur III, he found himself on the run from assassins sent by his Chie's former clan leader. Traveling by night under a false name, he was taken in by a girl that reminded him of Chie, and chose to stand his ground when the assassins found him. After defeating them he set out to find himself, not knowing that Chie was actually alive and had set out to find him with their newborn son. By Soulcalibur V it is revealed he has reunited with his family, and they now live with the ninja Taki's clan.
Li Long's weapon is a pair of nunchaku with mounted blades, however due to a ban of nunchaku weapons in the United Kingdom, they were changed to a three-sectioned staff for the European release of Soul Blade. His facial contours, expressions and hairstyle were designed to suggest the "assassin" side of his character and to depict his representation of Chinese culture.
Mitsurugi
Voiced by (English): Scott Keck (SCII); Ed Cunnigham (SCIII); Ray Chase (SCVI)
Voiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Morikawa (SC~)
In the backstory of Soul Edge, Heishiro Mitsurugi (御剣 平四郎, Mitsurugi Heishirō) is an orphaned son of a Japanese farmer, who after suffering years of witnessing his homeland being ravaged by bandits and war, decided to take up swordsmanship. At the age of 14, having picked up a sword and the last name Mitsurugi, he went to train under the Murakami clan. Mitsurugi, noted as a great warrior, received numerous commendations and rose in the ranks, but his only true desire was a worthy opponent. After leaving the Murakami clan, Mitsurugi continued to fight in the great civil war in Japan as a hired mercenary. Having originally dismissed the firearm as a novelty, he was shocked to see the riflemen obliterate the Takeda cavalry at the Battle of Nagashino. He decided he needed to find a stronger weapon for himself: the magic sword of legend, Soul Edge.
Mitsurugi encountered the female ninja Taki during this time, but was unable to find any trace of the legendary "Hero's Sword". In his frustration at finding no signs of Soul Edge, he returned home and challenged Teppou Hei, a man wielding the tanegashima, to a duel. However, Mitsurugi suffered an embarrassing defeat, leaving him with a scar of a gunshot wound on his right shoulder and forcing him to depart in shame on a second quest to perfect his swordsmanship so that he might eventually defeat the gun. It was during this quest that he learned of the Azure Knight, Nightmare, who terrorized Europe with a sword deemed invincible, and set out after him in order to find what he considered a worthy challenge (this being his motivation through the remainder of the series since Soulcalibur). Nightmare's trail eventually disappeared, but Mitsurugi was unwilling to give up, and gradually improved his fighting style to the point riflemen were no longer a threat. Returning from his quest, Mitsurugi challenged Teppou Hei again, but this time Mitsurugi managed to kill the man with a single strike with his sword.
Four years later, during the events of Soulcalibur II, Mitsurugi stumbled upon the trail of Soul Edge while visiting a castle in Xiwei, where a mysterious dying man, after being saved by him from a group of assassins, handed him a shard of the cursed blade. Although skeptical at first, Mitsurugi accepted the gift. Soon afterward, an incident occurred in which a servant of the Emperor of Ming marched to the castle, demanding the "Hero's Sword", and was slain when he refused to leave without it. Mitsurugi sensed that war was coming, but Soul Edge meant nothing to him. He had crossed countless battlefields, defeating every conceivable enemy, even those with rifles. What had once been his greatest enemy was none of his concern, as it no longer proved to be a threat. His only concern was with finding an opponent stronger than himself. Wondering what was happening in Japan at that time, and whether or not he could have a final showdown with Taki, he decided to return to his homeland.
By the time of Soulcalibur III and Soulcalibur IV, the Murakami clan, with whom Mitsurugi stayed upon his return, refused to join with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, choosing instead to protect their existence as fierce pirates and rulers of the sea. Since Mitsurugi could find no trace of Taki, he went to aid the Murakami and aided them in their naval victory. Soon, he learned of the arrival of Nightmare, whom he had lost track of before. Mitsurugi left the Murakami and went to the West again. Ever-searching for a worthy adversary to test his skills, Mitsurugi journeyed to Ostrheinsburg, where he entered a chaotic alternate dimension and faced the Hero King, Algol, high atop a colossal tower. The two warriors clashed when suddenly Algol disappeared, along with the tower and all their surroundings—a dimensional convergence had warped Mitsurugi back to reality before the duel could be decided. He had also unknowingly make rival with Setsuka, after he mortally wounded her master during a battle that eventually led to his death, although he did not realize it until they fight sometime during the events of Soulcalibur IV, at which he defeated her by stunning Setsuka with a punch, but lost his katana Shishi-Oh in the battle.
In Soulcalibur V, after the warring period of Japan had ended, Mitsurugi has settled a quiet life as a farmer for seventeen years. He regains his fighting spirit when he heard about Soul Calibur and goes on a journey to once again continue the battle with Algol that was left unfinished years before.
A young Mitsurugi returns in the reboot/altered timeline-themed game Soulcalibur VI. It was revealed that his failed attempt to fight Nightmare is because Taki was sent by Edge Master to keep him away from end having an awful encounter with the Azure Knight. Misturugi made a friendly rivalry with a universe-displaced The Witcher Geralt of Rivia, and his long waited rival who is also his counterpart from SNK Corporation, Samurai Shodown’s protagonist Haohmaru.
Mitsurugi also appeared in Namco × Capcom as a playable character along with Taki, with whom he makes a temporary alliance there. He also appears as a limited card in Outcast Odyssey. Yuri Lowell from the Tales series can wear Mitsurugi's costume as his alternate outfit. He is also referenced in Ridge Racer 6 with the car named Mitsurugi Meltfire.
Former Fanbyte editor-in-chief John Warren described him as "arguably the most recognizable character from the Soulcalibur series", adding that "Mitsurugi's design isn't revelatory by any stretch. Yet its consistency over the years and his genuine, ineffable coolness" made him one of the top characters in the series. Nathan Ditum from PlayStation Official Magazine – UK chose him as his personal favourite out of the cast of Soulcalibur V.
Rock
Voiced by (English): Robert Belgrade (SE)Voiced by (Japanese): Takashi Nagasako (SE~SC); Minoru Inaba (SCIII); Tōru Ōkawa (SCIV~)
Rock (ロック, Rokku), born as Nathaniel William Adams (ナタニエル・ウィリアム・アダムス, Natanieru Wiriam Adamusu), is the son of an English dealer who specialized in rare weapons. His father managed to bid Soul Edge at one auction and was about to take it home, only for the ship to be attacked by pirate Cervantes who killed everyone except Rock, who washed up in the shores of America with his memories gone. The Native Americans were unwilling to help Rock due to his size and only a boy named Bangoo was unafraid to befriend him. Rock eventually recovered his memories over time and left America in search of Soul Edge, which may become the key to his full memories. Through Sophitia's words, he returned to care for Bangoo, only to find him being kidnapped by Aeon Calcos/Lizardman whose cult demanded Rock's soul. He crossed back to Europe and rescued Bangoo. They stayed in Europe for several years until Bangoo grew older, after which Bangoo went to America by himself. Later, Rock is attacked by a giant named Astaroth whose moves have an uncanny resemblance to his own. He learned that Astaroth was created by Lizardman's cult based on his image and is now serving Nightmare. Rock is determined to stop him at all costs. His fate afterward is not known, as no explanation is given for his absence in Soulcalibur V.
Initially during development, the character was called "Beast Warrior", and his design changed little over the course of creating the character. His appearance is intended to reflect the atmosphere of a wild warrior, while his facial expressions were drawn in a positive manner, intended to show him enjoying the fight. When developing his appearance for Soulcalibur, a clothed design and a bald appearance were both rejected, as the team felt they gave the impression of an urban or "bad guy" character, respectively.
Seong Han-myeong
In this Korean name, the family name is Seong.
Seong Han-myeong (ソン・ハンミョン, Son Hanmyon, Korean: 성한명; Hanja: 成漢明) is the father of Seong Mi-na and the owner of the Seong dojo. He only appeared as a secret character in the console version of Soul Edge, utilizing a Chinese sword akin to Hwang. After his wife and son both died of illness, he trained his daughter in martial arts but wished her to stay home, despite her rebellious nature. He became interested in a student of his, Hwang Seong-gyeong, and tried to adopt him as his successor, although Hwang politely rejected the offer. Regardless, Han-myeong planned to marry his daughter with Hwang, which only caused Mi-na to run away from home for months, although she was eventually dragged back home by Hwang. When a malfested army invades his dojang to hunt Mi-na for her involvement and lure Hwang (who is now also a Taoist in Soulcalibur VI), Han-myeong learns Soul Edge's evil nature from his student. Later, another student of his, Hong Yun-seong ran away from his dojo to find Soul Edge and Han-myeong reluctantly gave his blessing to his daughter in an attempt to find him, yet entrust her to prevent Yun-seong from nearing Soul Edge.
Seong Mi-na
In this Korean name, the family name is Seong.
Voiced by (English): Molly Lin (SCII); Erika Lenhart (SCIII~SC:BD); Erica Mendez (SCVI)Voiced by (Japanese): Hekiru Shiina (SE (Arcade)); Yūko Miyamura (SE (Console)); Houko Kuwashima (SC~SCIII); Sanae Kobayashi (SCIV~SC:BD); Chinatsu Akasaki (SCVI)
Seong Mi-na (ソン・ミナ, Son Mina, Korean: 성미나; Hanja: 成美那) is a young Korean woman, excelling at weapon usage but regarded as simply a girl by her peers. Barred from joining the coast guard due to her gender, she sought out the rumored "Sword of Salvation", which in actuality was Soul Edge, to prove herself. Hwang eventually caught up with her and dragged her back home, but she set out again after her father's efforts to marry her to him became unbearable. Encountering another female warrior named Ivy, she challenged her but was quickly defeated, and learned from Ivy that not only was she still inexperienced but that the sword she sought was inherently evil. She later challenged an alcoholic armed with a bō staff who also quickly defeated her. Seong Mi-na requested training from him, and he taught her all his skills, revealing in a farewell letter his name as "Kong Xiuqiang", the long-lost father of Xianghua. However, before she set out she was dragged home once more by Hwang. She later encountered Hong Yun-seong, a student of her father angry after being disregarded by Hwang when he challenged him to a duel. Feeling sorry for him, she handed him her family heirloom, the dao 'White Storm', and later that night he set out himself after Soul Edge. Mi-na set out to retrieve the dao from him, this time with her father's blessing. Afterward, Mi-na met with an old man, Edge Master, who quickly defeated her in their battle, at which point he trained her for some time. She eventually confronted Yun-seong and together with his companion, Talim tried to convince him to abandon his quest, though he did not heed their warnings and left on his own one night while both women were asleep. Mi-na then promised Talim that she will find Yun-seong before they parted their ways. She is finally reunited with Yun-seong after the destruction of Soul Edge and the two go back home. Upon returning she is deemed as a national hero and begins training the younger generation with Hwang.
The new timeline reiterates Mi-na's adventures as she runs away from home to avoid marriage, loses to Ivy and Xiuqiang, and trains under the latter. She then goes on a dangerous mission to stop a cult from targeting a village and nearly gets killed. But Mi-na is saved by Hwang and the villagers, who were inspired by her bravery. She then reluctantly allows Hwang to take her home. Due to her infiltration at a base of Soul Edge's servants, she was targeted by the evil sword's servant Won Gabok, but was saved by Hwang and learned the true nature of Soul Edge. Her distaste towards Soul Edge and its evil nature has since becoming the reason she, Hwang and Talim tries to prevent Yun-seong from nearing it.
In a 2002 poll by Namco prior to the release of Soulcalibur II regarding their favorite character, Seong Mi-Na placed first with little under 20% of the tally, just ahead of runner-up Sophitia (18%). In an article for Kotaku, Maddy Myers heavily criticized her design, stating "It's never explained why Seong Mi-Na is wearing an underboob-baring top that offers her breasts no support whatsoever, and which is made all the creepier by the fact that she's only 16 when the story starts." She further criticized the character's portrayal, noting she complains about being seen as a child while being pursued by a man nine years her senior, adding "If this storyline gave Seong Mi-Na any agency, then maybe the decision to put this insecure teenager in this outfit would feel less tragic."
Siegfried
Voiced by (English): Crispin Freeman (SCIII); Roger Craig Smith (SCL~SCV)
Voiced by (Japanese): Nobuyuki Hiyama (SC~)
Siegfried Schtauffen (ジークフリート・シュタウフェン, Jīkufurīto Shutaufen) was born to Sir Frederick Schtauffen, a brave knight who was considered a champion among the oppressed peasants of his German home, and a woman named Margaret who met Frederick while he was on campaign, during the late sixteenth century. He was given the name 'Siegfried' after the famous hero, and was taught swordsmanship by his father.
Frederick embarked on a foreign crusade and, due to lack of guidance in life, Siegfried unintentionally murdered his returning father while rampaging as the leader of a teenage band of thieves calling themselves "Schwarzwind" (German translation for "black wind"). Siegfried grew in despair and eventually convinced himself that anyone but he was to blame for his father's death. Siegfried had heard rumours of the invincible Soul Edge, and came to believe his father's killer could only be killed with that weapon.
After taking the life of a noble he worked for during a siege on his castle in Ostrheinsburg (he did so in an effort to claim - what he thought was - Soul Edge), he finally managed to come across the legendary weapon Soul Edge, lying beside the corpse of the defeated Cervantes de Leon which transformed into Inferno. Siegfried defeated Inferno, earning the right to wield Soul Edge himself. However, Soul Edge telepathically spoke to Siegfried, arranging a deal between the two; Siegfried would help the blade to restore itself gathering souls, and Soul Edge would resurrect his father Frederick. But Siegfried finally succumbed to the sword's power - transforming into the Azure Knight, Nightmare.
He claimed refuge in Ostrheinsburg Castle. During the following three years, he gathered together a group of followers: the golem Astaroth, Lizardman (Aeon Calcos), and Ivy. Each of them aided him in Soul Edge's quest to devour souls for a rejuvenation ceremony to be performed in his chosen stronghold, Ostrheinsburg Castle. But as the ceremony was about to take place, the clan was quickly laid to waste. Both Aeon Calcos and Astaroth were defeated; and Ivy left the clan after learning the shocking truth of her past from the Fu-Ma ninja, Taki. Two young warriors confronted Nightmare: Kilik, owner of both the sacred staff Kali-Yuga and sacred mirror Dvapara-Yuga; and Xianghua, owner of Krita-Yuga, which revealed itself as Soul Calibur.
Nightmare and Soul Edge were defeated, initiating a new resolve in the now-conscious Siegfried, albeit temporary - shards of the weakened Soul Edge were still present within his body. He eventually assumed the azure armor for a second time, becoming Nightmare all over again, desperately pursuing fragments of the Soul Edge so that he might fully restore it.
Raphael Sorel appeared in search of Soul Edge and Nightmare stood victorious after a fierce battle. As he stepped forward to finish Raphael, he muttered something incoherently. Following this, an internal struggle began between Siegfried and Inferno (spirit of the evil sword) vying for control over their physical body. With this show of "hesitation", Raphael unleashed a desperate final blow upon his enemy, piercing the center of Soul Edge. Nightmare let out an inhuman cry, and Siegfried finally regained control of his own body. Siegfried remembered his actions previous, before using the newly revealed holy sword, Soul Calibur, to drive into the evil eye that was the core of Soul Edge, where the weapon had been trapped - however, this effort to destroy the evil sword would prove insufficient.
In the preceding event of Soulcalibur III, Siegfried now has control of his own body, picking up both swords and leaving Ostrheinsburg on a mission to seal away Soul Edge for all eternity, as he swore to atone for his sins, not knowing that Nightmare had gained a separate body of his own. Eventually, he fell victim to Zasalamel's plot to reunite Soul Edge and Soul Calibur at the Lost Cathedral. Siegfried took up Soul Calibur and fought a ferocious battle against the now-independent Nightmare, who in turn regained Soul Edge. Though victorious for the time being, the combination of the energy released from Soul Edge and Soul Calibur as well as his injuries from the battle mortally wounded Siegfried.
The events of Soulcalibur IV see Siegfried having been revived by the Soul Calibur, which has gained some sentience from the Soul Edge and the release of its creator, Algol. Now dependent on the armor in which the Soul Calibur had encased him for survival, Siegfried rejects all human contact and devotes himself to destroying both swords once and for all. In his ending, he finally defeats Nightmare decisively and releases the power of the Soul Calibur, permanently sealing away the Soul Edge and Soul Calibur, and killing himself in the process. In Hilde's ending, he is instead forgiven for his crimes as the Azure Knight and given a royal pardon.
One of Siegfried's extra weapons is the Glam (mistranslation of Gram), the weapon that Sigurd in Norse mythology used to kill the dragon Fafnir and in Soulcalibur Legends, Siegfried fights "Fanfir". The Faust blade also takes reference from a German legend, in which the protagonist makes a deal with the devil (in-universe, Siegfried and Soul Edge have a Faustian bargain).
Sophitia
Main article: Sophitia Alexandra
Taki
Main article: Taki (Soulcalibur)
Voldo
Main article: Voldo
Introduced in Soulcalibur
Arthur
Voiced by: Masaya Takatsuka (SCIII)
Arthur (アーサー, Āsā) is a playable character introduced in the first Soulcalibur, where he replaced Mitsurugi in Korea due to the local sensibilities regarding the subject of the samurai. Arthur is an orphaned European who has become a swordsman in Japan. In his first appearance, he looks exactly like Mitsurugi except with blond hair and an eye patch, and his weapon, movelist and ending are identical to Mitsurugi's. Arthur returned as a bonus character in all versions of Soulcalibur III, representing the "Katana" Create-a-Fighter discipline. In this game he is given unique facial characteristics and a weapon of his own, with his outfit based on that of Mitsurugi in Soulcalibur II. Arthur's Destined Battle enemy in Soulcalibur is against Taki (the same as Mitsurugi's), while in Soulcalibur III it is Mitsurugi.
Astaroth
Voiced by (English): Jay S. Gilbert (SCII)
Voiced by: (Japanese): Banjō Ginga (SC); Ryūzaburō Ōtomo (SCII~)
Astaroth (アスタロス, Asutarosu) is a golem created by a cult of Ares to retrieve the cursed sword known as Soul Edge. Upon finding the blade, Astaroth realizes that it is damaged and allies himself with its wielder Nightmare to harvest living souls necessary to restore the blade, planning to steal the blade once completed. However, before he can complete this task, he is confronted by a survivor of his attacks, Maxi, and is slain. Revived by Ares in Soulcalibur II, Astaroth continues after the sword. However, the cult that created him regards this as a betrayal, and places a curse on the golem to dominate him. Astaroth resists and counterattacks the cult, learning in the process his design is not original but instead modeled after a human being, Rock. To assert himself as unique, Astaroth finds and nearly kills Rock at the conclusion of Soulcalibur III, breaking free of Ares' control and transforming in the aftermath. Now hungering for power, he is offered it in return for servitude to Nightmare during the events of Soulcalibur IV, an offer he accepts with the secret goal of devouring Soul Edge itself. Destroyed instead by Maxi, Astaroth's heart is retrieved by the cult responsible for his creation, and a new series of golems all bearing the name "Astaroth" are created from research conducted upon it. Astaroth's story mode in Soulcalibur VI is a retelling of his creation and service to Nightmare, though now he is aided by a ker, sent by Ares to aid him in obtaining Soul Edge.
Soulcalibur IV lead programmer Masaaki Hoshino called Astaroth his favorite character, stating that because he is "so powerful there's always a chance to make a comeback".
Edge Master
Voiced by (Japanese): Daisuke Gōri (SC); Kōji Ishii (SCV)
Edge Master (エッジマスター, Ejji Masutā) has a mysterious past; renowned for his skill with various weapons, his past and real name are known only to himself. He served as advisor and teacher at the Ling-Sheng Su Temple, before it was destroyed by the "Evil Seed" event. Taking in the only survivor of the event, Kilik, he taught him to suppress the evil within himself and sent him to destroy Soul Edge, before departing on a quest of his own. After Soul Edge is shattered by Kilik's companion, Xianghua, he gave her an unnamed Jian and returned to training Kilik in hermitage until Kilik went on his second quest to destroy Soul Edge. Later, he returned to training him when he is carried unconscious by Xianghua (after their fight with Zasalamel) for three months, until he left on his own after receiving a purifying blow from Edge Master and Xianghua's letter. Around this time, he is also challenged by Seong Mi-na, who is swiftly defeated, and trained her for some time upon her request. In the seventeen-year gap between Soulcalibur IV and V, he taught another of Kilik's companion, Maxi to control the Soul Edge's shard in his body and warned him to bequeath Kali-Yuga to Xiba, as Kilik's life is in great danger. Leaving his hermitage a second time, he entered Astral Chaos to prevent the Hero King, Algol from corrupting the world with the realm's energies.
Although not playable in Soulcalibur VI, Edge Master appears in the story mode as Kilik's mentor, Taki's ally in keeping Mitsurugi away from Soul Edge, and a helper to guest character, Geralt of Rivia, in getting the witcher back to his world.
Edge Master was created by illustrator Yasushi Nirasawa, who had designed him as a background character and weapon shop owner for Soul Edge Official Guidebook – Densetsu Buki Tankyū no Sho. Out of appreciation, Namco later introduced him as a playable character in Soulcalibur and a recurring series element. His age is intended to reflect his experience and strength.
Ivy
Main article: Ivy Valentine
Kilik
Voiced by (English): Scott Reyns (SCII); Grant George (SCIII~)Voiced by (Japanese): Sōichirō Hoshi
Kilik (キリク, Kiriku) as an infant was left on the steps of a temple in China. He grew up with Xianglian, a fellow monk whom Kilik had seen as his own sister. He was trained in the art of staff-fighting and inherited one of the temple's treasure Kali-Yuga. However, during the night of the "Evil Seed", Kilik and other monks were possessed and fought each other. Xianglian used her inheritance Dvapara-Yuga to stop Kilik, but ended up possessed which forced Kilik to kill her. Sane once more, he came under the tutelage of Edge Master, and joined forces with Maxi and Xianghua (unknowingly Xianglian's sister) to destroy Soul Edge and purge the evil within himself. They confronted Nightmare during his Soul Edge ritual and Kilik managed to defeat him. He returned to hone his skills with Edge Master, but sensed Soul Edge's return four years later that made him travel around the world with Xianghua once again. The two confronted Zasalamel in a corrupted city where Kilik was knocked unconscious by him. He awoke a month later in Edge Master's home and began to train his skills again, determined to search Soul Edge with Xianghua again. While traveling with Xianghua, he realized that he had feelings for her, but he cannot confess it as she reminded him of the late Xianglian, so he planned to leave her when the time is right. During the seventeen-year gap of Soulcalibur IV and Soulcalibur V, the two reunited where Kilik had an intimate meeting with Xianghua that conceived Xiba, but left her before Xiba was born. He then spent his time trying to close the astral gates, where he touched the souls of those who had wandered the Astral Chaos and made him able to learn their styles.
The new timeline not only retells Kilik's tragic past in the Ling-Shang Su temple massacre, but also reveals his malfested form because of the Evil Seed, and his rivalry with new character, Grøh. Throughout his journey with Xianghua and Maxi, Kilik is constantly troubled over Xianglian's death, but is aided by Sophitia, who helps him cope with his past. In the battle against Inferno, Kilik saves Xianghua with control over his malfestation as Grøh did before him, and the pair defeat Inferno.
Kilik's name is derived from Turkish kılıç, meaning "sword." During Kilik's initial design creation, while the weapon selected remained constant several ages and related appearances were considered. In particular amongst these was suggested a young boy whose design was based upon the legendary Chinese character Sun Wukong, the Monkey King. Other designs such as a feral appearance were considered, but unused due to them feeling "pretty wild" and too different from the initial concept.
Lizardman
"Lizardman" (リザードマン, Rizādoman) is a recurring enemy type in the Soulcalibur series, resembling bipedal anthropomorphic lizards that communicate through growls and grunts while wielding a short sword and shield. The most notable of which is Aeon Calcos (アイオーン・カルコス, Aiōn Karukosu), one of the warriors sent by the god Hephaestus to destroy Soul Edge. However he was driven insane when exposed to Soul Edge's energies, and massacred a village that had given him shelter. Captured by a cult, they transformed him and others into Lizardmen, however the destruction of Soul Edge at the end of Soulcalibur restored his sanity. Despite this his humanity and memories deteriorated, and after being taken in by a group of lizardmen like himself, he now pursues the restored Soul Edge seeking to reclaim his soul. By the time of Soulcalibur V his body has changed further due to battle, now having grown wings and able to breathe fire.
Lizardman was originally conceived as a character meant to compliment Sophitia's fighting style, and as a result use the same sword and shield combination as her. At one point Lizardman was meant to be left-handed, but due to various reasons the concept was shelved. In an early character draft, it was considered to have it be a golem protecting a little girl, and would have had bits of its body knocked off during combat. Deciding instead to go with a half-lizard half-man concept, Lizardman's design changed very little afterwards in Soulcalibur, with only one alternative design resembling a more human appearance. Armor was added to his primary design to give him a more defensive appearance, while his secondary costume in Soulcalibur was intended to resemble an iguana.
Maxi
Voiced by (English): Doug Boyd (SCII); Steve Van Wormer (SCIII~)Voiced by (Japanese): Nobutoshi Canna (SC~SCIII); Kenjiro Tsuda (SCIV~SCBD); Shigeo Kiyama (SCV~)
Maxi (マキシ, Makishi, also written as 真喜志) was a wandering pirate from Shuri in the Ryūkyū Kingdom (present-day Okinawa, Japan). He fights using nunchaku after learning techniques from "Zhang Wu", an alias for the assassin Li Long. He pursues the golem Astaroth, who attacked his ship and slaughtered his crewmates, joining forces with Kilik and Xianghua. Maxi defeats Astaroth but is critically wounded as a result. He is later found by some villagers who help nurse him back to health using fragments of Soul Edge. He eventually pursues Soul Edge in order to use it to kill Astaroth so he will die, planning to himself die shortly afterward. In Soulcalibur IV, Maxi managed to kill Astaroth, though he had decided not to kill himself and instead went to train with Edge Master to control the shards of Soul Edge in his body, which had stopped his body from aging. After seventeen years, he is sent by Edge Master to bequeath Kali-Yuga to a boy named Xiba, as his friend, Kilik's destiny is in great danger. He became a leader of a group consisting of himself, Xiba, Leixia, and Natsu. The group meet Patroklos during his journey and help him restore Soul Calibur back to its full form.
The new timeline goes into further on how Maxi loses his crew to Astaroth, and on his journey with Kilik and Xianghua to avenge his brothers. It also reveals Grøh found Maxi injured after the latter's first victory against Astaroth.
After initially considering having Li Long return for Soulcalibur, the development team instead focused on creating a new, younger nunchaku wielder for the title. After considering several ideas for his hairstyle, including several gag designs, the developers initially chose to give him dreadlocks before changing to the current appearance. Additionally, they opted to give him an outfit that would make him attractive.
Nightmare
Main article: Nightmare (Soulcalibur)
Xianghua
In this Chinese name, the family name is Chai.
Voiced by (English): Wendee Lee
Voiced by (Japanese): Aya Hisakawa (SC~SCIII), Ryōko Shintani (SCIV), Aya Suzaki (SCVI)
Chai Xianghua (チャイ・シャンファ, Chai Shanfa, Chinese: 柴香華) was introduced in the 1998 video game Soulcalibur, tasked by the emperor of China to locate a weapon called the "Hero's Sword", and to this end posed as a member of a traveling circus troupe. Along the way they encounter others searching for the sword, namely Kilik who informs them that the sword is in fact a sentient evil blade called "Soul Edge". Upon defeating the sword's wielder they were pulled into an ethereal void and fought the embodiment of the sword's spirit, Inferno. During the fight Xianghua's own sword revealed itself to be "Soulcalibur", Soul Edge's antithesis, and with it they were able to defeat Inferno though lost Soulcailbur while trying to escape the void. Later upon discovering fragments of Soul Edge still survived, she traveled again with Kilik seeking to destroy it for good. Though the two become separated, she bears him a child, Xiba, and in an arranged marriage to a Chinese general has another, Leixia.
In print media, Xianghua appears in the Soulcalibur Hong Kong manhua retelling of the game. Encountering a group of lizardmen, humans mutated into crazed anthropomorphic lizards due to Soul Edge's influence, she is rescued by Kilik. Her sword at this point suddenly transforms into Soulcalibur, and instantly destroys the lizardmen.
Xianghua was designed around a theme of a traveling entertainer's flexibility, as well as a Chinese motif. Many different designs were considered during development, such as a girl in an apron dress or another in horse riding attire, with the development team noting despite the variety the hairstyle was kept consistently "reminiscent of Xianghua." During development, an idea was considered to instead change directions and have her fight with martial arts, utilizing kicks and creating "vacuum wave" attacks with her arms, before returning to the original concept. Emphasis was done to make her feel 'light' in terms of movement, based on Chinese martial arts, and finding that balance in the design was an active concern for her design process. Different styles of her sword were also considered before settling on a jian, which was meant to compliment her martial arts movements and give a sense of speed to help portray her as a dynamic woman. An idea was jokingly suggested for a "soul bug" to live in the hilt that would have acted as a medium to draw the wielder's energy into liquid within the sword. Developer notes on the concept stated "It was a disgusting weapon."
Yoshimitsu
Main article: Yoshimitsu § Soulcalibur series
Introduced in Soulcalibur II
In addition to the characters below, lesser storyline related characters were included in console versions of the title as unlockable characters, appearing as recurring enemies in the game's "Weapon Master Mode". Assassin and Berserker served as counterparts to previous characters Hwang and Rock. Both would later appear as boss enemies in Soulcalibur III, with Assassin's fighting style modified to utilize a kunai and Berserker modified into a smaller, fully armored warrior armed with a lance. Several generic Lizardmen also appear as recurring enemies and an unlockable character, utilizing an axe and shield fighting style that would be used by the original Lizardman in later appearances of the character.
Cassandra
Voiced by (English): Debbie Rogers (SCII); Sue Nelson (SCIII)
Voiced by (Japanese): Reiko Takagi
Cassandra Alexandra (カサンドラ・アレクサンドル, Kasandora Arekusandoru) was the younger daughter and middle child of Achelous Alexander and his wife, Nike. She had an older sister, Sophitia, and a younger brother, Lucius, with whom she ran the family bakery in Athens. In Soul Edge, she was mentioned as having witnessed her sister's unconscious body being carried by female ninja Taki after the two successfully destroyed the cursed sword Soul Edge. Taki shared to her the information about a Soul Edge fragment that was lodged near her sister's heart, which Taki was unable to remove because it would kill her. Cassandra resolved never to tell anyone about this, even Sophitia herself. Three years later, she heard her sister had gone to another journey to destroy Soul Edge in Soulcalibur. Unlike her sister, whose skills originated from her weapons and the god Hephaestus, Cassandra was not as humble and could not hear him, relying instead on her own strength.
By the time of Soulcalibur II four years afterward, the 21-years-old Cassandra visited her sister's home to find that Sophitia's children Patroklos and Pyrrha were fighting for a fragment of Soul Edge that Sophitia's husband, Rothion, found, making Sophitia restless. She grabbed the fragment and went to the Eurydice Shrine, angrily cursing Hephaestus for endangering her sister. Cassandra stole Sophitia's holy Omega sword after seeing it reacting with the fragment and became determined to find and destroy Soul Edge in place of Sophitia.
Cassandra continued her quest to find Soul Edge in Soulcalibur III. She briefly returned to Greece to request Rothion to forge her new weapons after the Omega sword was broken following a skirmish at a corrupted city. He told her that Sophitia had gone to destroy Soul Edge on her own. She visited the city that she went earlier, where she met a man named Raphael who stole her fragment of Soul Edge. Before departing, he told that while she had the power to dispel evil, she was not as strong as the "Holy Stone". After hearing rumors in the city about a man with a large mass of crystal on his way to Ostrheinsburg Castle, Cassandra reasoned he carried the Holy Stone to fight some evil there, which she theorized was Soul Edge. Therefore, Cassandra went to the castle.
Cassandra did not make an appearance in Soulcalibur V, although she was mentioned in the official artbook of the game. According to the artbook, at the conclusion of Soulcalibur IV, she arrived at the Ostrheinsburg Castle and found out that Sophitia had pledged her service to Soul Edge to save Pyrrha, who spent too much time around Soul Edge and had to rely on the sword to survive. Sophitia rendered Cassandra unconscious with a single strike, wounding her greatly. When she awakened, she found that the entire castle was disintegrating into a realm called Astral Chaos. Now weakened, Cassandra found Sophitia's unconscious body in a room, but as she approached her, Cassandra was sucked to the Astral Chaos while the castle returned to normal, as she was too wounded to escape. Due to being stranded in the Astral Chaos, Cassandra became malfested, losing the memories of her own original identity, and keeping only her desire to save her sister.
In the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, Cassandra ran the family bakery alongside Lucius while trying to cover for Sophitia's absence. She encountered her future self from the original timeline and found out her sister's tragic fate. As a result of this revelation, Cassandra set off on a journey to prevent Sophitia's tragic future. After the wedding between Rothion and Sophitia, Cassandra was tasked with naming their first child.
Outside of the main series, Cassandra appeared in Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny's Gauntlet storyline, a non-canon side story set during the events of Soulcalibur IV, which revolved around Cassandra and her ally Hilde, who was searching for ingredients to develop a potion to cure Hilde's father. To this end, she forced the protagonist to assist them, and later recruited another person, Dampierre, after Hilde was briefly kidnapped.
Cassandra also starred as one of the two main characters (and the one most prominently used for promotion) in the mobile card game Soulcalibur: Unbreakable Soul, alongside Edge Master. In it, Cassandra and Edge Master traveled to find the fragments of Soul Edge.
Besides the Soulcalibur series, Cassandra appeared in the video game Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 as an unlockable character. To explain the new features of Soulcalibur IV, Namco released an omake manga featuring Cassandra and Hilde; written in a humorous tone, Cassandra, representing a veteran of the series, "taught" Hilde about the game's features, while introducing the audience to aspects of Hilde's character. Cassandra appeared in The King of Fighters All Star in both her Soulcalibur VI design, and her "War Maiden" costume from Soulcalibur IV. She is the main protagonist of the story mode, "In the Hopeful Future", where she teamed up with Nakoruru from Samurai Shodown to defeat Saiki, the main antagonist of The King of Fighters XIII.
Charade
Charade (シャレード, Sharēdo) is the name of a creature introduced in Soulcalibur II, formed from Soul Edge's fragments and various reshaped human body parts. It has no intellect, instead acting on instinct and a desire to absorb other pieces of Soul Edge. It was once a man who collected fragments of Soul Edge but was murdered and in his final moments had him mutated into Charade. It mimics fighting styles and weapons by scanning the minds of its opponents, represented in Soulcalibur II by his use of a random fighting style from one of the other game's characters. In the arcade version of Soulcalibur II, Charade served as the final boss, and was unlocked for players to use after the game had been in operation a certain amount of time. For console ports of the title, Charade was replaced by Inferno as the game's final boss, and was made into a regular unlockable character. A Charade appears as a boss in Soulcalibur III in a three-round match in which it progressively loses components of itself between each round, eventually reduced to just its eye. It presumably became one with Soul Edge/Nightmare.
Charades appear in the game Namco × Capcom as enemy characters, mimicking Sophitia's fighting style from Soulcalibur II. These Charades are unique in that Soul Edge creates them directly, an ability it lacks in the Soul series. Called Soul Edge's "avatars" by the game's protagonists, they are created by Soul Edge as foot soldiers and as a means to protect itself. When defeated, they will melt and dissolve into nothing.
Reception to Charade has been mixed. Netjack's Steve Lubitz described Charade as "Weapon Master, only uglier" and cited a lack of creativity with the design. The sentiment was shared by Deeko's review of Soulcalibur II, who said that Charade felt like a new character that used "old character moves and tactics". Other reviewers of II repeated the sentiment, noting Charade as one of several "Doppelgänger" fighters in the title that filled in another character's role. On the other hand, UGO's Doug Trueman cited Charade as a character that " something spectacular to the Soul Calibur pantheon." and additionally received mention in UGO's "Top 11 Soul Calibur Fighters" article, losing to Olcadan only due to Olcadan's owl-inspired design.
Yun-Seong
In this Korean name, the family name is Hong.
Voiced by (English): Jim Singer (SCII)Voiced by (Japanese): Kōsuke Toriumi
Hong Yun-Seong (ホン・ユンスン, Hon Yunsun, Korean: 홍윤성; Hanja: 洪潤星) was introduced in Soulcalibur II as a student at the Seong dojo and had idolized Hwang Seong-gyeong, a Korean warrior sent to find the "Sword of Salvation". When Hwang rejected his attempt to challenge him, the dojo's daughter Seong Mi-na handed Yun-seong the White Storm, a dao capable of reflecting the user's inner thoughts. He decided to leave his dojo in search of the "Sword of Salvation". During his journey, he met a group of deserted children whose leader is sick as well as a teenager named Talim, who warned him about the dangers of the sword he search, revealed to be Soul Edge. After he helped Talim performing the cleansing ritual on the sick boy, Yun-seong pursued Talim who left swiftly to find the sword and continued their journey together. They met Mi-na who attempted to persuade Yun-seong to go home, but he refused and left the two during their sleep one night. He eventually arrived at Ostrheinsburg and encountered his idol Hwang, again warning Yun-seong about the sword's evil nature, though it did not stop him and went about his quest anyway, parting his ways with Hwang. He does not appear in Soulcalibur V, but is mentioned in the game's artbook, where he is stated to had returned to his homeland after Soulcalibur IV, deemed a national hero, and began teaching the young generation alongside Hwang and Seong Mi-na.
Necrid
Main article: Necrid
Raphael
Voiced by (English): Paul Jennings (SCII)Voiced by (Japanese): Yasunori Masutani
Raphael Sorel (ラファエル・ソレル, Rafaeru Soreru) is a French nobleman, exiled by his family for committing a grievance against them. Hidden from his pursuers by a young girl named Amy, he took her in as his adoptive daughter and sought Soul Edge to secure a future for both of them. He was utterly defeated in battle with Nightmare, the sword's wielder, though he managed to stab the sword, which helped Siegfried wrest his mind from its influence. Raphael and Amy contracted vampirism as a result of Soul Edge's power resonating in wounds from the battle, and the two relocated to a castle in Romania, where their vampirism led to infection among the local peasantry. However, the populace began to be healed one by one by a "Holy Stone". Feeling threatened, Raphael decided to leave the castle to find and destroy the stone. During his journey, he learned from the "creatures of the dark" that the Holy Stone was Soul Edge's counterpart Soul Calibur, which had even greater power than Soul Edge, and decided to find and use the sword to create a "perfect world" for himself and Amy. After the events of Soulcalibur IV, Raphael is stated to have died, but suddenly awoke in a dungeon cell seventeen years later with no memory of what happened and found that Amy had disappeared from his life. Determined to finish his plan, he began his search for Amy. It is heavily implied by the official artbook that Raphael has become the new vessel of Nightmare after his destruction; this is further supported by the fact that Nightmare uses Raphael's body model in the Create-A-Soul mode as well as them sharing the same voice actor in Japanese as of Soulcalibur V, therefore making Raphael the identity of "Graf Dumas".
In the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, after his adoption of Amy and further confirm his "Graf Dumas" status, Raphael comes across a couple of secret documents by a mysterious scholar, later revealed to be new character, Azwel. With his plan for a perfect world for Amy using Soul Edge, Raphael is easily manipulated by Azwel into finding the cursed sword. It also reveals in a possible timeline where he never met Amy, Raphael would become a mindless malfested.
Raphael's appearance in Soulcalibur III was changed heavily, designed to represent his evil demeanor and royal image. The chief character designer of the game, Hideo Yoshie, stated that the change made Raphael "more distinctive".
He also appeared in Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 as an unlockable character.
Talim
Main article: Talim (Soulcalibur)
Introduced in Soulcalibur III
In addition to the characters below, several others appear within the game under the title of "bonus" characters, representing fighting styles exclusive to the game's character creation mode as unlockable characters. These include minor storyline characters such as Amy and Revenant, others from previous installments otherwise absent from the game such as Arthur, Li Long and Hwang, and characters exclusive to the game's "Chronicles of the Sword" mode. Amy would later be fleshed out into a full character in Soulcalibur IV. In addition, the game features a final boss character called "Night Terror" that can be fought once specific conditions have been met.
Amy/Viola
Voiced by (Japanese): Kanako Tateno (SCIII); Hitomi Nabatame (SCIV~onwards)
Amy (エイミ, Eimi) was initially introduced as a background character for Raphael, as a young girl who hid him from his pursuers and taken in as his foster daughter in a debt of gratitude. To secure a future for her, he left Amy behind to pursue the cursed sword Soul Edge, with plans to present it to the nobles that pursued him so they would be overtaken by its curse and destroy each other. However he was utterly defeated by its host, and as Amy tended to his wounds both of them were infected with vampirism. They traveled to a castle in Romania, and he left her to ensure the creation of an ideal world for both of them. Amy however felt abandoned, and set out on her own to protect their world herself.
After the seventeen-year gap between Soulcalibur IV and Soulcalibur V, Amy has mysteriously disappeared, initiating Raphael's search for her. In reality, Amy has resurfaced and grown-up in the said fifth game as an amnesiac fortune-teller named Viola (ヴィオラ, Viora), losing most of her memories and life. Amy, now Viola begin live as a wanderer because of her inability to empathize with other peoples, until she met Z.W.E.I. The two then become traveling companions. Eventually, they are found by Siegfried, the leader of reformed Schwarzwind and took them as fugitives/mercenaries. She then assists Patroklos to find Soul Calibur under orders from Siegfried, along with Z.W.E.I., though he leaves after finding his sister, Pyrrha. It is revealed in Soulcalibur VI that Amy's transformation into an amnesiac Viola was because of Azwel's magic.
Like Raphael, Amy wields a rapier as her weapon. In her debut appearance, Amy utilizes the "Rapier" custom fighting style closely based on Raphael's moveset. In the arcade version of Soulcalibur III, she is more divergent, having moves that focused more on speed than power, unlike Raphael; this change is retained in Soulcalibur IV. First seen in Soulcalibur II opening sequence, Amy's character model was reused with a modified design in Soulcalibur III as a debug character for the developers to test elements of the game with and against, also appearing in some of the game's epilogue sequences. After completion of most of the game, they decided to implement her as a full character as a result of liking her design. When she was announced as a playable character in the sequel for Soulcalibur IV, game director Daishi Odashima stating the reason behind her inclusion as "I like weaker characters", noting her as one of his three favorite characters in the game.
As Viola, her weapons are a metal claw and a magical crystal ball which floats around during battles. Prior both Amy and Viola revealed to be a same person as of SCVI, there were numerous hints, such as having the same looks, in-game interactions with Raphael, as well as her sharing the same voice actress in both English and Japanese, allude to their connections.
Night Terror
Night Terror (ナイトテラー, Naito Terā) is the secret final boss of Soulcalibur III, replacing the normal final boss Abyss if certain requirements are met. Its appearance has been a mystery as it is not player-controllable, is given very little mention in-game (its profile only stated that it is the result of Soul Edge and Soul Calibur fusing with Nightmare's remains), and does not appear nor is it mentioned in future games. The official artbook of Soulcalibur V mentions the creature as the personification of "Catastrophe" residing in Astral Chaos who is so powerful that even Soul Calibur's creator, Algol, avoids confronting it.
Night Terror utilizes a complete version of Soul Edge as its weapon with a fighting style simply referred to as "Memories of Nightmare?". It borrows many moves from Nightmare, albeit greatly amplified, including having greater range and power or becoming unblockable. Notably, Night Terror is the only character in the history of the series who cannot be defeated by ring outs; whenever it is knocked off the stage, it simply flies back using its wings.
Olcadan
Voiced by (Japanese): Shigenori Sōya
Olcadan (オルカダン, Orukadan) was introduced in Soulcalibur III as a warrior that mastered a variety of martial arts and weapon usage and interested in honing his skills. When he reached adulthood only one of his fights had ended in a draw, so to test himself he hunted down God of War Ares's messenger, a great snow owl and decapitated it as proof of his victory. He was cursed as a result with an owl's head depending on the position of the stars and was later imprisoned in a labyrinth where time stood still. When the seal was eventually broken, he learned of Soul Edge's power and, impressed, he sought to defeat it. During this time he also learned of currency and growing fond of it he served as an instructor to other warriors for payment.
He received positive reception as a character due to his appearance and demeanor, placing in UGO.com's Top 11 SoulCalibur Fighters article at eleventh place, beating out fellow series mimic character Charade. They additionally awarded the character "Best New Character" of 2005 and proposed the possibility of Olcadan appearing in a stand-alone title and serving as a mascot for Namco, drawing comparisons to characters such as Master Chief. The character was additionally mentioned by them in their early coverage of Soulcalibur IV, noting hope for his return in the title.
Setsuka
Voiced by (English): Kari Wahlgren (SCIII); Tara Platt (SCIV~)Voiced by (Japanese): Nanaho Katsuragi (SCIII~SCBD); Yō Taichi (SCVI~)
Setsuka (雪華) is a character introduced in Soulcalibur III. An orphan and runaway living in Japan, she was shunned due to her Caucasian ancestry. Eventually, she was taken in by Shugen Kokonoe, a man who worked as a bodyguard in the region. He named her Setsuka ("Snow Flower"). He taught her his fighting style, as well as showing her affection and kindness, things she had never experienced before, and gave her a beautiful, ornate kimono. After he dies from wounds sustained in combat with Mitsurugi, Setsuka realized she had fallen in love with the man. Despite his dying request not to pursue revenge she chooses to do so. She now tracks Nightmare, believing it will lead her to Mitsurugi, who himself pursues Nightmare. She continues on her search for Mitsurugi in Soulcalibur IV. She is given no mention in Soulcalibur V, although she appears briefly in the official artbook of the game, where she shattered Mitsurugi's sword in a duel but lost the battle, took the name "Neve" and began to teach students her fighting style in Istanbul, one of which was Patroklos. She told him not to pursue revenge as she had before, though he ultimately ignored the advice in his search for Pyrrha.
She returns in Soulcalibur VI as a DLC character. The new timeline gives further details on her close relationship with Shugen and how she came to lose him, as well as her birth heritage as a Portuguese-Japanese. Although she initially listens to her master's request not to avenge him, Setsuka decides to pursues Mitsurugi after a fight with the mysterious Kokonoe clan over hidden scrolls with secret advanced fighting techniques, and eventually leads her to be involved with Soul Edge-related incidents.
Character developer Hideo Yoshie stated that Setsuka's concept originated from the idea of a flower. Her outfit in Soulcalibur III was inspired by historical Japanese courtesans known as oiran, who wore cosmetics and clothing similar to a geisha's but tied their obi at the front instead of behind, mixed with elements from the Queen of Hearts as part of an "East-meets-West" concept.
Tira
Voiced by (Japanese): Masumi Asano
Tira (ティラ) first appeared in Soulcalibur III, as an assassin that fled her previous group due to her mental instability. Though she attempted a peaceful life in a quiet city, she eventually found her urge to kill uncontrollable and wandered until she learned of the living sword Soul Edge and its wielder, Nightmare. Sensing a kindred spirit, she pledged her loyalty to the sword, and sought both a new host for Soul Edge and to destroy its antithesis, the sword Soul Calibur. At the story's climax, the energy released by Soul Edge and Soul Calibur clashing caused her personality to split into two extremes, Jolly and Gloomy. When Soul Edge returned in Soulcalibur IV, she resumed her service to him, manipulating others into helping, such as Sophitia by kidnapping her daughter, Pyrrha.
In Soulcalibur V, set 17 years after the events of IV, both Nightmare and Soul Edge had resurfaced after being destroyed at the end of IV, the former possessing a swordsman ruling Hungary. Disapproving the current state of her master, Tira intended to use Pyrrha as a new vessel of Soul Edge by manipulating the latter's isolation and earlier exposure to Soul Edge. However, she was confronted by Pyrrha's younger brother, Patroklos. Defeated, she escaped Patroklos' wrath and left Pyrrha with him, but later convinced Pyrrha to follow her again when Patroklos was reluctant to accept her state. A more mature-looking Tira returns in Soulcalibur VI. In this game, she has very little empathy on humans and enjoys killing people, treating it like a hobby.
Hyper magazine described her as Soulcalibur III's "obligatory weird chick", adding that "she's supposed to be an angel of death, but looks like an oversexed court jester to us." They however praised her animation and gameplay, calling them mesmerizing unlike those of other characters, adding "imagine a homicidal rhythm gymnast and you're on the right track." Electronic Gaming Monthly describes Tira as a "Cirque du Soleil reject", though added she is "modestly endowed, but highly flexible." IGN included her in their "Babes of Soulcalibur" article, stating "She immediately stands out (...) Whereas most of the SC women fight on the side of good, Tira is totally, deliciously evil." They also praised her outfits, calling them some of the best in the Soul series.
Zasalamel
Voiced by (English): Keith SilversteinVoiced by (Japanese): Hiroshi Tsuchida
Zasalamel (ザサラメール, Zasaramēru) hails from an ancient tribe that was tasked with the protection of the holy sword Soul Calibur by Algol. Angered by the tribe's restrictions, he tried to take Soul Calibur but was caught and exiled. Pursuing the sword he gained the ability to reincarnate, though eventually yearned to die for good. Tracking down Soul Edge, he manipulated events so that Soul Calibur would come to him, serving as the main antagonist of Soulcalibur III. Hoping to use the combined energies of the swords to end his existence, he was instead transformed into a monster called Abyss. During these events he had a vision of the future, and desiring to see it firsthand he returned to life, acting in Soulcalibur IV to protect the swords in case their destruction broke his cycle of reincarnation. His further fate afterward is unknown, as he is given no mention in Soulcalibur V.
Zasalamel reappears in the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, which revisits the events of the first Soulcalibur game, as a foreseer of the future.
Zasalamel was positively received. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Zasalamel as "easily the coolest" of the three new characters introduced in Soulcalibur III, noting his speed and ability to pull opponents to him. Other reviewers have shared the sentiments, praising his accessibility for new players. GameSpy went further to describe him as one of the best characters in Soulcalibur III, noting his offensive abilities and range control.
Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny
In addition to these characters, with Soulcalibur IV several manga and anime character designers were invited to contribute additional, non-canon characters to the game: Angol Fear (voiced by Takako Honda in Japanese), a female alien designed by Mine Yoshizaki and cousin of his existing character Angol Mois; Ashlotte (voiced by Hitomi Nabatame in Japanese), a mechanical doll developed by Oh! great sent to destroy series character Astaroth; Kamikirimusi (voiced by Nami Kurokawa in Japanese), a young female oni designed by Hirokazu Hisayuki searching for kindred spirits; Scheherazade (voiced by Nami Kurokawa in Japanese), an elven storyteller designed by Yutaka Izubuchi and based on the Persian queen of the same name; and Shura (voiced by Takako Honda in Japanese), a possessed female warrior designed by Hiroya Oku. Rather than having a unique fighting style, each was modeled after an existing character: Seong Mi-na, Astaroth, Nightmare, Amy, and Cervantes, respectively. Of these characters, only Ashlotte is referenced in later games, alluded to in Astaroth's Soulcalibur V's profile information.
Algol
Voiced by (Japanese): Jōji Nakata
Algol (アルゴル, Arugoru) serves as the Story Mode boss for most characters and as an unlockable character in Soulcalibur IV. Prior to the events of Soul Edge, Algol was known as "The Hero King", able to use the cursed sword Soul Edge without being controlled by it. He used it to forge an era of peace, until his son was possessed by the sword and Algol was forced to destroy them both. He worked to create a purified sword from a shard of Soul Edge to counter the weapon when it reappeared, resulting in the creation of Soul Calibur but with his body and soul trapped inside until the two swords clashed. Freed, he constructed himself a new body armed with facsimiles of both swords, and waited for them to come to him so that he could make his revival permanent. After the events of Soulcalibur IV, Algol had been working to corrupt the world with energies from Astral Chaos in order to control it. His actions had caused much disturbance of the world, with Edge Master even entering Astral Chaos to prevent him.
Character designer Hideo Yoshie described Algol as "a character that obviously proves the setting of being the strongest character ever in the Soulcalibur series". Algol's costume was designed around the concept of originating from a culture so ancient that it was not recorded in history, which complicated the character's creation. After considering several themes including a lion and a dinosaur, a bird motif was finally settled upon. An option was considered for Algol to cause an "off site brawl" while on a pipe chair, but was unused. His design elements including his projectile-firing "rifle arm" were called fresh and innovative by Gameswelt. The staff of 1UP.com were particularly impressed by his rifle attack, nicknaming the projectiles "Soul Bubbles" in reference to a game by the same name. Kotaku also praised the character, describing him as "much more of a bad ass" than recurring series boss Inferno. Edge described him as breaking the tradition of "ill-balanced uber-enemies" as well as one able to use a gun as a weapon without seeming "hopelessly out of place" in the series. GameAxis Unwired praised the character for breaking the series' tradition of bosses that mimicked existing fighting styles, and added that Algol remained for the most part fair to fight against. Neoseeker stated that Algol felt as if he was "just there, purely for your entertainment", calling his fighting style bizarre but while frustrating to fight, beatable. Cheat Code Central included Algol in the 2012 list of top ten hidden characters in fighting games.
Dampierre
Voiced by (Japanese): Shigeru Chiba
Geo Dampierre (ジオ・ダンピエール, Jio Danpiēru) is a con artist introduced in Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny and known by a variety of titles, amongst which include "Alchemist of the Ages", "The World's Greatest Assassin", and "Miraculous Psychic". He eventually became recognized as a thief, and resorted to robbery and kidnapping to continue his rich lifestyle. Desiring to live a noble life instead, he decides to fight against Nightmare and use his skills for good. In Soulcalibur V, he had heard about the new king of Hungary, Graf Dumas (actually Nightmare in disguise) had prepared for wars, so Dampierre arranges a meeting with him. His weapons consist of two spring mounted daggers strapped to the underside of his wrists. He is voiced by Shigeru Chiba in Japanese, who the developers felt gave the character a distinct voice.
Dampierre's introduction in the game was the result of the amount of unused character and weapon designs that were excluded from Soulcalibur IV, and the team's desire to instead focus on creating a character based around their personality instead. Though the development team had mixed feelings regarding the character, they chose to take a risk and add him to Broken Destiny regardless.
Hilde
Voiced by (Japanese): Yūko Kaida
Hildegard von Krone (ヒルデガルド・フォン・クローネ, Hirudegarudo fon Kurōne) — simply known as Hilde (ヒルダ, Hiruda) — is the daughter of the king of Wolfkrone, a fictional European kingdom under assault by series antagonist Nightmare's forces. After her father was driven insane into a Malfested by the Evil Seed event brought upon by the cursed sword Soul Edge (which took place seven years before the events of Soulcalibur IV), Hilde was forced to take the throne of Wolfkrone despite her young age. She took the responsibilities to protect her people and lead her armies in the front lines against Nightmare. As a desperate measure, Hilde seeks the Sword of Resurrection, Soul Calibur, to bring back an ancient king who once restored peace to the world. She returns in Soulcalibur VI as the first DLC fighter of the 2nd season pass. In the new timeline, the mysterious Aval Organization where the new character Grøh belongs to had been a sworn allied force to Hilde's home kingdom for generations. In Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny's Gauntlet storyline, a non-canon side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV, the plot revolves around Hilde and her ally Cassandra, who search for ingredients to develop a potion to cure Hilde's father. To this end they force the protagonist to assist them, and later recruit another person, Dampierre, after Hilde is briefly kidnapped.
To explain the new features of Soulcalibur IV, Namco released an omake manga featuring Hilde and Cassandra. Written in a humorous tone, Cassandra, representing a veteran of the series, "taught" Hilde about the game's features, while introducing the audience to aspects of Hilde's character. Hilde was featured in a promotional comic bundled with the North American release of Soulcalibur IV's Premium Edition. Drawn by Udon Entertainment for DC Comics, it served as a prelude to the events of the game.
IGN cited her as a fierce opponent and "hell of a lot of fun to control", adding "...we tend to sit up and take notice when a new character shows promise...we expect she'll stick around for the long haul." Additional praise was given in their review of Soulcalibur IV, stating an approval of her design combined with her personality, and a preference for her over the game's unlockable characters. Topless Robot named her one of the "11 Most Dignified Videogame Heroines", stating "For Soulcalibur IV's cast, the developers at Namco went out of their way to add one woman who wasn't spilling out of a tight, scant outfit, perhaps to excuse the fact that about every other female character is." Neoseeker praised her design, calling her the "most modest female character in Soulcalibur, looking at her unbelievably awesome outfit -- a full suit of armor with helmet included. No skin? No problem!"
Introduced in Soulcalibur V
Elysium/Soul Calibur
Voiced by (Japanese): Chie Nakamura
Elysium (エリュシオン, Eryushion) is the physical manifestation of Soul Calibur, taking the form of an angelic woman who, due to Patroklos's influence, resembles Sophitia. Her goal is to destroy everything related to Soul Edge and will do anything to achieve it, even if it means by destroying the innocent "malfested". She guides Patroklos to destroy Soul Edge using Soul Calibur with the promise that she will help him find his sister Pyrrha, though she already knows that Pyrrha is a malfested and must be vanquished. She is successful in convincing Patroklos to kill Pyrrha, though Edge Master's giving of a second chance prevents Patroklos from doing so. Angry, she traps Patroklos in a crystal and confronts him in his subconscious to reveal her intentions and tries to possess Patroklos in order to destroy Soul Edge, though in the end she is defeated and eventually destroyed by Patroklos and Pyrrha along with Soul Calibur.
Along with Edge Master and Kilik, she is a mimic character in Soulcalibur V, mimicking the styles of female characters. Uniquely, she has a few unique moves when she mimics Pyrrha Omega, which are actually Sophitia's moves, and has a different Critical Edge unlike other mimic characters.
Leixia
In this Chinese name, the family name is Yan.
Voiced by (English): Lauren LandaVoiced by (Japanese): Yoshino Nanjō
Yan Leixia (イェン・レイシャ, Yen Reisha, Chinese: 燕蕾夏) is the daughter of Xianghua and a Chinese general whom she married after parting ways with Kilik. She was trained in the arts of Chinese swordplay using a Jian by her mother. During her fifteenth birthday, she was given a collar containing a shard of Kilik's anti-evil mirror, Dvapara-Yuga, by her younger brother, Leixin, as a present. When she showed it to her mother, Xianghua grew frantic and planned to have Leixia marry a Chinese general, troubling Leixia who decided to leave her home to learn why her mother had reacted to the sight of the pendant. Befriending the ninja Natsu, they joined Maxi and Xiba in traveling the world.
According to the game's official artbook, SOULCALIBUR – New Legends of Project Soul, Xiba, one of Leixia's travel companion is actually her estranged older half-brother, the result of her mother's intimate meeting with Kilik. The reason why Xianghua had gone frantic at the sight of Dvapara-Yuga and decided to arrange Leixia's marriage with a general is because the pendant reminded her of Kilik and Xianghua does not want her daughter to have an illegal affair like the former had with Kilik.
Natsu
Voiced by (Japanese): Fuyuka Oura
Natsu (ナツ, also written as 凪津) is a young ninja and the disciple of Taki. She wields two kodachi and harbors the demon Arahabaki (荒吐鬼) inside her, who was sealed by Taki after his previous container was killed. Because of this, she was treated as an outcast by her community and was very shy as a young girl, though she eventually grew her confidence with the help of Taki. After Taki failed to return from a mission, promising to return within two weeks, Natsu grew worried, and after Leixia arrived at Fu-Ma village gates, she became a bodyguard to Leixia, hoping she could find her beloved master along the way.
Natsu also appears in Project X Zone 2 as a playable solo unit.
Patroklos
Voiced by (English): Yuri LowenthalVoiced by (Japanese): KENN
Patroklos Alexandra (パトロクロス・アレクサンドル, Patorokurosu Arekusandoru) is the main protagonist of Soulcalibur V. He is Sophitia's son, and uses a short sword and a shield like his mother, though his alternate version, α Patroklos (アルファ・パトロクロス, Arufa Patorokurosu) hides his true fighting style: an iaido swordplay, taught to him by Setsuka after his father's death. Patroklos' sister, Pyrrha, was abducted by Tira when he was only two years old. His mother, Sophitia left their home in search for her, but she never returned. His father, Rothion had tried to search for her and simultaneously kept the truth from the family until seventeen years later, when he caught an unexplainable sickness. Before his death, he told Patroklos everything about their family. Patroklos left his home in search for Pyrrha and eventually become a slayer of malfested under the order of Graf Dumas, the king of Hungary. However, his meeting with Z.W.E.I. severs his ties with the king upon learning he has been manipulated. Under the guidance of a mysterious voice from Soul Calibur (which is Elysium), he continues his duty on killing the malfested. He is eventually reunited with his sister, but has difficulty accepting her as a malfested. After killing her during a duel, he receives words of advice from Edge Master in Astral Chaos, while also rekindling his true fighting style. Patroklos returns to an earlier point in time, and is given a second chance to save Pyrrha. He is able to do so, but is confronted by Elysium who tries to possess Patroklos, though he manages to defeat her and seals Soul Calibur with Soul Edge, after which he is able to accept Pyrrha and lives on with her.
Fan reception to Patroklos has been significantly negative, with the majority condemning him as the series' "Most Hated Character."
Pyrrha
Voiced by (English): Laura BaileyVoiced by (Japanese): Nozomi Sasaki
Pyrrha Alexandra (ピュラ・アレクサンドル, Pyura Arekusandoru) is Patroklos' sister and Sophitia's daughter who uses her mother's sword and shield which were made by her father, Rothion. Pyrrha was kidnapped by Tira when she was only three years old in order to torment Sophitia. She knows nothing about her past, other than the fact that everyone that was close to her strangely died, which earns her the title "Bringer of Woe". She was imprisoned after being accused of killing a nobleman's son who purchased her from a slave market. It was that time Tira appears and took care of her. However, her only reason on doing that is to make Pyrrha a new vessel for Soul Edge since she already knew that Pyrrha's body contained parts of Soul Edge's power. To charge up the demonic powers, Tira orders Pyrrha to kill people, promising her that she will take Pyrrha to reunite with her long lost brother, Patroklos. The two eventually reunite, but the influence of the Soul Edge manages to corrupt her, turning her into Pyrrha Ω (ピュラ・オメガ, Pyura Omega), with a deformed arm much like Nightmare's and wielding Soul Edge as a sword and shield like her mother did. Patroklos is unable to accept her form and later kills her during a duel. With the aid of Edge Master within Astral Chaos, he is able to go back in time, and alter the past event, granting himself a second chance. Patroklos prevails against Pyrrha in battle, and disarms her; therefore freeing her from Soul Edge's control. After Patroklos' final confrontation with Elysium, Pyrrha pierces Soul Calibur with Soul Edge and returns home, having been accepted by Patroklos.
Outside of the series, Pyrrha is the main character of Queen's Gate: Pyrrha (蒼運命に翻弄される娘 ピュラ), an erotic gamebook as part of the Queen's Gate series.
Xiba
Voiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Toyonaga
Xiba (シバ, Shiba) is described as an honest young man who came from the Zhen Hang Mountain. He has a strong love for food and would repeatedly strive for it, much to the annoyance of his companion, Leixia. Like Kilik, he was trained in the secret arts of the Ling-Sheng Su by his master, Kong Xiuqiang. Sometime before the events of the game, he was bequeathed with Kilik's inheritance, the sacred bō staff Kali-Yuga, under orders of Edge Master, who sensed Kilik's tragic fate. Together with Leixia, Natsu, and their leader, Maxi, Xiba travels throughout the world, eventually helping Patroklos to complete Soul Calibur with Kali-Yuga's power (as well as Dvapara Yuga's, owned by Leixia).
According to the official artbook of the game, SOULCALIBUR – New Legends of Project Soul, he is actually Kilik and Xianghua's son and Leixia's estranged older half-brother. His birth is the result of their intimate meeting and he was nearly killed following the orders of the Xianghua's grandfather. Negotiations with Ming Empire general Yan Wujin however, allowed Xiba to live secretly with Xianghua's father Kong Xiuqiang so as to not revealing the scandal as the condition for Wujin to marry Xianghua. As many others such as Goku from Dragon Ball, his look and fighting style is based on Sun Wukong from the classic Chinese novel, Journey to the West.
Z.W.E.I.
Voiced by (English): Matthew MercerVoiced by (Japanese): Kenta Miyake
Z.W.E.I. (ツヴァイ, Tsuvai) is a mysterious, brooding man who wields a sword with three handles and can summon a lupine spirit named "E.I.N.", who is actually Minion, a secondary soul that coexists with Z.W.E.I.'s own human soul. While much of his backstory is unknown, the official site states that he was separated from his mother when he was still a child, and he had to endure hardships in his life before he was eventually taken by the leader of Schwarzwind, Siegfried, who raised him as a warrior. Z.W.E.I. is currently traveling with Viola, a woman who also has inhuman powers like himself. Z.W.E.I. advises Patroklos to revolt against Dumas as he had merely used him and later assists him in finding Soul Calibur under orders from Siegfried, alongside Viola, though he leaves them after finding his sister, Pyrrha. Later, when Nightmare has declared war across Europe, he confronts him in his castle and manages to kill him. However, a malfested Pyrrha appears and stabs him, after which he falls to the chasm, his fate unknown.
Introduced in Soulcalibur VI
Azwel
Voiced by (Japanese): Masashi Ebara
Azwel (アズウェル, Azuweru) is a man of extraordinary intelligence and a scholar in many fields, including history, medicine, war, and art. His studies about the history of humanity brought him to the conclusion that humanity would self-destruct through wars and other calamities. His fanatical love for the people led him to enact a terrifying plan to save them from themselves. Azwel also infects Grøh with Soul Edge, defects from the Aval Organization, manipulates Raphael into searching for Soul Edge, and assaults Amy to discover her future self as Viola.
His weapon is a pair of gloves named Palindrome: the right glove includes a fragment of Soul Edge, while the left one has a piece of Soul Calibur. Azwel draws his power from the memories of past battles, preserved within those fragments. While he appears unarmed, his gloves allow him to summon a variety of deadly weapons, which he can use with brutal effects.
Grøh
Voiced by (English): Xander MobusVoiced by (Japanese): Takahiro Sakurai
Grøh (グロー, Gurō) is a member of the mysterious Aval Organization, a secret group with origins rooted in ancient times, who came to be when a king used the spirit sword to defeat its cursed counterpart, and with his dying breath, entrusted them with both the blade and his unfinished mission. Each new generation has taken on the group's mission to rid the world of "Outsiders" — those connected with the cursed sword, the Malfested. Aval Organization had been a sworn allied force to Hilde's home kingdom, the Wolfkrone for generations. Little is known about him, save for that he was a fearsome warrior. Though his fighting style is shrouded in mystery, he wields two swords that can connect with each other.
He was turned into an "Outsider" by Nightmare, and progressively continued by the traitor Azwel, the man who responsible for infected Grøh and his best friend, Curtis, for the sorcerer's evil experiments. After having remaining willpower to negate his mind from becoming an "Outsider", using the power of "Outsider" to counteract the likes of "Outsiders"-minded warriors, Azwel included, Grøh found a new purpose to put the fellow "Outsider" victims like him a trial whether they have a strong will left to suppress the malfestation or not. Following Maxi's first victor against Astaroth, shortly before Kilik finally purifies his malfestation and helps Xianghua defeats Nightmare/Inferno, Grøh was the one of found a critically injured Maxi. Unbeknownst to Grøh, Curtis survives but suffers amnesia and becomes a malfested army. Although Curtis slowly begins to recover his memory of Grøh before a one-year war depicted in 1590 A.D. begins.
Critical reception
In 2016, University of Delaware professor Rachel Hutchinson cited the various characters of the series examples of 'virtual colonialism', noting the designers' emphasis on particular traits to differentiate the non-Japanese characters as exotic 'others'. Analyzing each characters' design in the original Soulcalibur, she cited examples of stereotypes commonly viewed in Japan of other cultures, such as Li Long's lack of aging between his appearance in Soul Edge and Soulcalibur, or Ivy's significant stature compared to Eastern female characters. She later made use of the Soulcalibur II cast in a study involving students, focusing on their initial reactions to their designs and subsequent reactions after playing as the characters.
As the series has progressed, media outlets have complained about the increased sexualization of the female characters. In particular, comments have focused on the perceived increase in the breast sizes of Ivy, Sophitia and Taki from one game to the next, while their attire has grown more revealing. Several other aspects further exasperated this reaction, including advertisements that focused on Ivy's sexual attributes, the commissioning of a hentai artist to create outfits for the female characters in Soulcalibur: Lost Swords, and the release of a breast size comparison chart used by the developers. Cecilia D'Anastasio in an article for Kotaku felt that it ostracized female players specifically by leading her and others to feel women weren't the target audience, and stated "Bandai Namco has pigeonholed what could be a stellar fighting game for everyone."
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^ "2014 Guest – Matt Mercer". Anime Matsuri. Archived from the original on 2013-08-21. Retrieved 2016-08-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ a b "Soulcalibur V – Zwi". Soulcalibur. Retrieved 2014-02-05.
^ "Soulcalibur VI" (in Japanese). Retrieved 2018-08-29.
^ Mobus, Xander (October 19, 2018). "Super excited to announce that I got to voice Groh in #SoulcaliburVI ! Cannot begin to say how grateful I am to get to be part of this series!" (Tweet). Retrieved 2018-10-19 – via Twitter.
^ "Soulcalibur VI (ソウルキャリバー 6) | バンダイナムコエンターテインメント公式サイト". sc6.soularchive.jp (in Japanese). Retrieved 2018-08-27.
^ Pulos, Alexis; Austin, Lee (2016-12-24). Transnational Contexts of Culture, Gender, Class, and Colonialism in Play: Video Games in East Asia. Springer. p. 163. ISBN 978-3-319-43817-7.
^ Hutchinson, Rachel (October 2015). "Gender Stereotypes in Japanese fighting games: effects on identification and immersion". Journal of New Medias and Cultures (NMEDIAC). 10 (1).
^ a b D'Anastasio, Cecilia (2018-06-18). "At E3, SoulCalibur's Objectified Women Felt Like A Relic Of The Past". Kotaku. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
^ Tito, Greg (2011-03-18). "Video of Females on Female Characters Panel". The Escapist. Archived from the original on 2011-03-21. Retrieved 2011-03-23.
"A year in breasts: 2007 was a great year for breasts in games – allow us to jog your mammaries". GamesRadar. 2007-12-28. Archived from the original on 2014-05-04. Retrieved 2023-09-03.
Tassi, Paul; Jaggi, Ruchi (March 2014). "Gender Construction in Video Games: a Discourse". Mass Communicator: International Journal of Communication Studies. 8: 14. doi:10.5958/j.0973-967X.8.1.002.
^ Pulos, Alexis; Austin, Lee (2016-12-24). Transnational Contexts of Culture, Gender, Class, and Colonialism in Play: Video Games in East Asia. Springer. p. 174. ISBN 978-3-319-43817-7.
^ Maggs, Samm (2015-02-26). "I Give Up: Soulcalibur: Lost Swords Hires Hentai Artist To Design Female "Armor"". The Mary Sue. Retrieved 2023-09-02.
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The King of Fighters All Star | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soulcalibur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur"},{"link_name":"Soul Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge"}],"text":"The following is a comprehensive list of characters from the Soulcalibur series of video games, beginning with Soul Edge (Soul Blade in PlayStation version) in 1995.","title":"Characters of the Soulcalibur series"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fighting game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game"},{"link_name":"Namco Bandai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai"},{"link_name":"Project Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul"},{"link_name":"antithesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DevInterview-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DevInterview-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-opm-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Necrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrid"},{"link_name":"Todd McFarlane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_McFarlane"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"The Legend of Zelda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Legend_of_Zelda"},{"link_name":"Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_(The_Legend_of_Zelda)"},{"link_name":"GameCube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameCube"},{"link_name":"Spawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spawn_(comics)"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"Tekken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekken"},{"link_name":"Heihachi Mishima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heihachi_Mishima"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"Devil May Cry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_May_Cry"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_(Devil_May_Cry)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_III"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Tales of Symphonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_of_Symphonia"},{"link_name":"Lloyd Irving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_Irving"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_Legends"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Star Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars"},{"link_name":"Yoda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoda"},{"link_name":"Darth Vader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darth_Vader"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"Xbox 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_360"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"downloadable content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downloadable_content"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"God of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_War_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"Kratos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratos_(God_of_War)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur:_Broken_Destiny"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot-10"},{"link_name":"Ezio Auditore da Firenze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezio_Auditore_da_Firenze"},{"link_name":"Assassin's Creed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"Devil Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_Jin"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_VI"},{"link_name":"Geralt of Rivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geralt_of_Rivia"},{"link_name":"The Witcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witcher"},{"link_name":"2B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2B_(Nier:_Automata)"},{"link_name":"Nier: Automata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nier:_Automata"},{"link_name":"Haohmaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haohmaru"},{"link_name":"Samurai Shodown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai_Shodown"}],"text":"Soulcalibur is a weapon-based fighting game franchise developed by Namco Bandai's Project Soul division. Set in the period of late 16th to early 17th century, the plot of the games revolve around Soul Edge, a cursed sword able to possess its wielder and devour souls. Its spirit is called Inferno, and his avatar/host is called Nightmare. Soul Calibur, a holy sword and Soul Edge's antithesis, also has a spirit called Elysium.When creating characters for the series, they started with the weapon first, aiming to choose one that would feel unique amongst the cast. The character concepts themselves are then built around the chosen weapon, with their movement, animations and personality designed to fit it.[1] According to series creator Hirokai Yotoriyama, movement is the first element they focus on, deciding how the character will attack, and how mobile they are.[2] Afterwards the character is defined down to their weight, height, age, and gender, and then developed by the concept artists. Afterwards a 3D model team is assigned to work on that character exclusively, with little overlap between the individual teams. Motion capture is then utilized for character movement and animation, though in select cases the design team will animate the character by hand instead.[1][3] During the phase the designers will work with the story creators, refining the character's role in the plot as necessary.[4] During the course of the series some characters have been an exception to this process, such as Necrid, a character co-produced with Todd McFarlane that appears in Soulcalibur II.Starting with Soulcalibur II, guest characters from other franchises or companies were introduced for different home ports of the game, with The Legend of Zelda's Link appearing for the GameCube version, comic book character Spawn for the Xbox, and Tekken's Heihachi Mishima for the PlayStation 2. Despite rumors of Devil May Cry's Dante's inclusion in Soulcalibur III, developers confirmed no plans for the inclusion of guest characters for the title,[5] with series producer Hiroaki Yotoriyama stating \"It's my policy to never do the same thing twice.\"[6] However, under new producer Katsutoshi Sasaki the concept was revisited in later titles in the series, with Tales of Symphonia's Lloyd Irving appearing in Soulcalibur Legends,[7] Star Wars characters The Apprentice, Yoda and Darth Vader appearing in Soulcalibur IV, with the latter two exclusively to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions respectively until later released as downloadable content,[8][9] God of War's Kratos for Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny,[10] and Ezio Auditore da Firenze from the Assassin's Creed franchises for Soulcalibur V. Devil Jin from Tekken was also added to Soulcalibur V as a non-playable character and his moveset can only be accessed by creating a character that uses his style of fighting. Soulcalibur VI added Geralt of Rivia from The Witcher, 2B from Nier: Automata and Haohmaru from Samurai Shodown as guest characters.","title":"Overview and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bosses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_(video_game)"}],"text":"Below is a table of all the notable characters and their appearances throughout the series, as either playable characters or bosses.","title":"Character appearances"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Takashi Nagasako","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takashi_Nagasako"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Jin Urayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Urayama"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sclcredits-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Shirokuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Shirokuma"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"King of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Sophitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophitia"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Tira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tira_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Ivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur:_Broken_Destiny"},{"link_name":"Hilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildegard_von_Krone"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-20"}],"sub_title":"Cervantes","text":"Voiced by (English): Warren Rodgerson (SCII)[11]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Takashi Nagasako (SC~SCIII);[12][13][14] Jin Urayama (SCL~SCV);[15][16][17][18] Hiroshi Shirokuma (SCVI)[19]Cervantes de Leon (セルバンテス・デ・レオン, Serubantesu de Reon) was a privateer who was sent on a mission by the King of Spain to loot in the name of Spain. Following a disastrous attack on an English warship that killed Philip, Cervantes forsook his allegiance to his king and became a pirate. Receiving an order from a wealthy merchant to find the cursed sword Soul Edge, Cervantes voyaged through the sea and eventually found the sword in the possession of an English dealer. However, the sword gradually corrupted him until his soul was devoured by it. Having murdered all of his crew, Cervantes boarded his ghost ship on a reign of terror for twenty years until he was defeated and killed by the combined efforts of Greek warrior Sophitia and Japanese ninja Taki.However, Cervantes was accidentally resurrected without his memory by Nightmare because of the Soul Edge fragments lodged in his body. For the next three years, he decided to search for the cursed sword despite knowing that it had robbed him of his free will while slowly recovering his memories. Upon the shattering of Soul Edge, Cervantes began his quest on collecting the fragments of the cursed sword for four years which melded to form a weapon for him, attacking other ships that came close to his sea. When the presence of Soul Edge's other half vanished, Cervantes's body began to weaken as the fragments that sustained him crumbled. He was informed by a servant of Soul Edge, Tira, that a powerful entity was the one responsible, so Cervantes sought to defeat the entity and preserve his life. Eventually, Soul Edge summoned all pieces of itself back to it. Cervantes followed its trail, intending to wield the sword once it completed itself. Along the way, he devoured the soul of his illegitimate daughter, Ivy, but after the latter had survived thanks to her artificial soul, Ivy retaliated and defeated Cervantes, releasing all souls he had consumed, including hers. His body beaten and his mind shattered, Cervantes was swallowed by a dimensional rift opened by Soul Edge.Seventeen years later, during the wake of the 17th century, people reported the presence of Cervantes' ship, voyaging through the sea; Cervantes had been released from the rift, now free from Soul Edge's control and at his height of power.In the non-canonical Gauntlet storyline of Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny, Cervantes' soul was required as payment for Ivy to create a potion for character Hilde and her party to cure her father. Though they attempted to renegotiate, they were forced to find and take Cervantes' soul by force.[20]","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Korean name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_name"},{"link_name":"Hwang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwang_(Korean_surname)"},{"link_name":"SungWon Cho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SungWon_Cho"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Toshiyuki Morikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiyuki_Morikawa"},{"link_name":"Wataru Takagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wataru_Takagi"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"Naoki Imamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naoki_Imamura"},{"link_name":"Subaru Kimura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Kimura"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon"},{"link_name":"Japanese invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"zhanmadao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhanmadao"},{"link_name":"nunchaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunchaku"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_VI"},{"link_name":"taoism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism"}],"sub_title":"Hwang","text":"In this Korean name, the family name is Hwang.Voiced by (English): SungWon Cho (SCVI (Version 2.30))[21]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Morikawa (SE (Arcade)); Wataru Takagi (SE (Console)~SC);[12] Naoki Imamura (SCIII); Subaru Kimura (SCVI (Version 2.30))[19]Hwang Seong-gyeong (ファン・ソンギョン, Fan Songyon, Korean: 황성경; Hanja: 黄星京), a man with a strong sense of justice, joined Korea's coast guard and was sent to find the \"Sword of Salvation\", which in reality is the cursed sword Soul Edge, in order to protect his country. However he returned after learning of an impending Japanese invasion of his homeland, bringing his friend's daughter, Seong Mi-Na, back with him. When he set out after her again, he discovered the true nature of the sword and informed his superiors of it. They dismissed him as a result, but upon learning that the Japanese were also after the sword he was instead sent to stop them. Heading westward, he plans to join forces with Mi-na to destroy the blade. In Soulcalibur IV, he was in Ostrheinsburg when he crossed paths with Hong Yun-seong, a student of the Seong dojo. Hwang tried to warn him the danger of Soul Edge, though the young warrior did not heed his warning and continued his journey to find the sword. After Soul Edge is destroyed, he is deemed a national hero and begins training in the new generation alongside Mi-Na and Yun-seong.In a new timeline depicted in Soulcalibur VI, Hwang was forcefully being implanted with the evil seed and almost transformed into a malfested by Won Gabok, a servant of Soul Edge. He managed to injure himself and was thought to have committed suicide. However, Hwang survived and was saved by Woo Soo-yun, an ally of the Aval Organization and by extension, the Wolfkrone Kingdom, including Hwang's deceased parents. Hwang masters taoism for three months to suppress the malfestation from taking over his body and countermeasure any other malfestation threats.During development several weapons were considered, including a zhanmadao like Seong Mi-Na's and a bladed nunchaku like Li Long's. Several different outfit components were also considered at this time, such as the inclusion of head and/or arm guards and an arm bandana.[22] With Hwang's appearance in Soulcalibur his attire was changed. Chinese style costumes were considered, including an outfit with an open jacket and a bandaged design with a Chinese martial artist's attire. The developers based his look around the concept of a traveler, implementing subtle hints such as his torn pant legs.[23] Hwang appears in Soulcalibur VI, although he was not playable until being made available as downloadable content. He eventually learns a taoism to combine its power with his original sword technique.","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightmare_(Soulcalibur)"}],"sub_title":"Inferno/Soul Edge/Nightmare","text":"Inferno (インフェルノ, Inferuno) is the physical manifestation of the cursed sword Soul Edge's own soul and the true antagonist within Soul series as his Nightmare incarnation, where it mostly started out as the final boss in Soul Edge (originally listed as \"SoulEdge\") until Soulcalibur II, including the reboot/retelling game Soulcalibur VI. It fights using the attack style of other fighters from its memories of past battles and will switch to a random one at the start of each round. Though it exists in its own dimension, Astral Chaos (a realm where time and space never exist), it has used duplicity such as in the case of tricking Siegfried into expanding its will, and in more extreme cases utilized Cervantes' flaming corpse and later the remnants of Nightmare's armor to create an avatar for itself. Within Astral Chaos, Inferno can manifest itself as a flaming and mostly skeletal body for itself, creating weapons to match whichever fighting style it currently uses, particularly Siegfried's being its primary likeness at most part.Inferno, along with Soul Edge is destroyed by Siegfried at the end of Soulcalibur IV, though its will continues to live in the leftover shards of Soul Edge and later manifests itself in a new Soul Edge. However, after the new Nightmare,Graf Dumas(heavily hinted to be Raphael Sorel) was slain, Inferno choose Pyrrha as its new host until being defeated by her brother and Soul Edge along with Soul Calibur were both sealed away in the astral chaos. Its will and power has, directly and indirectly, affected several other characters in the series, such as the Evil Seed event that caused many to turn somewhat evil or insane. It has also caused the creation of several life forms or modification of them, such as Ivy's sword, Charade, Necrid and Abyss.In Soulcalibur VI, Inferno's gameplay is similar to his original Soul Edge counterpart, as being more of an enhanced version of certain Soul Edge wielders than as a mimic fighter; in this case, its main alter-ego Nightmare instead of Cervantes. Due to his final boss role despite being an unlockable character, Inferno is banned from online matches and official tournaments.","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jin Yamanoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Yamanoi"},{"link_name":"Masaya Takatsuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaya_Takatsuka"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"assassin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination"},{"link_name":"Emperor of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_China"},{"link_name":"Heishiro Mitsurugi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heishiro_Mitsurugi"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edge-bio-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Cervantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervantes_de_Leon"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_III"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-long-art-30"}],"sub_title":"Li Long","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Jin Yamanoi (SE); Masaya Takatsuka (SCIII)Li Long (リ・ロン, Ri Ron, Chinese: 李龍) is an assassin sent by the Emperor of China to kill a pirate lord, but failed. Badly injured, he was rescued by a female ninja named Chie and eventually they fell in love. One day, her former comrades caught up with them and she was believed to be dead. Told falsely Heishiro Mitsurugi was responsible, he set out after Soul Edge knowing Mitsurugi was also after the blade.[24] Along the way he takes the weapons of other fighters he defeats, repurposing some for his own use.[25][26] Upon finding and defeating Mitsurugi, he realized the swordsman had no part in the attack upon Chie, and continued his goal of searching for Soul Edge.[27] He located its wielder, Cervantes, but was beaten severely and lost an eye. In Soulcalibur III, he found himself on the run from assassins sent by his Chie's former clan leader. Traveling by night under a false name, he was taken in by a girl that reminded him of Chie, and chose to stand his ground when the assassins found him. After defeating them he set out to find himself, not knowing that Chie was actually alive and had set out to find him with their newborn son.[28] By Soulcalibur V it is revealed he has reunited with his family, and they now live with the ninja Taki's clan.[29]Li Long's weapon is a pair of nunchaku with mounted blades, however due to a ban of nunchaku weapons in the United Kingdom, they were changed to a three-sectioned staff for the European release of Soul Blade. His facial contours, expressions and hairstyle were designed to suggest the \"assassin\" side of his character and to depict his representation of Chinese culture.[30]","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.1-31"},{"link_name":"Ray Chase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Chase_(voice_actor)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Toshiyuki Morikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiyuki_Morikawa"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sclcredits-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Soul Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge"},{"link_name":"Takeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeda_clan"},{"link_name":"Battle of Nagashino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nagashino"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mitsu-pro-33"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"tanegashima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima_(gun)"},{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_II"},{"link_name":"Xiwei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi%27an"},{"link_name":"Ming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_III"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"Toyotomi Hideyoshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi"},{"link_name":"Algol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algol_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Setsuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setsuka"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"katana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katana"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_VI"},{"link_name":"The Witcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witcher"},{"link_name":"Geralt of Rivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geralt_of_Rivia"},{"link_name":"SNK Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNK_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Samurai Shodown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai_Shodown"},{"link_name":"Haohmaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haohmaru"},{"link_name":"Namco × Capcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_%C3%97_Capcom"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_(video_game_series)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Ridge Racer 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge_Racer_6"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Official Magazine – UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Official_Magazine_%E2%80%93_UK"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Mitsurugi","text":"Voiced by (English): Scott Keck (SCII);[11] Ed Cunnigham (SCIII);[31] Ray Chase (SCVI)[32]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Morikawa (SC~)[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]In the backstory of Soul Edge, Heishiro Mitsurugi (御剣 平四郎, Mitsurugi Heishirō) is an orphaned son of a Japanese farmer, who after suffering years of witnessing his homeland being ravaged by bandits and war, decided to take up swordsmanship. At the age of 14, having picked up a sword and the last name Mitsurugi, he went to train under the Murakami clan. Mitsurugi, noted as a great warrior, received numerous commendations and rose in the ranks, but his only true desire was a worthy opponent. After leaving the Murakami clan, Mitsurugi continued to fight in the great civil war in Japan as a hired mercenary. Having originally dismissed the firearm as a novelty, he was shocked to see the riflemen obliterate the Takeda cavalry at the Battle of Nagashino. He decided he needed to find a stronger weapon for himself: the magic sword of legend, Soul Edge.[33]Mitsurugi encountered the female ninja Taki during this time, but was unable to find any trace of the legendary \"Hero's Sword\". In his frustration at finding no signs of Soul Edge, he returned home and challenged Teppou Hei, a man wielding the tanegashima, to a duel. However, Mitsurugi suffered an embarrassing defeat, leaving him with a scar of a gunshot wound on his right shoulder and forcing him to depart in shame on a second quest to perfect his swordsmanship so that he might eventually defeat the gun. It was during this quest that he learned of the Azure Knight, Nightmare, who terrorized Europe with a sword deemed invincible, and set out after him in order to find what he considered a worthy challenge (this being his motivation through the remainder of the series since Soulcalibur). Nightmare's trail eventually disappeared, but Mitsurugi was unwilling to give up, and gradually improved his fighting style to the point riflemen were no longer a threat. Returning from his quest, Mitsurugi challenged Teppou Hei again, but this time Mitsurugi managed to kill the man with a single strike with his sword.Four years later, during the events of Soulcalibur II, Mitsurugi stumbled upon the trail of Soul Edge while visiting a castle in Xiwei, where a mysterious dying man, after being saved by him from a group of assassins, handed him a shard of the cursed blade. Although skeptical at first, Mitsurugi accepted the gift. Soon afterward, an incident occurred in which a servant of the Emperor of Ming marched to the castle, demanding the \"Hero's Sword\", and was slain when he refused to leave without it. Mitsurugi sensed that war was coming, but Soul Edge meant nothing to him. He had crossed countless battlefields, defeating every conceivable enemy, even those with rifles. What had once been his greatest enemy was none of his concern, as it no longer proved to be a threat. His only concern was with finding an opponent stronger than himself. Wondering what was happening in Japan at that time, and whether or not he could have a final showdown with Taki, he decided to return to his homeland.By the time of Soulcalibur III and Soulcalibur IV, the Murakami clan, with whom Mitsurugi stayed upon his return, refused to join with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, choosing instead to protect their existence as fierce pirates and rulers of the sea. Since Mitsurugi could find no trace of Taki, he went to aid the Murakami and aided them in their naval victory. Soon, he learned of the arrival of Nightmare, whom he had lost track of before. Mitsurugi left the Murakami and went to the West again. Ever-searching for a worthy adversary to test his skills, Mitsurugi journeyed to Ostrheinsburg, where he entered a chaotic alternate dimension and faced the Hero King, Algol, high atop a colossal tower. The two warriors clashed when suddenly Algol disappeared, along with the tower and all their surroundings—a dimensional convergence had warped Mitsurugi back to reality before the duel could be decided. He had also unknowingly make rival with Setsuka, after he mortally wounded her master during a battle that eventually led to his death, although he did not realize it until they fight sometime during the events of Soulcalibur IV, at which he defeated her by stunning Setsuka with a punch, but lost his katana Shishi-Oh in the battle.In Soulcalibur V, after the warring period of Japan had ended, Mitsurugi has settled a quiet life as a farmer for seventeen years. He regains his fighting spirit when he heard about Soul Calibur and goes on a journey to once again continue the battle with Algol that was left unfinished years before.A young Mitsurugi returns in the reboot/altered timeline-themed game Soulcalibur VI. It was revealed that his failed attempt to fight Nightmare is because Taki was sent by Edge Master to keep him away from end having an awful encounter with the Azure Knight. Misturugi made a friendly rivalry with a universe-displaced The Witcher Geralt of Rivia, and his long waited rival who is also his counterpart from SNK Corporation, Samurai Shodown’s protagonist Haohmaru.Mitsurugi also appeared in Namco × Capcom as a playable character along with Taki, with whom he makes a temporary alliance there. He also appears as a limited card in Outcast Odyssey.[34] Yuri Lowell from the Tales series can wear Mitsurugi's costume as his alternate outfit.[35][36] He is also referenced in Ridge Racer 6 with the car named Mitsurugi Meltfire.[37]Former Fanbyte editor-in-chief John Warren described him as \"arguably the most recognizable character from the Soulcalibur series\", adding that \"Mitsurugi's design isn't revelatory by any stretch. Yet its consistency over the years and his genuine, ineffable coolness\" made him one of the top characters in the series.[38] Nathan Ditum from PlayStation Official Magazine – UK chose him as his personal favourite out of the cast of Soulcalibur V.[39]","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Belgrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Belgrade"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Takashi Nagasako","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takashi_Nagasako"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"Minoru Inaba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoru_Inaba"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Tōru Ōkawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dru_%C5%8Ckawa"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Rock","text":"Voiced by (English): Robert Belgrade (SE)[40]Voiced by (Japanese): Takashi Nagasako (SE~SC);[12] Minoru Inaba (SCIII);[14] Tōru Ōkawa (SCIV~)[16][41]Rock (ロック, Rokku), born as Nathaniel William Adams (ナタニエル・ウィリアム・アダムス, Natanieru Wiriam Adamusu), is the son of an English dealer who specialized in rare weapons. His father managed to bid Soul Edge at one auction and was about to take it home, only for the ship to be attacked by pirate Cervantes who killed everyone except Rock, who washed up in the shores of America with his memories gone. The Native Americans were unwilling to help Rock due to his size and only a boy named Bangoo was unafraid to befriend him. Rock eventually recovered his memories over time and left America in search of Soul Edge, which may become the key to his full memories. Through Sophitia's words, he returned to care for Bangoo, only to find him being kidnapped by Aeon Calcos/Lizardman whose cult demanded Rock's soul. He crossed back to Europe and rescued Bangoo. They stayed in Europe for several years until Bangoo grew older, after which Bangoo went to America by himself. Later, Rock is attacked by a giant named Astaroth whose moves have an uncanny resemblance to his own. He learned that Astaroth was created by Lizardman's cult based on his image and is now serving Nightmare. Rock is determined to stop him at all costs. His fate afterward is not known, as no explanation is given for his absence in Soulcalibur V.Initially during development, the character was called \"Beast Warrior\", and his design changed little over the course of creating the character. His appearance is intended to reflect the atmosphere of a wild warrior, while his facial expressions were drawn in a positive manner, intended to show him enjoying the fight.[42] When developing his appearance for Soulcalibur, a clothed design and a bald appearance were both rejected, as the team felt they gave the impression of an urban or \"bad guy\" character, respectively.[43]","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Korean name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_name"},{"link_name":"Seong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seong_(Korean_surname)"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"Soul Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge"}],"sub_title":"Seong Han-myeong","text":"In this Korean name, the family name is Seong.Seong Han-myeong (ソン・ハンミョン, Son Hanmyon, Korean: 성한명; Hanja: 成漢明) is the father of Seong Mi-na and the owner of the Seong dojo. He only appeared as a secret character in the console version of Soul Edge, utilizing a Chinese sword akin to Hwang. After his wife and son both died of illness, he trained his daughter in martial arts but wished her to stay home, despite her rebellious nature. He became interested in a student of his, Hwang Seong-gyeong, and tried to adopt him as his successor, although Hwang politely rejected the offer. Regardless, Han-myeong planned to marry his daughter with Hwang, which only caused Mi-na to run away from home for months, although she was eventually dragged back home by Hwang. When a malfested army invades his dojang to hunt Mi-na for her involvement and lure Hwang (who is now also a Taoist in Soulcalibur VI), Han-myeong learns Soul Edge's evil nature from his student. Later, another student of his, Hong Yun-seong ran away from his dojo to find Soul Edge and Han-myeong reluctantly gave his blessing to his daughter in an attempt to find him, yet entrust her to prevent Yun-seong from nearing Soul Edge.","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Korean name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_name"},{"link_name":"Seong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seong_(Korean_surname)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Erica Mendez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erica_Mendez"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ericamendezvoice.com-45"},{"link_name":"Hekiru Shiina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hekiru_Shiina"},{"link_name":"Yūko Miyamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABko_Miyamura"},{"link_name":"Houko Kuwashima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houko_Kuwashima"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Sanae Kobayashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanae_Kobayashi"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"Chinatsu Akasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinatsu_Akasaki"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"bō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"dao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dao_(Chinese_sword)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Kotaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Seong Mi-na","text":"In this Korean name, the family name is Seong.Voiced by (English): Molly Lin (SCII);[11] Erika Lenhart (SCIII~SC:BD);[44] Erica Mendez (SCVI)[45]Voiced by (Japanese): Hekiru Shiina (SE (Arcade)); Yūko Miyamura (SE (Console)); Houko Kuwashima (SC~SCIII);[12][13][14] Sanae Kobayashi (SCIV~SC:BD);[16][41] Chinatsu Akasaki (SCVI)[19][46]Seong Mi-na (ソン・ミナ, Son Mina, Korean: 성미나; Hanja: 成美那) is a young Korean woman, excelling at weapon usage but regarded as simply a girl by her peers. Barred from joining the coast guard due to her gender, she sought out the rumored \"Sword of Salvation\", which in actuality was Soul Edge, to prove herself. Hwang eventually caught up with her and dragged her back home, but she set out again after her father's efforts to marry her to him became unbearable. Encountering another female warrior named Ivy, she challenged her but was quickly defeated, and learned from Ivy that not only was she still inexperienced but that the sword she sought was inherently evil. She later challenged an alcoholic armed with a bō staff who also quickly defeated her. Seong Mi-na requested training from him, and he taught her all his skills, revealing in a farewell letter his name as \"Kong Xiuqiang\", the long-lost father of Xianghua. However, before she set out she was dragged home once more by Hwang. She later encountered Hong Yun-seong, a student of her father angry after being disregarded by Hwang when he challenged him to a duel. Feeling sorry for him, she handed him her family heirloom, the dao 'White Storm', and later that night he set out himself after Soul Edge. Mi-na set out to retrieve the dao from him, this time with her father's blessing. Afterward, Mi-na met with an old man, Edge Master, who quickly defeated her in their battle, at which point he trained her for some time. She eventually confronted Yun-seong and together with his companion, Talim tried to convince him to abandon his quest, though he did not heed their warnings and left on his own one night while both women were asleep. Mi-na then promised Talim that she will find Yun-seong before they parted their ways. She is finally reunited with Yun-seong after the destruction of Soul Edge and the two go back home. Upon returning she is deemed as a national hero and begins training the younger generation with Hwang.The new timeline reiterates Mi-na's adventures as she runs away from home to avoid marriage, loses to Ivy and Xiuqiang, and trains under the latter. She then goes on a dangerous mission to stop a cult from targeting a village and nearly gets killed. But Mi-na is saved by Hwang and the villagers, who were inspired by her bravery. She then reluctantly allows Hwang to take her home. Due to her infiltration at a base of Soul Edge's servants, she was targeted by the evil sword's servant Won Gabok, but was saved by Hwang and learned the true nature of Soul Edge. Her distaste towards Soul Edge and its evil nature has since becoming the reason she, Hwang and Talim tries to prevent Yun-seong from nearing it.In a 2002 poll by Namco prior to the release of Soulcalibur II regarding their favorite character, Seong Mi-Na placed first with little under 20% of the tally, just ahead of runner-up Sophitia (18%).[47] In an article for Kotaku, Maddy Myers heavily criticized her design, stating \"It's never explained why Seong Mi-Na is wearing an underboob-baring top that offers her breasts no support whatsoever, and which is made all the creepier by the fact that she's only 16 when the story starts.\" She further criticized the character's portrayal, noting she complains about being seen as a child while being pursued by a man nine years her senior, adding \"If this storyline gave Seong Mi-Na any agency, then maybe the decision to put this insecure teenager in this outfit would feel less tragic.\"[48]","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Crispin Freeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crispin_Freeman"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Roger Craig Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Craig_Smith"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blogs.sega.com-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Nobuyuki Hiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobuyuki_Hiyama"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sclcredits-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"knight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight"},{"link_name":"sixteenth century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixteenth_century"},{"link_name":"swordsmanship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordsmanship"},{"link_name":"crusade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"noble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobility"},{"link_name":"Cervantes de Leon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervantes_de_Leon_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"telepathically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathically"},{"link_name":"golem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golem"},{"link_name":"Astaroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astaroth_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Lizardman (Aeon Calcos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardman_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Ivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_%22Ivy%22_Valentine_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"ninja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninja"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Kilik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilik_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Xianghua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chai_Xianghua"},{"link_name":"azure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azure_(color)"},{"link_name":"Raphael Sorel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Sorel"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Zasalamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zasalamel"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"Algol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algol_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Hilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilde_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Gram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Sigurd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigurd"},{"link_name":"Fafnir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fafnir"},{"link_name":"Faust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faust"},{"link_name":"Faustian bargain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faustian_bargain"}],"sub_title":"Siegfried","text":"Voiced by (English): Crispin Freeman (SCIII);[49] Roger Craig Smith (SCL~SCV)[50][51]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Nobuyuki Hiyama (SC~)[12][14][15][16][17][18][19]Siegfried Schtauffen (ジークフリート・シュタウフェン, Jīkufurīto Shutaufen) was born to Sir Frederick Schtauffen, a brave knight who was considered a champion among the oppressed peasants of his German home, and a woman named Margaret who met Frederick while he was on campaign, during the late sixteenth century. He was given the name 'Siegfried' after the famous hero, and was taught swordsmanship by his father.Frederick embarked on a foreign crusade and, due to lack of guidance in life, Siegfried unintentionally murdered his returning father while rampaging as the leader of a teenage band of thieves calling themselves \"Schwarzwind\" (German translation for \"black wind\"). Siegfried grew in despair and eventually convinced himself that anyone but he was to blame for his father's death. Siegfried had heard rumours of the invincible Soul Edge, and came to believe his father's killer could only be killed with that weapon.After taking the life of a noble he worked for during a siege on his castle in Ostrheinsburg (he did so in an effort to claim - what he thought was - Soul Edge), he finally managed to come across the legendary weapon Soul Edge, lying beside the corpse of the defeated Cervantes de Leon which transformed into Inferno. Siegfried defeated Inferno, earning the right to wield Soul Edge himself. However, Soul Edge telepathically spoke to Siegfried, arranging a deal between the two; Siegfried would help the blade to restore itself gathering souls, and Soul Edge would resurrect his father Frederick. But Siegfried finally succumbed to the sword's power - transforming into the Azure Knight, Nightmare.He claimed refuge in Ostrheinsburg Castle. During the following three years, he gathered together a group of followers: the golem Astaroth, Lizardman (Aeon Calcos), and Ivy. Each of them aided him in Soul Edge's quest to devour souls for a rejuvenation ceremony to be performed in his chosen stronghold, Ostrheinsburg Castle. But as the ceremony was about to take place, the clan was quickly laid to waste. Both Aeon Calcos and Astaroth were defeated; and Ivy left the clan after learning the shocking truth of her past from the Fu-Ma ninja, Taki. Two young warriors confronted Nightmare: Kilik, owner of both the sacred staff Kali-Yuga and sacred mirror Dvapara-Yuga; and Xianghua, owner of Krita-Yuga, which revealed itself as Soul Calibur.Nightmare and Soul Edge were defeated, initiating a new resolve in the now-conscious Siegfried, albeit temporary - shards of the weakened Soul Edge were still present within his body. He eventually assumed the azure armor for a second time, becoming Nightmare all over again, desperately pursuing fragments of the Soul Edge so that he might fully restore it.Raphael Sorel appeared in search of Soul Edge and Nightmare stood victorious after a fierce battle. As he stepped forward to finish Raphael, he muttered something incoherently. Following this, an internal struggle began between Siegfried and Inferno (spirit of the evil sword) vying for control over their physical body. With this show of \"hesitation\", Raphael unleashed a desperate final blow upon his enemy, piercing the center of Soul Edge. Nightmare let out an inhuman cry, and Siegfried finally regained control of his own body. Siegfried remembered his actions previous, before using the newly revealed holy sword, Soul Calibur, to drive into the evil eye that was the core of Soul Edge, where the weapon had been trapped - however, this effort to destroy the evil sword would prove insufficient.In the preceding event of Soulcalibur III, Siegfried now has control of his own body, picking up both swords and leaving Ostrheinsburg on a mission to seal away Soul Edge for all eternity, as he swore to atone for his sins, not knowing that Nightmare had gained a separate body of his own. Eventually, he fell victim to Zasalamel's plot to reunite Soul Edge and Soul Calibur at the Lost Cathedral. Siegfried took up Soul Calibur and fought a ferocious battle against the now-independent Nightmare, who in turn regained Soul Edge. Though victorious for the time being, the combination of the energy released from Soul Edge and Soul Calibur as well as his injuries from the battle mortally wounded Siegfried.The events of Soulcalibur IV see Siegfried having been revived by the Soul Calibur, which has gained some sentience from the Soul Edge and the release of its creator, Algol. Now dependent on the armor in which the Soul Calibur had encased him for survival, Siegfried rejects all human contact and devotes himself to destroying both swords once and for all. In his ending, he finally defeats Nightmare decisively and releases the power of the Soul Calibur, permanently sealing away the Soul Edge and Soul Calibur, and killing himself in the process. In Hilde's ending, he is instead forgiven for his crimes as the Azure Knight and given a royal pardon.One of Siegfried's extra weapons is the Glam (mistranslation of Gram), the weapon that Sigurd in Norse mythology used to kill the dragon Fafnir and in Soulcalibur Legends, Siegfried fights \"Fanfir\". The Faust blade also takes reference from a German legend, in which the protagonist makes a deal with the devil (in-universe, Siegfried and Soul Edge have a Faustian bargain).","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Sophitia","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Taki","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Voldo","title":"Introduced in Soul Edge"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Masaya Takatsuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaya_Takatsuka"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Arthur","text":"Voiced by: Masaya Takatsuka (SCIII)Arthur (アーサー, Āsā) is a playable character introduced in the first Soulcalibur, where he replaced Mitsurugi in Korea due to the local sensibilities regarding the subject of the samurai.[52] Arthur is an orphaned European who has become a swordsman in Japan. In his first appearance, he looks exactly like Mitsurugi except with blond hair and an eye patch, and his weapon, movelist and ending are identical to Mitsurugi's. Arthur returned as a bonus character in all versions of Soulcalibur III, representing the \"Katana\" Create-a-Fighter discipline. In this game he is given unique facial characteristics and a weapon of his own, with his outfit based on that of Mitsurugi in Soulcalibur II. Arthur's Destined Battle enemy in Soulcalibur is against Taki (the same as Mitsurugi's), while in Soulcalibur III it is Mitsurugi.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Banjō Ginga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banj%C5%8D_Ginga"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"Ryūzaburō Ōtomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%ABzabur%C5%8D_%C5%8Ctomo"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sclcredits-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"golem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golem"},{"link_name":"Ares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-astybio1-53"},{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Rock"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"ker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keres"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Astaroth","text":"Voiced by (English): Jay S. Gilbert (SCII)[11]\nVoiced by: (Japanese): Banjō Ginga (SC);[12] Ryūzaburō Ōtomo (SCII~)[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]Astaroth (アスタロス, Asutarosu) is a golem created by a cult of Ares to retrieve the cursed sword known as Soul Edge.[53] Upon finding the blade, Astaroth realizes that it is damaged and allies himself with its wielder Nightmare to harvest living souls necessary to restore the blade, planning to steal the blade once completed. However, before he can complete this task, he is confronted by a survivor of his attacks, Maxi, and is slain. Revived by Ares in Soulcalibur II, Astaroth continues after the sword. However, the cult that created him regards this as a betrayal, and places a curse on the golem to dominate him. Astaroth resists and counterattacks the cult, learning in the process his design is not original but instead modeled after a human being, Rock. To assert himself as unique, Astaroth finds and nearly kills Rock at the conclusion of Soulcalibur III, breaking free of Ares' control and transforming in the aftermath. Now hungering for power, he is offered it in return for servitude to Nightmare during the events of Soulcalibur IV, an offer he accepts with the secret goal of devouring Soul Edge itself.[54] Destroyed instead by Maxi, Astaroth's heart is retrieved by the cult responsible for his creation, and a new series of golems all bearing the name \"Astaroth\" are created from research conducted upon it. Astaroth's story mode in Soulcalibur VI is a retelling of his creation and service to Nightmare, though now he is aided by a ker, sent by Ares to aid him in obtaining Soul Edge.Soulcalibur IV lead programmer Masaaki Hoshino called Astaroth his favorite character, stating that because he is \"so powerful there's always a chance to make a comeback\".[55]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Daisuke Gōri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisuke_G%C5%8Dri"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"Kōji Ishii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dji_Ishii"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"Jian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jian"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Mitsurugi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heishiro_Mitsurugi"},{"link_name":"Geralt of Rivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geralt_of_Rivia"},{"link_name":"Yasushi Nirasawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasushi_Nirasawa"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Edge Master","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Daisuke Gōri (SC);[12] Kōji Ishii (SCV)[18]Edge Master (エッジマスター, Ejji Masutā) has a mysterious past; renowned for his skill with various weapons, his past and real name are known only to himself. He served as advisor and teacher at the Ling-Sheng Su Temple, before it was destroyed by the \"Evil Seed\" event. Taking in the only survivor of the event, Kilik, he taught him to suppress the evil within himself and sent him to destroy Soul Edge, before departing on a quest of his own. After Soul Edge is shattered by Kilik's companion, Xianghua, he gave her an unnamed Jian and returned to training Kilik in hermitage until Kilik went on his second quest to destroy Soul Edge. Later, he returned to training him when he is carried unconscious by Xianghua (after their fight with Zasalamel) for three months, until he left on his own after receiving a purifying blow from Edge Master and Xianghua's letter. Around this time, he is also challenged by Seong Mi-na, who is swiftly defeated, and trained her for some time upon her request. In the seventeen-year gap between Soulcalibur IV and V, he taught another of Kilik's companion, Maxi to control the Soul Edge's shard in his body and warned him to bequeath Kali-Yuga to Xiba, as Kilik's life is in great danger. Leaving his hermitage a second time, he entered Astral Chaos to prevent the Hero King, Algol from corrupting the world with the realm's energies.Although not playable in Soulcalibur VI, Edge Master appears in the story mode as Kilik's mentor, Taki's ally in keeping Mitsurugi away from Soul Edge, and a helper to guest character, Geralt of Rivia, in getting the witcher back to his world.Edge Master was created by illustrator Yasushi Nirasawa, who had designed him as a background character and weapon shop owner for Soul Edge Official Guidebook – Densetsu Buki Tankyū no Sho.[56] Out of appreciation, Namco later introduced him as a playable character in Soulcalibur and a recurring series element. His age is intended to reflect his experience and strength.[57]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Ivy","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Grant George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant_George"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.1-31"},{"link_name":"Sōichirō Hoshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dichir%C5%8D_Hoshi"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Grøh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Gr%C3%B8h"},{"link_name":"Sophitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophitia_Alexandra"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Sun Wukong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Wukong"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"Kilik","text":"Voiced by (English): Scott Reyns (SCII);[11] Grant George (SCIII~)[31]Voiced by (Japanese): Sōichirō Hoshi[12][13][14][16][17][18][19]Kilik (キリク, Kiriku) as an infant was left on the steps of a temple in China. He grew up with Xianglian, a fellow monk whom Kilik had seen as his own sister. He was trained in the art of staff-fighting and inherited one of the temple's treasure Kali-Yuga. However, during the night of the \"Evil Seed\", Kilik and other monks were possessed and fought each other. Xianglian used her inheritance Dvapara-Yuga to stop Kilik, but ended up possessed which forced Kilik to kill her. Sane once more, he came under the tutelage of Edge Master, and joined forces with Maxi and Xianghua (unknowingly Xianglian's sister) to destroy Soul Edge and purge the evil within himself. They confronted Nightmare during his Soul Edge ritual and Kilik managed to defeat him. He returned to hone his skills with Edge Master, but sensed Soul Edge's return four years later that made him travel around the world with Xianghua once again. The two confronted Zasalamel in a corrupted city where Kilik was knocked unconscious by him. He awoke a month later in Edge Master's home and began to train his skills again, determined to search Soul Edge with Xianghua again. While traveling with Xianghua, he realized that he had feelings for her, but he cannot confess it as she reminded him of the late Xianglian, so he planned to leave her when the time is right. During the seventeen-year gap of Soulcalibur IV and Soulcalibur V, the two reunited where Kilik had an intimate meeting with Xianghua that conceived Xiba, but left her before Xiba was born. He then spent his time trying to close the astral gates, where he touched the souls of those who had wandered the Astral Chaos and made him able to learn their styles.The new timeline not only retells Kilik's tragic past in the Ling-Shang Su temple massacre, but also reveals his malfested form because of the Evil Seed, and his rivalry with new character, Grøh. Throughout his journey with Xianghua and Maxi, Kilik is constantly troubled over Xianglian's death, but is aided by Sophitia, who helps him cope with his past. In the battle against Inferno, Kilik saves Xianghua with control over his malfestation as Grøh did before him, and the pair defeat Inferno.Kilik's name is derived from Turkish kılıç, meaning \"sword.\"[58] During Kilik's initial design creation, while the weapon selected remained constant several ages and related appearances were considered. In particular amongst these was suggested a young boy whose design was based upon the legendary Chinese character Sun Wukong, the Monkey King. Other designs such as a feral appearance were considered, but unused due to them feeling \"pretty wild\" and too different from the initial concept.[59]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anthropomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphic"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc1-artbook-126-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc1-artbook-126-61"},{"link_name":"iguana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguana"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sc1-artbook-79-63"}],"sub_title":"Lizardman","text":"\"Lizardman\" (リザードマン, Rizādoman) is a recurring enemy type in the Soulcalibur series, resembling bipedal anthropomorphic lizards that communicate through growls and grunts while wielding a short sword and shield. The most notable of which is Aeon Calcos (アイオーン・カルコス, Aiōn Karukosu), one of the warriors sent by the god Hephaestus to destroy Soul Edge.[60] However he was driven insane when exposed to Soul Edge's energies, and massacred a village that had given him shelter. Captured by a cult, they transformed him and others into Lizardmen, however the destruction of Soul Edge at the end of Soulcalibur restored his sanity. Despite this his humanity and memories deteriorated, and after being taken in by a group of lizardmen like himself, he now pursues the restored Soul Edge seeking to reclaim his soul. By the time of Soulcalibur V his body has changed further due to battle, now having grown wings and able to breathe fire.Lizardman was originally conceived as a character meant to compliment Sophitia's fighting style, and as a result use the same sword and shield combination as her. At one point Lizardman was meant to be left-handed, but due to various reasons the concept was shelved. In an early character draft, it was considered to have it be a golem protecting a little girl, and would have had bits of its body knocked off during combat.[61] Deciding instead to go with a half-lizard half-man concept, Lizardman's design changed very little afterwards in Soulcalibur, with only one alternative design resembling a more human appearance.[62] Armor was added to his primary design to give him a more defensive appearance,[61] while his secondary costume in Soulcalibur was intended to resemble an iguana.[63]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Steve Van Wormer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Van_Wormer"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.1-31"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Nobutoshi Canna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobutoshi_Canna"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Kenjiro Tsuda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenjiro_Tsuda"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"Shigeo Kiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeo_Kiyama"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Ryūkyū Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%ABky%C5%AB_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-maxi_con-67"}],"sub_title":"Maxi","text":"Voiced by (English): Doug Boyd (SCII);[11] Steve Van Wormer (SCIII~)[31][64]Voiced by (Japanese): Nobutoshi Canna (SC~SCIII);[12][13][14] Kenjiro Tsuda (SCIV~SCBD);[16][17] Shigeo Kiyama (SCV~)[18][19]Maxi (マキシ, Makishi, also written as 真喜志) was a wandering pirate from Shuri in the Ryūkyū Kingdom (present-day Okinawa, Japan). He fights using nunchaku after learning techniques from \"Zhang Wu\", an alias for the assassin Li Long.[65][66] He pursues the golem Astaroth, who attacked his ship and slaughtered his crewmates, joining forces with Kilik and Xianghua. Maxi defeats Astaroth but is critically wounded as a result. He is later found by some villagers who help nurse him back to health using fragments of Soul Edge. He eventually pursues Soul Edge in order to use it to kill Astaroth so he will die, planning to himself die shortly afterward. In Soulcalibur IV, Maxi managed to kill Astaroth, though he had decided not to kill himself and instead went to train with Edge Master to control the shards of Soul Edge in his body, which had stopped his body from aging. After seventeen years, he is sent by Edge Master to bequeath Kali-Yuga to a boy named Xiba, as his friend, Kilik's destiny is in great danger. He became a leader of a group consisting of himself, Xiba, Leixia, and Natsu. The group meet Patroklos during his journey and help him restore Soul Calibur back to its full form.The new timeline goes into further on how Maxi loses his crew to Astaroth, and on his journey with Kilik and Xianghua to avenge his brothers. It also reveals Grøh found Maxi injured after the latter's first victory against Astaroth.After initially considering having Li Long return for Soulcalibur, the development team instead focused on creating a new, younger nunchaku wielder for the title. After considering several ideas for his hairstyle, including several gag designs, the developers initially chose to give him dreadlocks before changing to the current appearance. Additionally, they opted to give him an outfit that would make him attractive.[67]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Nightmare","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_name"},{"link_name":"family name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_surname"},{"link_name":"Wendee Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendee_Lee"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Aya Hisakawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aya_Hisakawa"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bvta1-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Ryōko Shintani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dko_Shintani"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"Aya Suzaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aya_Suzaki"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Kilik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilik_(Soul_Calibur)"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Xiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiba_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Leixia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leixia_(Soulcaibur)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"manhua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhua"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"lizardmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizardman_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soularchive-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legend-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Legend-74"},{"link_name":"jian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jian"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"sub_title":"Xianghua","text":"In this Chinese name, the family name is Chai.Voiced by (English): Wendee Lee[11]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Aya Hisakawa (SC~SCIII),[12][13][14] Ryōko Shintani (SCIV),[16][17] Aya Suzaki (SCVI)[19]Chai Xianghua (チャイ・シャンファ, Chai Shanfa, Chinese: 柴香華) was introduced in the 1998 video game Soulcalibur, tasked by the emperor of China to locate a weapon called the \"Hero's Sword\", and to this end posed as a member of a traveling circus troupe. Along the way they encounter others searching for the sword, namely Kilik who informs them that the sword is in fact a sentient evil blade called \"Soul Edge\". Upon defeating the sword's wielder they were pulled into an ethereal void and fought the embodiment of the sword's spirit, Inferno. During the fight Xianghua's own sword revealed itself to be \"Soulcalibur\", Soul Edge's antithesis, and with it they were able to defeat Inferno though lost Soulcailbur while trying to escape the void.[68] Later upon discovering fragments of Soul Edge still survived, she traveled again with Kilik seeking to destroy it for good. Though the two become separated, she bears him a child, Xiba, and in an arranged marriage to a Chinese general has another, Leixia.[69]In print media, Xianghua appears in the Soulcalibur Hong Kong manhua retelling of the game.[70] Encountering a group of lizardmen, humans mutated into crazed anthropomorphic lizards due to Soul Edge's influence, she is rescued by Kilik. Her sword at this point suddenly transforms into Soulcalibur, and instantly destroys the lizardmen.[71][72]Xianghua was designed around a theme of a traveling entertainer's flexibility, as well as a Chinese motif. Many different designs were considered during development, such as a girl in an apron dress or another in horse riding attire, with the development team noting despite the variety the hairstyle was kept consistently \"reminiscent of Xianghua.\"[73] During development, an idea was considered to instead change directions and have her fight with martial arts, utilizing kicks and creating \"vacuum wave\" attacks with her arms, before returning to the original concept.[74] Emphasis was done to make her feel 'light' in terms of movement, based on Chinese martial arts, and finding that balance in the design was an active concern for her design process.[74] Different styles of her sword were also considered before settling on a jian, which was meant to compliment her martial arts movements and give a sense of speed to help portray her as a dynamic woman. An idea was jokingly suggested for a \"soul bug\" to live in the hilt that would have acted as a medium to draw the wielder's energy into liquid within the sword. Developer notes on the concept stated \"It was a disgusting weapon.\"[75]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Yoshimitsu","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kunai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunai"}],"text":"In addition to the characters below, lesser storyline related characters were included in console versions of the title as unlockable characters, appearing as recurring enemies in the game's \"Weapon Master Mode\". Assassin and Berserker served as counterparts to previous characters Hwang and Rock. Both would later appear as boss enemies in Soulcalibur III, with Assassin's fighting style modified to utilize a kunai and Berserker modified into a smaller, fully armored warrior armed with a lance. Several generic Lizardmen also appear as recurring enemies and an unlockable character, utilizing an axe and shield fighting style that would be used by the original Lizardman in later appearances of the character.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.1-31"},{"link_name":"Reiko Takagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiko_Takagi"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Sophitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophitia"},{"link_name":"Soul Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge"},{"link_name":"Taki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taki_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"humble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humility"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-impress-76"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_II"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Patroklos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Patroklos"},{"link_name":"Pyrrha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Pyrrha"},{"link_name":"Hephaestus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_III"},{"link_name":"Raphael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Raphael"},{"link_name":"man with a large mass of crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_VI"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur:_Broken_Destiny"},{"link_name":"side story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_story"},{"link_name":"Hilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildegard_von_Krone"},{"link_name":"Dampierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Dampierre"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-20"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur: Unbreakable Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur#Soulcalibur:_Unbreakable_Soul"},{"link_name":"Edge Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Edge_Master"},{"link_name":"Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smash_Court_Tennis_Pro_Tournament_2"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"omake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omake"},{"link_name":"manga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manga"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters All Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters_All_Star"},{"link_name":"Nakoruru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakoruru"},{"link_name":"Samurai Shodown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai_Shodown"},{"link_name":"Saiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_King_of_Fighters_characters#Saiki"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters_XIII"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Cassandra","text":"Voiced by (English): Debbie Rogers (SCII);[11] Sue Nelson (SCIII)[31]\nVoiced by (Japanese): Reiko Takagi[13][14][16][41][19]Cassandra Alexandra (カサンドラ・アレクサンドル, Kasandora Arekusandoru) was the younger daughter and middle child of Achelous Alexander and his wife, Nike. She had an older sister, Sophitia, and a younger brother, Lucius, with whom she ran the family bakery in Athens. In Soul Edge, she was mentioned as having witnessed her sister's unconscious body being carried by female ninja Taki after the two successfully destroyed the cursed sword Soul Edge. Taki shared to her the information about a Soul Edge fragment that was lodged near her sister's heart, which Taki was unable to remove because it would kill her. Cassandra resolved never to tell anyone about this, even Sophitia herself. Three years later, she heard her sister had gone to another journey to destroy Soul Edge in Soulcalibur. Unlike her sister, whose skills originated from her weapons and the god Hephaestus, Cassandra was not as humble and could not hear him, relying instead on her own strength.[76]By the time of Soulcalibur II four years afterward, the 21-years-old[77] Cassandra visited her sister's home to find that Sophitia's children Patroklos and Pyrrha were fighting for a fragment of Soul Edge that Sophitia's husband, Rothion, found, making Sophitia restless. She grabbed the fragment and went to the Eurydice Shrine, angrily cursing Hephaestus for endangering her sister. Cassandra stole Sophitia's holy Omega sword after seeing it reacting with the fragment and became determined to find and destroy Soul Edge in place of Sophitia.Cassandra continued her quest to find Soul Edge in Soulcalibur III. She briefly returned to Greece to request Rothion to forge her new weapons after the Omega sword was broken following a skirmish at a corrupted city. He told her that Sophitia had gone to destroy Soul Edge on her own. She visited the city that she went earlier, where she met a man named Raphael who stole her fragment of Soul Edge. Before departing, he told that while she had the power to dispel evil, she was not as strong as the \"Holy Stone\". After hearing rumors in the city about a man with a large mass of crystal on his way to Ostrheinsburg Castle, Cassandra reasoned he carried the Holy Stone to fight some evil there, which she theorized was Soul Edge. Therefore, Cassandra went to the castle.Cassandra did not make an appearance in Soulcalibur V, although she was mentioned in the official artbook of the game. According to the artbook, at the conclusion of Soulcalibur IV, she arrived at the Ostrheinsburg Castle and found out that Sophitia had pledged her service to Soul Edge to save Pyrrha, who spent too much time around Soul Edge and had to rely on the sword to survive. Sophitia rendered Cassandra unconscious with a single strike, wounding her greatly. When she awakened, she found that the entire castle was disintegrating into a realm called Astral Chaos. Now weakened, Cassandra found Sophitia's unconscious body in a room, but as she approached her, Cassandra was sucked to the Astral Chaos while the castle returned to normal, as she was too wounded to escape. Due to being stranded in the Astral Chaos, Cassandra became malfested, losing the memories of her own original identity, and keeping only her desire to save her sister.In the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, Cassandra ran the family bakery alongside Lucius while trying to cover for Sophitia's absence. She encountered her future self from the original timeline and found out her sister's tragic fate. As a result of this revelation, Cassandra set off on a journey to prevent Sophitia's tragic future. After the wedding between Rothion and Sophitia, Cassandra was tasked with naming their first child.[78]Outside of the main series, Cassandra appeared in Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny's Gauntlet storyline, a non-canon side story set during the events of Soulcalibur IV, which revolved around Cassandra and her ally Hilde, who was searching for ingredients to develop a potion to cure Hilde's father. To this end, she forced the protagonist to assist them, and later recruited another person, Dampierre, after Hilde was briefly kidnapped.[20]Cassandra also starred as one of the two main characters (and the one most prominently used for promotion[79]) in the mobile card game Soulcalibur: Unbreakable Soul, alongside Edge Master. In it, Cassandra and Edge Master traveled to find the fragments of Soul Edge.Besides the Soulcalibur series, Cassandra appeared in the video game Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 as an unlockable character.[80] To explain the new features of Soulcalibur IV, Namco released an omake manga featuring Cassandra and Hilde; written in a humorous tone, Cassandra, representing a veteran of the series, \"taught\" Hilde about the game's features, while introducing the audience to aspects of Hilde's character.[81][82] Cassandra appeared in The King of Fighters All Star in both her Soulcalibur VI design, and her \"War Maiden\" costume from Soulcalibur IV. She is the main protagonist of the story mode, \"In the Hopeful Future\", where she teamed up with Nakoruru from Samurai Shodown to defeat Saiki, the main antagonist of The King of Fighters XIII.[83]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"avatars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarnation"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Doppelgänger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppelg%C3%A4nger"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"UGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGO"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ugo-93"},{"link_name":"Olcadan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olcadan"},{"link_name":"owl-inspired design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_owl"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Top_11_Soul_Calibur_Fighters-94"}],"sub_title":"Charade","text":"Charade (シャレード, Sharēdo) is the name of a creature introduced in Soulcalibur II, formed from Soul Edge's fragments and various reshaped human body parts. It has no intellect, instead acting on instinct and a desire to absorb other pieces of Soul Edge. It was once a man who collected fragments of Soul Edge but was murdered and in his final moments had him mutated into Charade. It mimics fighting styles and weapons by scanning the minds of its opponents, represented in Soulcalibur II by his use of a random fighting style from one of the other game's characters. In the arcade version of Soulcalibur II, Charade served as the final boss,[84] and was unlocked for players to use after the game had been in operation a certain amount of time.[85] For console ports of the title, Charade was replaced by Inferno as the game's final boss, and was made into a regular unlockable character. A Charade appears as a boss in Soulcalibur III in a three-round match in which it progressively loses components of itself between each round, eventually reduced to just its eye. It presumably became one with Soul Edge/Nightmare.Charades appear in the game Namco × Capcom as enemy characters, mimicking Sophitia's fighting style from Soulcalibur II. These Charades are unique in that Soul Edge creates them directly,[86] an ability it lacks in the Soul series. Called Soul Edge's \"avatars\" by the game's protagonists,[87] they are created by Soul Edge as foot soldiers and as a means to protect itself. When defeated, they will melt and dissolve into nothing.[88]Reception to Charade has been mixed. Netjack's Steve Lubitz described Charade as \"Weapon Master, only uglier\" and cited a lack of creativity with the design.[89] The sentiment was shared by Deeko's review of Soulcalibur II, who said that Charade felt like a new character that used \"old character moves and tactics\".[90] Other reviewers of II repeated the sentiment, noting Charade as one of several \"Doppelgänger\" fighters in the title that filled in another character's role.[91][92] On the other hand, UGO's Doug Trueman cited Charade as a character that \"[added] something spectacular to the Soul Calibur pantheon.\"[93] and additionally received mention in UGO's \"Top 11 Soul Calibur Fighters\" article, losing to Olcadan only due to Olcadan's owl-inspired design.[94]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Korean name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_name"},{"link_name":"Hong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_(Korean_surname)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Kōsuke Toriumi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dsuke_Toriumi"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hanja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanja"},{"link_name":"dao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dao_(Chinese_sword)"}],"sub_title":"Yun-Seong","text":"In this Korean name, the family name is Hong.Voiced by (English): Jim Singer (SCII)[11]Voiced by (Japanese): Kōsuke Toriumi[13][14][16][41]Hong Yun-Seong (ホン・ユンスン, Hon Yunsun, Korean: 홍윤성; Hanja: 洪潤星) was introduced in Soulcalibur II as a student at the Seong dojo and had idolized Hwang Seong-gyeong, a Korean warrior sent to find the \"Sword of Salvation\". When Hwang rejected his attempt to challenge him, the dojo's daughter Seong Mi-na handed Yun-seong the White Storm, a dao capable of reflecting the user's inner thoughts. He decided to leave his dojo in search of the \"Sword of Salvation\". During his journey, he met a group of deserted children whose leader is sick as well as a teenager named Talim, who warned him about the dangers of the sword he search, revealed to be Soul Edge. After he helped Talim performing the cleansing ritual on the sick boy, Yun-seong pursued Talim who left swiftly to find the sword and continued their journey together. They met Mi-na who attempted to persuade Yun-seong to go home, but he refused and left the two during their sleep one night. He eventually arrived at Ostrheinsburg and encountered his idol Hwang, again warning Yun-seong about the sword's evil nature, though it did not stop him and went about his quest anyway, parting his ways with Hwang. He does not appear in Soulcalibur V, but is mentioned in the game's artbook, where he is stated to had returned to his homeland after Soulcalibur IV, deemed a national hero, and began teaching the young generation alongside Hwang and Seong Mi-na.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Necrid","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.1-11"},{"link_name":"Yasunori Masutani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasunori_Masutani"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva2.2-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"vampirism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampirism"},{"link_name":"Azwel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Azwel"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-opm2-95"},{"link_name":"Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smash_Court_Tennis_Pro_Tournament_2"}],"sub_title":"Raphael","text":"Voiced by (English): Paul Jennings (SCII)[11]Voiced by (Japanese): Yasunori Masutani[13][14][16][41][18][19]Raphael Sorel (ラファエル・ソレル, Rafaeru Soreru) is a French nobleman, exiled by his family for committing a grievance against them. Hidden from his pursuers by a young girl named Amy, he took her in as his adoptive daughter and sought Soul Edge to secure a future for both of them. He was utterly defeated in battle with Nightmare, the sword's wielder, though he managed to stab the sword, which helped Siegfried wrest his mind from its influence. Raphael and Amy contracted vampirism as a result of Soul Edge's power resonating in wounds from the battle, and the two relocated to a castle in Romania, where their vampirism led to infection among the local peasantry. However, the populace began to be healed one by one by a \"Holy Stone\". Feeling threatened, Raphael decided to leave the castle to find and destroy the stone. During his journey, he learned from the \"creatures of the dark\" that the Holy Stone was Soul Edge's counterpart Soul Calibur, which had even greater power than Soul Edge, and decided to find and use the sword to create a \"perfect world\" for himself and Amy. After the events of Soulcalibur IV, Raphael is stated to have died, but suddenly awoke in a dungeon cell seventeen years later with no memory of what happened and found that Amy had disappeared from his life. Determined to finish his plan, he began his search for Amy. It is heavily implied by the official artbook that Raphael has become the new vessel of Nightmare after his destruction; this is further supported by the fact that Nightmare uses Raphael's body model in the Create-A-Soul mode as well as them sharing the same voice actor in Japanese as of Soulcalibur V, therefore making Raphael the identity of \"Graf Dumas\".In the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, after his adoption of Amy and further confirm his \"Graf Dumas\" status, Raphael comes across a couple of secret documents by a mysterious scholar, later revealed to be new character, Azwel. With his plan for a perfect world for Amy using Soul Edge, Raphael is easily manipulated by Azwel into finding the cursed sword. It also reveals in a possible timeline where he never met Amy, Raphael would become a mindless malfested.Raphael's appearance in Soulcalibur III was changed heavily, designed to represent his evil demeanor and royal image. The chief character designer of the game, Hideo Yoshie, stated that the change made Raphael \"more distinctive\".[95]He also appeared in Smash Court Tennis Pro Tournament 2 as an unlockable character.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Talim","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Night Terror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Night_Terror"}],"text":"In addition to the characters below, several others appear within the game under the title of \"bonus\" characters, representing fighting styles exclusive to the game's character creation mode as unlockable characters. These include minor storyline characters such as Amy and Revenant, others from previous installments otherwise absent from the game such as Arthur, Li Long and Hwang, and characters exclusive to the game's \"Chronicles of the Sword\" mode. Amy would later be fleshed out into a full character in Soulcalibur IV. In addition, the game features a final boss character called \"Night Terror\" that can be fought once specific conditions have been met.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kanako Tateno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanako_Tateno"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Hitomi Nabatame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitomi_Nabatame"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SCIII-Profile-98"},{"link_name":"rapier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapier"},{"link_name":"debug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debug"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-QA2-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP-16thcent-interview-100"},{"link_name":"crystal ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_ball"}],"sub_title":"Amy/Viola","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Kanako Tateno (SCIII);[14] Hitomi Nabatame (SCIV~onwards)[16][41][18][19]Amy (エイミ, Eimi) was initially introduced as a background character for Raphael, as a young girl who hid him from his pursuers and taken in as his foster daughter in a debt of gratitude.[96] To secure a future for her, he left Amy behind to pursue the cursed sword Soul Edge, with plans to present it to the nobles that pursued him so they would be overtaken by its curse and destroy each other.[97] However he was utterly defeated by its host, and as Amy tended to his wounds both of them were infected with vampirism. They traveled to a castle in Romania, and he left her to ensure the creation of an ideal world for both of them. Amy however felt abandoned, and set out on her own to protect their world herself.[98]After the seventeen-year gap between Soulcalibur IV and Soulcalibur V, Amy has mysteriously disappeared, initiating Raphael's search for her. In reality, Amy has resurfaced and grown-up in the said fifth game as an amnesiac fortune-teller named Viola (ヴィオラ, Viora), losing most of her memories and life. Amy, now Viola begin live as a wanderer because of her inability to empathize with other peoples, until she met Z.W.E.I. The two then become traveling companions. Eventually, they are found by Siegfried, the leader of reformed Schwarzwind and took them as fugitives/mercenaries. She then assists Patroklos to find Soul Calibur under orders from Siegfried, along with Z.W.E.I., though he leaves after finding his sister, Pyrrha. It is revealed in Soulcalibur VI that Amy's transformation into an amnesiac Viola was because of Azwel's magic.Like Raphael, Amy wields a rapier as her weapon. In her debut appearance, Amy utilizes the \"Rapier\" custom fighting style closely based on Raphael's moveset. In the arcade version of Soulcalibur III, she is more divergent, having moves that focused more on speed than power, unlike Raphael; this change is retained in Soulcalibur IV. First seen in Soulcalibur II opening sequence, Amy's character model was reused with a modified design in Soulcalibur III as a debug character for the developers to test elements of the game with and against, also appearing in some of the game's epilogue sequences. After completion of most of the game, they decided to implement her as a full character as a result of liking her design.[99] When she was announced as a playable character in the sequel for Soulcalibur IV, game director Daishi Odashima stating the reason behind her inclusion as \"I like weaker characters\", noting her as one of his three favorite characters in the game.[100]As Viola, her weapons are a metal claw and a magical crystal ball which floats around during battles. Prior both Amy and Viola revealed to be a same person as of SCVI, there were numerous hints, such as having the same looks, in-game interactions with Raphael, as well as her sharing the same voice actress in both English and Japanese, allude to their connections.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Night Terror","text":"Night Terror (ナイトテラー, Naito Terā) is the secret final boss of Soulcalibur III, replacing the normal final boss Abyss if certain requirements are met. Its appearance has been a mystery as it is not player-controllable, is given very little mention in-game (its profile only stated that it is the result of Soul Edge and Soul Calibur fusing with Nightmare's remains), and does not appear nor is it mentioned in future games. The official artbook of Soulcalibur V mentions the creature as the personification of \"Catastrophe\" residing in Astral Chaos who is so powerful that even Soul Calibur's creator, Algol, avoids confronting it.Night Terror utilizes a complete version of Soul Edge as its weapon with a fighting style simply referred to as \"Memories of Nightmare?\". It borrows many moves from Nightmare, albeit greatly amplified, including having greater range and power or becoming unblockable. Notably, Night Terror is the only character in the history of the series who cannot be defeated by ring outs; whenever it is knocked off the stage, it simply flies back using its wings.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shigenori Sōya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigenori_S%C5%8Dya"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"Ares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares"},{"link_name":"snow owl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_owl"},{"link_name":"UGO.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGO.com"},{"link_name":"Charade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Charade"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Top_11_Soul_Calibur_Fighters-94"},{"link_name":"Master Chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Chief_(Halo)"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"sub_title":"Olcadan","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Shigenori Sōya[14]Olcadan (オルカダン, Orukadan) was introduced in Soulcalibur III as a warrior that mastered a variety of martial arts and weapon usage and interested in honing his skills. When he reached adulthood only one of his fights had ended in a draw, so to test himself he hunted down God of War Ares's messenger, a great snow owl and decapitated it as proof of his victory. He was cursed as a result with an owl's head depending on the position of the stars and was later imprisoned in a labyrinth where time stood still. When the seal was eventually broken, he learned of Soul Edge's power and, impressed, he sought to defeat it. During this time he also learned of currency and growing fond of it he served as an instructor to other warriors for payment.He received positive reception as a character due to his appearance and demeanor, placing in UGO.com's Top 11 SoulCalibur Fighters article at eleventh place, beating out fellow series mimic character Charade.[94] They additionally awarded the character \"Best New Character\" of 2005 and proposed the possibility of Olcadan appearing in a stand-alone title and serving as a mascot for Namco, drawing comparisons to characters such as Master Chief.[101] The character was additionally mentioned by them in their early coverage of Soulcalibur IV, noting hope for his return in the title.[102]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kari Wahlgren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari_Wahlgren"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Tara Platt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Platt"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny1-17"},{"link_name":"Yō Taichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%8D_Taichi"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"kimono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimono"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"courtesans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtesan"},{"link_name":"oiran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiran"},{"link_name":"geisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geisha"},{"link_name":"Queen of Hearts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_of_Hearts_(Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland)"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"sub_title":"Setsuka","text":"Voiced by (English): Kari Wahlgren (SCIII);[103][104] Tara Platt (SCIV~)[105]Voiced by (Japanese): Nanaho Katsuragi (SCIII~SCBD);[14][16][17] Yō Taichi (SCVI~)[106]Setsuka (雪華) is a character introduced in Soulcalibur III. An orphan and runaway living in Japan, she was shunned due to her Caucasian ancestry. Eventually, she was taken in by Shugen Kokonoe, a man who worked as a bodyguard in the region. He named her Setsuka (\"Snow Flower\"). He taught her his fighting style, as well as showing her affection and kindness, things she had never experienced before, and gave her a beautiful, ornate kimono. After he dies from wounds sustained in combat with Mitsurugi, Setsuka realized she had fallen in love with the man. Despite his dying request not to pursue revenge she chooses to do so. She now tracks Nightmare, believing it will lead her to Mitsurugi, who himself pursues Nightmare. She continues on her search for Mitsurugi in Soulcalibur IV. She is given no mention in Soulcalibur V, although she appears briefly in the official artbook of the game, where she shattered Mitsurugi's sword in a duel but lost the battle, took the name \"Neve\" and began to teach students her fighting style in Istanbul, one of which was Patroklos. She told him not to pursue revenge as she had before, though he ultimately ignored the advice in his search for Pyrrha.She returns in Soulcalibur VI as a DLC character. The new timeline gives further details on her close relationship with Shugen and how she came to lose him, as well as her birth heritage as a Portuguese-Japanese. Although she initially listens to her master's request not to avenge him, Setsuka decides to pursues Mitsurugi after a fight with the mysterious Kokonoe clan over hidden scrolls with secret advanced fighting techniques, and eventually leads her to be involved with Soul Edge-related incidents.Character developer Hideo Yoshie stated that Setsuka's concept originated from the idea of a flower.[107] Her outfit in Soulcalibur III was inspired by historical Japanese courtesans known as oiran, who wore cosmetics and clothing similar to a geisha's but tied their obi at the front instead of behind, mixed with elements from the Queen of Hearts as part of an \"East-meets-West\" concept.[108]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Masumi Asano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masumi_Asano"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_III"},{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"antithesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antithesis"},{"link_name":"split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_IV"},{"link_name":"Sophitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophitia"},{"link_name":"Pyrrha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Pyrrha"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_V"},{"link_name":"Patroklos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Patroklos"},{"link_name":"Hyper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Electronic Gaming Monthly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly"},{"link_name":"Cirque du Soleil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirque_du_Soleil"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGNArt-112"}],"sub_title":"Tira","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Masumi Asano[14][16][41][18][19]Tira (ティラ) first appeared in Soulcalibur III, as an assassin that fled her previous group due to her mental instability. Though she attempted a peaceful life in a quiet city, she eventually found her urge to kill uncontrollable and wandered until she learned of the living sword Soul Edge and its wielder, Nightmare. Sensing a kindred spirit, she pledged her loyalty to the sword, and sought both a new host for Soul Edge and to destroy its antithesis, the sword Soul Calibur. At the story's climax, the energy released by Soul Edge and Soul Calibur clashing caused her personality to split into two extremes, Jolly and Gloomy. When Soul Edge returned in Soulcalibur IV, she resumed her service to him, manipulating others into helping, such as Sophitia by kidnapping her daughter, Pyrrha.In Soulcalibur V, set 17 years after the events of IV, both Nightmare and Soul Edge had resurfaced after being destroyed at the end of IV, the former possessing a swordsman ruling Hungary. Disapproving the current state of her master, Tira intended to use Pyrrha as a new vessel of Soul Edge by manipulating the latter's isolation and earlier exposure to Soul Edge. However, she was confronted by Pyrrha's younger brother, Patroklos. Defeated, she escaped Patroklos' wrath and left Pyrrha with him, but later convinced Pyrrha to follow her again when Patroklos was reluctant to accept her state. A more mature-looking Tira returns in Soulcalibur VI. In this game, she has very little empathy on humans and enjoys killing people, treating it like a hobby.Hyper magazine described her as Soulcalibur III's \"obligatory weird chick\", adding that \"she's supposed to be an angel of death, but looks like an oversexed court jester to us.\" They however praised her animation and gameplay, calling them mesmerizing unlike those of other characters, adding \"imagine a homicidal rhythm gymnast and you're on the right track.\"[109][110] Electronic Gaming Monthly describes Tira as a \"Cirque du Soleil reject\", though added she is \"modestly endowed, but highly flexible.\"[111] IGN included her in their \"Babes of Soulcalibur\" article, stating \"She immediately stands out (...) Whereas most of the SC women fight on the side of good, Tira is totally, deliciously evil.\" They also praised her outfits, calling them some of the best in the Soul series.[112]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Keith Silverstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Silverstein"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.1-31"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Hiroshi Tsuchida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Tsuchida"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva3.2-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"reincarnate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnation"},{"link_name":"Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_U.S._PlayStation_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pm-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lawrence-115"},{"link_name":"GameSpy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"}],"sub_title":"Zasalamel","text":"Voiced by (English): Keith Silverstein[31][113]Voiced by (Japanese): Hiroshi Tsuchida[14][16][41][19]Zasalamel (ザサラメール, Zasaramēru) hails from an ancient tribe that was tasked with the protection of the holy sword Soul Calibur by Algol. Angered by the tribe's restrictions, he tried to take Soul Calibur but was caught and exiled. Pursuing the sword he gained the ability to reincarnate, though eventually yearned to die for good. Tracking down Soul Edge, he manipulated events so that Soul Calibur would come to him, serving as the main antagonist of Soulcalibur III. Hoping to use the combined energies of the swords to end his existence, he was instead transformed into a monster called Abyss. During these events he had a vision of the future, and desiring to see it firsthand he returned to life, acting in Soulcalibur IV to protect the swords in case their destruction broke his cycle of reincarnation. His further fate afterward is unknown, as he is given no mention in Soulcalibur V.Zasalamel reappears in the new timeline of Soulcalibur VI, which revisits the events of the first Soulcalibur game, as a foreseer of the future.Zasalamel was positively received. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Zasalamel as \"easily the coolest\" of the three new characters introduced in Soulcalibur III, noting his speed and ability to pull opponents to him.[114] Other reviewers have shared the sentiments, praising his accessibility for new players.[115] GameSpy went further to describe him as one of the best characters in Soulcalibur III, noting his offensive abilities and range control.[116]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur III"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"manga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manga"},{"link_name":"anime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime"},{"link_name":"canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(fiction)"},{"link_name":"Takako Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takako_Honda"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"Mine Yoshizaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mine_Yoshizaki"},{"link_name":"Angol Mois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sgt._Frog_characters#Angol_Mois"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"Oh! great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh!_great"},{"link_name":"Nami Kurokawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nami_Kurokawa"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"oni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oni_(folklore)"},{"link_name":"Hirokazu Hisayuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirokazu_Hisayuki"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"Yutaka Izubuchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yutaka_Izubuchi"},{"link_name":"the Persian queen of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheherazade"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"Hiroya Oku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroya_Oku"},{"link_name":"Seong Mi-na","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Seong_Mi-na"},{"link_name":"Astaroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astaroth_(Soulcalibur)"},{"link_name":"Nightmare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"Amy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Amy/Viola"},{"link_name":"Cervantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervantes_de_Leon"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"}],"text":"In addition to these characters, with Soulcalibur IV several manga and anime character designers were invited to contribute additional, non-canon characters to the game: Angol Fear (voiced by Takako Honda in Japanese[16]), a female alien designed by Mine Yoshizaki and cousin of his existing character Angol Mois; Ashlotte (voiced by Hitomi Nabatame in Japanese[16]), a mechanical doll developed by Oh! great sent to destroy series character Astaroth; Kamikirimusi (voiced by Nami Kurokawa in Japanese[16]), a young female oni designed by Hirokazu Hisayuki searching for kindred spirits; Scheherazade (voiced by Nami Kurokawa in Japanese[16]), an elven storyteller designed by Yutaka Izubuchi and based on the Persian queen of the same name; and Shura (voiced by Takako Honda in Japanese[16]), a possessed female warrior designed by Hiroya Oku. Rather than having a unique fighting style, each was modeled after an existing character: Seong Mi-na, Astaroth, Nightmare, Amy, and Cervantes, respectively.[117] Of these characters, only Ashlotte is referenced in later games, alluded to in Astaroth's Soulcalibur V's profile information.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jōji Nakata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dji_Nakata"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Algol-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"1UP.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1UP.com"},{"link_name":"game by the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Bubbles"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Kotaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Inferno"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_magazine"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Staff-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"}],"sub_title":"Algol","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Jōji Nakata[16][41][18]Algol (アルゴル, Arugoru) serves as the Story Mode boss for most characters and as an unlockable character in Soulcalibur IV. Prior to the events of Soul Edge, Algol was known as \"The Hero King\", able to use the cursed sword Soul Edge without being controlled by it. He used it to forge an era of peace, until his son was possessed by the sword and Algol was forced to destroy them both. He worked to create a purified sword from a shard of Soul Edge to counter the weapon when it reappeared, resulting in the creation of Soul Calibur but with his body and soul trapped inside until the two swords clashed. Freed, he constructed himself a new body armed with facsimiles of both swords, and waited for them to come to him so that he could make his revival permanent. After the events of Soulcalibur IV, Algol had been working to corrupt the world with energies from Astral Chaos in order to control it. His actions had caused much disturbance of the world, with Edge Master even entering Astral Chaos to prevent him.Character designer Hideo Yoshie described Algol as \"a character that obviously proves the setting of being the strongest character ever in the Soulcalibur series\". Algol's costume was designed around the concept of originating from a culture so ancient that it was not recorded in history, which complicated the character's creation. After considering several themes including a lion and a dinosaur, a bird motif was finally settled upon. An option was considered for Algol to cause an \"off site brawl\" while on a pipe chair, but was unused.[118] His design elements including his projectile-firing \"rifle arm\" were called fresh and innovative by Gameswelt.[119] The staff of 1UP.com were particularly impressed by his rifle attack, nicknaming the projectiles \"Soul Bubbles\" in reference to a game by the same name.[120] Kotaku also praised the character, describing him as \"much more of a bad ass\" than recurring series boss Inferno.[121] Edge described him as breaking the tradition of \"ill-balanced uber-enemies\" as well as one able to use a gun as a weapon without seeming \"hopelessly out of place\" in the series.[122] GameAxis Unwired praised the character for breaking the series' tradition of bosses that mimicked existing fighting styles, and added that Algol remained for the most part fair to fight against.[123] Neoseeker stated that Algol felt as if he was \"just there, purely for your entertainment\", calling his fighting style bizarre but while frustrating to fight, beatable.[124] Cheat Code Central included Algol in the 2012 list of top ten hidden characters in fighting games.[125]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shigeru Chiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeru_Chiba"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Shigeru Chiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeru_Chiba"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"sub_title":"Dampierre","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Shigeru Chiba[41][18]Geo Dampierre (ジオ・ダンピエール, Jio Danpiēru) is a con artist introduced in Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny and known by a variety of titles, amongst which include \"Alchemist of the Ages\", \"The World's Greatest Assassin\", and \"Miraculous Psychic\". He eventually became recognized as a thief, and resorted to robbery and kidnapping to continue his rich lifestyle. Desiring to live a noble life instead, he decides to fight against Nightmare and use his skills for good. In Soulcalibur V, he had heard about the new king of Hungary, Graf Dumas (actually Nightmare in disguise) had prepared for wars, so Dampierre arranges a meeting with him. His weapons consist of two spring mounted daggers strapped to the underside of his wrists.[126] He is voiced by Shigeru Chiba in Japanese, who the developers felt gave the character a distinct voice.[127]Dampierre's introduction in the game was the result of the amount of unused character and weapon designs that were excluded from Soulcalibur IV, and the team's desire to instead focus on creating a character based around their personality instead. Though the development team had mixed feelings regarding the character, they chose to take a risk and add him to Broken Destiny regardless.[128]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yūko Kaida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABko_Kaida"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva4-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brokendestiny2-41"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"Nightmare's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur_VI"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur:_Broken_Destiny"},{"link_name":"side story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_story"},{"link_name":"Cassandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra_Alexandra"},{"link_name":"Dampierre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Dampierre"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-20"},{"link_name":"omake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omake"},{"link_name":"manga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manga"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"Udon Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udon_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"DC Comics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_Comics"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"}],"sub_title":"Hilde","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Yūko Kaida[16][41][18][19]Hildegard von Krone (ヒルデガルド・フォン・クローネ, Hirudegarudo fon Kurōne) — simply known as Hilde (ヒルダ, Hiruda) — is the daughter of the king of Wolfkrone, a fictional European kingdom under assault by series antagonist Nightmare's forces. After her father was driven insane into a Malfested by the Evil Seed event brought upon by the cursed sword Soul Edge (which took place seven years before the events of Soulcalibur IV), Hilde was forced to take the throne of Wolfkrone despite her young age. She took the responsibilities to protect her people and lead her armies in the front lines against Nightmare. As a desperate measure, Hilde seeks the Sword of Resurrection, Soul Calibur, to bring back an ancient king who once restored peace to the world.[129] She returns in Soulcalibur VI as the first DLC fighter of the 2nd season pass. In the new timeline, the mysterious Aval Organization where the new character Grøh belongs to had been a sworn allied force to Hilde's home kingdom for generations.[130] In Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny's Gauntlet storyline, a non-canon side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV, the plot revolves around Hilde and her ally Cassandra, who search for ingredients to develop a potion to cure Hilde's father. To this end they force the protagonist to assist them, and later recruit another person, Dampierre, after Hilde is briefly kidnapped.[20]To explain the new features of Soulcalibur IV, Namco released an omake manga featuring Hilde and Cassandra. Written in a humorous tone, Cassandra, representing a veteran of the series, \"taught\" Hilde about the game's features, while introducing the audience to aspects of Hilde's character.[131] Hilde was featured in a promotional comic bundled with the North American release of Soulcalibur IV's Premium Edition. Drawn by Udon Entertainment for DC Comics, it served as a prelude to the events of the game.[132]IGN cited her as a fierce opponent and \"hell of a lot of fun to control\", adding \"...we tend to sit up and take notice when a new character shows promise...we expect she'll stick around for the long haul.\"[133] Additional praise was given in their review of Soulcalibur IV, stating an approval of her design combined with her personality, and a preference for her over the game's unlockable characters.[134] Topless Robot named her one of the \"11 Most Dignified Videogame Heroines\", stating \"For Soulcalibur IV's cast, the developers at Namco went out of their way to add one woman who wasn't spilling out of a tight, scant outfit, perhaps to excuse the fact that about every other female character is.\"[135] Neoseeker praised her design, calling her the \"most modest female character in Soulcalibur, looking at her unbelievably awesome outfit -- a full suit of armor with helmet included. No skin? No problem!\"[136]","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur IV and Broken Destiny"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chie Nakamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chie_Nakamura"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"}],"sub_title":"Elysium/Soul Calibur","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Chie Nakamura[18]Elysium (エリュシオン, Eryushion) is the physical manifestation of Soul Calibur, taking the form of an angelic woman who, due to Patroklos's influence, resembles Sophitia. Her goal is to destroy everything related to Soul Edge and will do anything to achieve it, even if it means by destroying the innocent \"malfested\". She guides Patroklos to destroy Soul Edge using Soul Calibur with the promise that she will help him find his sister Pyrrha, though she already knows that Pyrrha is a malfested and must be vanquished. She is successful in convincing Patroklos to kill Pyrrha, though Edge Master's giving of a second chance prevents Patroklos from doing so. Angry, she traps Patroklos in a crystal and confronts him in his subconscious to reveal her intentions and tries to possess Patroklos in order to destroy Soul Edge, though in the end she is defeated and eventually destroyed by Patroklos and Pyrrha along with Soul Calibur.Along with Edge Master and Kilik, she is a mimic character in Soulcalibur V, mimicking the styles of female characters. Uniquely, she has a few unique moves when she mimics Pyrrha Omega, which are actually Sophitia's moves, and has a different Critical Edge unlike other mimic characters.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_name"},{"link_name":"family name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_surname"},{"link_name":"Lauren Landa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Landa"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Yoshino Nanjō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshino_Nanj%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Jian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jian"}],"sub_title":"Leixia","text":"In this Chinese name, the family name is Yan.Voiced by (English): Lauren Landa[137]Voiced by (Japanese): Yoshino Nanjō[18]Yan Leixia (イェン・レイシャ, Yen Reisha, Chinese: 燕蕾夏) is the daughter of Xianghua and a Chinese general whom she married after parting ways with Kilik. She was trained in the arts of Chinese swordplay using a Jian by her mother. During her fifteenth birthday, she was given a collar containing a shard of Kilik's anti-evil mirror, Dvapara-Yuga, by her younger brother, Leixin, as a present. When she showed it to her mother, Xianghua grew frantic and planned to have Leixia marry a Chinese general, troubling Leixia who decided to leave her home to learn why her mother had reacted to the sight of the pendant. Befriending the ninja Natsu, they joined Maxi and Xiba in traveling the world.According to the game's official artbook, SOULCALIBUR – New Legends of Project Soul, Xiba, one of Leixia's travel companion is actually her estranged older half-brother, the result of her mother's intimate meeting with Kilik. The reason why Xianghua had gone frantic at the sight of Dvapara-Yuga and decided to arrange Leixia's marriage with a general is because the pendant reminded her of Kilik and Xianghua does not want her daughter to have an illegal affair like the former had with Kilik.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fuyuka Oura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuyuka_Oura"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"kodachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodachi"},{"link_name":"Project X Zone 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_X_Zone_2"}],"sub_title":"Natsu","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Fuyuka Oura[18]Natsu (ナツ, also written as 凪津) is a young ninja and the disciple of Taki. She wields two kodachi and harbors the demon Arahabaki (荒吐鬼) inside her, who was sealed by Taki after his previous container was killed. Because of this, she was treated as an outcast by her community and was very shy as a young girl, though she eventually grew her confidence with the help of Taki. After Taki failed to return from a mission, promising to return within two weeks, Natsu grew worried, and after Leixia arrived at Fu-Ma village gates, she became a bodyguard to Leixia, hoping she could find her beloved master along the way.Natsu also appears in Project X Zone 2 as a playable solo unit.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yuri Lowenthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Lowenthal"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"KENN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenn_(Japanese_actor)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"iaido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaido"},{"link_name":"Graf Dumas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_and_Nightmare"}],"sub_title":"Patroklos","text":"Voiced by (English): Yuri Lowenthal[138]Voiced by (Japanese): KENN[18]Patroklos Alexandra (パトロクロス・アレクサンドル, Patorokurosu Arekusandoru) is the main protagonist of Soulcalibur V. He is Sophitia's son, and uses a short sword and a shield like his mother, though his alternate version, α Patroklos (アルファ・パトロクロス, Arufa Patorokurosu) hides his true fighting style: an iaido swordplay, taught to him by Setsuka after his father's death. Patroklos' sister, Pyrrha, was abducted by Tira when he was only two years old. His mother, Sophitia left their home in search for her, but she never returned. His father, Rothion had tried to search for her and simultaneously kept the truth from the family until seventeen years later, when he caught an unexplainable sickness. Before his death, he told Patroklos everything about their family. Patroklos left his home in search for Pyrrha and eventually become a slayer of malfested under the order of Graf Dumas, the king of Hungary. However, his meeting with Z.W.E.I. severs his ties with the king upon learning he has been manipulated. Under the guidance of a mysterious voice from Soul Calibur (which is Elysium), he continues his duty on killing the malfested. He is eventually reunited with his sister, but has difficulty accepting her as a malfested. After killing her during a duel, he receives words of advice from Edge Master in Astral Chaos, while also rekindling his true fighting style. Patroklos returns to an earlier point in time, and is given a second chance to save Pyrrha. He is able to do so, but is confronted by Elysium who tries to possess Patroklos, though he manages to defeat her and seals Soul Calibur with Soul Edge, after which he is able to accept Pyrrha and lives on with her.Fan reception to Patroklos has been significantly negative, with the majority condemning him as the series' \"Most Hated Character.\"","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Laura Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Bailey_(voice_actress)"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"Nozomi Sasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nozomi_Sasaki_(voice_actress)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"gamebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamebook"},{"link_name":"Queen's Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Gate_(gamebook)"}],"sub_title":"Pyrrha","text":"Voiced by (English): Laura Bailey[139]Voiced by (Japanese): Nozomi Sasaki[18]Pyrrha Alexandra (ピュラ・アレクサンドル, Pyura Arekusandoru) is Patroklos' sister and Sophitia's daughter who uses her mother's sword and shield which were made by her father, Rothion. Pyrrha was kidnapped by Tira when she was only three years old in order to torment Sophitia. She knows nothing about her past, other than the fact that everyone that was close to her strangely died, which earns her the title \"Bringer of Woe\". She was imprisoned after being accused of killing a nobleman's son who purchased her from a slave market. It was that time Tira appears and took care of her. However, her only reason on doing that is to make Pyrrha a new vessel for Soul Edge since she already knew that Pyrrha's body contained parts of Soul Edge's power. To charge up the demonic powers, Tira orders Pyrrha to kill people, promising her that she will take Pyrrha to reunite with her long lost brother, Patroklos. The two eventually reunite, but the influence of the Soul Edge manages to corrupt her, turning her into Pyrrha Ω (ピュラ・オメガ, Pyura Omega), with a deformed arm much like Nightmare's and wielding Soul Edge as a sword and shield like her mother did. Patroklos is unable to accept her form and later kills her during a duel. With the aid of Edge Master within Astral Chaos, he is able to go back in time, and alter the past event, granting himself a second chance. Patroklos prevails against Pyrrha in battle, and disarms her; therefore freeing her from Soul Edge's control. After Patroklos' final confrontation with Elysium, Pyrrha pierces Soul Calibur with Soul Edge and returns home, having been accepted by Patroklos.Outside of the series, Pyrrha is the main character of Queen's Gate: Pyrrha (蒼運命に翻弄される娘 ピュラ), an erotic gamebook as part of the Queen's Gate series.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toshiyuki Toyonaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiyuki_Toyonaga"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"bō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Goku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goku"},{"link_name":"Dragon Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Ball"},{"link_name":"Sun Wukong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Wukong"},{"link_name":"Journey to the West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journey_to_the_West"}],"sub_title":"Xiba","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Toshiyuki Toyonaga[18]Xiba (シバ, Shiba) is described as an honest young man who came from the Zhen Hang Mountain. He has a strong love for food and would repeatedly strive for it, much to the annoyance of his companion, Leixia. Like Kilik, he was trained in the secret arts of the Ling-Sheng Su by his master, Kong Xiuqiang. Sometime before the events of the game, he was bequeathed with Kilik's inheritance, the sacred bō staff Kali-Yuga, under orders of Edge Master, who sensed Kilik's tragic fate. Together with Leixia, Natsu, and their leader, Maxi, Xiba travels throughout the world, eventually helping Patroklos to complete Soul Calibur with Kali-Yuga's power (as well as Dvapara Yuga's, owned by Leixia).According to the official artbook of the game, SOULCALIBUR – New Legends of Project Soul, he is actually Kilik and Xianghua's son and Leixia's estranged older half-brother. His birth is the result of their intimate meeting and he was nearly killed following the orders of the Xianghua's grandfather. Negotiations with Ming Empire general Yan Wujin however, allowed Xiba to live secretly with Xianghua's father Kong Xiuqiang so as to not revealing the scandal as the condition for Wujin to marry Xianghua. As many others such as Goku from Dragon Ball, his look and fighting style is based on Sun Wukong from the classic Chinese novel, Journey to the West.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matthew Mercer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Mercer"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AniMat2014-140"},{"link_name":"Kenta Miyake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenta_Miyake"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva5.2-18"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zweistory-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zweistory-141"}],"sub_title":"Z.W.E.I.","text":"Voiced by (English): Matthew Mercer[140]Voiced by (Japanese): Kenta Miyake[18]Z.W.E.I. (ツヴァイ, Tsuvai) is a mysterious, brooding man who wields a sword with three handles and can summon a lupine spirit named \"E.I.N.\", who is actually Minion, a secondary soul that coexists with Z.W.E.I.'s own human soul.[141] While much of his backstory is unknown, the official site states that he was separated from his mother when he was still a child, and he had to endure hardships in his life before he was eventually taken by the leader of Schwarzwind, Siegfried, who raised him as a warrior.[141] Z.W.E.I. is currently traveling with Viola, a woman who also has inhuman powers like himself. Z.W.E.I. advises Patroklos to revolt against Dumas as he had merely used him and later assists him in finding Soul Calibur under orders from Siegfried, alongside Viola, though he leaves them after finding his sister, Pyrrha. Later, when Nightmare has declared war across Europe, he confronts him in his castle and manages to kill him. However, a malfested Pyrrha appears and stabs him, after which he falls to the chasm, his fate unknown.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur V"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur VI"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Masashi Ebara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masashi_Ebara"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"}],"sub_title":"Azwel","text":"Voiced by (Japanese): Masashi Ebara[19][142]Azwel (アズウェル, Azuweru) is a man of extraordinary intelligence and a scholar in many fields, including history, medicine, war, and art. His studies about the history of humanity brought him to the conclusion that humanity would self-destruct through wars and other calamities. His fanatical love for the people led him to enact a terrifying plan to save them from themselves. Azwel also infects Grøh with Soul Edge, defects from the Aval Organization, manipulates Raphael into searching for Soul Edge, and assaults Amy to discover her future self as Viola.His weapon is a pair of gloves named Palindrome: the right glove includes a fragment of Soul Edge, while the left one has a piece of Soul Calibur. Azwel draws his power from the memories of past battles, preserved within those fragments. While he appears unarmed, his gloves allow him to summon a variety of deadly weapons, which he can use with brutal effects.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur VI"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xander Mobus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xander_Mobus"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Takahiro Sakurai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takahiro_Sakurai"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-btva6-19"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"a king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur"},{"link_name":"two swords that can connect with each other","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuangshou_jian"}],"sub_title":"Grøh","text":"Voiced by (English): Xander Mobus[143]Voiced by (Japanese): Takahiro Sakurai[19][144]Grøh (グロー, Gurō) is a member of the mysterious Aval Organization, a secret group with origins rooted in ancient times, who came to be when a king used the spirit sword to defeat its cursed counterpart, and with his dying breath, entrusted them with both the blade and his unfinished mission. Each new generation has taken on the group's mission to rid the world of \"Outsiders\" — those connected with the cursed sword, the Malfested. Aval Organization had been a sworn allied force to Hilde's home kingdom, the Wolfkrone for generations. Little is known about him, save for that he was a fearsome warrior. Though his fighting style is shrouded in mystery, he wields two swords that can connect with each other.He was turned into an \"Outsider\" by Nightmare, and progressively continued by the traitor Azwel, the man who responsible for infected Grøh and his best friend, Curtis, for the sorcerer's evil experiments. After having remaining willpower to negate his mind from becoming an \"Outsider\", using the power of \"Outsider\" to counteract the likes of \"Outsiders\"-minded warriors, Azwel included, Grøh found a new purpose to put the fellow \"Outsider\" victims like him a trial whether they have a strong will left to suppress the malfestation or not. Following Maxi's first victor against Astaroth, shortly before Kilik finally purifies his malfestation and helps Xianghua defeats Nightmare/Inferno, Grøh was the one of found a critically injured Maxi. Unbeknownst to Grøh, Curtis survives but suffers amnesia and becomes a malfested army. Although Curtis slowly begins to recover his memory of Grøh before a one-year war depicted in 1590 A.D. begins.","title":"Introduced in Soulcalibur VI"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku1-147"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"Kotaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku1-147"}],"text":"In 2016, University of Delaware professor Rachel Hutchinson cited the various characters of the series examples of 'virtual colonialism', noting the designers' emphasis on particular traits to differentiate the non-Japanese characters as exotic 'others'. Analyzing each characters' design in the original Soulcalibur, she cited examples of stereotypes commonly viewed in Japan of other cultures, such as Li Long's lack of aging between his appearance in Soul Edge and Soulcalibur, or Ivy's significant stature compared to Eastern female characters.[145] She later made use of the Soulcalibur II cast in a study involving students, focusing on their initial reactions to their designs and subsequent reactions after playing as the characters.[146]As the series has progressed, media outlets have complained about the increased sexualization of the female characters.[147] In particular, comments have focused on the perceived increase in the breast sizes of Ivy, Sophitia and Taki from one game to the next, while their attire has grown more revealing.[148] Several other aspects further exasperated this reaction, including advertisements that focused on Ivy's sexual attributes,[149] the commissioning of a hentai artist to create outfits for the female characters in Soulcalibur: Lost Swords,[150] and the release of a breast size comparison chart used by the developers. Cecilia D'Anastasio in an article for Kotaku felt that it ostracized female players specifically by leading her and others to feel women weren't the target audience, and stated \"Bandai Namco has pigeonholed what could be a stellar fighting game for everyone.\"[147]","title":"Critical reception"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"De Marco, Flynn (2007-09-20). \"Tgs07: Soul Calibur Director Katsutoshi Sasaki on Weapons, Characters and Storyline\". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2009-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071014025014/http://kotaku.com/gaming/tgs07/soul-calibur-director-katsutoshi-sasaki-on-weapons-characters-and-storyline-302211.php","url_text":"\"Tgs07: Soul Calibur Director Katsutoshi Sasaki on Weapons, Characters and Storyline\""},{"url":"https://kotaku.com/gaming/tgs07/soul-calibur-director-katsutoshi-sasaki-on-weapons-characters-and-storyline-302211.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ivy & Taki\". Play Magazine Presents: Girls of Gaming. 1: 35. January 2004.","urls":[]},{"reference":"OPM staff (2005-12-07). \"Behind the Game: Soul Calibur III\". 1UP.com. UGO Networks. Archived from the original on 2013-02-27. Retrieved 2009-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_U.S._PlayStation_Magazine","url_text":"OPM staff"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130227013155/http://www.1up.com/features/game-sciii","url_text":"\"Behind the Game: Soul Calibur III\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1UP.com","url_text":"1UP.com"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGO_Networks","url_text":"UGO Networks"},{"url":"http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3146108","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Soul Calibur III Interview\". CVG. 2005-10-10. Archived from the original on 2007-08-25. Retrieved 2009-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070825090359/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id=127163","url_text":"\"Soul Calibur III Interview\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games","url_text":"CVG"},{"url":"http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id=127163","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Soul Searching\". Electronic Gaming Monthly. September 2005. Archived from the original on 2009-09-04. Retrieved 2009-08-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090904081753/http://www.mywire.com/a/ElectronicGamingMonthly/Soul-Searching/938794?&pbl=15","url_text":"\"Soul Searching\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly","url_text":"Electronic Gaming Monthly"},{"url":"http://www.mywire.com/a/ElectronicGamingMonthly/Soul-Searching/938794?&pbl=15","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"NewKimagureWatcher Vol.1\". Project Soul. Namco Bandai. Retrieved 2009-09-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/SC3/wat01e.htm","url_text":"\"NewKimagureWatcher Vol.1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur Legends Lloyd Irving profile\" (in Japanese). Namco Bandai. Retrieved 2008-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/SCL/contents/character/lloyd.html","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur Legends Lloyd Irving profile\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"McWhertor, Michael (2008-06-05). \"Darth Vader's Apprentice Joins Soulcalibur IV Cast\". Kotaku. Retrieved 2008-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://kotaku.com/5013743/darth-vaders-apprentice-joins-soulcalibur-iv-cast","url_text":"\"Darth Vader's Apprentice Joins Soulcalibur IV Cast\""}]},{"reference":"\"ダース・ベイダー vs ヨーダ の夢の戦いが実現！\" (in Japanese). Namco Bandai. 2008-10-01. Retrieved 2008-12-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/SC4/blog/2008/10/","url_text":"\"ダース・ベイダー vs ヨーダ の夢の戦いが実現！\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"Sinclair, Brendan (2009-04-28). \"Soulcalibur forges Broken Destiny on PSP\". GameSpot. Archived from the original on 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2009-04-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121105085807/http://www.gamespot.com/news/soulcalibur-forges-broken-destiny-on-psp-6208728","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur forges Broken Destiny on PSP\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot","url_text":"GameSpot"},{"url":"http://www.gamespot.com/psp/action/soulcaliburbrokendestiny/news.html?sid=6208728","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur II (2002 Video Game)\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-II/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur II (2002 Video Game)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur (1998 Video Game)\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur (1998 Video Game)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur II (2002 Video Game) Japanese Cast\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-II/japanese-cast/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur II (2002 Video Game) Japanese Cast\""}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur III (2005 Video Game) Japanese Cast\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-III/japanese-cast/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur III (2005 Video Game) Japanese Cast\""}]},{"reference":"Project Soul. Soulcalibur Legends. Bandai Namco Games. Scene: Ending credits, 9:34 in, Voice OVer Actors (Japanese).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai_Namco_Entertainment","url_text":"Bandai Namco Games"}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur IV (2008 Video Game) Japanese Cast\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-IV/japanese-cast/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur IV (2008 Video Game) Japanese Cast\""}]},{"reference":"Project Soul. Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny. Bandai Namco Games. Scene: Ending credits, 5:30 in, Voice Over Actors (Japanese).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai_Namco_Games","url_text":"Bandai Namco Games"}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur V (2012 Video Game) Japanese Cast\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-V/japanese-cast/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur V (2012 Video Game) Japanese Cast\""}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur VI (2018 Video Game) Japanese Cast\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-VI/japanese-cast/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur VI (2018 Video Game) Japanese Cast\""}]},{"reference":"Project Soul (2009-09-13). Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny (PSP). Namco Bandai. Level/area: Gauntlet.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcalibur:_Broken_Destiny","url_text":"Soulcalibur: Broken Destiny"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Portable","url_text":"PSP"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"Cho, SungWon [@ProZD] (November 30, 2020). \"I voice Hwang in Soul Calibur VI, finally i have achieved my two childhood dreams of voicing a Korean video game character and also being the love interest of Seong Mi-na, you can get him on December 2nd https://t.co/CQO9cbVZi0 https://t.co/HsnRCPeYQp\" (Tweet). Retrieved December 2, 2020 – via Twitter.","urls":[{"url":"https://x.com/ProZD/status/1333489403193217024","url_text":"\"I voice Hwang in Soul Calibur VI, finally i have achieved my two childhood dreams of voicing a Korean video game character and also being the love interest of Seong Mi-na, you can get him on December 2nd https://t.co/CQO9cbVZi0 https://t.co/HsnRCPeYQp\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)","url_text":"Tweet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"}]},{"reference":"\"Soul Edge Hwang design sketches\" (in Japanese). Namco Bandai. Retrieved 2008-08-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/tmr/souledge/hwang/hwan_cha.htm","url_text":"\"Soul Edge Hwang design sketches\""}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur – Hwang sketches\" (in Japanese). Namco Bandai. 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His life ruined after the murder of his beloved Chie, he now steals weapons from every swordsman that travels the Yangtze River.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge","url_text":"Soul Edge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"}]},{"reference":"Namco (1997-01-01). Soul Edge (PlayStation). Namco. Level/area: Li Long Edge Master mode, chapter 3. He crafted weapons seized from the swordsmen on the river and made 'Phoenix,' a new nunchaku [...]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge","url_text":"Soul Edge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"}]},{"reference":"Namco (1997-01-01). Soul Edge (PlayStation). Namco. Level/area: Li Long Edge Master mode, chapter 5. Although Li Long wanted justice, he did not think Mitsurugi was lying. The mortal wound to Chie could not have been made by Mitsurugi's sword. 'If not him, then who?' / That night, Li Long set off for 'SoulEdge'","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_Edge","url_text":"Soul Edge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco","url_text":"Namco"}]},{"reference":"\"Li Long's Soulcalibur III profile\". Project Soul (in Japanese). Namco Bandai. Archived from the original on 2006-03-06. Retrieved 2008-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060306173210/http://namco-ch.net/ps2_soulcalibur3/character/lilong.php","url_text":"\"Li Long's Soulcalibur III profile\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"},{"url":"http://namco-ch.net/ps2_soulcalibur3/character/lilong.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Namco Bandai (2012-01-31). Soulcaliber V. Namco Bandai. Level/area: Story mode.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulcaliber_V","url_text":"Soulcaliber V"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"\"Li Long character concept art\". Project Soul. Namco Bandai. Retrieved 2009-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/tmr/souledge/lilong/lilo_cha.htm","url_text":"\"Li Long character concept art\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Soul","url_text":"Project Soul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco_Bandai","url_text":"Namco Bandai"}]},{"reference":"\"Soulcalibur III (2005 Video Game)\". Behind The Voice Actors. Retrieved 17 September 2019. A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its opening and/or closing credits and/or other reliable sources of information.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.behindthevoiceactors.com/video-games/Soulcalibur-III/","url_text":"\"Soulcalibur III (2005 Video Game)\""}]},{"reference":"@RayChase (October 19, 2018). \"\"The wait is over. Let's begin!\" I'm so grateful to have voiced Mitsurugi in the outstanding Soul Calibur VI! Now go use the character creator to make Roy or Noctis or heck even Master of Masters?\" (Tweet). Retrieved April 27, 2023 – via Twitter.","urls":[{"url":"https://x.com/RayChase/status/1053275336924782592","url_text":"\"\"The wait is over. Let's begin!\" I'm so grateful to have voiced Mitsurugi in the outstanding Soul Calibur VI! Now go use the character creator to make Roy or Noctis or heck even Master of Masters?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)","url_text":"Tweet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"}]},{"reference":"\"Mitsurugi's Soul Edge Profile\". Retrieved 2008-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soularchive.jp/tmr/souledge/mitsu/mitu_pro.htm","url_text":"\"Mitsurugi's Soul Edge Profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"SoulCalibur cards fighting their way to Outcast Odyssey – but only for the next few weeks | 148Apps\". www.148apps.com. Retrieved 2018-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.148apps.com/news/soulcalibur-cards-fighting-their-way-to-outcast-odyssey-but-only-for-the-next-few-weeks/","url_text":"\"SoulCalibur cards fighting their way to Outcast Odyssey – but only for the next few weeks | 148Apps\""}]},{"reference":"Glasser, AJ. \"Tales of the World 2 Gets Soulcalibur Costumes\". Kotaku. 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YouTube. 18 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2023-06-17. Event occurs at 22:20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsaGxOdx7Ho","url_text":"\"Metrocon 2012: Crispin Freeman Panel\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/fsaGxOdx7Ho","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Out of the Mouths of Hedgehogs\". Sega Blog. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2023-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006110845/http://blogs.sega.com/2010/07/15/out-of-the-mouths-of-hedgehogs/","url_text":"\"Out of the Mouths of Hedgehogs\""},{"url":"http://blogs.sega.com/2010/07/15/out-of-the-mouths-of-hedgehogs/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Roger Craig Smith\". Roger Craig Smith. 2015-05-12. Archived from the original on 2016-10-15. 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Legend of Soulcalibur (in Japanese). Honored. pp. 28–30. ISBN 9784877196608.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9784877196608","url_text":"9784877196608"}]},{"reference":"SoulCalibur: New Legends of Project Soul. Bandai Namco Entertainment. 2014-05-16. p. 112. ISBN 978-1926778952.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai_Namco_Entertainment","url_text":"Bandai Namco Entertainment"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1926778952","url_text":"978-1926778952"}]},{"reference":"\"シャンファ キャラクター原案\". soularchive.jp. Archived from the original on 2007-06-25. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai%E2%80%93Nanjing_railway | Shanghai–Nanjing railway | ["1 History","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References"] | Railway in China
Shanghai Nanjing Railway
The Shanghai–Nanjing or Huning Railway is a 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge railway in China running from Shanghai to Nanjing. The railway is about 307 kilometers (191 mi) long. The Huning line is one of the busiest in China.
The Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway runs along the same route, but on parallel tracks.
Its Chinese name is derived from the character abbreviations Hù (s 沪, t 滬) for Shanghai and Níng (s 宁, t 寧) for Nanjing.
History
Such a railway had long been desired by Western interests in 19th-century China and just as long opposed by the Qing government. Following China's disastrous failure in the First Sino-Japanese War, however, the Guangxu Emperor approved the construction of the Shanghai–Nanjing line as a western extension of the existing Songhu Railway. The project was undertaken by the civil engineering partnership Sir John Wolfe-Barry and Lt Col Arthur John Barry at the end of the nineteenth century. Its former eastern terminus at the Old North Station in Shanghai's Zhabei District (the former American district of the International Settlement) is now the Shanghai Railway Museum.
From 1928 to 1949, while Nanjing was the capital of the Republic, the line was known as the Jinghu Railway, a name now reserved for the line between Beijing and Shanghai.
In 2007 during the Sixth Railway Speed-Up Campaign, the line was organized into the Beijing–Shanghai railway
See also
Railways portal
Jinghu Railway, the modern railway between Beijing and Shanghai
Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway
Notes
^ Chinese: t 滬寧鐡路, s 沪宁铁路, p Hù–Níng Tiělù.
^ Chinese: t 京滬鐡路, s 京沪铁路, p Jīng–Hù Tiělù.
References
^ HU, Jian; LU, Yingguo; XUE, Guibao; YANG, Qingning (July 1, 2010). 引领世界高铁发展新潮流 ——写在沪宁城际高速铁路建成通车之际 (in Chinese). 上铁资讯网. Retrieved December 18, 2017.
^ "京沪铁路的历史变迁". (in Chinese)
^ Frederick Arthur Crisp Visitation of England and Wales, Volume 14, London (1906)
This article related to the history of China is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This People's Republic of China rail-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%AE%81%E9%95%87%E5%85%AC%E8%B7%AF%E6%97%81%E7%96%BE%E9%A9%B0%E7%9A%84%E7%81%AB%E8%BD%A6_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"link_name":"[n 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"standard gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gauge"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Nanjing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai%E2%80%93Nanjing_intercity_railway"},{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"Hù","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai#Etymology_and_names"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"沪","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%AA"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"滬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BB%AC"},{"link_name":"Níng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"宁","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%81"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"寧","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AF%A7"}],"text":"Shanghai Nanjing RailwayThe Shanghai–Nanjing or Huning Railway[n 1] is a 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge railway in China running from Shanghai to Nanjing. The railway is about 307 kilometers (191 mi) long.[citation needed] The Huning line is one of the busiest in China.[1][citation needed]The Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway runs along the same route, but on parallel tracks.Its Chinese name is derived from the character abbreviations Hù (s 沪, t 滬) for Shanghai and Níng (s 宁, t 寧) for Nanjing.","title":"Shanghai–Nanjing railway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"19th-century China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Qing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty"},{"link_name":"First Sino-Japanese War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Guangxu Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Songhu Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhu_Railway"},{"link_name":"John Wolfe-Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wolfe-Barry"},{"link_name":"Arthur John Barry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_John_Barry"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Zhabei District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhabei_District"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Concession_(Shanghai)"},{"link_name":"International Settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Railway Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Railway_Museum"},{"link_name":"Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912-1949)"},{"link_name":"[n 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sixth Railway Speed-Up Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_to_raise_the_speed_of_railway_travel_in_China"},{"link_name":"Beijing–Shanghai railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Shanghai_railway"}],"text":"Such a railway had long been desired by Western interests in 19th-century China and just as long opposed by the Qing government. Following China's disastrous failure in the First Sino-Japanese War, however, the Guangxu Emperor approved the construction of the Shanghai–Nanjing line[2] as a western extension of the existing Songhu Railway. The project was undertaken by the civil engineering partnership Sir John Wolfe-Barry and Lt Col Arthur John Barry at the end of the nineteenth century.[3] Its former eastern terminus at the Old North Station in Shanghai's Zhabei District (the former American district of the International Settlement) is now the Shanghai Railway Museum.From 1928 to 1949, while Nanjing was the capital of the Republic, the line was known as the Jinghu Railway,[n 2] a name now reserved for the line between Beijing and Shanghai.\nIn 2007 during the Sixth Railway Speed-Up Campaign, the line was organized into the Beijing–Shanghai railway","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"滬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BB%AC"},{"link_name":"寧","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AF%A7"},{"link_name":"鐡路","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%90%A1%E8%B7%AF"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"沪","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%AA"},{"link_name":"宁","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%81"},{"link_name":"铁路","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%93%81%E8%B7%AF"},{"link_name":"p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_characters"},{"link_name":"京","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AC"},{"link_name":"滬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%BB%AC"},{"link_name":"鐡路","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%90%A1%E8%B7%AF"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_characters"},{"link_name":"京","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%BA%AC"},{"link_name":"沪","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%B2%AA"},{"link_name":"铁路","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%93%81%E8%B7%AF"},{"link_name":"p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"}],"text":"^ Chinese: t 滬寧鐡路, s 沪宁铁路, p Hù–Níng Tiělù.\n\n^ Chinese: t 京滬鐡路, s 京沪铁路, p Jīng–Hù Tiělù.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Shanghai Nanjing Railway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/%E5%AE%81%E9%95%87%E5%85%AC%E8%B7%AF%E6%97%81%E7%96%BE%E9%A9%B0%E7%9A%84%E7%81%AB%E8%BD%A6_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-%E5%AE%81%E9%95%87%E5%85%AC%E8%B7%AF%E6%97%81%E7%96%BE%E9%A9%B0%E7%9A%84%E7%81%AB%E8%BD%A6_-_panoramio.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Railways portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Railways"},{"title":"Jinghu Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinghu_Railway"},{"title":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"title":"Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai%E2%80%93Nanjing_intercity_railway"}] | [{"reference":"HU, Jian; LU, Yingguo; XUE, Guibao; YANG, Qingning (July 1, 2010). 引领世界高铁发展新潮流 ——写在沪宁城际高速铁路建成通车之际 (in Chinese). 上铁资讯网. Retrieved December 18, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.shrail.com/2010cj/20102cj%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB36.html","url_text":"引领世界高铁发展新潮流 ——写在沪宁城际高速铁路建成通车之际"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.shrail.com/2010cj/20102cj%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB36.html","external_links_name":"引领世界高铁发展新潮流 ——写在沪宁城际高速铁路建成通车之际"},{"Link":"http://www.qikan.com.cn/Article/lvba/lvba200707/lvba20070725.html","external_links_name":"京沪铁路的历史变迁"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shanghai%E2%80%93Nanjing_railway&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shanghai%E2%80%93Nanjing_railway&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_IIHF_World_Ranking | IIHF World Ranking | ["1 Description","1.1 Formula","2 Men's rankings","3 Women's rankings","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Ranking of national ice hockey teams
Top 20 rankings as of May 2024
Men's
Rank
Change*
Team
Points
1
Canada
4100
2
1
Russia
4065
3
1
Finland
3955
4
4
Czech Republic
3945
5
2
Switzerland
3945
6
2
United States
3945
7
1
Sweden
3910
8
3
Germany
3865
9
Slovakia
3750
10
Latvia
3660
11
Denmark
3500
12
Norway
3380
13
3
Austria
3340
14
1
France
3325
15
Kazakhstan
3305
16
2
Belarus
3245
17
3
Great Britain
3095
18
1
Hungary
3090
19
2
Slovenia
3090
20
2
Italy
3025
Women's
Rank
Change*
Team
Points
1
Canada
4270
2
United States
4210
3
1
Finland
3975
4
1
Czech Republic
3965
5
2
Switzerland
3960
6
Russia
3880
7
Japan
3775
8
Sweden
3750
9
Germany
3650
10
Hungary
3520
11
Denmark
3490
12
2
China
3425
13
1
France
3415
14
1
Norway
3340
15
2
Austria
3315
16
Slovakia
3175
17
Netherlands
3170
18
1
South Korea
3080
19
1
Italy
3025
20
Poland
2955
The IIHF World Ranking is a ranking of the performance of the national ice hockey teams of member countries of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). It is based on a formula giving points for each team's placings at IIHF-sanctioned tournaments over the previous four years. The ranking is used to determine seedings and qualification requirements for future IIHF tournaments. The current leader in rankings is Canada in both men's and women's play.
Description
The system was approved at the IIHF congress of September 2003. According to former IIHF President René Fasel, the system was designed to be simple to understand and "reflect the long-term quality of all national hockey programs and their commitment to international hockey".
The ranking is used to determine the seeding of the teams for the next World Championship and to select the teams which can participate in Winter Olympics without playing in the qualifying round. For example, for the 2022 Winter Olympics, the first eight teams of the Men's World Ranking and the first six of the Women's World Ranking were pre-qualified. Qualification for the men's tournament at the 2022 Winter Olympics was structured around the 2019 ranking. Twelve spots were made available for teams. The top eight teams in the World Ranking after the 2019 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths into the Ice Hockey event. All IIHF teams had an opportunity to qualify for the event. Teams that wished to participate ranked below 36th played in two preliminary qualifications in November 2019. The two winners of the first preliminaries and teams ranked 27–36th were divided in three groups to play in the second pre-qualification round in December 2019. The three winners of those preliminaries joined teams ranked 18–26th for the third pre-qualification round of three groups in February 2020. The winner of each of these pre-qualification groups and teams ranked 9–17 were divided in three groups to play in the final qualification in August 2021. The winner of each group then joined the eight top-ranked teams plus the host in the Olympics in 2022.
The women's tournament uses a similar qualification format. The top six teams in the IIHF Women's World Ranking after the 2020 IIHF Women's World Championship received automatic berths into the ice hockey event. Lower ranked teams had an opportunity to qualify for the event. Teams ranked 16th and below were divided into three groups where they played in a preliminary qualification round in the October 2021. The three group winners from the round advanced to the final qualification round, where the teams ranked seventh through fifteenth joined them.
Formula
The world ranking is based on the final positions of the last four Men's or Women's IIHF World Championships and last Olympic ice hockey tournament. Points are assigned according to a team's final placement in the World Championship or the Olympic tournament. The world champion receives 1600 points and then a 20-point interval is used between teams. However, a 40-point interval is used between gold and silver, silver and bronze, fourth and fifth, and eighth and ninth. This is used as a bonus for the teams who reach the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the final and for winning the gold medal. Prior to 2023, the world champion received 1200 points, with other teams receiving the same point interval decreases.
Place
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
...
Points
1600
1560
1520
1500
1460
1440
1420
1400
1360
1340
1320
1300
1280
1260
1240
1220
1200
1180
1160
1140
...
Points awarded in the current year are valued at the full amount. Points award in the prior years decline linearly by 25% until the fifth year when they are dropped from the calculation. Under this formula, any year with a World Championship and an Olympics will be counted twice in the tables, for a maximum ranking (gold medal in all five events) of: 5600 points at the completion of an Olympic year, 5200 points at the completion of the following year, 4800 points the next year, and 4400 points in the year before the next Olympics. For example, if after the 2026 Championship a team had won the gold medal in the last four championships and the last Olympic tournament, their score would be 5600:
Competition
Valuationcoefficient
Points
2026 IIHF World Championship
100%
1600
2026 Winter Olympics
100%
1600
2025 IIHF World Championship
75%
1200
2024 IIHF World Championship
50%
800
2023 IIHF World Championship
25%
400
2022 IIHF World Championship
0%
0
2022 Winter Olympics
0%
0
Counts Five Tournaments from Four Latest Years
5600
^ From April 2014 to August 2022, Women's rankings counted Olympics points twice, to be on same formula as Men's rankings, as no Women's top division World Championship was held in Olympic years. This changed with the Women's top division starting to be held in Olympic years in 2022.
^ Due to the point value change from 2023, tournaments from 2020-2022 will still use the 1200 point values in the formula.
Men's rankings
See also: List of IIHF World Rankings
The Men's 2024 ranking is based on the performance at the World Championships of 2024, 2023, 2022, and 2021, and at the Olympic Ice Hockey tournament of 2022.
All tournaments in 2020 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, teams were awarded points based on their seeding for their respective tournaments. The Championship division received points based on the 2019 World Ranking, while the remaining divisions received points based on the previous year's results. For a fairer ranking and point distribution, the IIHF Council decided that the points for 2021 in case of tournament cancellations are given according to the ranking position of each team in the 2021 Pre-Championship Report – taking into consideration the results in 2018, 2019 and 2020 – rather than by seeding as in the past.
For the 2022 Winter Olympics, Russia was still under a 2019 ban by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) because of that country's state-sponsored doping scheme. On 19 February 2021, the International Olympic Committee announced that individual athletes from Russia, who had consistently passed ongoing anti-doping tests, could compete under the acronym "ROC" (the full name "Russian Olympic Committee" could not be displayed), and that the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee would be used for the COVID-19 pandemic-delayed 2020 Summer Olympics and the unchanged 2022 Winter Olympics.
Russia and Belarus were expelled from competing in the 2022 and 2023 World Championships because of their invasion of Ukraine. They were, however, granted the points of the positions they would have been seeded based on their 2021 ranking: in 2022, Russia in third place received 1120 points, and Belarus in 14th place received 860 points. Several nations withdrew from the 2022 World Championships over COVID-19 concerns. These nations similarly received the points of the positions they would have been seeded within their respective tournaments: Australia as second place in IIA received 560 points, New Zealand as third place in IIB received 440 points, North Korea as first place in IIIA received 360 points, Hong Kong as second place in IIIB received 220 points, and the Philippines as fourth place in IV received 100 points.
The following table lists the full breakdown of ranking following the 2024 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships. All tournament's points have their full value displayed, while the ranking is calculated by adding the current year's tournament points to the depreciated previous three years' tournament points as explained above. The depreciated percentages are shown in the column headings, first for the current total, then for the new total. The "Total" columns are the sums of the current tournament points and the depreciated values for past tournaments. The "+/–" columns indicate the increase or decrease in ranking since the last tournament. A dash in a tournament column indicates that the country did not participate.
2024Rank
2023Rank
Team
WC division(as of 2024)
WC2024(—)(100%)
WC2023(100%)(75%)
WC2022(75%)(50%)
OLY2022(75%)(50%)
WC2021(50%)(25%)
WC2020(25%)(—)
2024Total
+/−
2023Total
+/−
1
1
Canada
Championship
1500
1600
1160
1040
1200
1200
4100
4150
1
2
3
Russia
Expelled
1520
1520
1120
1160
1060
1160
4065
1
4050
3
2
Finland
Championship
1400
1420
1200
1200
1160
1120
3955
1
4080
1
4
8
Czech Republic
Championship
1600
1400
1120
960
1020
1060
3945
4
3735
2
5
7
Switzerland
Championship
1560
1460
1060
1000
1040
1000
3945
2
3775
6
4
United States
Championship
1460
1500
1100
1060
1120
1040
3945
2
3940
7
6
Sweden
Championship
1520
1440
1040
1100
960
1100
3910
1
3800
1
8
5
Germany
Championship
1440
1560
1020
940
1100
1020
3865
3
3835
4
9
9
Slovakia
Championship
1420
1360
1000
1120
1000
960
3750
3690
1
10
10
Latvia
Championship
1360
1520
940
920
920
940
3660
3610
1
11
11
Denmark
Championship
1280
1340
960
1020
900
900
3500
3500
1
12
12
Norway
Championship
1320
1280
880
880
880
920
3380
3270
13
16
Austria
Championship
1340
1260
920
800
780
780
3340
3
3135
1
14
13
France
Championship
1260
1300
900
860
840
800
3325
1
3240
15
15
Kazakhstan
Championship
1300
1320
860
700
940
840
3305
3170
1
16
14
Belarus
Expelled
1240
1260
860
840
840
880
3245
2
3175
17
20
Great Britain
Championship
1240
1200
820
660
860
820
3095
3
2945
2
18
19
Hungary
Division I A
1200
1240
780
780
720
720
3090
1
2950
1
19
17
Slovenia
Division I A
1180
1220
800
820
740
740
3090
2
2990
2
20
18
Italy
Division I A
1160
1160
840
740
820
860
3025
2
2970
1
21
22
Poland
Championship
1220
1180
700
760
700
660
3010
1
2790
22
21
South Korea
Division I A
1100
1140
740
720
760
760
2875
1
2805
23
23
Romania
Division I A
1140
1120
720
640
660
700
2825
2645
1
24
25
Japan
Division I A
1120
1080
680
680
640
640
2770
1
2580
25
24
Lithuania
Division I B
1060
1100
760
600
680
680
2735
1
2630
1
26
26
China
Division I B
1020
1040
600
900
500
480
2675
2535
27
27
Ukraine
Division I B
1080
1060
660
620
600
600
2665
2470
28
28
Estonia
Division I B
1040
1020
640
580
620
620
2570
2400
29
29
Netherlands
Division I B
980
1000
580
560
580
560
2445
2285
30
32
Spain
Division I B
1000
960
540
520
520
500
2380
2
2140
31
30
Serbia
Division II A
940
980
620
500
560
580
2375
1
2245
32
31
Croatia
Division II A
960
940
560
540
540
540
2350
1
2170
33
33
Israel
Division II A
900
900
520
420
460
460
2160
1950
34
34
Iceland
Division II A
860
880
480
480
440
420
2110
1925
35
35
Australia
Division II A
880
920
560
—
480
520
1970
1710
1
36
39
United Arab Emirates
Division II A
920
840
360
320
200
220
1940
3
1505
4
37
36
Bulgaria
Division II B
780
800
420
380
340
340
1865
1
1655
1
38
38
Turkey
Division II B
740
760
340
460
300
300
1785
1585
39
40
Belgium
Division II B
840
820
440
—
420
440
1780
1
1470
40
41
Chinese Taipei
Division II B
760
720
300
440
240
240
1730
1
1455
2
41
42
New Zealand
Division II B
820
780
440
—
360
400
1715
1
1390
42
37
Mexico
Division III A
620
740
400
360
400
360
1655
5
1600
2
43
44
Thailand
Division III A
720
660
220
340
140
160
1530
1
1190
2
44
43
Luxembourg
Division III A
680
640
280
300
280
260
1520
1
1280
1
45
46
Kyrgyzstan
Division III A
700
600
160
400
100
100
1455
1
1095
3
46
45
Turkmenistan
Division III A
660
700
320
—
260
280
1410
1
1140
3
47
49
South Africa
Division III A
640
680
240
—
220
200
1325
2
1020
2
48
48
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Division III B
600
580
200
260
160
140
1305
1040
2
49
47
Hong Kong
Division III B
560
560
220
280
180
180
1275
2
1070
50
53
Georgia
Division II B
800
0
460
—
380
380
1125
3
630
12
51
51
Singapore
Division III B
520
540
120
—
40
—
995
650
4
52
50
Kuwait
Division IV
460
440
80
240
120
120
980
2
770
2
53
55
Philippines
Division III B
540
480
100
—
60
60
965
2
600
1
54
54
Iran
Division III B
500
520
140
—
—
—
960
625
2
55
52
Malaysia
Division IV
420
500
100
—
80
80
865
3
635
1
56
56
North Korea
Division III B
580
—
360
—
320
320
840
510
11
57
57
Mongolia
Division IV
480
460
—
—
—
—
825
460
new
58
58
Indonesia
Division IV
440
420
—
—
—
—
755
420
new
^ Georgia's result in 2023 was invalidated by the IIHF.
Women's rankings
See also: List of IIHF World Rankings
The Women's 2024 ranking is based on the performance at the World Championships of 2024, 2023, 2022, and 2021, and at the Olympic Ice Hockey tournament of 2022.
Most of the tournaments in 2020 and 2021 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, teams were awarded points based on their seeding for their respective tournaments. The Championship division received points based on the previous year's ranking, while Divisions IA, IB, and IIA received points based on the previous year's results. Divisions IIB and III were completed and scored as scheduled in 2020.
For the 2022 Winter Olympics, Russia was still under a 2019 ban by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) because of that country's state-sponsored doping scheme. On 19 February 2021, the International Olympic Committee announced that individual athletes from Russia, who had consistently passed ongoing anti-doping tests, could compete under the acronym "ROC" (the full name "Russian Olympic Committee" could not be displayed), and that the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee would be used for the COVID-19 pandemic-delayed 2020 Summer Olympics and the unchanged 2022 Winter Olympics.
The following table lists the ranking following the 2024 Women's Ice Hockey World Championships. All tournament's points have their full value displayed, while the ranking is calculated by adding the current year's tournament points to the depreciated previous three years' tournament points as explained above. The depreciated percentages are shown in the column headings, first for the current total, then for the new total. The "Total" columns are the sums of the current tournament points and the depreciated values for past tournaments. The "+/–" columns indicate the increase or decrease in ranking since the last tournament. A dash in a tournament column indicates that the country did not participate.
2024Rank
2023Rank
Team
WC division(as of 2023)
WC2024(—)(100%)
WC2023(100%)(75%)
WC2022(75%)(50%)
OLY2022(75%)(50%)
WC2021(50%)(25%)
WC2020(25%)(0%)
2024Total
+/−
2023Total
+/−
1
1
Canada
Championship
1600
1560
1200
1200
1200
1160
4270
4250
2
2
United States
Championship
1560
1600
1160
1160
1160
1200
4210
4220
3
4
Finland
Championship
1520
1460
1040
1120
1120
1120
3975
1
3920
1
4
5
Czech Republic
Championship
1500
1520
1120
1020
1020
1020
3965
1
3890
1
5
3
Switzerland
Championship
1460
1500
1100
1100
1100
1060
3960
2
3965
1
6
6
Russia
Expelled
1440
1460
1100
1060
1060
1100
3880
3885
1
7
7
Japan
Championship
1400
1420
1060
1040
1040
1040
3775
3775
8
8
Sweden
Championship
1420
1440
1020
1000
960
920
3750
3665
9
9
Germany
Championship
1440
1400
960
860
1000
1000
3650
3515
1
10
10
Hungary
Division I A
1300
1360
1000
920
960
940
3520
3515
1
11
11
Denmark
Championship
1340
1300
940
940
940
960
3490
3420
12
14
China
Championship
1360
1320
820
960
740
740
3425
2
3210
2
13
12
France
Division I A
1280
1340
920
880
920
900
3415
1
3375
14
15
Norway
Division I A
1320
1240
900
840
880
880
3340
1
3205
2
15
13
Austria
Division I A
1260
1280
860
900
860
860
3315
2
3245
1
16
16
Slovakia
Division I B
1200
1220
880
820
840
840
3175
3125
1
17
17
Netherlands
Division I A
1240
1260
840
740
780
820
3170
3040
1
18
19
South Korea
Division I A
1220
1200
740
780
800
780
3080
1
2935
19
18
Italy
Division I B
1160
1160
780
800
820
800
3025
1
2955
1
20
20
Poland
Division I B
1100
1180
800
760
760
760
2955
2920
21
23
Great Britain
Division I B
1140
1120
700
720
660
660
2855
2
2680
22
21
Slovenia
Division I B
1120
1140
720
680
680
700
2845
1
2705
1
23
22
Kazakhstan
Division II A
1080
1100
760
660
720
720
2795
1
2705
1
24
24
Spain
Division II A
1060
1060
660
700
640
640
2695
2560
25
25
Mexico
Division II A
1040
1040
620
640
620
620
2605
2450
26
26
Chinese Taipei
Division II A
1020
1020
640
620
540
580
2550
2380
27
29
Latvia
Division I B
1180
1080
680
—
700
680
2505
2
2110
28
27
Iceland
Division II A
1000
1000
580
600
520
540
2470
1
2280
29
28
Turkey
Division II B
880
860
540
580
580
500
2275
1
2115
30
30
Hong Kong
Division II B
920
840
380
560
460
340
2135
1860
31
31
Australia
Division II B
940
940
560
—
560
560
2065
1780
2
32
36
Belgium
Division II A
980
960
460
—
400
420
2030
4
1610
3
33
34
New Zealand
Division II B
900
920
540
—
500
520
1985
1
1705
1
34
32
Lithuania
Division III A
800
800
440
520
340
360
1965
2
1780
2
35
37
South Africa
Division II B
860
900
520
—
420
440
1900
2
1610
36
33
Bulgaria
Division III A
740
760
420
540
360
380
1880
3
1755
1
37
35
Croatia
Division III A
760
880
500
—
480
480
1790
2
1615
1
38
38
Ukraine
Division III A
840
820
460
—
380
460
1780
1470
39
39
Romania
Division III A
820
780
420
—
440
400
1725
1415
1
40
41
Estonia
Division III B
700
740
340
—
320
—
1505
1
1155
41
43
Serbia
Division III A
780
720
320
—
—
—
1480
2
960
42
40
North Korea
Division II B
960
—
620
—
600
600
1420
2
1315
9
43
42
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Division III B
640
680
300
—
300
—
1375
1
1055
44
44
Israel
Division III B
680
700
280
—
—
—
1345
910
45
—
Thailand
Division III B
720
—
—
—
—
—
720
new
—
—
46
—
Singapore
Division III B
660
—
—
—
—
—
660
new
—
—
See also
List of IIHF World Rankings
References
^ a b "IIHF – World Ranking". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 20 October 2021.
^ Hockey Canada (30 September 2003). "IIHF Introduces World Ranking and Ranks Canada First in Men's and Women's Hockey". Retrieved 27 May 2019.
^ Edvinsson, Jan-Ake, ed. (November 2003). "News release–Hockey fans are the best in the world" (PDF). Ice Times. 7 (5). International Ice Hockey Federation: 7. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
^ "Olympic Winter Games". International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
^ "IIHF – Groups for 2022". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
^ a b Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Panja, Tariq (5 December 2017). "Russia Banned From Winter Olympics by I.O.C." The New York Times.
^ a b "Olympics: Russia to compete under ROC acronym in Tokyo as part of doping sanctions". Reuters. 19 February 2021. Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
^ "Finland Stays #1 in World Ranking". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 30 May 2022.
^ a b "IIHF - World Ranking". IIHF International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
External links
World Ranking for the current year at IIHF.com
World Rankings from 2007 to 2018 at IIHF.com
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Water polo | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"International Ice Hockey Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Ice_Hockey_Federation"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"}],"text":"The IIHF World Ranking is a ranking of the performance of the national ice hockey teams of member countries of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF). It is based on a formula giving points for each team's placings at IIHF-sanctioned tournaments over the previous four years. The ranking is used to determine seedings and qualification requirements for future IIHF tournaments. The current leader in rankings is Canada in both men's and women's play.","title":"IIHF World Ranking"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"René Fasel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Fasel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"2022 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2022 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"2019 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"qualify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_qualification"},{"link_name":"2020 IIHF Women's World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"qualify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_qualification"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The system was approved at the IIHF congress of September 2003.[2] According to former IIHF President René Fasel, the system was designed to be simple to understand and \"reflect the long-term quality of all national hockey programs and their commitment to international hockey\".[3]The ranking is used to determine the seeding of the teams for the next World Championship and to select the teams which can participate in Winter Olympics without playing in the qualifying round. For example, for the 2022 Winter Olympics, the first eight teams of the Men's World Ranking and the first six of the Women's World Ranking were pre-qualified. Qualification for the men's tournament at the 2022 Winter Olympics was structured around the 2019 ranking. Twelve spots were made available for teams. The top eight teams in the World Ranking after the 2019 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths into the Ice Hockey event. All IIHF teams had an opportunity to qualify for the event. Teams that wished to participate ranked below 36th played in two preliminary qualifications in November 2019. The two winners of the first preliminaries and teams ranked 27–36th were divided in three groups to play in the second pre-qualification round in December 2019. The three winners of those preliminaries joined teams ranked 18–26th for the third pre-qualification round of three groups in February 2020. The winner of each of these pre-qualification groups and teams ranked 9–17 were divided in three groups to play in the final qualification in August 2021. The winner of each group then joined the eight top-ranked teams plus the host in the Olympics in 2022.The women's tournament uses a similar qualification format. The top six teams in the IIHF Women's World Ranking after the 2020 IIHF Women's World Championship received automatic berths into the ice hockey event. Lower ranked teams had an opportunity to qualify for the event. Teams ranked 16th and below were divided into three groups where they played in a preliminary qualification round in the October 2021. The three group winners from the round advanced to the final qualification round, where the teams ranked seventh through fifteenth joined them.[4]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Men's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"Women's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IIHF_World_Women%27s_Championships"},{"link_name":"Olympic ice hockey tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iihf2021-1"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"sub_title":"Formula","text":"The world ranking is based on the final positions of the last four Men's or Women's IIHF World Championships and last Olympic ice hockey tournament. Points are assigned according to a team's final placement in the World Championship or the Olympic tournament. The world champion receives 1600 points and then a 20-point interval is used between teams. However, a 40-point interval is used between gold and silver, silver and bronze, fourth and fifth, and eighth and ninth. This is used as a bonus for the teams who reach the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the final and for winning the gold medal.[1] Prior to 2023, the world champion received 1200 points, with other teams receiving the same point interval decreases.Points awarded in the current year are valued at the full amount. Points award in the prior years decline linearly by 25% until the fifth year when they are dropped from the calculation. Under this formula, any year with a World Championship and an Olympics will be counted twice in the tables[a], for a maximum ranking (gold medal in all five events) of: 5600 points at the completion of an Olympic year, 5200 points at the completion of the following year, 4800 points the next year, and 4400 points in the year before the next Olympics. For example, if after the 2026 Championship a team had won the gold medal in the last four championships and the last Olympic tournament, their score would be 5600:[b]^ From April 2014 to August 2022, Women's rankings counted Olympics points twice, to be on same formula as Men's rankings, as no Women's top division World Championship was held in Olympic years. This changed with the Women's top division starting to be held in Olympic years in 2022.\n\n^ Due to the point value change from 2023, tournaments from 2020-2022 will still use the 1200 point values in the formula.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of IIHF World Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IIHF_World_Rankings"},{"link_name":"World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"Olympic Ice Hockey tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_tournament"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Championship division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2021_Points-7"},{"link_name":"World Anti-Doping Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Doping_Agency"},{"link_name":"state-sponsored doping scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russia_Olympic_Ban-8"},{"link_name":"International Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"Russian Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"2020 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROC-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"2024 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Men%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"}],"text":"See also: List of IIHF World RankingsThe Men's 2024 ranking is based on the performance at the World Championships of 2024, 2023, 2022, and 2021, and at the Olympic Ice Hockey tournament of 2022.All tournaments in 2020 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, teams were awarded points based on their seeding for their respective tournaments. The Championship division received points based on the 2019 World Ranking, while the remaining divisions received points based on the previous year's results. For a fairer ranking and point distribution, the IIHF Council decided that the points for 2021 in case of tournament cancellations are given according to the ranking position of each team in the 2021 Pre-Championship Report – taking into consideration the results in 2018, 2019 and 2020 – rather than by seeding as in the past.[5]For the 2022 Winter Olympics, Russia was still under a 2019 ban by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) because of that country's state-sponsored doping scheme.[6] On 19 February 2021, the International Olympic Committee announced that individual athletes from Russia, who had consistently passed ongoing anti-doping tests, could compete under the acronym \"ROC\" (the full name \"Russian Olympic Committee\" could not be displayed), and that the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee would be used for the COVID-19 pandemic-delayed 2020 Summer Olympics and the unchanged 2022 Winter Olympics.[7]Russia and Belarus were expelled from competing in the 2022 and 2023 World Championships because of their invasion of Ukraine. They were, however, granted the points of the positions they would have been seeded based on their 2021 ranking: in 2022, Russia in third place received 1120 points, and Belarus in 14th place received 860 points. Several nations withdrew from the 2022 World Championships over COVID-19 concerns. These nations similarly received the points of the positions they would have been seeded within their respective tournaments: Australia as second place in IIA received 560 points, New Zealand as third place in IIB received 440 points, North Korea as first place in IIIA received 360 points, Hong Kong as second place in IIIB received 220 points, and the Philippines as fourth place in IV received 100 points. [8]The following table lists the full breakdown of ranking following the 2024 Men's Ice Hockey World Championships.[9] All tournament's points have their full value displayed, while the ranking is calculated by adding the current year's tournament points to the depreciated previous three years' tournament points as explained above. The depreciated percentages are shown in the column headings, first for the current total, then for the new total. The \"Total\" columns are the sums of the current tournament points and the depreciated values for past tournaments. The \"+/–\" columns indicate the increase or decrease in ranking since the last tournament. A dash in a tournament column indicates that the country did not participate.^ Georgia's result in 2023 was invalidated by the IIHF.","title":"Men's rankings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of IIHF World Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IIHF_World_Rankings"},{"link_name":"World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IIHF_World_Women%27s_Championships"},{"link_name":"2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Women%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"Olympic Ice Hockey tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_Olympic_Games"},{"link_name":"2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_tournament"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Championship division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"IA, IB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship_Division_I"},{"link_name":"IIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship_Division_II"},{"link_name":"III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_IIHF_Women%27s_World_Championship_Division_III"},{"link_name":"World Anti-Doping Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Anti-Doping_Agency"},{"link_name":"state-sponsored doping scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russia_Olympic_Ban-8"},{"link_name":"International Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"Russian Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"2020 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ROC-9"},{"link_name":"2024 Women's Ice Hockey World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Women%27s_Ice_Hockey_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"}],"text":"See also: List of IIHF World RankingsThe Women's 2024 ranking is based on the performance at the World Championships of 2024, 2023, 2022, and 2021, and at the Olympic Ice Hockey tournament of 2022.Most of the tournaments in 2020 and 2021 were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, teams were awarded points based on their seeding for their respective tournaments. The Championship division received points based on the previous year's ranking, while Divisions IA, IB, and IIA received points based on the previous year's results. Divisions IIB and III were completed and scored as scheduled in 2020.For the 2022 Winter Olympics, Russia was still under a 2019 ban by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) because of that country's state-sponsored doping scheme.[6] On 19 February 2021, the International Olympic Committee announced that individual athletes from Russia, who had consistently passed ongoing anti-doping tests, could compete under the acronym \"ROC\" (the full name \"Russian Olympic Committee\" could not be displayed), and that the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee would be used for the COVID-19 pandemic-delayed 2020 Summer Olympics and the unchanged 2022 Winter Olympics.[7]The following table lists the ranking following the 2024 Women's Ice Hockey World Championships.[9] All tournament's points have their full value displayed, while the ranking is calculated by adding the current year's tournament points to the depreciated previous three years' tournament points as explained above. The depreciated percentages are shown in the column headings, first for the current total, then for the new total. The \"Total\" columns are the sums of the current tournament points and the depreciated values for past tournaments. The \"+/–\" columns indicate the increase or decrease in ranking since the last tournament. A dash in a tournament column indicates that the country did not participate.","title":"Women's rankings"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of IIHF World Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IIHF_World_Rankings"}] | [{"reference":"\"IIHF – World Ranking\". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 20 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iihf.com/en/worldranking","url_text":"\"IIHF – World Ranking\""}]},{"reference":"Hockey Canada (30 September 2003). \"IIHF Introduces World Ranking and Ranks Canada First in Men's and Women's Hockey\". Retrieved 27 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hockeycanada.ca/en-ca/news/2003-gn-012-en","url_text":"\"IIHF Introduces World Ranking and Ranks Canada First in Men's and Women's Hockey\""}]},{"reference":"Edvinsson, Jan-Ake, ed. (November 2003). \"News release–Hockey fans are the best in the world\" (PDF). Ice Times. 7 (5). International Ice Hockey Federation: 7. Retrieved 27 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.iihf.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDF/The_IIHF/IIHF_Vol7No5.pdf","url_text":"\"News release–Hockey fans are the best in the world\""}]},{"reference":"\"Olympic Winter Games\". International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 27 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.iihf.com/sk/home-of-hockey/championships/olympics.html","url_text":"\"Olympic Winter Games\""}]},{"reference":"\"IIHF – Groups for 2022\". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 7 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iihf.com/en/events/2021/wm/news/26366/groups_for_2022","url_text":"\"IIHF – Groups for 2022\""}]},{"reference":"Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Panja, Tariq (5 December 2017). \"Russia Banned From Winter Olympics by I.O.C.\" The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/05/sports/olympics/ioc-russia-winter-olympics.html","url_text":"\"Russia Banned From Winter Olympics by I.O.C.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Olympics: Russia to compete under ROC acronym in Tokyo as part of doping sanctions\". Reuters. 19 February 2021. Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2020-russia/olympics-russia-to-compete-under-roc-acronym-in-tokyo-as-part-of-doping-sanctions-idUSKBN2AJ1UZ","url_text":"\"Olympics: Russia to compete under ROC acronym in Tokyo as part of doping sanctions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210220020504/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2020-russia/olympics-russia-to-compete-under-roc-acronym-in-tokyo-as-part-of-doping-sanctions-idUSKBN2AJ1UZ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Finland Stays #1 in World Ranking\". iihf.com. IIHF. Retrieved 30 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iihf.com/en/events/2022/wm/news/36618/finland_stays_1_in_world_ranking","url_text":"\"Finland Stays #1 in World Ranking\""}]},{"reference":"\"IIHF - World Ranking\". IIHF International Ice Hockey Federation. Retrieved 29 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iihf.com/en/worldranking","url_text":"\"IIHF - World Ranking\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.iihf.com/en/worldranking","external_links_name":"\"IIHF – World Ranking\""},{"Link":"https://www.hockeycanada.ca/en-ca/news/2003-gn-012-en","external_links_name":"\"IIHF Introduces World Ranking and Ranks Canada First in Men's and Women's Hockey\""},{"Link":"http://webarchive.iihf.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDF/The_IIHF/IIHF_Vol7No5.pdf","external_links_name":"\"News release–Hockey fans are the best in the world\""},{"Link":"http://webarchive.iihf.com/sk/home-of-hockey/championships/olympics.html","external_links_name":"\"Olympic Winter Games\""},{"Link":"https://www.iihf.com/en/events/2021/wm/news/26366/groups_for_2022","external_links_name":"\"IIHF – Groups for 2022\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/05/sports/olympics/ioc-russia-winter-olympics.html","external_links_name":"\"Russia Banned From Winter Olympics by I.O.C.\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2020-russia/olympics-russia-to-compete-under-roc-acronym-in-tokyo-as-part-of-doping-sanctions-idUSKBN2AJ1UZ","external_links_name":"\"Olympics: Russia to compete under ROC acronym in Tokyo as part of doping sanctions\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210220020504/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2020-russia/olympics-russia-to-compete-under-roc-acronym-in-tokyo-as-part-of-doping-sanctions-idUSKBN2AJ1UZ","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.iihf.com/en/events/2022/wm/news/36618/finland_stays_1_in_world_ranking","external_links_name":"\"Finland Stays #1 in World Ranking\""},{"Link":"https://www.iihf.com/en/worldranking","external_links_name":"\"IIHF - World Ranking\""},{"Link":"https://www.iihf.com/en/worldranking","external_links_name":"World Ranking"},{"Link":"http://webarchive.iihf.com/home-of-hockey/championships/world-ranking/","external_links_name":"World Rankings"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Latortue | Gérard Latortue | ["1 Career","2 Personal life and death","3 References"] | Prime Minister of Haiti from 2004 to 2006
Gérard LatortueLatortue in 200412th Prime Minister of HaitiIn office12 March 2004 – 9 June 2006PresidentBoniface Alexandre (provisional)René PrévalPreceded byYvon NeptuneSucceeded byJacques-Édouard AlexisForeign Minister of HaitiIn office12 February 1988 – 20 June 1988Preceded byHérard AbrahamSucceeded byHérard Abraham
Personal detailsBorn(1934-06-19)19 June 1934Gonaïves, HaitiDied27 February 2023(2023-02-27) (aged 88)Boca Raton, Florida, USPolitical partyIndependentSpouseMarlene Zéphirin (m. ?–2023; his death)Children3, including Alexia
Gérard Latortue (19 June 1934 – 27 February 2023) was a Haitian politician and diplomat who served as the prime minister of Haiti from 12 March 2004 to 9 June 2006. He was an official in the United Nations for many years, and briefly served as foreign minister of Haiti during the short-lived 1988 administration of Leslie Manigat.
Career
In February 2004, the country experienced a coup d'état which saw the removal and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide; Breaking with the Haitian constitution a "council of the wise" was set up by the international powers to choose a new Prime Minister. Latortue was selected by the council and appointed head of the interim government on 9 March while still living in the United States, and was sworn in on 12 March.
His administration was recognized by the United Nations, the United States, Canada, and the European Union. He was denied recognition by the governments of Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Venezuela, and Cuba, as well as the African Union. His government was beset with opposition from the Fanmi Lavalas political party (and with them, a large amount of the Haitian populace); an ongoing flight of foreign capital and human resources (especially by the country's economic elite, which, through the Group of 184, had supported the coup against Aristide and had contributed a significant number of personnel to the subsequent government); and violence by and between gangs, rebels, and militants (especially in Port-au-Prince and its metropolitan area), many of whom are either former members of the Haitian Armed Forces (disbanded by Aristide) or street gang supporters of the Aristide government "Chimere".
The 2006 elections in Haiti, to replace the interim government of Latortue established after the 2004 Haitian coup d'état, were delayed four times after having been originally scheduled for October and November 2005. The elections finally took place on 7 February 2006. The 129 member Haitian Parliament was also elected at this election. Run-off elections for the Chamber of Deputies of Haiti were held on 21 April 2006. In June 2006, Latortue was succeeded by Jacques-Édouard Alexis.
Latortue was the head of the observer mission of La Francophonie in Togo for that country's October 2007 parliamentary election.
Personal life and death
Latortue had three children. His daughter, Alexia, currently serves in the United States Department of the Treasury.
Latortue died after a fall on 27 February 2023, at the age of 88.
References
^ "Togo : Francophonie observers urge electoral commission to release results" Archived 5 August 2007 at archive.today, African Press Agency, 16 October 2007.
^ "Paysage après la bataille (électorale)", Jeuneafrique.com, 22 October 2007 (in French).
^ Gérard Latortue, former interim Haitian premier, dies at 88
^ "Connoisseur of Haitian history, former Prime Minister Gérard Latortue dead at 88". Miami Herald. 27 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
Political offices
Preceded byYvon Neptune
Prime Minister of Haiti 2004–2006
Succeeded byJacques-Édouard Alexis
vtePrime ministers of Haiti (List)
Célestin
vacant, 1988–91
Préval
Honorat
Bazin
Malval
Michel
Werleigh
Smarth
vacant, 1997–99
Alexis
Chérestal
Neptune
Latortue
Alexis
Pierre-Louis
Bellerive
Conille
Lamothe
Guillaume*
Paul
Jean
Jean-Charles
Lafontant
Céant
Lapin*
Jouthe
Joseph*
Henry*
Boisvert*
Conille*
* Acting
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
United States
Netherlands
2
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"prime minister of Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Haiti"},{"link_name":"foreign minister of Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_minister_of_Haiti"},{"link_name":"Leslie Manigat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Manigat"}],"text":"Gérard Latortue (19 June 1934 – 27 February 2023) was a Haitian politician and diplomat who served as the prime minister of Haiti from 12 March 2004 to 9 June 2006. He was an official in the United Nations for many years, and briefly served as foreign minister of Haiti during the short-lived 1988 administration of Leslie Manigat.","title":"Gérard Latortue"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coup d'état","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Haitian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Jean-Bertrand Aristide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Bertrand_Aristide"},{"link_name":"interim government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interim_government"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica"},{"link_name":"Saint Kitts and Nevis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"African Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Union"},{"link_name":"Fanmi Lavalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanmi_Lavalas"},{"link_name":"Group of 184","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_184"},{"link_name":"Haitian Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitian_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Chamber of Deputies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Haiti)"},{"link_name":"Jacques-Édouard Alexis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-%C3%89douard_Alexis"},{"link_name":"La Francophonie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Francophonie"},{"link_name":"Togo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo"},{"link_name":"October 2007 parliamentary election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Togolese_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"In February 2004, the country experienced a coup d'état which saw the removal and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide; Breaking with the Haitian constitution a \"council of the wise\" was set up by the international powers to choose a new Prime Minister. Latortue was selected by the council and appointed head of the interim government on 9 March while still living in the United States, and was sworn in on 12 March.His administration was recognized by the United Nations, the United States, Canada, and the European Union. He was denied recognition by the governments of Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Venezuela, and Cuba, as well as the African Union. His government was beset with opposition from the Fanmi Lavalas political party (and with them, a large amount of the Haitian populace); an ongoing flight of foreign capital and human resources (especially by the country's economic elite, which, through the Group of 184, had supported the coup against Aristide and had contributed a significant number of personnel to the subsequent government); and violence by and between gangs, rebels, and militants (especially in Port-au-Prince and its metropolitan area), many of whom are either former members of the Haitian Armed Forces (disbanded by Aristide) or street gang supporters of the Aristide government \"Chimere\".The 2006 elections in Haiti, to replace the interim government of Latortue established after the 2004 Haitian coup d'état, were delayed four times after having been originally scheduled for October and November 2005. The elections finally took place on 7 February 2006. The 129 member Haitian Parliament was also elected at this election. Run-off elections for the Chamber of Deputies of Haiti were held on 21 April 2006. In June 2006, Latortue was succeeded by Jacques-Édouard Alexis.Latortue was the head of the observer mission of La Francophonie in Togo for that country's October 2007 parliamentary election.[1][2]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexia_Latortue"},{"link_name":"United States Department of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Latortue had three children. His daughter, Alexia, currently serves in the United States Department of the Treasury.Latortue died after a fall on 27 February 2023, at the age of 88.[3][4]","title":"Personal life and death"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Connoisseur of Haitian history, former Prime Minister Gérard Latortue dead at 88\". Miami Herald. 27 February 2023. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_museum | List of Jewish museums | ["1 Albania","2 Australia","3 Austria","4 Belarus","5 Belgium","6 Bosnia and Herzegovina","7 Brazil","8 Canada","9 China","10 Czech Republic","11 Denmark","12 France","13 Georgia","14 Germany","15 Greece","16 Guatemala","17 Hungary","18 Ireland","19 Israel","20 Italy","21 Latvia","22 Lithuania","23 Morocco","24 Netherlands","25 Norway","26 Poland","27 Portugal","28 Romania","29 Russia","30 Serbia","31 Slovakia","32 Spain","33 Sweden","34 Switzerland","35 Turkey","36 Ukraine","37 United Kingdom","38 United States","39 See also","40 References"] | A Jewish museum is a museum which focuses upon Jews and may refer seek to explore and share the Jewish experience in a given area.
Jewish Museum of Belgium, in Brussels.
Notable Jewish museums include:
Albania
Solomon Museum, Berat
Australia
Jewish Museum of Australia, Melbourne, Victoria
Sydney Jewish Museum
Austria
Jewish Museum Vienna
Austrian Jewish Museum, Eisenstadt
Jewish Museum of Hohenems
Belarus
Museum of Jewish History and Culture in Belarus
Belgium
Jewish Museum of Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Museum of the Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Muzej Jevreja Bosne i Hercegovine) in Sarajevo
Brazil
Jewish Museum of São Paulo
Canada
Montreal Holocaust Museum
Jewish Heritage Centre (Winnipeg)
Saint John Jewish Historical Museum in New Brunswick
China
Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum
Czech Republic
Jewish Museum in Prague
Denmark
Danish Jewish Museum, Copenhagen
France
Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme, (Museum of Jewish Art and History), Paris, and its predecessor Musée d'Art Juif
Musée judéo-alsacien de Bouxwiller, Bouxwiller, Bas-Rhin
Georgia
David Baazov Museum of History of Jews of Georgia, Tbilisi
Germany
Jewish Museum Berlin
Jewish Museum Emmendingen
Jewish Museum Frankfurt
Jewish Museum Munich
Greece
Jewish Museum of Greece, Athens
Jewish Museum of Rhodes
Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki
Guatemala
Museum of the Holocaust (Guatemala) in Guatemala City
Hungary
Hungarian Jewish Museum and Archives, Budapest
Miskolc Jewish Museum and Visitor's Center, Miskolc
Ireland
Irish Jewish Museum, Dublin
Israel
Further information: List of Israeli museums
Italy
Palazzo Pannolini, Bologna
Synagogue of Casale Monferrato
Museum of Italian Judaism and the Shoah, Ferrara
Jewish Museum of Florence
Jewish Museum of Rome
Jewish Museum of Venice
Jewish Museum Carlo e Vera Wagner, Trieste
Latvia
Jews in Latvia (museum), Riga
Lithuania
Vilna Gaon Jewish State Museum (Vilnius)
Morocco
Moroccan Jewish Museum, Casablanca
Beit Yehuda Museum, Tangier
Netherlands
Joods Historisch Museum, Amsterdam
Norway
Jewish Museum in Oslo
Poland
Galicia Jewish Museum (Kraków)
Museum of the History of the Polish Jews (Warsaw)
Warsaw Ghetto Museum
The Judaica collection of Maksymilian Goldstein, once an independent museum, now part of the collection of the Lviv Crafts Museum
Portugal
Jewish Museum of Belmonte
Portuguese Jewish Museum
Romania
Jewish Museum (Bucharest)
Northern Transylvania Holocaust Memorial Museum
Muzeon - Jewish History Museum (Cluj)
Russia
Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center, Moscow
Serbia
Jewish Historical Museum, Belgrade
Slovakia
Museum of Jewish Culture, Bratislava
Spain
Palace of the Forgotten, Granada
Sephardic Museum (Granada)
Sephardic Museum, Toledo
Sweden
Jewish Museum of Sweden
Switzerland
Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basel
Turkey
Jewish Museum of Turkey, Istanbul
Ukraine
Museum of the History of Odesa Jews, Odesa
Museum of Jewish History and the Holocaust in Ukraine in Menorah center, Dnipro.
United Kingdom
Jewish Museum London, England
Manchester Jewish Museum, England
United States
Jewish History Museum (Tucson), Tucson, Arizona
Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life, Berkeley, California
Contemporary Jewish Museum, San Francisco, California
The Museum of the Southern Jewish Experience, New Orleans, Louisiana
Jewish Museum of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland
Jewish Children's Museum, Brooklyn, New York
Herbert & Eileen Bernard Museum of Judaica at Congregation Emanu-El of New York, Manhattan, New York
Jewish Museum (Manhattan), Manhattan, New York
Museum of Jewish Heritage, Manhattan, New York
National Museum of American Jewish History, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Lillian & Albert Small Capital Jewish Museum Washington DC
Jewish Museum Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
See also
List of Holocaust memorials and museums
References
Index of articles associated with the same name
This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names). | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bruxelles_rue_des_Minimes_21.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Belgium, in Brussels.Notable Jewish museums include:","title":"List of Jewish museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Solomon Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Museum"},{"link_name":"Berat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berat"}],"text":"Solomon Museum, Berat","title":"Albania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Sydney Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Jewish_Museum"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Australia, Melbourne, Victoria\nSydney Jewish 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the Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Museum_of_the_Jews_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Museum of the Jews of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Muzej Jevreja Bosne i Hercegovine) in Sarajevo","title":"Bosnia and Herzegovina"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of São Paulo","title":"Brazil"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Montreal Holocaust Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Holocaust_Museum"},{"link_name":"Jewish Heritage Centre (Winnipeg)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Heritage_Centre_(Winnipeg)"},{"link_name":"Saint John Jewish Historical Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_John_Jewish_Historical_Museum"}],"text":"Montreal Holocaust Museum\nJewish Heritage Centre (Winnipeg)\nSaint John Jewish Historical Museum in New Brunswick","title":"Canada"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Jewish_Refugees_Museum"}],"text":"Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum","title":"China"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum in Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_in_Prague"}],"text":"Jewish Museum in Prague","title":"Czech Republic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Danish Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Jewish_Museum"}],"text":"Danish Jewish Museum, Copenhagen","title":"Denmark"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_du_Juda%C3%AFsme"},{"link_name":"Musée d'Art Juif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_Juif"},{"link_name":"Musée judéo-alsacien de Bouxwiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_jud%C3%A9o-alsacien_de_Bouxwiller"}],"text":"Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme, (Museum of Jewish Art and History), Paris, and its predecessor Musée d'Art Juif\nMusée judéo-alsacien de Bouxwiller, Bouxwiller, Bas-Rhin","title":"France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Baazov Museum of History of Jews of Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Baazov_Museum_of_History_of_Jews_of_Georgia"}],"text":"David Baazov Museum of History of Jews of Georgia, Tbilisi","title":"Georgia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum Emmendingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_Emmendingen"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum Frankfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_Frankfurt"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_Munich"}],"text":"Jewish Museum Berlin\nJewish Museum Emmendingen\nJewish Museum Frankfurt\nJewish Museum Munich","title":"Germany"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Thessaloniki"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Greece, Athens\nJewish Museum of Rhodes\nJewish Museum of Thessaloniki","title":"Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Museum of the Holocaust (Guatemala)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_Holocaust_(Guatemala)"}],"text":"Museum of the Holocaust (Guatemala) in Guatemala City","title":"Guatemala"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hungarian Jewish Museum and Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hungarian_Jewish_Museum_and_Archives&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Miskolc Jewish Museum and Visitor's Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miskolc_Jewish_Museum_and_Visitor%27s_Center&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Hungarian Jewish Museum and Archives, Budapest\nMiskolc Jewish Museum and Visitor's Center, Miskolc","title":"Hungary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irish Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Jewish_Museum"}],"text":"Irish Jewish Museum, Dublin","title":"Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Israeli museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Israeli_museums"}],"text":"Further information: List of Israeli museums","title":"Israel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Palazzo Pannolini, Bologna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Pannolini,_Bologna"},{"link_name":"Synagogue of Casale Monferrato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue_of_Casale_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"Museum of Italian Judaism and the 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(museum)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_in_Latvia_(museum)"},{"link_name":"Riga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga"}],"text":"Jews in Latvia (museum), Riga","title":"Latvia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vilna Gaon Jewish State Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilna_Gaon_Jewish_State_Museum"},{"link_name":"Vilnius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius"}],"text":"Vilna Gaon Jewish State Museum (Vilnius)","title":"Lithuania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moroccan Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moroccan_Jewish_Museum"},{"link_name":"Beit Yehuda Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Yehuda_Synagogue"}],"text":"Moroccan Jewish Museum, Casablanca\nBeit Yehuda Museum, Tangier","title":"Morocco"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joods Historisch Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joods_Historisch_Museum"}],"text":"Joods Historisch Museum, 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collection of the Lviv Crafts Museum","title":"Poland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Belmonte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_Museum_of_Belmonte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Portuguese Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue_of_Tomar"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Belmonte\nPortuguese Jewish Museum","title":"Portugal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum (Bucharest)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_(Bucharest)"},{"link_name":"Northern Transylvania Holocaust Memorial Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Transylvania_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum"},{"link_name":"Muzeon - Jewish History Museum (Cluj)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muzeon_-_Jewish_History_Museum_(Cluj)&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Jewish Museum (Bucharest)\nNorthern Transylvania Holocaust Memorial Museum\nMuzeon - Jewish History Museum (Cluj)","title":"Romania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_and_Tolerance_Center"}],"text":"Jewish Museum and Tolerance Center, Moscow","title":"Russia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Historical Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Historical_Museum,_Belgrade"}],"text":"Jewish Historical Museum, Belgrade","title":"Serbia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Museum of Jewish Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Jewish_Culture"}],"text":"Museum of Jewish Culture, Bratislava","title":"Slovakia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Palace of the Forgotten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_the_Forgotten"},{"link_name":"Sephardic Museum (Granada)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic_Museum_(Granada)"},{"link_name":"Sephardic Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic_Museum"}],"text":"Palace of the Forgotten, Granada\nSephardic Museum (Granada)\nSephardic Museum, Toledo","title":"Spain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Sweden"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Sweden","title":"Sweden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Switzerland"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Basel","title":"Switzerland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Turkey"}],"text":"Jewish Museum of Turkey, Istanbul","title":"Turkey"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Museum of the History of Odesa Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_History_of_Odesa_Jews"},{"link_name":"Menorah center, Dnipro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menorah_center,_Dnipro"}],"text":"Museum of the History of Odesa Jews, Odesa\nMuseum of Jewish History and the Holocaust in Ukraine in Menorah center, Dnipro.","title":"Ukraine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish Museum London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_London"},{"link_name":"Manchester Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Jewish_Museum"}],"text":"Jewish Museum London, England\nManchester Jewish Museum, England","title":"United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish History Museum (Tucson)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_History_Museum_(Tucson)"},{"link_name":"Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnes_Collection_of_Jewish_Art_and_Life"},{"link_name":"Contemporary Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_Jewish_Museum"},{"link_name":"The Museum of the Southern Jewish Experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Museum_of_the_Southern_Jewish_Experience&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum of Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Jewish Children's Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Children%27s_Museum"},{"link_name":"Congregation Emanu-El of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_Emanu-El_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum (Manhattan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"Museum of Jewish Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Jewish_Heritage"},{"link_name":"National Museum of American Jewish History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_Jewish_History"},{"link_name":"Lillian & Albert Small Capital Jewish Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_%26_Albert_Small_Capital_Jewish_Museum"},{"link_name":"Jewish Museum Milwaukee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Museum_Milwaukee"}],"text":"Jewish History Museum (Tucson), Tucson, Arizona\nMagnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life, Berkeley, California\nContemporary Jewish Museum, San Francisco, California\nThe Museum of the Southern Jewish Experience, New Orleans, Louisiana\nJewish Museum of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland\nJewish Children's Museum, Brooklyn, New York\nHerbert & Eileen Bernard Museum of Judaica at Congregation Emanu-El of New York, Manhattan, New York\nJewish Museum (Manhattan), Manhattan, New York\nMuseum of Jewish Heritage, Manhattan, New York\nNational Museum of American Jewish History, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania\nLillian & Albert Small Capital Jewish Museum Washington DC\nJewish Museum Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin","title":"United States"}] | [{"image_text":"Jewish Museum of Belgium, in Brussels.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bruxelles_rue_des_Minimes_21.jpg/170px-Bruxelles_rue_des_Minimes_21.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of Holocaust memorials and museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Holocaust_memorials_and_museums"}] | [] | [] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kl%C3%A1rafalva | Klárafalva | ["1 Geography","2 History","3 References"] | Coordinates: 46°13′N 20°20′E / 46.217°N 20.333°E / 46.217; 20.333
Village in Csongrád, HungaryKlárafalvaVillageRoman Catholic Church in Klárafalva
Coat of armsCountry HungaryCountyCsongrádArea • Total9.10 km2 (3.51 sq mi)Population (2015) • Total462 • Density50.8/km2 (132/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code6773Area code62
Klárafalva is a village in Csongrád county, in the Southern Great Plain region of southern Hungary.
Geography
It covers an area of 9.1 km2 (4 sq mi) and has a population of 462 people (2015).
History
The area around Klárafalva had been inhabited since the migration period, and was a preferred spot for large animal herders. Archaeological remains suggest the presence of Avars in the region as well.
References
^ a b Gazetteer of Hungary, 1st January 2015. Hungarian Central Statistical Office. 3 September 2015
vteCsongrád-Csanád CountyCities with county rights
Hódmezővásárhely
Szeged (county seat)
Towns
Csanádpalota
Csongrád
Kistelek
Makó
Mindszent
Mórahalom
Sándorfalva
Szentes
Large villages
Algyő
Ásotthalom
Kiszombor
Nagymágocs
Szegvár
Villages
Ambrózfalva
Apátfalva
Árpádhalom
Baks
Balástya
Bordány
Csanádalberti
Csanytelek
Csengele
Derekegyház
Deszk
Domaszék
Dóc
Eperjes
Fábiánsebestyén
Felgyő
Ferencszállás
Forráskút
Földeák
Királyhegyes
Klárafalva
Kövegy
Kübekháza
Magyarcsanád
Maroslele
Mártély
Nagyér
Nagylak
Nagytőke
Óföldeák
Ópusztaszer
Öttömös
Pitvaros
Pusztamérges
Pusztaszer
Röszke
Ruzsa
Szatymaz
Székkutas
Tiszasziget
Tömörkény
Újszentiván
Üllés
Zákányszék
Zsombó
Other topics
History
Geography
Government
Economy
Culture
Tourism
46°13′N 20°20′E / 46.217°N 20.333°E / 46.217; 20.333
This Csongrád-Csanád County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village"},{"link_name":"Csongrád county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csongr%C3%A1d_county"},{"link_name":"Southern Great Plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Great_Plain"},{"link_name":"region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"}],"text":"Village in Csongrád, HungaryKlárafalva is a village in Csongrád county, in the Southern Great Plain region of southern Hungary.","title":"Klárafalva"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area"},{"link_name":"population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HunStat2015-1"}],"text":"It covers an area of 9.1 km2 (4 sq mi) and has a population of 462 people (2015).[1]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"migration period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period"},{"link_name":"Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars"}],"text":"The area around Klárafalva had been inhabited since the migration period, and was a preferred spot for large animal herders. Archaeological remains suggest the presence of Avars in the region as well.","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kl%C3%A1rafalva¶ms=46_13_N_20_20_E_region:HU_type:city","external_links_name":"46°13′N 20°20′E / 46.217°N 20.333°E / 46.217; 20.333"},{"Link":"http://www.ksh.hu/apps/shop.kiadvany?p_kiadvany_id=81322&p_temakor_kod=KSH&p_session_id=800051036609396&p_lang=EN","external_links_name":"Gazetteer of Hungary, 1st January 2015"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kl%C3%A1rafalva¶ms=46_13_N_20_20_E_region:HU_type:city","external_links_name":"46°13′N 20°20′E / 46.217°N 20.333°E / 46.217; 20.333"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kl%C3%A1rafalva&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_77_bomb | Mark 77 bomb | ["1 Use in Iraq and Afghanistan","2 Variants","3 See also","4 References","5 Endnotes","6 External links"] | American air-dropped incendiary bomb
Mark 77 A Mark 77 bomb being loaded on an F/A-18 Hornet, 1993.Place of originUnited StatesService historyWarsOperation Desert Storm War on Terror Operation Iraqi Freedom War in Afghanistan Battle of Tora BoraSpecificationsMass750 lb (340 kg)
The Mark 77 bomb (MK-77) is a United States 750-pound (340 kg) air-dropped incendiary bomb carrying 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of a fuel gel mix which is the direct successor to napalm.
The MK-77 is the primary incendiary weapon currently in use by the United States military. Instead of the gasoline, polystyrene, and benzene mixture used in napalm bombs, the MK-77 uses kerosene-based fuel with a lower concentration of benzene. The Pentagon has claimed that the MK-77 has less impact on the environment than napalm. The mixture reportedly also contains an oxidizing agent, making it more difficult to put out once ignited, as well as white phosphorus.
The effects of MK-77 bombs are similar to those of napalm. The official designation of World War II-era napalm bombs was the Mark 47.
Use of aerial incendiary bombs against civilian populations, including against military targets in civilian areas, was banned in the 1980 United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Protocol III. However, the United States reserved the right to use incendiary weapons against military objectives located in concentrations of civilians where such use would be determined to cause fewer casualties and/or less collateral damage than alternative weapons.
Use in Iraq and Afghanistan
MK-77s were used by the United States Marine Corps during Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Approximately 500 were dropped, reportedly mostly on Iraqi-constructed oil filled trenches. They were also used at the Battle of Tora Bora during the Afghan War.
At least thirty MK-77s were also used by Marine Corps aviators over a three-day period during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, according to a June 2005 letter from the UK Ministry of Defence to former Labour MP Alice Mahon. This letter stated:
The U.S. destroyed its remaining Vietnam era napalm in 2001 but, according to the reports for I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) serving in Iraq in 2003, they used a total of 30 MK 77 weapons in Iraq between 31 March and 2 April 2003, against military targets away from civilian areas. The MK 77 firebomb does not have the same composition as napalm, although it has similar destructive characteristics. The Pentagon has told us that owing to the limited accuracy of the MK 77, it is not generally used in urban terrain or in areas where civilians are congregated.
This confirmed previous reports by U.S. Marine pilots and their commanders saying they had used Mark 77 firebombs on military targets:
Then the Marine howitzers, with a range of 30 kilometers , opened a sustained barrage over the next eight hours. They were supported by U.S. Navy aircraft which dropped 40,000 pounds of explosives and napalm, a U.S. officer told the Herald.
"We napalmed both those approaches," said Colonel James Alles, commander of Marine Aircraft Group 11. "Unfortunately there were people there ... you could see them in the cockpit video. They were Iraqi soldiers."
According to the Italian public service broadcaster RAI's documentary Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre, the MK 77 had been used in Baghdad in 2003 in civilian-populated areas. However, Marine pilots stated to the San Diego Union-Tribune that the targets of the bombings were Iraqi soldiers defending civilian infrastructure such as bridges, as opposed to targeting civilians directly.
In some cases where journalists reported that the U.S. military has used napalm, military spokesmen denied the use of "napalm" without making it clear that MK-77 bombs had actually been deployed instead.
U.S. officials incorrectly informed U.K. Ministry of Defence officials that MK-77s had not been used by the U.S. in Iraq, leading to Defence Minister Adam Ingram making inaccurate statements to the U.K. Parliament in January 2005. Later both Adam Ingram and Secretary of State for Defence John Reid apologized for these inaccurate statements being made to Members of Parliament.
Variants
Later variants of the bomb were modified to carry a reduced load of 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of fuel, which resulted in the total weight decreasing to around 552 pounds (250 kg).
Mk 77 Mod 0 - 750 lb (340 kg) total weight with 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of petroleum oil.
Mk 77 Mod 1 - 500 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of petroleum oil.
Mk 77 Mod 2
Mk 77 Mod 3
Mk 77 Mod 4 - Approx 507 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of fuel (Used during the 1991 Gulf War)
Mk 77 Mod 5 - Approx 507 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of JP-4/JP-5 or JP-8 fuel and thickener (Used during the 2003 invasion of Iraq)
Mk 78 - 750 lb (340 kg) total weight with 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of petroleum oil. No longer in service.
Mk 79 - 1,000 lb (450 kg) total weight with 112 U.S. gallons (424 L; 93 imp gal) of napalm and petrol. No longer in service.
See also
Mark 81 bomb
Mark 82 bomb
Mark 83 bomb
Mark 84 bomb
Mark 117 bomb
Mark 118 bomb
References
^ RAI documentary, English, Italian, Arabic
^ a b c MK-77, GlobalSecurity.org
^ MK-77 - Dumb Bombs
^ "CCW Protocol III 1980 - United States of America reservation text". icrc.org. Retrieved 20 June 2009.
^ AR 600-8-27 p. 26 paragraph 9-14 & p. 28
^ Napalm
^ UK Ministry of Defence letter to Alice Mahon (document)
^ Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops Archived 21 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ U.S. acknowledgment of use of "napalm" (i.e. MK-77) and white phosphorus
^ UK Parliament 10 Jan 2005 UK Parliament 11 Jan 2005 Archived 28 July 2005 at the Wayback Machine
Endnotes
MK-77 Dumb Bombs, Federation of American Scientists
Lennox, Duncan (1994). Jane's Air-Launched Weapons 2005-2006. ISBN 978-0-7106-0866-6.
Army Regulations 600-8-27 dated 2006
External links
'Dead bodies are everywhere', Sydney Morning Herald, 22 March 2003 - probably the first published report on Mk 77 use in Iraq
Napalm by another name: Pentagon denial goes up in flames, Sydney Morning Herald, 9 August 2003
US State Department Response to Illegal Weapon Allegations, 27 January 2005
US lied to Britain over use of napalm in Iraq war, The Independent, 17 June 2005
Parliament misled over firebomb use, Daily Telegraph, 20 June 2005
The Hidden Massacre by Sigfrido Ranucci, Video documentary shows actual chemical bombing on civilians in Fallujah with testimony of interviewed U.S. soldiers - English, Italian and Arabic, Rai News 24, 8 November 2005
US forces 'used chemical weapons' during assault on city of Fallujah, The Independent, 9 November 2005 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"incendiary bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incendiary_bomb"},{"link_name":"U.S. gallons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._gallon"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litre"},{"link_name":"imp gal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_gallon"},{"link_name":"napalm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napalm"},{"link_name":"gasoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"polystyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene"},{"link_name":"benzene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene"},{"link_name":"kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"oxidizing agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizing_agent"},{"link_name":"white phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_phosphorus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Mark 47","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M47_bomb"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weapons"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Mark 77 bomb (MK-77) is a United States 750-pound (340 kg) air-dropped incendiary bomb carrying 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of a fuel gel mix which is the direct successor to napalm.The MK-77 is the primary incendiary weapon currently in use by the United States military. Instead of the gasoline, polystyrene, and benzene mixture used in napalm bombs, the MK-77 uses kerosene-based fuel with a lower concentration of benzene. The Pentagon has claimed that the MK-77 has less impact on the environment than napalm. The mixture reportedly also contains an oxidizing agent, making it more difficult to put out once ignited, as well as white phosphorus.[1][2]The effects of MK-77 bombs are similar to those of napalm. The official designation of World War II-era napalm bombs was the Mark 47.[3]Use of aerial incendiary bombs against civilian populations, including against military targets in civilian areas, was banned in the 1980 United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Protocol III. However, the United States reserved the right to use incendiary weapons against military objectives located in concentrations of civilians where such use would be determined to cause fewer casualties and/or less collateral damage than alternative weapons.[4]","title":"Mark 77 bomb"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"Operation Desert Storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Desert_Storm"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Operation Iraqi Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Iraqi_Freedom"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Battle of Tora Bora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tora_Bora"},{"link_name":"Afghan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"},{"link_name":"2003 invasion of Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq"},{"link_name":"Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Alice Mahon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Mahon"},{"link_name":"I Marine Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Marine_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Marine Aircraft Group 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Aircraft_Group_11"},{"link_name":"RAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAI"},{"link_name":"Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallujah,_The_Hidden_Massacre"},{"link_name":"Baghdad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad"},{"link_name":"civilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian"},{"link_name":"San Diego Union-Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Union-Tribune"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"U.K. Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_Ministry_of_Defence"},{"link_name":"Adam Ingram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Ingram_(Labour_politician)"},{"link_name":"U.K. Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.K._Parliament"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State for Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Defence"},{"link_name":"John Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Reid,_Baron_Reid_of_Cardowan"},{"link_name":"Members of Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Members_of_Parliament"}],"text":"MK-77s were used by the United States Marine Corps during Operation Desert Storm[5] and Operation Iraqi Freedom.[6] Approximately 500 were dropped, reportedly mostly on Iraqi-constructed oil filled trenches. They were also used at the Battle of Tora Bora during the Afghan War.[2]At least thirty MK-77s were also used by Marine Corps aviators over a three-day period during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, according to a June 2005 letter from the UK Ministry of Defence to former Labour MP Alice Mahon. This letter stated:The U.S. destroyed its remaining Vietnam era napalm in 2001 but, according to the reports for I Marine Expeditionary Force (I MEF) serving in Iraq in 2003, they used a total of 30 MK 77 weapons in Iraq between 31 March and 2 April 2003, against military targets away from civilian areas. The MK 77 firebomb does not have the same composition as napalm, although it has similar destructive characteristics. The Pentagon has told us that owing to the limited accuracy of the MK 77, it is not generally used in urban terrain or in areas where civilians are congregated.[7]This confirmed previous reports by U.S. Marine pilots and their commanders saying they had used Mark 77 firebombs on military targets:Then the Marine howitzers, with a range of 30 kilometers [181⁄2 mi], opened a sustained barrage over the next eight hours. They were supported by U.S. Navy aircraft which dropped 40,000 pounds [18,000 kg] of explosives and napalm, a U.S. officer told the Herald.\n\"We napalmed both those [bridge] approaches,\" said Colonel James Alles, commander of Marine Aircraft Group 11. \"Unfortunately there were people there ... you could see them in the cockpit video. They were Iraqi soldiers.\"According to the Italian public service broadcaster RAI's documentary Fallujah, The Hidden Massacre, the MK 77 had been used in Baghdad in 2003 in civilian-populated areas. However, Marine pilots stated to the San Diego Union-Tribune that the targets of the bombings were Iraqi soldiers defending civilian infrastructure such as bridges, as opposed to targeting civilians directly.[8]In some cases where journalists reported that the U.S. military has used napalm, military spokesmen denied the use of \"napalm\" without making it clear that MK-77 bombs had actually been deployed instead.[2][9]U.S. officials incorrectly informed U.K. Ministry of Defence officials that MK-77s had not been used by the U.S. in Iraq, leading to Defence Minister Adam Ingram making inaccurate statements to the U.K. Parliament in January 2005.[10] Later both Adam Ingram and Secretary of State for Defence John Reid apologized for these inaccurate statements being made to Members of Parliament.","title":"Use in Iraq and Afghanistan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1991 Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"JP-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-4"},{"link_name":"JP-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-5"},{"link_name":"JP-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JP-8"},{"link_name":"2003 invasion of Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq"}],"text":"Later variants of the bomb were modified to carry a reduced load of 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of fuel, which resulted in the total weight decreasing to around 552 pounds (250 kg).Mk 77 Mod 0 - 750 lb (340 kg) total weight with 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of petroleum oil.\nMk 77 Mod 1 - 500 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of petroleum oil.\nMk 77 Mod 2\nMk 77 Mod 3\nMk 77 Mod 4 - Approx 507 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of fuel (Used during the 1991 Gulf War)\nMk 77 Mod 5 - Approx 507 lb (230 kg) total weight with 75 U.S. gallons (284 L; 62 imp gal) of JP-4/JP-5 or JP-8 fuel and thickener (Used during the 2003 invasion of Iraq)\nMk 78 - 750 lb (340 kg) total weight with 110 U.S. gallons (416 L; 92 imp gal) of petroleum oil. No longer in service.\nMk 79 - 1,000 lb (450 kg) total weight with 112 U.S. gallons (424 L; 93 imp gal) of napalm and petrol. No longer in service.","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MK-77 Dumb Bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/dumb/mk77.htm"},{"link_name":"Federation of American Scientists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7106-0866-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7106-0866-6"}],"text":"MK-77 Dumb Bombs, Federation of American Scientists\nLennox, Duncan (1994). Jane's Air-Launched Weapons 2005-2006. ISBN 978-0-7106-0866-6.\nArmy Regulations 600-8-27 dated 2006","title":"Endnotes"}] | [] | [{"title":"Mark 81 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_81_bomb"},{"title":"Mark 82 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_82_bomb"},{"title":"Mark 83 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_83_bomb"},{"title":"Mark 84 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_84_bomb"},{"title":"Mark 117 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_117_bomb"},{"title":"Mark 118 bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_118_bomb"}] | [{"reference":"\"CCW Protocol III 1980 - United States of America reservation text\". icrc.org. Retrieved 20 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/NORM/3AB9E36D37F951ECC1257558003E6A3F?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"CCW Protocol III 1980 - United States of America reservation text\""}]},{"reference":"Lennox, Duncan (1994). Jane's Air-Launched Weapons 2005-2006. ISBN 978-0-7106-0866-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7106-0866-6","url_text":"978-0-7106-0866-6"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.rainews24.rai.it/ran24/inchiesta/en/mk77.asp","external_links_name":"RAI documentary, English, Italian, Arabic"},{"Link":"http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/mk77.htm","external_links_name":"MK-77"},{"Link":"http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/dumb/mk77.htm","external_links_name":"MK-77 - Dumb Bombs"},{"Link":"https://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/NORM/3AB9E36D37F951ECC1257558003E6A3F?OpenDocument","external_links_name":"\"CCW Protocol III 1980 - United States of America reservation text\""},{"Link":"http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/napalm.htm","external_links_name":"Napalm"},{"Link":"http://www.rainews24.rai.it/ran24/inchiesta/foto/documento_ministero.jpg","external_links_name":"UK Ministry of Defence letter to Alice Mahon (document)"},{"Link":"http://legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/military/20030805-9999_1n5bomb.html","external_links_name":"Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160221222202/http://legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/military/20030805-9999_1n5bomb.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.rainews24.rai.it/ran24/inchiesta/en/illegal_weapons.asp","external_links_name":"U.S. acknowledgment of use of \"napalm\" (i.e. MK-77) and white phosphorus"},{"Link":"https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/cm050110/text/50110w21.htm#50110w21.html_sbhd6","external_links_name":"UK Parliament 10 Jan 2005"},{"Link":"https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/cm050111/text/50111w01.htm#50111w01.html_sbhd3","external_links_name":"UK Parliament 11 Jan 2005"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050728153658/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/cm050110/text/50110w21.htm#50110w21.html_sbhd6","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/dumb/mk77.htm","external_links_name":"MK-77 Dumb Bombs"},{"Link":"http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/21/1047749944836.html","external_links_name":"'Dead bodies are everywhere'"},{"Link":"http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/08/1060145870882.html","external_links_name":"Napalm by another name: Pentagon denial goes up in flames"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051109215806/http://usinfo.state.gov/media/Archive_Index/Illegal_Weapons_in_Fallujah.html","external_links_name":"US State Department Response to Illegal Weapon Allegations"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050620011336/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0617-01.htm","external_links_name":"US lied to Britain over use of napalm in Iraq war"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060212014609/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2Fnfire20.xml&sSheet=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2Fixhome.html","external_links_name":"Parliament misled over firebomb use"},{"Link":"http://www.rainews24.rai.it/ran24/inchiesta/en/body.asp","external_links_name":"The Hidden Massacre by Sigfrido Ranucci, Video documentary shows actual chemical bombing on civilians in Fallujah with testimony of interviewed U.S. soldiers - English, Italian and Arabic"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080517021639/http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/article325560.ece","external_links_name":"US forces 'used chemical weapons' during assault on city of Fallujah"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_of_the_Mutant_Penguins | Attack of the Mutant Penguins | ["1 Gameplay and premise","2 Development","3 Release","4 Reception","4.1 DOS","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | 1995 video gameAttack of the Mutant PenguinsDeveloper(s)Sunrise GamesPublisher(s)Atari CorporationGameTek (DOS)Producer(s)Alistair BodinDarryl StillDesigner(s)Dan CartwrightPaul HoggartWayne SmithsonProgrammer(s)Mark RobinsonPaul HoggartWayne SmithsonArtist(s)Andrew HansonDan CartwrightPlatform(s)Atari Jaguar, MS-DOSReleaseJaguarEU: December 1995NA: March 15, 1996 DOSNA/EU: 1996Genre(s)Action, strategyMode(s)Single-player
Attack of the Mutant Penguins is a action-strategy video game developed by Sunrise Games and published by Atari Corporation for the Atari Jaguar in Europe on December 1995, and North America on March 15, 1996. A port titled Mutant Penguins was released in 1996 by GameTek for MS-DOS. The plot follows Bernard and Rodney, intergalactic heroes defending earth against alien invaders disguised as penguins. The player must dispatch the alien penguins before they reach a doomsday weapon, in the form of a weighing scale. Earth also has real penguins, who help the player by fighting the aliens and counteracting their weight on the scale.
Attack of the Mutant Penguins was one of the first projects supported by Atari's European development center, established to work with European independent developers on new Jaguar games. Atari selected the project after soliciting presentations from multiple game developers. Sunrise Games founder Wayne Smithson worked with Atari producers Alistair Bodin and Darryl Still, focusing on unique gameplay rather than maximizing the console's hardware. Gaming publications gave both the Jaguar and DOS versions mixed reviews. Some reviewers found the game's concept fresh and innovative, but others felt there was a lack of direction due to the changing gameplay elements, while criticism was geared towards its learning curve.
Gameplay and premise
Attack of the Mutant Penguins is an action-strategy game with puzzle elements played from a top-down perspective, described as a cross between Lemmings (1991) and a platform game. The premise of the game is that Earth is invaded by aliens, who disguise themselves as penguins after monitoring nature television shows. Believing that penguins were Earth's dominant species, the invading aliens quickly realize their mistake and try to fix their disguises to appear more human. As part of their domination plan, the aliens brought to Earth a weighing scale-like doomsday weapon called the Doomscale. The penguins of Earth were unhappy once they found out about the plan, deciding to fight against the aliens with aid from Bernard and Rodney, two intergalactic freelance heroes sent out to stop the invasion.
Gameplay screenshot of the Atari Jaguar version, showing Bernard killing an alien penguin with a pan, as another alien penguins becomes a mutant
Controlling either Bernard or Rodney, the main objective of the game is to kill alien penguins before they reach and trigger the Doomscale. In some levels, the alien penguins will try to reach a transformation station and turn into their mutant form, weighing three times more than their alien form on the Doomscale. The helpful penguins of Earth also appear on the playfield to reach and counteract the aliens' weight on the Doomscale. They can fight against alien penguins in real-time, however they can also be accidentally killed by traps or caught into the player's attack range. If the alien penguins outweigh the helpful penguins on the Doomscale, it will trigger the weapon and the game is over.
The player is initially locked into a preview state where they can observe the locations of items and switches within the level. The player can pick up a "Gremlin" creature in the playfield and drop them on a treasure chest to open it, revealing letters that unlock the player-character's weapon once you spell the right word (a bat for Rodney and a pan for Bernard). They can also be dropped into traps placed around the playfield to distract or kill alien penguins. The chests are opened and traps are built more quickly depending on the number of Gremlins, but they will scatter once their task is done and the player has to pick them up again. Traps and chests can also spawn bonus items for the player.
Once the character's weapon is obtained, it can be energized via power orbs dropped when any penguin is stunned. Grabbing five power orbs energizes the weapon for more damage, while each player-character has different special attacks that are unlocked by grabbing ten orbs or a samurai power-up. After the level is completed, one of three bonus rounds is randomly selected. Depending on the player's performance, they are rewarded with a number of helpful penguins on the Doomscale at the start of the next level. There are 20 stages (30 stages in the DOS version) in total. There is also a game mode called "Pandemonium", where the player must endure against endlessly spawning alien penguins until the Doomscale is triggered.
Development
Attack of the Mutant Penguins was part of an effort by Atari to work with independent developers and create games for the Jaguar.
Attack of the Mutant Penguins was created by Sunrise Games (previously WJS Design), a Leeds-based game developer founded by Wayne Smithson in 1982 under the name Smithson Computing. It was one of the first projects from Atari Corporation's European development center, a software division established with the aim of working with independent developers around Europe to create games for the Atari Jaguar. Atari had asked various studios to propose new game concepts, and they selected Mutant Penguins after a presentation from Sunrise Games.
It was co-produced by Alistair Bodin and Darryl Still, both of whom led the European development center within Atari outside their working hours. Smithson expanded the Sunrise Games' staff as Mutant Penguins became their main focus, with former Superior Software staffer Mark Robinson joining the company after appliying via a job ad in a computer magazine. Smithson acted as co-level designer alongside Dan Cartwright and Paul Hoggart. Smithson and Hoggart also acted as co-programmers along with Robinson. Cartwright served as lead artist while Andrew Hanson was responsible for the background graphics with assistance from junior artist Dan Hunter and Robert Brearly. It was one of Hunter's first works in the video game industry, before becoming involved as graphic artist in titles such as BioShock 2 and Dark Sector. A composer for Mutant Penguins is not credited, though Attention to Detail and Cogent Productions are respectively listed for providing the audio engine, as well as creating its music and sound effects.
The team sought to create an original and playable experience instead of showcasing the Jaguar's hardware. Smithson found the Jaguar's hardware similar to the Atari ST but trickier due to its architecture, requiring various tricks to draw sprites and interleaving instructions to achieve an optimal performance. Robinson also found the Jaguar's hardware challenging to work with, due to all its processors sharing and accessing the memory simultaneously. Hunter drew the sprites for the Gremlins using Deluxe Paint III on an Amiga 500. Robinson revised the low level graphics code until issues were resolved, including an issue where audio slowed down when too many objects were on screen. Internal documentation from Atari showed that development of Attack of the Mutant Penguins was completed by December 11, 1995. Producer Daryl Still remembers it as one of his favorite projects, describing the concept as ahead of its time, though speculating that it may have been more popular with newer audiences.
Release
Attack of the Mutant Penguins was first announced in August 1995 and originally scheduled for an October release date. The game was later delayed to November but was showcased to attendees at the 1995 ECTS Autumn event. It was covered by the press that were invited to the European division of Atari Corporation, and showcased during an event hosted by Atari dubbed "Fun 'n' Games Day". The game was first published in Europe on December 1995, and later in North America on March 15, 1996, becoming one of the last releases for the Jaguar before Atari merged with JTS Corporation.
A PC port was first set to be published by Atari Interactive before the division closed down in 1996, but it was eventually published by GameTek for MS-DOS as Mutant Penguins. The DOS version was also published in Japan by Fujicom. Sunrise Games would later work on Grand Theft Auto 2 for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation, and changed their name to RGB Tree in 2000. They were later acquired by Rage Software, who rebranded the studio as Rage Leeds before consolidating their operations in 2001. In 2021, the DOS version was re-released via Steam by Piko Interactive.
Reception
ReceptionReview scoresPublicationScoreAtari JaguarDOSCNET GamecenterN/A8/10Computer and Video Games58/100N/AGame Informer5.75/10N/AGame Players88%N/AM! Games79%N/APC Games (DE)N/A70%PC ZoneN/A26%ST Format90%N/AVideo Games (DE)60%N/AAtari Gaming Headquarters8/10N/AGames World90/100N/APC JokerN/A66%PC PlayerN/APower PlayN/A55%ST Magazine76%N/AUltimate Future Games29%N/AVideoGames6/10N/AWorld Village (Gamer's Zone)N/A
Attack of the Mutant Penguins on the Atari Jaguar garnered mixed reviews from critics. ST Format's Iain Laskey highlighted the game's sprites and puzzles, but felt that it needed more levels and better music. Game Players's Patrick Baggatta felt that the soundtrack was uninspired, but praised the accessible gameplay, stylish visuals, and blend of action and puzzle elements. VideoGames magazine stated that the game can be rather engaging, while Atari Gaming Headquarters' Patrick Holstine regarded it as a quality game for the Jaguar. Author Andy Slaven labelled it as "a solid (if short) bit of entertainment", and HobbyConsolas identified it as one of the twenty best games for the platform.
MAN!AC's Oliver Ehrle praised the game's graphics and animations, but found some of the levels confusing and criticized sections that lacked music or caused stuttering. Marc Abramson and Tristan Collet of the French ST Magazine commended its originality but felt that it was "a bit boring". GameFan's Miss Demeanor criticized the game's controls, but added that "there is so much fun and action in AMP that you won't care." French magazine CD Consoles thought the game's concept was fresh and innovative, but remarked that it graphically looked like a 16-bit title. Computer and Video Games's Tom Guise noted the game's difficulty, and felt that the player's actions were too limited due to the predetermined placement of traps.
Games World's Dave Perry and Paul Morgan noted that the game was visually similar to ToeJam & Earl. While Perry and Morgan praised its humor, storyline, playability, "puzzling" levels, and bonus rounds, both saw the audio as a drawback for not providing a sense of atmosphere. GamePro said the visuals were okay, but found the sound boring and the controls frustrating. They also remarked that the game lacked playability. Video Games' Jan Schweinitz felt there was a lack of direction due to the changing gameplay elements. Schweinitz also opined that the game could be effortlessly done on a 16-bit console. British publication Ultimate Future Games noted the game's influence from Lemmings (1991), ToeJam & Earl, and Sink or Swim, but panned it for being "frustratingly sluggish".
DOS
Mutant Penguins on MS-DOS carried similar reception as the original Jaguar release. PC Games' Herbert Aichinger gave favorable comments for the game's VGA graphics, varied soundtrack, controls, and progressive challenge. PC Joker's Richard Löwenstein commended the game's audio, idea, and level design, but stated that the overall presentation was "old-fashioned". Power Play's Michael Galuschka thought the visuals were passable and the music was fitting, but noted the "jerky" scrolling in later levels. PC Player's Monika Stoschek gave positive remarks for the game's audiovisual elements but noted its "occasional instability", opining that the title did not offered innovations in its genre. Edmond Meinfelder of World Village (Gamer's Zone) found the gameplay complex but tedious. PC Zone's Mark Hill found the game confusing, writing "Mutant penguins or not, you wouldn't want your kids' minds warped by this."
Notes
^ Audio engine by Attention to Detail. Music by Cogent Productions.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i Laskey, Iain (June 1996). "Screenplay - Jaguar Game: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". ST Format. No. 83. Future plc. p. 28. Archived from the original on 2013-12-09. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ a b c Abramson, Marc; Collet, Tristan (June 1996). "Cahier Loisirs / Jaguar: Les Pingouins Attaquent! - Attack of the Mutant Penguins". ST Magazine (in French). No. 106. Pressimage. pp. 57–58.
^ "Actualités Internationales - Attack of the Mutant Penguin (Jaguar)". CD Consoles (in French). No. 11. Pressimage. November 1995. p. 28. Archived from the original on 2018-09-12. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ a b "Previews - Coming Soon: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Game Players. No. 80. Imagine Media. January 1996. p. 44.
^ a b c d Perry, Dave; Morgan, Paul (February 1996). "Reviews - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Games World. No. 20. Paragon Publishing. pp. 42–43.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Game Manual) (International ed.). Atari Corporation. 1995.
^ a b c d Demeanor, Miss (December 1995). "Jaguar's Domain - Preview: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". GameFan. Vol. 3, no. 12. Metropolis Media. p. 82.
^ a b c d e f g h "Next Wave - Jaguar: A Penguin Is a Terrible Thing to Waste - Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 78. Sendai Publishing. January 1996. pp. 130–131.
^ a b c d e f g h i Holstine, Patrick (2001). "AGH Jaguar Review: ATTACK OF THE MUTANT PENGUINS". Atari Gaming Headquarters. Archived from the original on 2001-03-03. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ a b c d Guise, Tom (January 1996). "CVG Review - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Computer and Video Games. No. 170. EMAP. p. 39.
^ a b c d "Reviews: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Jaguar)". VideoGames. No. 84. Larry Flynt Publications. January 1996. p. 89.
^ a b c d Goble, Gordon (February 18, 1997). "PC Reviews: Mutant Peguins". CNET Gamecenter. CNET. Archived from the original on 2000-03-08. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ a b c Löwenstein, Richard (November 1996). "Twilight — Games Für Individualisten: Mutant Penguins". PC Joker (in German). No. 46. Joker-Verlag. p. 96.
^ a b c d e f g h Ehrle, Oliver (February 1996). "Spiele-Tests: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (JAGUAR)". MAN!AC (in German). No. 28. Cybermedia. p. 63. (Transcription Archived 2020-08-09 at the Wayback Machine).
^ Vendel, Curt (August 26, 1995). "Payment Schedule for Jaguar games to Developers" (PDF). atarimuseum.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-04-14. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
^ a b c CRV (September 25, 2018). "Rage Leeds". Game Developer Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2023-09-15.
^ a b c d e f g Hawken, Kieren (October 4, 2018). "From the Archives: WJS Design". Retro Gamer. No. 186. Future Publishing. pp. 54–57.
^ Davies, Paul (November 1995). "CVG News Connected: Atari - OK, the Jag might not be a cool new console but Atari does have some up-and-coming titles on the way... Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Computer and Video Games. No. 168. EMAP. p. 14.
^ Still, Darryl (December 1995). "Letters". Edge. No. 27. Future Publishing. pp. 17–18.
^ a b c d Battison, Jamie (September 8, 2016). "RVG Interviews – Darryl Still". Retro Video Gamer. Zaps Media. Archived from the original on 2019-02-13. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ a b c d Sillifant, Ross (2016). "Dan Hunter interview". Atari Compendium. Archived from the original on 2020-10-26. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ Sunrise Games (December 20, 1995). Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Atari Jaguar). Atari Corporation. Level/area: Staff roll.
^ Sillifant, Ross (Lost Dragon) (July 5, 2017). "The Ultimate Jaguar Unreleased/Beta/Source/Dev Master List!". Atari I/O. p. 5. Archived from the original on 2018-11-04. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ McFerran, Damien (August 11, 2022). "Atari Jaguar - The Death Rattle Of A Pioneer: The People Who Made The Jaguar Roar". Time Extension. Hookshot Media. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2022-09-18. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
^ "Release Liste: Jaguar". Video Games (in German). No. 45. Magna Media. August 1995. p. 43.
^ Gore, Chris (August 1995). "The Gorescore - Industry News You Can: Upcoming Jaguar Software Titles". VideoGames - The Ultimate Gaming Magazine. No. 79. Larry Flynt Publications. p. 14.
^ "Compte-rendu: Atari Evolution - de la Jaguar à la Jaguar CD". CD Consoles (in French). No. 10. Pressimage. September 1995. pp. 39–44. Archived from the original on 2018-08-05. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
^ "ECTS 95 - God Save The Games!: Atari - Jaguar Et Pingouin Mutant". Consoles + (in French). No. 47. M.E.R.7 . October 1995. p. 81.
^ "Messe: ECTS Autumn 95". Video Games (in German). No. 48. Magna Media. November 1995. pp. 6–17.
^ "Special Atari: Zu Besuch bei Atari". Mega Fun (in German). No. 36. Computec. September 1995. p. 96. Archived from the original on 2018-07-28. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
^ "Atari's Fun 'n' Games Day". GamePro. No. 78. IDG. January 1996. p. 60.
^ Abramson, Marc (February 1996). "Cahier Loisirs / Jaguar: Interrogation Écrite". ST Magazine (in French). No. 102. Pressimage. pp. 57–58.
^ "CAB-GEM STR InfoFile: Jaguar Section; CATnips... Jaguar tidbits from Don Thomas (96.03.14)". Silicon Times Report. No. 1211. STR Electronic Publishing Inc. March 15, 1996.
^ a b "ProNews: Adios, Atari". GamePro. No. 82. IDG. May 1996. p. 20.
^ a b c Aichinger, Herbert (November 1996). "Review: Mutant Penguins - Oh no! Penguins". PC Games (in German). No. 50. Computec. p. 150.
^ "News - Tempête sur PC". Génération 4 (in French). No. 84. Pressimage. January 1996. p. 24.
^ "商品案内" (in Japanese). Fujicom. 2001. Archived from the original on 2001-02-11. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
^ a b "Rage Software PLC Announcements | Rage Software PLC: Acquisition of Development Studios & Other News". FE Investegate. Financial Express. February 8, 2000. Archived from the original on 2019-09-21. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
^ "Rage Software PLC Announcements | Rage Software PLC: Statement re secured funding". FE Investegate. Financial Express. June 12, 2001. Archived from the original on 2019-08-04. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
^ "Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Steam Spy. 2021. Archived from the original on 2022-12-27. Retrieved 2023-02-25.
^ a b "Jaguar Reviews: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Game Informer. No. 33. Sunrine Publications. January 1996.
^ a b Baggatta, Patrick (March 1996). "Review - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Game Players. No. 82. Imagine Media. p. 54.
^ a b Hill, Mark (July 2000). "Budget Zone - This month we backpack our way into ancient civilisations and fantasy kingdoms, surviving on a minimal budget: Mutant Penguins". PC Zone. No. 91. Dennis Publishing. p. 92.
^ a b Schweinitz, Jan (February 1996). "Reviews - Atari Jaguar: Grobe Pfanne - Attack of the Mutant Penguins". Video Games (in German). No. 51. Magna Media. p. 41.
^ a b Stoschek, Monika (November 1996). "Spiele-Test: Gesilwkliihkeitsspiel für Fortgeschrittene und Fortgeschrittene — Mutant Penguins". PC Player (in German). No. 47. DMV-Verlag. p. 144.
^ a b Galuschka, Michael (December 1996). "Test: Mutant Penguins". Power Play (in German). No. 105. Future Verlag. p. 181.
^ a b "Ultimate review sector: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Jaguar) - Atari are so wacky!". Ultimate Future Games. No. 14. Future Publishing. January 1996. p. 85.
^ a b Meinfelder, Edmond (1997). "How Do You Spell Flop? - A Review of Mutant Penguins". World Village (Gamer's Zone). InfoMedia, Inc. Archived from the original on 1998-01-22. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ Slaven, Andy; Barnes, Lucus (2002). "JAG - Atari Jaguar". Video Game Bible, 1985-2002. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing. pp. 47–53. ISBN 9781553697312. Archived from the original on 2023-02-11. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
^ Alonso, Álvaro (December 18, 2013). "Reportaje: Los 20 mejores juegos de Atari Jaguar". HobbyConsolas (in Spanish). Axel Springer SE. Archived from the original on 2013-12-21. Retrieved 2023-01-12.
^ "Actualités - Made in USA: La Jaguar sort ses pingouins!". CD Consoles (in French). No. 13. Pressimage. January 1996. pp. 24–25. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2022-12-25.
^ "ProReview - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins". GamePro. No. 80. IDG. March 1996. p. 68.
External links
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_game"},{"link_name":"strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_video_game"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Atari Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Atari Jaguar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar"},{"link_name":"GameTek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameTek"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"weighing scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scale"}],"text":"1995 video gameAttack of the Mutant Penguins is a action-strategy video game developed by Sunrise Games and published by Atari Corporation for the Atari Jaguar in Europe on December 1995, and North America on March 15, 1996. A port titled Mutant Penguins was released in 1996 by GameTek for MS-DOS. The plot follows Bernard and Rodney, intergalactic heroes defending earth against alien invaders disguised as penguins. The player must dispatch the alien penguins before they reach a doomsday weapon, in the form of a weighing scale. Earth also has real penguins, who help the player by fighting the aliens and counteracting their weight on the scale.Attack of the Mutant Penguins was one of the first projects supported by Atari's European development center, established to work with European independent developers on new Jaguar games. Atari selected the project after soliciting presentations from multiple game developers. Sunrise Games founder Wayne Smithson worked with Atari producers Alistair Bodin and Darryl Still, focusing on unique gameplay rather than maximizing the console's hardware. Gaming publications gave both the Jaguar and DOS versions mixed reviews. Some reviewers found the game's concept fresh and innovative, but others felt there was a lack of direction due to the changing gameplay elements, while criticism was geared towards its learning curve.","title":"Attack of the Mutant Penguins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_game"},{"link_name":"strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_video_game"},{"link_name":"puzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puzzle_video_game"},{"link_name":"top-down perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_graphics#Top-down_perspective"},{"link_name":"Lemmings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemmings_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_game"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STFormatJAGaotmp-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STMagJAGaotmp-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GP80-5"},{"link_name":"weighing 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of the Mutant Penguins is an action-strategy game with puzzle elements played from a top-down perspective, described as a cross between Lemmings (1991) and a platform game.[1][2][3][4] The premise of the game is that Earth is invaded by aliens, who disguise themselves as penguins after monitoring nature television shows. Believing that penguins were Earth's dominant species, the invading aliens quickly realize their mistake and try to fix their disguises to appear more human. As part of their domination plan, the aliens brought to Earth a weighing scale-like doomsday weapon called the Doomscale. The penguins of Earth were unhappy once they found out about the plan, deciding to fight against the aliens with aid from Bernard and Rodney, two intergalactic freelance heroes sent out to stop the invasion.[1][5][6][7][8]Gameplay screenshot of the Atari Jaguar version, showing Bernard killing an alien penguin with a pan, as another alien penguins becomes a mutantControlling either Bernard or Rodney, the main objective of the game is to kill alien penguins before they reach and trigger the Doomscale.[1][4][6][8] In some levels, the alien penguins will try to reach a transformation station and turn into their mutant form, weighing three times more than their alien form on the Doomscale.[6][9] The helpful penguins of Earth also appear on the playfield to reach and counteract the aliens' weight on the Doomscale. They can fight against alien penguins in real-time, however they can also be accidentally killed by traps or caught into the player's attack range.[5][6][8][9] If the alien penguins outweigh the helpful penguins on the Doomscale, it will trigger the weapon and the game is over.[1][6]The player is initially locked into a preview state where they can observe the locations of items and switches within the level.[6][7][9] The player can pick up a \"Gremlin\" creature in the playfield and drop them on a treasure chest to open it, revealing letters that unlock the player-character's weapon once you spell the right word (a bat for Rodney and a pan for Bernard).[1][6][8][9][10] They can also be dropped into traps placed around the playfield to distract or kill alien penguins.[1][6][8][9][10] The chests are opened and traps are built more quickly depending on the number of Gremlins, but they will scatter once their task is done and the player has to pick them up again.[6][8] Traps and chests can also spawn bonus items for the player.[6]Once the character's weapon is obtained, it can be energized via power orbs dropped when any penguin is stunned. Grabbing five power orbs energizes the weapon for more damage, while each player-character has different special attacks that are unlocked by grabbing ten orbs or a samurai power-up.[6][8][9] After the level is completed, one of three bonus rounds is randomly selected. Depending on the player's performance, they are rewarded with a number of helpful penguins on the Doomscale at the start of the next level.[1][6][8][9] There are 20 stages (30 stages in the DOS version) in total.[7][11][12][13] There is also a game mode called \"Pandemonium\", where the player must endure against endlessly spawning alien penguins until the Doomscale is triggered.[6][11]","title":"Gameplay and premise"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atari-Jaguar-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MGJAGaotmp-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PSfJgtD-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GDRI-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RG186-18"},{"link_name":"Atari Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Atari 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Jaguar.[18][19][20][21] Atari had asked various studios to propose new game concepts, and they selected Mutant Penguins after a presentation from Sunrise Games.[17]It was co-produced by Alistair Bodin and Darryl Still, both of whom led the European development center within Atari outside their working hours.[6][14][20] Smithson expanded the Sunrise Games' staff as Mutant Penguins became their main focus, with former Superior Software staffer Mark Robinson joining the company after appliying via a job ad in a computer magazine.[17] Smithson acted as co-level designer alongside Dan Cartwright and Paul Hoggart.[6][14] Smithson and Hoggart also acted as co-programmers along with Robinson.[6][14][17] Cartwright served as lead artist while Andrew Hanson was responsible for the background graphics with assistance from junior artist Dan Hunter and Robert Brearly.[6][14][21][22] It was one of Hunter's first works in the video game industry, before becoming involved as graphic artist in titles such as BioShock 2 and Dark Sector.[21] A composer for Mutant Penguins is not credited, though Attention to Detail and Cogent Productions are respectively listed for providing the audio engine, as well as creating its music and sound effects.[6][14]The team sought to create an original and playable experience instead of showcasing the Jaguar's hardware.[20] Smithson found the Jaguar's hardware similar to the Atari ST but trickier due to its architecture, requiring various tricks to draw sprites and interleaving instructions to achieve an optimal performance.[17] Robinson also found the Jaguar's hardware challenging to work with, due to all its processors sharing and accessing the memory simultaneously.[17] Hunter drew the sprites for the Gremlins using Deluxe Paint III on an Amiga 500.[21] Robinson revised the low level graphics code until issues were resolved, including an issue where audio slowed down when too many objects were on screen.[17] Internal documentation from Atari showed that development of Attack of the Mutant Penguins was completed by December 11, 1995.[23] Producer Daryl Still remembers it as one of his favorite projects, describing the concept as ahead of its time, though speculating that it may have been more popular with newer audiences.[20][24]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VGS45-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VGTUGM79-27"},{"link_name":"ECTS Autumn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Computer_Trade_Show"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC10-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CP47-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VGS48-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF36-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GamePro78-32"},{"link_name":"JTS 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Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GDRI-17"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FEIa1-39"},{"link_name":"Rage Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_Games"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GDRI-17"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FEIa1-39"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FEIb2-40"},{"link_name":"Steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(service)"},{"link_name":"Piko Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piko_Interactive"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"Attack of the Mutant Penguins was first announced in August 1995 and originally scheduled for an October release date.[25][26] The game was later delayed to November but was showcased to attendees at the 1995 ECTS Autumn event.[27][28][29] It was covered by the press that were invited to the European division of Atari Corporation, and showcased during an event hosted by Atari dubbed \"Fun 'n' Games Day\".[30][31] The game was first published in Europe on December 1995, and later in North America on March 15, 1996, becoming one of the last releases for the Jaguar before Atari merged with JTS Corporation.[32][33][34]A PC port was first set to be published by Atari Interactive before the division closed down in 1996, but it was eventually published by GameTek for MS-DOS as Mutant Penguins.[12][34][35][36] The DOS version was also published in Japan by Fujicom.[37] Sunrise Games would later work on Grand Theft Auto 2 for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation, and changed their name to RGB Tree in 2000.[16][38] They were later acquired by Rage Software, who rebranded the studio as Rage Leeds before consolidating their operations in 2001.[16][38][39] In 2021, the DOS version was re-released via Steam by Piko Interactive.[40]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atari Jaguar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"CNET Gamecenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET_Gamecenter"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNGDOSmp-13"},{"link_name":"Computer and Video Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVGJAGaotmp-11"},{"link_name":"Game Informer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Informer"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GIJAGaotmp-42"},{"link_name":"Game 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and Video Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVGJAGaotmp-11"},{"link_name":"Games World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_World"},{"link_name":"Dave Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Perry"},{"link_name":"ToeJam & Earl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ToeJam_%26_Earl"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GWorldJAGaotmp-6"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GameProJAGaotmp-53"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VGSJAGaotmp-45"},{"link_name":"Ultimate Future Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Future_Games"},{"link_name":"Lemmings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemmings_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Sink or Swim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink_or_Swim_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UFGJAPaotmp-48"}],"text":"ReceptionReview scoresPublicationScoreAtari JaguarDOSCNET GamecenterN/A8/10[12]Computer and Video Games58/100[10]N/AGame Informer5.75/10[41]N/AGame Players88%[42]N/AM! Games79%[14]N/APC Games (DE)N/A70%[35]PC ZoneN/A26%[43]ST Format90%[1]N/AVideo Games (DE)60%[44]N/AAtari Gaming Headquarters8/10[9]N/AGames World90/100[5]N/APC JokerN/A66%[13]PC PlayerN/A[45]Power PlayN/A55%[46]ST Magazine76%[2]N/AUltimate Future Games29%[47]N/AVideoGames6/10[11]N/AWorld Village (Gamer's Zone)N/A[48]Attack of the Mutant Penguins on the Atari Jaguar garnered mixed reviews from critics.[41] ST Format's Iain Laskey highlighted the game's sprites and puzzles, but felt that it needed more levels and better music.[1] Game Players's Patrick Baggatta felt that the soundtrack was uninspired, but praised the accessible gameplay, stylish visuals, and blend of action and puzzle elements.[42] VideoGames magazine stated that the game can be rather engaging, while Atari Gaming Headquarters' Patrick Holstine regarded it as a quality game for the Jaguar.[9][11] Author Andy Slaven labelled it as \"a solid (if short) bit of entertainment\", and HobbyConsolas identified it as one of the twenty best games for the platform.[49][50]MAN!AC's Oliver Ehrle praised the game's graphics and animations, but found some of the levels confusing and criticized sections that lacked music or caused stuttering.[14] Marc Abramson and Tristan Collet of the French ST Magazine commended its originality but felt that it was \"a bit boring\".[2] GameFan's Miss Demeanor criticized the game's controls, but added that \"there is so much fun and action in AMP that you won't care.\"[7] French magazine CD Consoles thought the game's concept was fresh and innovative, but remarked that it graphically looked like a 16-bit title.[51] Computer and Video Games's Tom Guise noted the game's difficulty, and felt that the player's actions were too limited due to the predetermined placement of traps.[10]Games World's Dave Perry and Paul Morgan noted that the game was visually similar to ToeJam & Earl. While Perry and Morgan praised its humor, storyline, playability, \"puzzling\" levels, and bonus rounds, both saw the audio as a drawback for not providing a sense of atmosphere.[5] GamePro said the visuals were okay, but found the sound boring and the controls frustrating. They also remarked that the game lacked playability.[52] Video Games' Jan Schweinitz felt there was a lack of direction due to the changing gameplay elements. Schweinitz also opined that the game could be effortlessly done on a 16-bit console.[44] British publication Ultimate Future Games noted the game's influence from Lemmings (1991), ToeJam & Earl, and Sink or Swim, but panned it for being \"frustratingly sluggish\".[47]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNGDOSmp-13"},{"link_name":"PC Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Games"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCGDOSmp-36"},{"link_name":"PC Joker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Joker"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCJDOSmp-14"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPDOSmp-47"},{"link_name":"PC Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Player_(German_magazine)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCPDEmp-46"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WVDOSmp-49"},{"link_name":"PC Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Zone"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCZoneDOSmp-44"}],"sub_title":"DOS","text":"Mutant Penguins on MS-DOS carried similar reception as the original Jaguar release.[12] PC Games' Herbert Aichinger gave favorable comments for the game's VGA graphics, varied soundtrack, controls, and progressive challenge.[35] PC Joker's Richard Löwenstein commended the game's audio, idea, and level design, but stated that the overall presentation was \"old-fashioned\".[13] Power Play's Michael Galuschka thought the visuals were passable and the music was fitting, but noted the \"jerky\" scrolling in later levels.[46] PC Player's Monika Stoschek gave positive remarks for the game's audiovisual elements but noted its \"occasional instability\", opining that the title did not offered innovations in its genre.[45] Edmond Meinfelder of World Village (Gamer's Zone) found the gameplay complex but tedious.[48] PC Zone's Mark Hill found the game confusing, writing \"Mutant penguins or not, you wouldn't want your kids' minds warped by this.\"[43]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Attention to Detail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_to_Detail"}],"text":"^ Audio engine by Attention to Detail. Music by Cogent Productions.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Gameplay screenshot of the Atari Jaguar version, showing Bernard killing an alien penguin with a pan, as another alien penguins becomes a mutant","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/13/JAG_Attack_of_the_Mutant_Penguins.png/220px-JAG_Attack_of_the_Mutant_Penguins.png"},{"image_text":"Attack of the Mutant Penguins was part of an effort by Atari to work with independent developers and create games for the Jaguar.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Atari-Jaguar-Console-Set.jpg/220px-Atari-Jaguar-Console-Set.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Laskey, Iain (June 1996). \"Screenplay - Jaguar Game: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". ST Format. No. 83. Future plc. p. 28. Archived from the original on 2013-12-09. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stformat.com/stf83/index.html","url_text":"\"Screenplay - Jaguar Game: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ST_Format","url_text":"ST Format"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_plc","url_text":"Future plc"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131209080454/http://www.stformat.com/stf83/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Abramson, Marc; Collet, Tristan (June 1996). \"Cahier Loisirs / Jaguar: Les Pingouins Attaquent! - Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". ST Magazine [fr] (in French). No. 106. Pressimage. pp. 57–58.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/st-magazine-106/page/57/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Cahier Loisirs / Jaguar: Les Pingouins Attaquent! - Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ST_Magazine&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"ST Magazine"},{"url":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ST_Magazine","url_text":"fr"}]},{"reference":"\"Actualités Internationales - Attack of the Mutant Penguin (Jaguar)\". CD Consoles (in French). No. 11. Pressimage. November 1995. p. 28. Archived from the original on 2018-09-12. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://download.abandonware.org/magazines/CD%20Consoles/cdconsoles_numero11/page%20028.jpg","url_text":"\"Actualités Internationales - Attack of the Mutant Penguin (Jaguar)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180912204753/http://download.abandonware.org/magazines/CD%20Consoles/cdconsoles_numero11/page%20028.jpg","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Previews - Coming Soon: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". Game Players. No. 80. Imagine Media. January 1996. p. 44.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Game_Players_080_January_1996_U/page/n45/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Previews - Coming Soon: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Players","url_text":"Game Players"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Media","url_text":"Imagine Media"}]},{"reference":"Perry, Dave; Morgan, Paul (February 1996). \"Reviews - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". Games World. No. 20. Paragon Publishing. pp. 42–43.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Perry","url_text":"Perry, Dave"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/games-world-20-february-1996/page/42/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Reviews - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_World","url_text":"Games World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragon_Publishing","url_text":"Paragon Publishing"}]},{"reference":"Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Game Manual) (International ed.). Atari Corporation. 1995.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Attack_Of_The_Mutant_Penguins_1995","url_text":"Attack of the Mutant Penguins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Corporation","url_text":"Atari Corporation"}]},{"reference":"Demeanor, Miss (December 1995). \"Jaguar's Domain - Preview: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". GameFan. Vol. 3, no. 12. Metropolis Media. p. 82.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Gamefan_Vol_3_Issue_12/page/n81/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Jaguar's Domain - Preview: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameFan","url_text":"GameFan"}]},{"reference":"\"Next Wave - Jaguar: A Penguin Is a Terrible Thing to Waste - Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 78. Sendai Publishing. January 1996. pp. 130–131.","urls":[{"url":"https://retrocdn.net/index.php?title=File%3AEGM_US_078.pdf&page=130","url_text":"\"Next Wave - Jaguar: A Penguin Is a Terrible Thing to Waste - Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly","url_text":"Electronic Gaming Monthly"}]},{"reference":"Holstine, Patrick (2001). \"AGH Jaguar Review: ATTACK OF THE MUTANT PENGUINS\". Atari Gaming Headquarters. Archived from the original on 2001-03-03. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atarihq.com/reviews/jaguar/attack_of_the_mutant_penguins.html","url_text":"\"AGH Jaguar Review: ATTACK OF THE MUTANT PENGUINS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010303091747/http://www.atarihq.com/reviews/jaguar/attack_of_the_mutant_penguins.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Guise, Tom (January 1996). \"CVG Review - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". Computer and Video Games. No. 170. EMAP. p. 39.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Computer_and_Video_Games_Issue_170_1996-01_EMAP_Images_GB/page/n38/mode/1up","url_text":"\"CVG Review - Jaguar: Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games","url_text":"Computer and Video Games"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMAP","url_text":"EMAP"}]},{"reference":"\"Reviews: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Jaguar)\". VideoGames. No. 84. Larry Flynt Publications. January 1996. p. 89.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Video_Games_The_Ultimate_Gaming_Magazine_Issue_84_January_1996/page/n90/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Reviews: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Jaguar)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VideoGames_-_The_Ultimate_Gaming_Magazine","url_text":"VideoGames"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Flynt_Publications","url_text":"Larry Flynt Publications"}]},{"reference":"Goble, Gordon (February 18, 1997). \"PC Reviews: Mutant Peguins\". CNET Gamecenter. CNET. Archived from the original on 2000-03-08. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000308124032/http://gamecenter.com/Reviews/Item/0,6,553,00.html","url_text":"\"PC Reviews: Mutant Peguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET_Gamecenter","url_text":"CNET Gamecenter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"CNET"},{"url":"http://gamecenter.com/Reviews/Item/0,6,553,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Löwenstein, Richard (November 1996). \"Twilight — Games Für Individualisten: Mutant Penguins\". PC Joker (in German). No. 46. Joker-Verlag. p. 96.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/pcjoker-november-1996-images/page/n91/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Twilight — Games Für Individualisten: Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Joker","url_text":"PC Joker"}]},{"reference":"Ehrle, Oliver (February 1996). \"Spiele-Tests: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (JAGUAR)\". MAN!AC [de] (in German). No. 28. Cybermedia. p. 63.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/MANiAC.N028.1996.02/page/n62/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Spiele-Tests: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (JAGUAR)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M!_Games&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"MAN!AC"},{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/M!_Games","url_text":"de"}]},{"reference":"Vendel, Curt (August 26, 1995). \"Payment Schedule for Jaguar games to Developers\" (PDF). atarimuseum.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-04-14. Retrieved 2022-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100414145638/http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/jaguar/jagfiles/jag64-payments.PDF","url_text":"\"Payment Schedule for Jaguar games to Developers\""},{"url":"http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/jaguar/jagfiles/jag64-payments.PDF","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"CRV (September 25, 2018). \"Rage Leeds\". Game Developer Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2023-09-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://gdri.smspower.org/wiki/index.php/Rage_Leeds","url_text":"\"Rage Leeds\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230106175743/https://gdri.smspower.org/wiki/index.php/Rage_Leeds","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hawken, Kieren (October 4, 2018). \"From the Archives: WJS Design\". Retro Gamer. No. 186. Future Publishing. pp. 54–57.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retro_Gamer","url_text":"Retro Gamer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Publishing","url_text":"Future Publishing"}]},{"reference":"Davies, Paul (November 1995). \"CVG News Connected: Atari - OK, the Jag might not be a cool new console but Atari does have some up-and-coming titles on the way... Attack of the Mutant Penguins\". Computer and Video Games. No. 168. EMAP. p. 14.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Computer_and_Video_Games_Issue_168_1995-11_EMAP_Images_GB/page/n13/mode/1up","url_text":"\"CVG News Connected: Atari - OK, the Jag might not be a cool new console but Atari does have some up-and-coming titles on the way... Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games","url_text":"Computer and Video Games"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMAP","url_text":"EMAP"}]},{"reference":"Still, Darryl (December 1995). \"Letters\". Edge. No. 27. Future Publishing. pp. 17–18.","urls":[{"url":"https://retrocdn.net/index.php?title=File:Edge_UK_027.pdf&page=17","url_text":"\"Letters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(magazine)","url_text":"Edge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Publishing","url_text":"Future Publishing"}]},{"reference":"Battison, Jamie (September 8, 2016). \"RVG Interviews – Darryl Still\". Retro Video Gamer. Zaps Media. Archived from the original on 2019-02-13. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.retrovideogamer.co.uk/rvg-interviews-darryl-still/","url_text":"\"RVG Interviews – Darryl Still\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190213184735/http://www.retrovideogamer.co.uk/rvg-interviews-darryl-still/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sillifant, Ross (2016). \"Dan Hunter interview\". Atari Compendium. Archived from the original on 2020-10-26. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ataricompendium.com/archives/interviews/dan_hunter/interview_dan_hunter.html","url_text":"\"Dan Hunter interview\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201026150223/http://www.ataricompendium.com/archives/interviews/dan_hunter/interview_dan_hunter.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sunrise Games (December 20, 1995). Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Atari Jaguar). Atari Corporation. 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Magna Media. p. 41.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/video-games-de-1996-02/page/41/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Reviews - Atari Jaguar: Grobe Pfanne - Attack of the Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_Games_(German_magazine)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Video Games"},{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Games","url_text":"de"}]},{"reference":"Stoschek, Monika (November 1996). \"Spiele-Test: Gesilwkliihkeitsspiel für Fortgeschrittene und Fortgeschrittene — Mutant Penguins\". PC Player (in German). No. 47. DMV-Verlag. p. 144.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/PC-Player-German-Magazine-1996-11/page/n129/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Spiele-Test: Gesilwkliihkeitsspiel für Fortgeschrittene und Fortgeschrittene — Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Player_(German_magazine)","url_text":"PC Player"}]},{"reference":"Galuschka, Michael (December 1996). \"Test: Mutant Penguins\". Power Play [de] (in German). No. 105. Future Verlag. p. 181.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/powerplaymagazine-1996-12/page/n180/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Test: Mutant Penguins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_Play_(Zeitschrift)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Power Play"},{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Play","url_text":"de"}]},{"reference":"\"Ultimate review sector: Attack of the Mutant Penguins (Jaguar) - Atari are so wacky!\". Ultimate Future Games. No. 14. Future Publishing. 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Video Game Bible, 1985-2002. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing. pp. 47–53. ISBN 9781553697312. Archived from the original on 2023-02-11. Retrieved 2023-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oShzmF1Pxc4C&pg=PA47","url_text":"\"JAG - Atari Jaguar\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafford_Publishing","url_text":"Trafford Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781553697312","url_text":"9781553697312"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230211213017/https://books.google.com/books?id=oShzmF1Pxc4C&pg=PA47","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Alonso, Álvaro (December 18, 2013). \"Reportaje: Los 20 mejores juegos de Atari Jaguar\". HobbyConsolas (in Spanish). Axel Springer SE. Archived from the original on 2013-12-21. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodnica_Castle | Brodnica Castle | ["1 Description","2 History","3 See also","4 References"] | Coordinates: 53°15′27″N 19°23′55″E / 53.25750°N 19.39861°E / 53.25750; 19.39861Historic site in Brodnica, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship; PolandBrodnica CastleTeutonic TowerLocationBrodnica, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship; PolandCoordinates53°15′27″N 19°23′55″E / 53.25750°N 19.39861°E / 53.25750; 19.39861HeightPeak of the Teutonic Tower: 54 mBuilt1305 or 1312 to 1317 or 1330Demolished1550 (fire), 1785 (deconstruction)Architectural style(s)GothicLocation of the Brodnica Castle in PolandShow map of PolandBrodnica Castle (Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship)Show map of Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship
Brodnica Castle is a well fortified castle in Brodnica, Poland.
Description
The castle is built in a square formation. The four wings of the castle surrounded the central courtyard. A 54-metre tower provided an entrance to the second floor of the castle. In the corners of the castle were small look-out towers, which stick out from the castle's square shape. The castle basements were used as utility rooms. The underground rooms performed various functions: a chapel, refectory, chapter house, infirmary, chamber of the commander and other specialised rooms. Entries to them lead to the gallery surrounding the courtyard. The second floor included from the side of the courtyard magazines and a granary, and an additional defensive porch within castle walls. By the main tower there is a gate to which access was provided by a former drawbridge. It was a key part of the castle's defense complex. The pre-castle fortification was placed between the town and the castle.
History
Plan of the Brodnica Castle
The building of the Teutonic castle in Brodnica began in the fourteenth century, taking almost a whole century to complete. In 1466, the castle complex became part of the Kingdom of Poland. After a fire in 1550, the rebuilding of the castle was done so by the Starosta Rafał Działyński. During the Swedish-Polish Wars the castle began to turn into ruins. In 1785, King Frederick II of Prussia ordered do dismantle the ruins, but his orders were soon stopped by Frederick Wilhelm IV. The fate of the palace of Anna Wazówna was sealed by a fire in 1945.
The palace was restored in the 1960s. Currently, the castle houses a museum, and the palace a library.
Brodnica in the during 1738-1745, with a view of the castle. Drawing by Friedrich Steiner
See also
Castles in Poland
References
^ "Castle in Brodnica". Zamki Polskie. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ "Castle Description". Zamki. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
^ "Wystawy". Muzeum Brodnica. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
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The pre-castle fortification was placed between the town and the castle.[2]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brodnica_plan_zamku.jpg"},{"link_name":"Teutonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Knights"},{"link_name":"Brodnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodnica"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1385%E2%80%931569)"},{"link_name":"Starosta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starosta"},{"link_name":"Swedish-Polish Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deluge_(history)"},{"link_name":"King Frederick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Frederick Wilhelm IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_IV_of_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Anna Wazówna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Vasa_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brodnica_-_Miasto_i_zamek_1738-1745.jpg"}],"text":"Plan of the Brodnica CastleThe building of the Teutonic castle in Brodnica began in the fourteenth century, taking almost a whole century to complete. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City_Public_Library | Kansas City Public Library | ["1 Overview","1.1 Branches","1.2 Outreach","2 History","3 Awards","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 39°06′10″N 94°35′02″W / 39.1027°N 94.5839°W / 39.1027; -94.5839Public Library
For the library in Kansas, see Kansas City, Kansas Public Library.
Kansas City Public Library39°06′10″N 94°35′02″W / 39.1027°N 94.5839°W / 39.1027; -94.5839LocationKansas City, MissouriEstablished1873; 151 years ago (1873)Branches10CollectionSize1,215,875Access and useCirculation1,990,444Population served218,765Other informationDirectorJohn HerronWebsitekclibrary.org
The Kansas City Public Library is a public system headquartered in the Central Library in Kansas City, Missouri.
The system operates its Central Library and neighborhood branches located in Kansas City, Independence, and Sugar Creek. Founded on December 5, 1873, it is the oldest and third largest public library system in the Kansas City metropolitan area.
Its special collections, housed in the Central Library's Missouri Valley Room, has a collection of Kansas City local history, including original and published materials, news articles, post cards, photographs, maps, and city directories dating from the community's earliest history. The Library's Ramos Collection includes books, pamphlets, journal articles, and other materials relating to African-American history and culture.
Overview
Branches
Central Library
Central - 14 West 10th Street
L.H. Bluford - 3050 Prospect Avenue
North-East - 6000 Wilson Road
Plaza - 4801 Main Street
I.H. Ruiz - 2017 West Pennway Street
Southeast - 6242 Swope Parkway
Sugar Creek - 102 South Sterling Avenue - (Sugar Creek)
Trails West - 11401 East 23rd Street - (Independence)
Waldo - 201 East 75th Street
Westport - 118 Westport Road
Community Bookshelf (Main Library)
Parking façade
Built in 2004, The Community Bookshelf (also known as the Library District Parking Garage) is a striking feature of Kansas City's downtown. It runs along the south wall of the Central Library's parking garage on 10th Street between Wyandotte Street and Baltimore Avenue. The concept of turning the parking garage into a bookshelf was part of an effort on behalf of the community to bring character to the needed structure.
"The book spines, which measure approximately 25 feet by 9 feet, are made of signboard mylar that is laid over concrete panels and an aluminum substructure. The shelf showcases 22 titles reflecting a wide variety of reading interests as suggested by Kansas City readers and then selected by The Kansas City Public Library Board of Trustees."
The following books are depicted in the work:
Kansas City Stories Volumes 1 and 2
Catch-22 by Joseph Heller
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
O Pioneers! by Willa Cather
Cien Años de Soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude) by Gabriel García Márquez
Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston
Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury
The Republic by Plato
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
Tao Te Ching by Lau Tsu
The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes by Langston Hughes
Black Elk Speaks by Black Elk, as told to John G. Neihardt
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
Journals of the Expedition by Lewis and Clark
Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, And The Opening Of The American West by Stephen Ambrose
The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien
A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
Charlotte's Web by E.B. White
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Truman by David G. McCullough
a volume of children's books with the following:
Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown; Harold and the Purple Crayon by Crockett Johnson; Winnie the Pooh by A. A. Milne; Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss; What a Wonderful World by George David Weiss and Bob Thiele; Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder; The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum; M.C. Higgins, the Great by Virginia Hamilton
Outreach
The Kansas City Public Library has an open door policy for patrons. Beginning in 2016, the Library's AmeriCorps VISTAs and the Outreach team began a program called Coffee & Conversations for patrons in order to tackle the issue of homelessness within the community. During the meeting, the library provides information to patrons on the topic of homelessness and other social issues. They also invite open dialogue during this time. This program was modeled after a similar program from the Dallas Public Library.
Additionally, the Kansas City Public Library has a program to help immigrants. The Refugee and Immigrant Services & Empowerment (RISE) program helps immigrants by providing information on resources, which help them pursue citizenship.
The Library periodically hosts edit-a-thons on topics relevant to the Kansas City Area. Recent edit-a-thons have covered Kansas City Black History, Kansas City Jazz, and Kansas City Philanthropists.
History
In November 1873 a public library was conceived by the Kansas City Board of Education by arranging a course of six popular lectures as a fundraiser to buy books. Superintendent of schools, Dr. James Michlejohn Greenwood, selected these first books. A record of the origin of the Kansas City Public Library was solicited by Major L. K. Thacher via a Board resolution, adopted on November 19, 1891, resulting in the pamphlet titled A history of the Kansas City Public Library from 1873 to 1893. Prepared by order of the Board of Education by J. M. Greenwood, December 1, 1892.: 5
...at all times one grand object has been kept steadily in view, that Kansas City was quietly laying the foundation for one of the best libraries in the entire country ... that would reflect great credit on the enterprise, perseverance and intelligence of those farsighted citizens who started this movement during one of the greatest financial depressions ever known in the history of the country.— James Michlejohn Greenwood: 5–6
Awards
The Kansas City Public Library has received numerous awards and acknowledgements, including these:
Library Journal gave KCPL a five star rating in 2013, 2016, and 2018 as one of 10 libraries earning five stars among 127 libraries with budgets between $10 million and $30 million, focused on circulation, digital circulation, library visits, internet computer usage, and program attendance.
2017 Paul Howard Award for Courage from the American Library Association
In 2014 the American Library Association gave the Excellence in Library Programming award
In 2008 First Lady Laura Bush bestowed the National Medal for Museum and Library Service to KCPL as one of 10 institutional recipients, especially recognizing its Books to Go program and free public events.
References
^ a b c "Kansas City Public Library". libraries.org. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "Administration & Governance". Kansas City Public Library. Retrieved June 8, 2020.
^ Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Daily, Jay E. (January 1, 1975). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 13 - Inventories of Books to Korea: Libraries in the Republic of. CRC Press. p. 393. ISBN 9780824720131.
^ "Kansas City Library's Giant Bookshelf". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
^ Johnson, Alex (2015). Improbable libraries : a visual journey to the world's most unusual libraries. Chicago. p. 135. ISBN 9780226263694. OCLC 890757518.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "Community Bookshelf". Kansas City Public Library. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
^ Daniel, Rae (March 15, 2017). "Kansas City Public Library hosts 'Coffee and Conversations' for homeless". KSHB. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
^ "Coffee & Conversation". Programming Librarian. April 24, 2015. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
^ "REFUGEE & IMMIGRANT SERVICES & EMPOWERMENT (RISE)". Kansas City Public Library.
^ Whitney, Carrie Westlake (1908). "The Free Public Library". Kansas City, Missouri: Its History and Its People 1808-1908. Vol. 1. Chicago: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co. p. 349. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
^ Greenwood, James Michlejohn (December 1, 1892). A history of the Kansas City Public Library from 1873 to 1893. Prepared by order of the Board of Education by J. M. Greenwood, December 1, 1892.
^ a b Wright, Purd B. (1937). Historical Sketch of the Kansas City Public Library, 1911-1936. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
^ Lance, Keith Curry. "2018 Star Libraries By the Numbers | LJ Index 2018". The Library Journal. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
^ CMALDEN (May 2, 2017). "Kansas City Public Library wins Paul Howard Award for Courage". News and Press Center. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
^ ARYCHENER (September 26, 2012). "ALA Excellence in Library Programming Award". Tools, Publications & Resources. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
^ Spencer, Laura (October 6, 2008). "Kansas City Public Library Receives National Medal". Retrieved April 23, 2020.
^ "2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service brochure". Institute of Museum and Library Services. October 1, 2008. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
^ "Mrs. Bush's Remarks at the National Medals for Museum and Library Service Ceremony". The White House. October 7, 2008. Retrieved April 23, 2020.
External links
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Official website
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Kansas City Public Library on X
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kansas City, Kansas Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City,_Kansas_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"Central Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Library_(Kansas_City,_Missouri)"},{"link_name":"Kansas City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri"},{"link_name":"Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Sugar Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Creek,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Kansas City metropolitan area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City_metropolitan_area"}],"text":"Public LibraryFor the library in Kansas, see Kansas City, Kansas Public Library.The Kansas City Public Library is a public system headquartered in the Central Library in Kansas City, Missouri.The system operates its Central Library and neighborhood branches located in Kansas City, Independence, and Sugar Creek. Founded on December 5, 1873,[3] it is the oldest and third largest public library system in the Kansas City metropolitan area.Its special collections, housed in the Central Library's Missouri Valley Room, has a collection of Kansas City local history, including original and published materials, news articles, post cards, photographs, maps, and city directories dating from the community's earliest history. The Library's Ramos Collection includes books, pamphlets, journal articles, and other materials relating to African-American history and culture.","title":"Kansas City Public Library"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kansas_City_Public_Library_Central_Branch.jpg"},{"link_name":"Central Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Library_(Kansas_City,_Missouri)"},{"link_name":"Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Library_(Kansas_City,_Missouri)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KC_Main_Library2.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Library_(17010263631).jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Catch-22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch-22"},{"link_name":"Joseph Heller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Heller"},{"link_name":"Silent Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Spring"},{"link_name":"Rachel Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson"},{"link_name":"O Pioneers!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Pioneers!"},{"link_name":"Willa Cather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willa_Cather"},{"link_name":"One Hundred Years of Solitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Hundred_Years_of_Solitude"},{"link_name":"Gabriel García Márquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1rquez"},{"link_name":"Their Eyes Were Watching God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Their_Eyes_Were_Watching_God"},{"link_name":"Zora Neale Hurston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston"},{"link_name":"Fahrenheit 451","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheit_451"},{"link_name":"Ray Bradbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Bradbury"},{"link_name":"The Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Huckleberry_Finn"},{"link_name":"Mark Twain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain"},{"link_name":"Tao Te Ching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching"},{"link_name":"Lau Tsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi"},{"link_name":"Langston Hughes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langston_Hughes"},{"link_name":"Black Elk Speaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Elk_Speaks"},{"link_name":"Black Elk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Elk"},{"link_name":"John G. Neihardt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Neihardt"},{"link_name":"Invisible Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Man"},{"link_name":"Ralph Ellison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Ellison"},{"link_name":"To Kill a Mockingbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird"},{"link_name":"Harper Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_Lee"},{"link_name":"Undaunted Courage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undaunted_Courage"},{"link_name":"Stephen Ambrose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Ambrose"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"J.R.R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"A Tale of Two Cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tale_of_Two_Cities"},{"link_name":"Charles Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Charlotte's Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%27s_Web"},{"link_name":"E.B. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.B._White"},{"link_name":"Romeo and Juliet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_(book)"},{"link_name":"David G. McCullough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_G._McCullough"},{"link_name":"Goodnight Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodnight_Moon"},{"link_name":"Margaret Wise Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Wise_Brown"},{"link_name":"Harold and the Purple Crayon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_and_the_Purple_Crayon"},{"link_name":"Crockett Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crockett_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Winnie the Pooh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie_the_Pooh"},{"link_name":"A. A. Milne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._A._Milne"},{"link_name":"Green Eggs and Ham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Eggs_and_Ham"},{"link_name":"Dr. Seuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Seuss"},{"link_name":"What a Wonderful World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_a_Wonderful_World"},{"link_name":"George David Weiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_David_Weiss"},{"link_name":"Bob Thiele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Thiele"},{"link_name":"Little House on the Prairie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_House_on_the_Prairie"},{"link_name":"Laura Ingalls Wilder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Ingalls_Wilder"},{"link_name":"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz"},{"link_name":"L. Frank Baum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Frank_Baum"},{"link_name":"M.C. Higgins, the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.C._Higgins,_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Virginia Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Hamilton"}],"sub_title":"Branches","text":"Central LibraryCentral - 14 West 10th Street\nL.H. Bluford - 3050 Prospect Avenue\nNorth-East - 6000 Wilson Road\nPlaza - 4801 Main Street\nI.H. Ruiz - 2017 West Pennway Street\nSoutheast - 6242 Swope Parkway\nSugar Creek - 102 South Sterling Avenue - (Sugar Creek)\nTrails West - 11401 East 23rd Street - (Independence)\nWaldo - 201 East 75th Street\nWestport - 118 Westport RoadCommunity Bookshelf (Main Library)Parking façadeBuilt in 2004, The Community Bookshelf (also known as the Library District Parking Garage) is a striking feature of Kansas City's downtown. It runs along the south wall of the Central Library's parking garage on 10th Street between Wyandotte Street and Baltimore Avenue. The concept of turning the parking garage into a bookshelf was part of an effort on behalf of the community to bring character to the needed structure.[4]\"The book spines, which measure approximately 25 feet by 9 feet, are made of signboard mylar that is laid over concrete panels and an aluminum substructure.[5] The shelf showcases 22 titles reflecting a wide variety of reading interests as suggested by Kansas City readers and then selected by The Kansas City Public Library Board of Trustees.\"[6]The following books are depicted in the work:Kansas City Stories Volumes 1 and 2\nCatch-22 by Joseph Heller\nSilent Spring by Rachel Carson\nO Pioneers! by Willa Cather\nCien Años de Soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude) by Gabriel García Márquez\nTheir Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston\nFahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury\nThe Republic by Plato\nThe Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain\nTao Te Ching by Lau Tsu\nThe Collected Poems of Langston Hughes by Langston Hughes\nBlack Elk Speaks by Black Elk, as told to John G. Neihardt\nInvisible Man by Ralph Ellison\nTo Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee\nJournals of the Expedition by Lewis and Clark\nUndaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, And The Opening Of The American West by Stephen Ambrose\nThe Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien\nA Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens\nCharlotte's Web by E.B. White\nRomeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare\nTruman by David G. McCullough\na volume of children's books with the following:Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown; Harold and the Purple Crayon by Crockett Johnson; Winnie the Pooh by A. A. Milne; Green Eggs and Ham by Dr. Seuss; What a Wonderful World by George David Weiss and Bob Thiele; Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder; The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum; M.C. Higgins, the Great by Virginia Hamilton","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"edit-a-thons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edit-a-thon"},{"link_name":"Kansas City Black History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup/Kansas_City/KC_Black_History_April_2019"},{"link_name":"Kansas City Jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup/Kansas_City/Jazz_Edit-a-thon"},{"link_name":"Kansas City Philanthropists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup/Kansas_City/KC_Philanthropists_July_2019#Details"}],"sub_title":"Outreach","text":"The Kansas City Public Library has an open door policy for patrons. Beginning in 2016, the Library's AmeriCorps VISTAs and the Outreach team began a program called Coffee & Conversations for patrons in order to tackle the issue of homelessness within the community. During the meeting, the library provides information to patrons on the topic of homelessness and other social issues. They also invite open dialogue during this time.[7] This program was modeled after a similar program from the Dallas Public Library.[8]Additionally, the Kansas City Public Library has a program to help immigrants. The Refugee and Immigrant Services & Empowerment (RISE) program helps immigrants by providing information on resources, which help them pursue citizenship.[9]The Library periodically hosts edit-a-thons on topics relevant to the Kansas City Area. Recent edit-a-thons have covered Kansas City Black History, Kansas City Jazz, and Kansas City Philanthropists.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KCM:IHaIP-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A_history_of_KCPL-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HSotKCPL-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HSotKCPL-12"}],"text":"In November 1873 a public library was conceived by the Kansas City Board of Education by arranging a course of six popular lectures as a fundraiser to buy books.[10] Superintendent of schools, Dr. James Michlejohn Greenwood, selected these first books. A record of the origin of the Kansas City Public Library was solicited by Major L. K. Thacher via a Board resolution, adopted on November 19, 1891, resulting in the pamphlet titled A history of the Kansas City Public Library from 1873 to 1893. Prepared by order of the Board of Education by J. M. Greenwood, December 1, 1892.[11][12]: 5...at all times one grand object has been kept steadily in view, that Kansas City was quietly laying the foundation for one of the best libraries in the entire country ... that would reflect great credit on the enterprise, perseverance and intelligence of those farsighted citizens who started this movement during one of the greatest financial depressions ever known in the history of the country.— James Michlejohn Greenwood[12]: 5–6","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_Journal"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"American Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Library_Association"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"American Library Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Library_Association"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Laura Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Bush"},{"link_name":"National Medal for Museum and Library Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_for_Museum_and_Library_Service"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NM_KCUR-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mrs._Bush-18"}],"text":"The Kansas City Public Library has received numerous awards and acknowledgements, including these:Library Journal gave KCPL a five star rating in 2013, 2016, and 2018 as one of 10 libraries earning five stars among 127 libraries with budgets between $10 million and $30 million, focused on circulation, digital circulation, library visits, internet computer usage, and program attendance.[13]\n2017 Paul Howard Award for Courage from the American Library Association[14]\nIn 2014 the American Library Association gave the Excellence in Library Programming award[15]\nIn 2008 First Lady Laura Bush bestowed the National Medal for Museum and Library Service to KCPL as one of 10 institutional recipients, especially recognizing its Books to Go program and free public events.[16][17][18]","title":"Awards"}] | [{"image_text":"Central Library","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Kansas_City_Public_Library_Central_Branch.jpg/220px-Kansas_City_Public_Library_Central_Branch.jpg"},{"image_text":"Community Bookshelf (Main Library)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/KC_Main_Library2.JPG/220px-KC_Main_Library2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Parking façade","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Library_%2817010263631%29.jpg/220px-Library_%2817010263631%29.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Kansas City Public Library\". libraries.org. Retrieved April 19, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://librarytechnology.org/library/1072","url_text":"\"Kansas City Public Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"Administration & Governance\". Kansas City Public Library. Retrieved June 8, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://kclibrary.org/administration-governance","url_text":"\"Administration & Governance\""}]},{"reference":"Kent, Allen; Lancour, Harold; Daily, Jay E. (January 1, 1975). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 13 - Inventories of Books to Korea: Libraries in the Republic of. CRC Press. p. 393. 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Programming Librarian. April 24, 2015. Retrieved October 23, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.programminglibrarian.org/programs/coffee-conversation","url_text":"\"Coffee & Conversation\""}]},{"reference":"\"REFUGEE & IMMIGRANT SERVICES & EMPOWERMENT (RISE)\". Kansas City Public Library.","urls":[{"url":"https://kclibrary.org/community-services/immigrant-services","url_text":"\"REFUGEE & IMMIGRANT SERVICES & EMPOWERMENT (RISE)\""}]},{"reference":"Whitney, Carrie Westlake (1908). \"The Free Public Library\". Kansas City, Missouri: Its History and Its People 1808-1908. Vol. 1. Chicago: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co. p. 349. Retrieved April 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/kansascitymissou01inwhit#page/349/mode/1up","url_text":"\"The Free Public Library\""}]},{"reference":"Greenwood, James Michlejohn (December 1, 1892). A history of the Kansas City Public Library from 1873 to 1893. Prepared by order of the Board of Education by J. M. Greenwood, December 1, 1892.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wright, Purd B. (1937). Historical Sketch of the Kansas City Public Library, 1911-1936. Retrieved April 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015033942494&view=1up&seq=7","url_text":"Historical Sketch of the Kansas City Public Library, 1911-1936"}]},{"reference":"Lance, Keith Curry. \"2018 Star Libraries By the Numbers | LJ Index 2018\". The Library Journal. Retrieved February 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory=ljx181101StarsByNumbers","url_text":"\"2018 Star Libraries By the Numbers | LJ Index 2018\""}]},{"reference":"CMALDEN (May 2, 2017). \"Kansas City Public Library wins Paul Howard Award for Courage\". News and Press Center. Retrieved February 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ala.org/news/press-releases/2017/05/kansas-city-public-library-wins-paul-howard-award-courage","url_text":"\"Kansas City Public Library wins Paul Howard Award for Courage\""}]},{"reference":"ARYCHENER (September 26, 2012). \"ALA Excellence in Library Programming Award\". Tools, Publications & Resources. Retrieved February 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ala.org/tools/programming/programmingexcellence","url_text":"\"ALA Excellence in Library Programming Award\""}]},{"reference":"Spencer, Laura (October 6, 2008). \"Kansas City Public Library Receives National Medal\". Retrieved April 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kcur.org/community/2008-10-06/kansas-city-public-library-receives-national-medal","url_text":"\"Kansas City Public Library Receives National Medal\""}]},{"reference":"\"2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service brochure\". Institute of Museum and Library Services. October 1, 2008. Retrieved February 5, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imls.gov/publications/2008-national-medal-museum-and-library-service-brochure","url_text":"\"2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service brochure\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mrs. Bush's Remarks at the National Medals for Museum and Library Service Ceremony\". The White House. October 7, 2008. Retrieved April 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2008/10/20081007-12.html","url_text":"\"Mrs. Bush's Remarks at the National Medals for Museum and Library Service Ceremony\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kansas_City_Public_Library¶ms=39.1027_N_94.5839_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"39°06′10″N 94°35′02″W / 39.1027°N 94.5839°W / 39.1027; -94.5839"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kansas_City_Public_Library¶ms=39.1027_N_94.5839_W_type:landmark","external_links_name":"39°06′10″N 94°35′02″W / 39.1027°N 94.5839°W / 39.1027; -94.5839"},{"Link":"https://kclibrary.org/","external_links_name":"kclibrary.org"},{"Link":"https://librarytechnology.org/library/1072","external_links_name":"\"Kansas City Public Library\""},{"Link":"https://kclibrary.org/administration-governance","external_links_name":"\"Administration & Governance\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4En71IyMy_kC&q=public+school+library+of+kansas+city&pg=PA393","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 13 - Inventories of Books to Korea: Libraries in the Republic of"},{"Link":"https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kansas-city-library-s-giant-bookshelf","external_links_name":"\"Kansas City Library's Giant Bookshelf\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/890757518","external_links_name":"890757518"},{"Link":"https://www.kclibrary.org/readers-services/reading-lists/community-bookshelf","external_links_name":"\"Community Bookshelf\""},{"Link":"https://www.kshb.com/news/local-news/kansas-city-public-library-hosts-coffee-and-conversations-for-homeless","external_links_name":"\"Kansas City Public Library hosts 'Coffee and Conversations' for homeless\""},{"Link":"http://www.programminglibrarian.org/programs/coffee-conversation","external_links_name":"\"Coffee & Conversation\""},{"Link":"https://kclibrary.org/community-services/immigrant-services","external_links_name":"\"REFUGEE & IMMIGRANT SERVICES & EMPOWERMENT (RISE)\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/kansascitymissou01inwhit#page/349/mode/1up","external_links_name":"\"The Free Public Library\""},{"Link":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015033942494&view=1up&seq=7","external_links_name":"Historical Sketch of the Kansas City Public Library, 1911-1936"},{"Link":"http://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory=ljx181101StarsByNumbers","external_links_name":"\"2018 Star Libraries By the Numbers | LJ Index 2018\""},{"Link":"http://www.ala.org/news/press-releases/2017/05/kansas-city-public-library-wins-paul-howard-award-courage","external_links_name":"\"Kansas City Public Library wins Paul Howard Award for Courage\""},{"Link":"http://www.ala.org/tools/programming/programmingexcellence","external_links_name":"\"ALA Excellence in Library Programming Award\""},{"Link":"https://www.kcur.org/community/2008-10-06/kansas-city-public-library-receives-national-medal","external_links_name":"\"Kansas City Public Library Receives National Medal\""},{"Link":"https://www.imls.gov/publications/2008-national-medal-museum-and-library-service-brochure","external_links_name":"\"2008 National Medal for Museum and Library Service brochure\""},{"Link":"https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2008/10/20081007-12.html","external_links_name":"\"Mrs. Bush's Remarks at the National Medals for Museum and Library Service Ceremony\""},{"Link":"https://kclibrary.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.facebook.com/kclibrary","external_links_name":"Kansas City Public Library"},{"Link":"https://x.com/KCLibrary","external_links_name":"Kansas City Public Library"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000404153151","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/143467915","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2009021804","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedegk%C3%A9r | Bedegkér | ["1 External links","2 References"] | Coordinates: 46°39′05″N 18°03′40″E / 46.65151°N 18.06124°E / 46.65151; 18.06124Village in Southern Transdanubia, HungaryBedegkér
Bedeg and Magyarkér (until 1939)Village
Coat of armsBedegkérLocation of BedegkérCoordinates: 46°39′05″N 18°03′40″E / 46.65151°N 18.06124°E / 46.65151; 18.06124Country HungaryRegionSouthern TransdanubiaCountySomogyDistrictTabRC DiocesePécsArea • Total26.01 km2 (10.04 sq mi)Population (2017) • Total389DemonymbedegkériTime zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code8666Area code(+36) 84NUTS 3 codeHU232MPMihály Witzmann (Fidesz)
Bedegkér is a village in Somogy county, Hungary. It was formed in 1939 uniting the two separate villages of Bedeg and Magyarkér.
External links
Street map (Hungarian)
References
^ Bedegkér, KSH
^ Pécs Diocese Official Website
vteTowns and villages of Tab DistrictTown (1)
Tab (district seat)
Villages (23)
Andocs
Bábonymegyer
Bedegkér
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vteSomogy CountyCity with county rights
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Towns
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This Somogy county location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Somogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somogy_County"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"}],"text":"Village in Southern Transdanubia, HungaryBedegkér is a village in Somogy county, Hungary. It was formed in 1939 uniting the two separate villages of Bedeg and Magyarkér.","title":"Bedegkér"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bedegk%C3%A9r¶ms=46.65151_N_18.06124_E_region:HU_type:city","external_links_name":"46°39′05″N 18°03′40″E / 46.65151°N 18.06124°E / 46.65151; 18.06124"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bedegk%C3%A9r¶ms=46.65151_N_18.06124_E_region:HU_type:city","external_links_name":"46°39′05″N 18°03′40″E / 46.65151°N 18.06124°E / 46.65151; 18.06124"},{"Link":"http://www.terkepcentrum.hu/index.asp?go=map&tid=20710","external_links_name":"Street map (Hungarian)"},{"Link":"http://www.ksh.hu/apps/hntr.telepules?p_lang=EN&p_id=20710","external_links_name":"Bedegkér, KSH"},{"Link":"https://pecsiegyhazmegye.hu/egyhazmegye/plebaniak/szervezet/104","external_links_name":"Pécs Diocese Official Website"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bedegk%C3%A9r&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honest_John_Missile | MGR-1 Honest John | ["1 History and development","2 Variants","3 Production and deployment","4 Name origin","5 Support vehicles","6 Surviving examples","7 Operators","7.1 Former operators","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Models","12 External links"] | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "MGR-1 Honest John" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Nuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocket MGR-1 Honest John MGR-1A (M31 series) "Honest John" rocket on the M386 transporter/launcher truck of the Royal Netherlands ArmyTypeNuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocketPlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn service1953–91Used byBelgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Taiwan, Turkey, UK, and USWarsCold WarProduction historyManufacturerDouglas Aircraft CompanyNo. built7000+VariantsMGR-1A, MGR-1B, MGR-1CSpecifications (MGR-1A)Mass5,820 lb (2,640 kg)Length27 ft 3 in (8.30 m)Diameter30 inches (760 mm)Wingspan9 ft 1 in (2.77 m)EngineHercules M6 solid-fueled rocket99,000 lbf (441 kN)PropellantDouble base solid propellantOperationalrange3.4–15.4 mi (5.5–24.8 km)Flight ceiling30,000 ft (9 km)+Maximum speed Mach 2.3
The MGR-1 Honest John rocket was the first nuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocket in the United States arsenal. Originally designated Artillery Rocket XM31, the first unit was tested on 29 June 1951, with the first production rounds delivered in January 1953. Its designation was changed to M31 in September 1953. The first Army units received their rockets by year's end and Honest John battalions were deployed in Europe in early 1954. Alternatively, the rocket was capable of carrying an ordinary high-explosive warhead weighing 1,500 pounds (680 kg).
History and development
Honest John test launch
Developed at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, the Honest John was a large but simple fin-stabilized, unguided artillery rocket weighing 5,820 pounds (2,640 kg) in its initial M31 nuclear-armed version. Mounted on the back of a truck, the rocket was aimed in much the same way as a cannon and then fired up an elevated ramp, igniting four small spin rockets as it cleared the end of the ramp. The M31 had a range of 15.4 miles (24.8 km) with a 20 kiloton nuclear warhead and was also capable of carrying a 1,500-pound (680 kg) conventional warhead.
"It's no secret we're in the 'missile business' to stay..." Douglas Aircraft Company ad in the California Institute of Technology 1958 yearbook
The M31 system included a truck-mounted, unguided, solid-fueled rocket transported in three separate parts. The Honest John was assembled in the field before launch, mounted on an M289 launcher, and aimed and fired in about 5 minutes. The rocket was originally outfitted with a W7 nuclear warhead, with a variable yield of up to 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ); in 1959, a W31 warhead with three variants was deployed with yields of 2, 10 or 30 kt (8.4, 41.8 or 125.5 TJ). There was a W31 variant of 20 kt (84 TJ) used exclusively for the Nike Hercules anti-aircraft system. The M31 had a range between 3.4 and 15.4 mi (5.5 and 24.8 km).
Early tests exhibited more scatter on target than was acceptable when carrying conventional payloads. Development of an upgraded Honest John, M50, was undertaken to improve accuracy and extend range. The size of the fins was greatly reduced to eliminate weathercocking. Increased spin was applied to restore the positive stability margin that was lost when fin size was reduced. The improved M50, with the smaller fins and more "rifling", had a maximum range of 30+ miles with a scatter on target of only 250 yards (230 m), demonstrating an accuracy approaching that of tube artillery. The Honest John was manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company of Santa Monica, California.Honest John warhead cutaway, showing M139 sarin bomblets (photo c. 1960)
In the 1960s, sarin nerve gas cluster munitions were also available, designed to be interchangeable for use with either the Honest John or MGM-5 Corporal. Initially the M79 (E19R1) GB cluster warhead, containing 356 M134 (E130R1) bomblets for the M31A1C Honest John. The production model was the M190 (E19R2) GB cluster warhead, containing 356 M139 (E130R2) bomblets when the M31A1C was phased out in favor of the XM50 Honest John. Under nominal conditions it had an mean area of effect of 0.9 square kilometers.
Variants
The two basic versions of Honest John were:
MGR-1A (M31) was 27 ft 3 in (8.30 m) long, had an engine diameter of 22+7⁄8 in (580 mm), a warhead diameter of 30 in (760 mm), a fin span of 9 ft 1 in (2.77 m), weighed 5,820 lb (2,640 kg) (nuclear), and had a range of 3.4–15.4 mi (5.5–24.8 km). The Hercules Powder Company M6 solid-fueled rocket motor was 16 feet 5+7⁄16 inches (5.015 m) long, weighed 3,937 pounds (1,786 kg), and had 99,000 lbf (441 kN) thrust.
MGR-1B (M50) was 26 ft 0 in (7.92 m) long, had an engine diameter of 22.8 inches (580 mm), a warhead diameter of 30 inches (760 mm), a fin span of 4 ft 6 in (1.37 m), weighed 4,320 lb (1,960 kg) (nuclear), and had a maximum range of 30 mi (48 km), practically twice that of the M31. An improved propellant formulation gave the rocket motor 150,000 lbf (666 kN) thrust.
Production and deployment
US Army launcher vehicle based on the M139D 5-ton truck
Production of the MGR-1 variants finished in 1965, with a total production run of more than 7,000 rockets. The Honest John's bulbous nose and distinctive truck-mounted launch ramp made it an easily recognized symbol of the Cold War at army bases worldwide and National Guard armories in the U.S.. Even though it was unguided and the first U.S. nuclear ballistic missile, it had a longer service life than all other U.S. ballistic missiles except the Minuteman system. The system was replaced with the MGM-52 Lance missile in 1973, but was deployed with the National Guard units in the United States as late as 1983. Conventionally armed Honest Johns remained in the arsenals of Greece, Turkey and South Korea until at least the late 1990s.
By the time the last Honest Johns were withdrawn from Europe in the late 1980s (and replaced by the unguided M-26 artillery rocket), the rocket had served with the military forces of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark (non-nuclear), France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway (non-nuclear), South Korea, Taiwan (non-nuclear), and Turkey.
Name origin
Unloading a rocket from the M329 transport trailer.
In late 1950, Major General Holger Toftoy was a colonel overseeing the development of the rocket. The project was in danger of cancellation "on the grounds that such a large unguided rocket could not possibly have had the accuracy to justify further funds." On a trip to White Sands Missile Range, Toftoy met a Texan man who was prone to making unbelievable statements. Whenever anyone expressed doubt about the man's claims, he would respond, "Why, around these parts, I'm called 'Honest John!'" Because the project was being questioned, Toftoy felt that the nickname was appropriate for the rocket and suggested the name to his superiors.
Support vehicles
Vehicles and components of the Dutch-operated Honest John rocket system. From left to right: M386 launcher based on the M139 5-ton truck, M62 wrecker/crane, M329 rocket transport trailer, M78A1 truck-mounted heating and tie-down unit and Willys M38A1 light utility truck. Prime movers in the rear.
Vehicles used with the Honest John platform:
M33 trailer, launcher,
M46 truck, heating and tie down unit (G744)
M289 truck, rocket launcher, (M139 truck) (G744),
M329 trailer, rocket transporter, (G821)
M386 Truck, Rocket, 762 mm, short launch rail, 5-ton (M139 truck)
M405 handling unit, trailer mounted,
M465 cart assembly, transport, 762 mm rocket,
Surviving examples
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Canada
CFB Petawawa Military Museum, CFB Petawawa, Petawawa, Ontario.
The Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba
Outdoor Display of 2 Warheads, Canadian Forces Logistics Training Center Ammo School, CFB Borden, Borden, Ontario.
Denmark
The Royal Danish Arsenal Museum
Netherlands
The National Military Museum
United Kingdom
Imperial War Museum Duxford
Royal Air Force Museum
United States
Restored Honest John on M465 cart at Carolinas Aviation Museum
Honest John at Hillyard, WA
3rd Cavalry Museum, 1st Cav Museum, Fort Hood, Texas
45th Infantry Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Air Force Space & Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida
American Armoured Foundation, Inc. Tank & Ordnance War Memorial Museum, Danville, Virginia
Bedford, Indiana, displayed outside a military surplus store, at the southwest corner of US-50/IN-37 and IN-450.
Camp Atterbury Military Museum, Camp Atterbury, Indiana.
Carolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina (Two missiles are on display – both came from the Florence Air & Missile Museum)
Crestwood, Illinois, on display at municipal park.
Combat Air Museum, Topeka, Kansas
Fort Lewis Museum, Fort Lewis, Washington
Field Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
National Atomic Museum, Kirtland AFB, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Rock Island Arsenal, Arsenal Island, between Iowa and Illinois
Texas Military Forces Museum at Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas
Underwood Public School, Underwood, Minnesota.
United States Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Yuma Proving Ground, Yuma, Arizona
Milledgeville High School, Milledgeville, Illinois (home of the Milledgeville Missiles)
Miami Central High School Miami, Florida Home of the "ROCKETS".
A.C. Reynolds High School Asheville, North Carolina Home of the "ROCKETS".
Outdoor display, Spokane, Washington – southwest corner of Sanson and Market in Hillyard neighborhood
Outdoor display, St. Albans Roadside Park, St. Albans, West Virginia
Outdoor display, White Sands Missile Range Museum, New Mexico
Neenah High School, Neenah, Wisconsin
Outdoor display, M50 from 6th Bn 112th FA on display at the Armory in Cape May Courthouse, Cape May, New Jersey.
Outdoor display, Hull Street Outlet Inc., Richmond, Virginia.
Outdoor display, Trumann Middle School, Trumann, Arkansas
Operators
Map with former MGR-1 operators in red
West German parade in 1969
South Korean Armed Forces day in 1973
Former operators
Belgium
Belgian Army
Used in various Corps and Divisional artillery units (75, 3, 20 and 14th Artillery Battalions) from 1960 to 1978. Replaced by Lance missile.
Canada
Canadian Army
Canada adopted the MGR-1B with the 1-kiloton W31 warhead. Four units were assigned to 1 Surface to Surface Missile Battery, Royal Canadian Artillery at Hemer, Germany under 4 CIBG. Two to four units were supplied to 2 SSM Battery at CFB Shilo in Manitoba for training. These units were formed in September 1960. 1SSM maintained very high readiness and able to deploy to firing positions quickly. Their ability to maintain camouflage kept even elite NATO special forces from locating them in exercises. 1SSM was authorized to wear the black scarf of the Congreve rocket gunners. Canada disbanded the Honest John batteries in mid-1970 without replacement.
Denmark
Royal Danish Army
France
French Army
Corps Artillery
301st Artillery Group (1959–1970) – absorbed into 50th Artillery Regiment
50th Artillery Regiment (1970–1976)
302nd Artillery Group (1959–1970) – absorbed into 60th Artillery Regiment
60th Artillery Regiment (1970–1975)
303rd Artillery Group (1960–1970) – absorbed into 3rd Artillery Regiment
3rd Artillery Regiment (1970–1973)
Divisional Artillery
3rd Group, 32nd Artillery Regiment (1962–1974)
3rd Group, 68th Artillery Regiment (1960–1973)
Nuclear Security
351st Artillery Group (1962–1970) – expanded to 351st Artillery Regiment
351st Artillery Regiment (1970–1975)
Germany
German Army
Greece
Hellenic Army
Italy
Italian Army
South Korea
Republic of Korea Army
Norway
Norwegian Army (1961–65)
Dutch soldiers take cover and await the launch of an Honest John rocket in 1960.
Netherlands
Royal Netherlands Army
Taiwan
Republic of China Army
Turkey
Turkish Army - in service with 420th, 450th, 490th, and 550th Battalions, 1963.
United Kingdom
British Army - 24 Missile Regiment RA 1960/61 - 1977; 39 Missile Regiment RA; 50 Missile Regiment Royal Artillery, both 8" inch towed, two batteries, and two batteries Honest John.
United States
United States Army
United States Marine Corps
See also
W7
W31
M139 bomblet
G-numbers
MGR-3 Little John
Notes
^ The first nuclear-authorized guided missile was the MGM-5 Corporal.
^ 90,325 lbf (401.79 kN) according to "Solid". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2019. The X-201 was the forerunner of an entire family of related propulsion units that served as boosters for the Nike, Terrier, Talos, and Honest John missiles.
References
^ "Solid". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2019. The X-201 was the forerunner of an entire family of related propulsion units that served as boosters for the Nike, Terrier, Talos, and Honest John missiles.
^ a b c "Honest John". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2003. Archived from the original on 11 October 2004. Retrieved 19 December 2019. Note: Data given by several sources show slight variations. Figures given below may therefore be inaccurate!
^ Gibson, Nuclear Weapons of the United States, pp. 177–179, 1996
^ Kirby, Reid, "The CB Battlefield Legacy", Army Chemical Review July–December 2006, pp. 25 – 29.
^ Bedard, Andre (2001). "Double Base Solid Propellants". Mark Wade. Retrieved 20 December 2019. Double-base solid propellants consist mainly of fibrous nitro-cellulose and a gelatiniser, or plasticiser, such as nitro-glycerine or a similar compound (ethylene glycol dinitrate), each containing oxygen and fuel in the same compound.
^ General Dynamics, Free World Tactical Missile Systems (Pomona, CA: General Dynamics, June 1973) p.251; Jane's Weapon Systems 1987–1988 (London: Jane's, 1987) p.127.
^ a b McKenney, Janice E. (2007). The organizational history of field artillery 1775–2003. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. p. 212. ISBN 9780160771149.
^ "Honest John". Redstone Arsenal Historical Information. U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Command. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
^ "001". 28 September 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
^ "Underwood Online--Sights". www.ci.underwood.mn.us. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
^ "White Sands Missile Range Missile Park". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
^ "Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery". www.canadiansoldiers.com. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
^ The Honest John in Canadian Service – John Davidson, Canada's Weapons of War Series, WOW030, A5 size softback, 24 pages,ISBN 978-1-894581-71-4, Service Publications, Canada
^ "1- Les insignes des unités Honest John et des unités de soutien". artillerie.asso.fr. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
^ "528th U.S. Army Artillery Group".
Models
Meccano Ltd. U.K. in its Dinky Toys range produced a model of the International Harvester Honest John missile launcher under the reference 665.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to MGR-1 Honest John.
http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/r-1.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20041011052933/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm
Redstone Arsenal (Alabama) (includes declassified military monograph on the Honest John, chronology, pictures, and a movie of an Honest John firing)
Weapons of the Field Artillery – Part 3, U.S. Military Documentary, Film TF6 3646, 1965
Honest John Missile Base in Germany http://www.herzobase.org
http://www.olive-drab.com/idphoto/id_photos_m39_missiletrk.php launchers
MGR-1A & MGR-1B Honest John Operator & Organisation Maintenance Manual. US Army issue to troops.
vte1963 United States tri-service rocket designations and post-1963 undesignated rocketsDesignated (1–)
MGR-1
AIR-2
MGR-3
RUR-4
RUR-5
MER-6
ADR-7
ADR-8
ADR-9
ADR-10
ADR-11
ADR-12
MQR-13
AGR-14
MTR-15
MQR-16
FGR-17
GTR-18
AGR-19
AGR-20
AGR-21
Undesignated
DAGR
FFAR (Mk 4)
GATR
Hydra 70
LOCAT
LOGIR
Mighty Mouse
Zuni
M72 LAW
M136 AT4
MK153 SMAW
M141 BDM
M202 FLASH
M26 MLRS
United States tri-service rocket and guided missile designations post-1962
Research rocket designations
vteUnited States Army missile and rocket designations 1948–19631948–1951 missile system
RTV-G-1
RTV-G-2
RTV-G-3
RTV-G-4
CTV-G-5
RTV-G-6
SAM-G-7
SSM-G-8
SSM-G-9
RTV-G-10
G-112
SSM-G-12
SSM-G-13
SSM-G-14
SSM-G-15
SSM-G-16
SSM-G-17
1951–1955 missile system
RV-A-1
RV-A-2
RV-A-3
RV-A-4
RV-A-5
RV-A-6
SAM-A-7
RV-A-8
SSM-A-9
RV-A-10
G-112
SSM-A-12
SSM-A-13
SSM-A-14
SSM-A-15
SSM-A-16
SSM-A-17
SAM-A-18
SAM-A-19
A-202
A-212
RV-A-22
SSM-A-23
A-242
SAM-A-25
A-262
SSM-A-27
1955–1963 missile system
M1
M2
M3
M4
M51
M6
M71
M8
M9
M101
M111
M121
M13
M14
M15
M16
M171
M18
M19
Unguided rockets, 1940–1963
M2
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M12
M16
M17
M20
M21
M25
M26
M27
M28
M29
M30
M31
M47
M50
M51
M55
M60
M61
M72
M73
M74
Undesignated types
Dervish
Lobber
Ping-Pong
1 Not assigned
2 Designation uncertain
Authority control databases
NARA | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"surface-to-surface rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-surface_rocket"},{"link_name":"[notes 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Nuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocketThe MGR-1 Honest John rocket was the first nuclear-capable surface-to-surface rocket in the United States arsenal.[notes 1] Originally designated Artillery Rocket XM31, the first unit was tested on 29 June 1951, with the first production rounds delivered in January 1953. Its designation was changed to M31 in September 1953. The first Army units received their rockets by year's end and Honest John battalions were deployed in Europe in early 1954. Alternatively, the rocket was capable of carrying an ordinary high-explosive warhead weighing 1,500 pounds (680 kg).","title":"MGR-1 Honest John"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MGR-1_Honest_John_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Redstone Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstone_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"fin-stabilized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer"},{"link_name":"unguided artillery rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_artillery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22It%27s_no_secret_we%27re_in_the_%27missile_business%27_to_stay...%22_1958_Douglas_Aircraft_Company_ad_detail,_from-_The_Big_T_1958_(page_184_crop).jpg"},{"link_name":"W7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"variable yield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_yield"},{"link_name":"kilotons of TNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_equivalent"},{"link_name":"TJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terajoule"},{"link_name":"W31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W31"},{"link_name":"Nike Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_Hercules"},{"link_name":"weathercocking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathervane_effect"},{"link_name":"Douglas Aircraft Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Aircraft_Company"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Demonstration_cluster_bomb.jpg"},{"link_name":"M139","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M139_bomblet"},{"link_name":"sarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin"},{"link_name":"sarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin"},{"link_name":"cluster munitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_munition"},{"link_name":"MGM-5 Corporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM-5_Corporal"},{"link_name":"M139","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M139_bomblet"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Honest John test launchDeveloped at Redstone Arsenal, Alabama, the Honest John was a large but simple fin-stabilized, unguided artillery rocket weighing 5,820 pounds (2,640 kg) in its initial M31 nuclear-armed version. Mounted on the back of a truck, the rocket was aimed in much the same way as a cannon and then fired up an elevated ramp, igniting four small spin rockets as it cleared the end of the ramp. The M31 had a range of 15.4 miles (24.8 km) with a 20 kiloton nuclear warhead and was also capable of carrying a 1,500-pound (680 kg) conventional warhead.\"It's no secret we're in the 'missile business' to stay...\" Douglas Aircraft Company ad in the California Institute of Technology 1958 yearbookThe M31 system included a truck-mounted, unguided, solid-fueled rocket transported in three separate parts. The Honest John was assembled in the field before launch, mounted on an M289 launcher, and aimed and fired in about 5 minutes. The rocket was originally outfitted with a W7 nuclear warhead, with a variable yield of up to 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ); in 1959, a W31 warhead with three variants was deployed with yields of 2, 10 or 30 kt (8.4, 41.8 or 125.5 TJ). There was a W31 variant of 20 kt (84 TJ) used exclusively for the Nike Hercules anti-aircraft system. The M31 had a range between 3.4 and 15.4 mi (5.5 and 24.8 km).Early tests exhibited more scatter on target than was acceptable when carrying conventional payloads. Development of an upgraded Honest John, M50, was undertaken to improve accuracy and extend range. The size of the fins was greatly reduced to eliminate weathercocking. Increased spin was applied to restore the positive stability margin that was lost when fin size was reduced. The improved M50, with the smaller fins and more \"rifling\", had a maximum range of 30+ miles with a scatter on target of only 250 yards (230 m), demonstrating an accuracy approaching that of tube artillery. The Honest John was manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company of Santa Monica, California.[3]Honest John warhead cutaway, showing M139 sarin bomblets (photo c. 1960)In the 1960s, sarin nerve gas cluster munitions were also available, designed to be interchangeable for use with either the Honest John or MGM-5 Corporal. Initially the M79 (E19R1) GB cluster warhead, containing 356 M134 (E130R1) bomblets for the M31A1C Honest John. The production model was the M190 (E19R2) GB cluster warhead, containing 356 M139 (E130R2) bomblets when the M31A1C was phased out in favor of the XM50 Honest John. Under nominal conditions it had an mean area of effect of 0.9 square kilometers.[4]","title":"History and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hercules Powder Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules_Inc."},{"link_name":"[notes 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astronautix-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bedard-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astronautix-2"}],"text":"The two basic versions of Honest John were:MGR-1A (M31) was 27 ft 3 in (8.30 m) long, had an engine diameter of 22+7⁄8 in (580 mm), a warhead diameter of 30 in (760 mm), a fin span of 9 ft 1 in (2.77 m), weighed 5,820 lb (2,640 kg) (nuclear), and had a range of 3.4–15.4 mi (5.5–24.8 km). The Hercules Powder Company M6 solid-fueled rocket motor was 16 feet 5+7⁄16 inches (5.015 m) long, weighed 3,937 pounds (1,786 kg), and had 99,000 lbf (441 kN) thrust.[notes 2][2][5]MGR-1B (M50) was 26 ft 0 in (7.92 m) long, had an engine diameter of 22.8 inches (580 mm), a warhead diameter of 30 inches (760 mm), a fin span of 4 ft 6 in (1.37 m), weighed 4,320 lb (1,960 kg) (nuclear), and had a maximum range of 30 mi (48 km), practically twice that of the M31. An improved propellant formulation gave the rocket motor 150,000 lbf (666 kN) thrust.[2]","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Een_International_M139D_5-tons_6x6-lanceerauto_met_een_Honest_John-raket,_een_een_ongeleide_raket_tegen_gronddoelen,_met_een_maximum_bereik_van_ongeveer_35_km_(2044_061252).jpg"},{"link_name":"Minuteman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman"},{"link_name":"MGM-52 Lance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM-52_Lance"},{"link_name":"unguided M-26 artillery rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-26_artillery_rocket"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"US Army launcher vehicle based on the M139D 5-ton truckProduction of the MGR-1 variants finished in 1965, with a total production run of more than 7,000 rockets. The Honest John's bulbous nose and distinctive truck-mounted launch ramp made it an easily recognized symbol of the Cold War at army bases worldwide and National Guard armories in the U.S.. Even though it was unguided and the first U.S. nuclear ballistic missile, it had a longer service life than all other U.S. ballistic missiles except the Minuteman system. The system was replaced with the MGM-52 Lance missile in 1973, but was deployed with the National Guard units in the United States as late as 1983. Conventionally armed Honest Johns remained in the arsenals of Greece, Turkey and South Korea until at least the late 1990s.By the time the last Honest Johns were withdrawn from Europe in the late 1980s (and replaced by the unguided M-26 artillery rocket), the rocket had served with the military forces of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark (non-nuclear), France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway (non-nuclear), South Korea, Taiwan (non-nuclear), and Turkey.[6]","title":"Production and deployment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Artilleristen_tillen_met_behulp_van_een_International_M62_5-tons_6x6-takelauto_een_Honest_John_(2009-012-035_004).jpg"},{"link_name":"Holger Toftoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Toftoy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckenney-9"},{"link_name":"White Sands Missile Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckenney-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Unloading a rocket from the M329 transport trailer.In late 1950, Major General Holger Toftoy was a colonel overseeing the development of the rocket. The project was in danger of cancellation \"on the grounds that such a large unguided rocket could not possibly have had the accuracy to justify further funds.\"[7] On a trip to White Sands Missile Range, Toftoy met a Texan man who was prone to making unbelievable statements. Whenever anyone expressed doubt about the man's claims, he would respond, \"Why, around these parts, I'm called 'Honest John!'\" Because the project was being questioned, Toftoy felt that the nickname was appropriate for the rocket and suggested the name to his superiors.[7][8]","title":"Name origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Overzicht_van_voertuigen_behorende_bij_de_lanceerinrichting_voor_de_Honest_John-raket_(2155_007716).jpg"},{"link_name":"Willys M38A1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willys_M38A1"},{"link_name":"M139 truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M54_5-ton_6x6_truck"}],"text":"Vehicles and components of the Dutch-operated Honest John rocket system. From left to right: M386 launcher based on the M139 5-ton truck, M62 wrecker/crane, M329 rocket transport trailer, M78A1 truck-mounted heating and tie-down unit and Willys M38A1 light utility truck. Prime movers in the rear.Vehicles used with the Honest John platform:M33 trailer, launcher,\nM46 truck, heating and tie down unit (G744)\nM289 truck, rocket launcher, (M139 truck) (G744),\nM329 trailer, rocket transporter, (G821)\nM386 Truck, Rocket, 762 mm, short launch rail, 5-ton (M139 truck)\nM405 handling unit, trailer mounted,\nM465 cart assembly, transport, 762 mm rocket,","title":"Support vehicles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CFB Petawawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrison_Petawawa"},{"link_name":"The Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//rcamuseum.com"},{"link_name":"The Royal Danish Arsenal Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thm.dk"},{"link_name":"The National Military Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nmm.nl"},{"link_name":"Imperial War Museum Duxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum_Duxford"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CarolinasAviationMuseumHonestJohn.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Honestjohnhillyard.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fort Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Hood"},{"link_name":"45th Infantry Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=45th_Infantry_Museum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Air Force Space & Missile Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Space_%26_Missile_Museum"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Bedford, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"military surplus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_surplus"},{"link_name":"Camp Atterbury, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Atterbury"},{"link_name":"Carolinas Aviation Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolinas_Aviation_Museum"},{"link_name":"Florence Air & Missile Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Air_%26_Missile_Museum"},{"link_name":"Crestwood, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crestwood,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Fort Lewis Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lewis_Museum"},{"link_name":"Fort Sill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Sill"},{"link_name":"National Atomic Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Atomic_Museum"},{"link_name":"Rock Island Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Texas Military Forces Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Military_Forces_Museum"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Underwood, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwood,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"United States Space & Rocket Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_%26_Rocket_Center"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"Yuma Proving Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuma_Proving_Ground"},{"link_name":"Milledgeville, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milledgeville,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Miami Central High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_Central_High_School"},{"link_name":"Miami, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami,_Florida"},{"link_name":"A.C. Reynolds High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Reynolds_High_School"},{"link_name":"Asheville, North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheville,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Spokane, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokane,_Washington"},{"link_name":"St. Albans, West Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Albans,_West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"White Sands Missile Range Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Neenah, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Cape May, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_May,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Richmond, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Trumann, Arkansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumann,_Arkansas"}],"text":"CanadaCFB Petawawa Military Museum, CFB Petawawa, Petawawa, Ontario.\nThe Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba\nOutdoor Display of 2 Warheads, Canadian Forces Logistics Training Center Ammo School, CFB Borden, Borden, Ontario.DenmarkThe Royal Danish Arsenal MuseumNetherlandsThe National Military MuseumUnited KingdomImperial War Museum Duxford\nRoyal Air Force MuseumUnited StatesRestored Honest John on M465 cart at Carolinas Aviation MuseumHonest John at Hillyard, WA3rd Cavalry Museum, 1st Cav Museum, Fort Hood, Texas\n45th Infantry Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma\nAir Force Space & Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida\nAmerican Armoured Foundation, Inc. Tank & Ordnance War Memorial Museum, Danville, Virginia\nBedford, Indiana, displayed outside a military surplus store, at the southwest corner of US-50/IN-37 and IN-450.\nCamp Atterbury Military Museum, Camp Atterbury, Indiana.\nCarolinas Aviation Museum, Charlotte, North Carolina (Two missiles are on display – both came from the Florence Air & Missile Museum)\nCrestwood, Illinois, on display at municipal park.\nCombat Air Museum, Topeka, Kansas\nFort Lewis Museum, Fort Lewis, Washington\nField Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\nNational Atomic Museum, Kirtland AFB, Albuquerque, New Mexico\nRock Island Arsenal, Arsenal Island, between Iowa and Illinois\nTexas Military Forces Museum at Camp Mabry, Austin, Texas[9]\nUnderwood Public School, Underwood, Minnesota.[10]\nUnited States Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama\nYuma Proving Ground, Yuma, Arizona\nMilledgeville High School, Milledgeville, Illinois (home of the Milledgeville Missiles)\nMiami Central High School Miami, Florida Home of the \"ROCKETS\".\nA.C. Reynolds High School Asheville, North Carolina Home of the \"ROCKETS\".\nOutdoor display, Spokane, Washington – southwest corner of Sanson and Market in Hillyard neighborhood\nOutdoor display, St. Albans Roadside Park, St. Albans, West Virginia\nOutdoor display, White Sands Missile Range Museum, New Mexico[11]\nNeenah High School, Neenah, Wisconsin\nOutdoor display, M50 from 6th Bn 112th FA on display at the Armory in Cape May Courthouse, Cape May, New Jersey.\nOutdoor display, Hull Street Outlet Inc., Richmond, Virginia.\nOutdoor display, Trumann Middle School, Trumann, Arkansas","title":"Surviving examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MGR-1_operators.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F029235-0024,_N%C3%BCrburgring,_Bundeswehrparade_zum_NATO-Jubil%C3%A4um.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armed_Forces_Day_of_South_Korea_(1973)_5.jpg"}],"text":"Map with former MGR-1 operators in redWest German parade in 1969South Korean Armed Forces day in 1973","title":"Operators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Belgian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Army"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Canadian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Army"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Artillery"},{"link_name":"4 CIBG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Canadian_Mechanized_Brigade_Group"},{"link_name":"CFB Shilo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFB_Shilo"},{"link_name":"Congreve rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congreve_rocket"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Royal Danish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Danish_Army"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"French Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Army"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"German Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Hellenic Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Army"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Italian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Army"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Republic of Korea Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Army"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Norwegian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Army"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Op_enige_tientallen_meters_van_de_lanceerinstallatie_van_de_Honest_John-raket_liggen_militairen_in_afwachting_van_de_lancering_van_de_raket_(2155_007712).jpg"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Royal Netherlands Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Army"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Republic of China Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Turkish Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Army"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"50 Missile Regiment Royal Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Missile_Regiment_Royal_Artillery"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"United States Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps"}],"sub_title":"Former operators","text":"BelgiumBelgian ArmyUsed in various Corps and Divisional artillery units (75, 3, 20 and 14th Artillery Battalions) from 1960 to 1978. Replaced by Lance missile.CanadaCanadian ArmyCanada adopted the MGR-1B with the 1-kiloton W31 warhead. Four units were assigned to 1 Surface to Surface Missile Battery, Royal Canadian Artillery at Hemer, Germany under 4 CIBG. Two to four units were supplied to 2 SSM Battery at CFB Shilo in Manitoba for training. These units were formed in September 1960. 1SSM maintained very high readiness and able to deploy to firing positions quickly. Their ability to maintain camouflage kept even elite NATO special forces from locating them in exercises. 1SSM was authorized to wear the black scarf of the Congreve rocket gunners. Canada disbanded the Honest John batteries in mid-1970 without replacement.[12][13]DenmarkRoyal Danish ArmyFranceFrench Army[14]\nCorps Artillery\n301st Artillery Group [Battalion] (1959–1970) – absorbed into 50th Artillery Regiment\n50th Artillery Regiment (1970–1976)\n302nd Artillery Group [Battalion] (1959–1970) – absorbed into 60th Artillery Regiment\n60th Artillery Regiment (1970–1975)\n303rd Artillery Group [Battalion] (1960–1970) – absorbed into 3rd Artillery Regiment\n3rd Artillery Regiment (1970–1973)\nDivisional Artillery\n3rd Group, 32nd Artillery Regiment (1962–1974)\n3rd Group, 68th Artillery Regiment (1960–1973)\nNuclear Security\n351st Artillery Group (1962–1970) – expanded to 351st Artillery Regiment\n351st Artillery Regiment (1970–1975)GermanyGerman ArmyGreeceHellenic ArmyItalyItalian ArmySouth KoreaRepublic of Korea ArmyNorwayNorwegian Army (1961–65)Dutch soldiers take cover and await the launch of an Honest John rocket in 1960.NetherlandsRoyal Netherlands ArmyTaiwanRepublic of China ArmyTurkeyTurkish Army - in service with 420th, 450th, 490th, and 550th Battalions, 1963.[15]United KingdomBritish Army - 24 Missile Regiment RA 1960/61 - 1977; 39 Missile Regiment RA; 50 Missile Regiment Royal Artillery, both 8\" inch towed, two batteries, and two batteries Honest John.United StatesUnited States Army\nUnited States Marine Corps","title":"Operators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"MGM-5 Corporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM-5_Corporal"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Solid\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160815174909/http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html"}],"text":"^ The first nuclear-authorized guided missile was the MGM-5 Corporal.\n\n^ 90,325 lbf (401.79 kN) according to \"Solid\". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2019. The X-201 [...] was the forerunner of an entire family of related propulsion units that served as boosters for the Nike, Terrier, Talos, and Honest John missiles.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Meccano Ltd. U.K. in its Dinky Toys range produced a model of the International Harvester Honest John missile launcher under the reference 665.","title":"Models"}] | [{"image_text":"Honest John test launch","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/MGR-1_Honest_John_02.jpg/220px-MGR-1_Honest_John_02.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"It's no secret we're in the 'missile business' to stay...\" Douglas Aircraft Company ad in the California Institute of Technology 1958 yearbook","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/%22It%27s_no_secret_we%27re_in_the_%27missile_business%27_to_stay...%22_1958_Douglas_Aircraft_Company_ad_detail%2C_from-_The_Big_T_1958_%28page_184_crop%29.jpg/220px-%22It%27s_no_secret_we%27re_in_the_%27missile_business%27_to_stay...%22_1958_Douglas_Aircraft_Company_ad_detail%2C_from-_The_Big_T_1958_%28page_184_crop%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Honest John warhead cutaway, showing M139 sarin bomblets (photo c. 1960)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Demonstration_cluster_bomb.jpg/220px-Demonstration_cluster_bomb.jpg"},{"image_text":"US Army launcher vehicle based on the M139D 5-ton truck","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Een_International_M139D_5-tons_6x6-lanceerauto_met_een_Honest_John-raket%2C_een_een_ongeleide_raket_tegen_gronddoelen%2C_met_een_maximum_bereik_van_ongeveer_35_km_%282044_061252%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Unloading a rocket from the M329 transport trailer.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Artilleristen_tillen_met_behulp_van_een_International_M62_5-tons_6x6-takelauto_een_Honest_John_%282009-012-035_004%29.jpg/220px-Artilleristen_tillen_met_behulp_van_een_International_M62_5-tons_6x6-takelauto_een_Honest_John_%282009-012-035_004%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Vehicles and components of the Dutch-operated Honest John rocket system. From left to right: M386 launcher based on the M139 5-ton truck, M62 wrecker/crane, M329 rocket transport trailer, M78A1 truck-mounted heating and tie-down unit and Willys M38A1 light utility truck. Prime movers in the rear.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Overzicht_van_voertuigen_behorende_bij_de_lanceerinrichting_voor_de_Honest_John-raket_%282155_007716%29.jpg/220px-Overzicht_van_voertuigen_behorende_bij_de_lanceerinrichting_voor_de_Honest_John-raket_%282155_007716%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Restored Honest John on M465 cart at Carolinas Aviation Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/CarolinasAviationMuseumHonestJohn.JPG/220px-CarolinasAviationMuseumHonestJohn.JPG"},{"image_text":"Honest John at Hillyard, WA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Honestjohnhillyard.jpg/220px-Honestjohnhillyard.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map with former MGR-1 operators in red","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/MGR-1_operators.png/400px-MGR-1_operators.png"},{"image_text":"West German parade in 1969","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F029235-0024%2C_N%C3%BCrburgring%2C_Bundeswehrparade_zum_NATO-Jubil%C3%A4um.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F029235-0024%2C_N%C3%BCrburgring%2C_Bundeswehrparade_zum_NATO-Jubil%C3%A4um.jpg"},{"image_text":"South Korean Armed Forces day in 1973","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Armed_Forces_Day_of_South_Korea_%281973%29_5.jpg/220px-Armed_Forces_Day_of_South_Korea_%281973%29_5.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dutch soldiers take cover and await the launch of an Honest John rocket in 1960.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Op_enige_tientallen_meters_van_de_lanceerinstallatie_van_de_Honest_John-raket_liggen_militairen_in_afwachting_van_de_lancering_van_de_raket_%282155_007712%29.jpg/220px-Op_enige_tientallen_meters_van_de_lanceerinstallatie_van_de_Honest_John-raket_liggen_militairen_in_afwachting_van_de_lancering_van_de_raket_%282155_007712%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"W7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_7_nuclear_bomb"},{"title":"W31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W31"},{"title":"M139 bomblet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M139_bomblet"},{"title":"G-numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-numbers"},{"title":"MGR-3 Little John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGR-3_Little_John"}] | [{"reference":"\"Solid\". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2019. The X-201 [...] was the forerunner of an entire family of related propulsion units that served as boosters for the Nike, Terrier, Talos, and Honest John missiles.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160815174909/http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","url_text":"\"Solid\""},{"url":"http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Solid\". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2019. The X-201 [...] was the forerunner of an entire family of related propulsion units that served as boosters for the Nike, Terrier, Talos, and Honest John missiles.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160815174909/http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","url_text":"\"Solid\""},{"url":"http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Honest John\". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Mark Wade. 2003. Archived from the original on 11 October 2004. Retrieved 19 December 2019. Note: Data given by several sources show slight variations. Figures given below may therefore be inaccurate!","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041011052933/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm","url_text":"\"Honest John\""},{"url":"http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bedard, Andre (2001). \"Double Base Solid Propellants\". Mark Wade. Retrieved 20 December 2019. Double-base solid propellants consist mainly of fibrous nitro-cellulose and a gelatiniser, or plasticiser, such as nitro-glycerine or a similar compound (ethylene glycol dinitrate), each containing oxygen and fuel in the same compound.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.friends-partners.org/mwade/articles/doulants.htm","url_text":"\"Double Base Solid Propellants\""}]},{"reference":"McKenney, Janice E. (2007). The organizational history of field artillery 1775–2003. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. p. 212. ISBN 9780160771149.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160771149","url_text":"9780160771149"}]},{"reference":"\"Honest John\". Redstone Arsenal Historical Information. U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Command. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.redstone.army.mil/miss-honestjohn.html","url_text":"\"Honest John\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220422121745/https://history.redstone.army.mil/miss-honestjohn.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"001\". 28 September 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928070901/http://www.texasmilitaryforcesmuseum.org/exhibits/outdisplay/pages/001.htm","url_text":"\"001\""},{"url":"http://www.texasmilitaryforcesmuseum.org/exhibits/outdisplay/pages/001.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Underwood Online--Sights\". www.ci.underwood.mn.us. Retrieved 30 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ci.underwood.mn.us/sights.html","url_text":"\"Underwood Online--Sights\""}]},{"reference":"\"White Sands Missile Range Missile Park\". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202040/http://www.wsmr-history.org/HonestJohn.htm","url_text":"\"White Sands Missile Range Missile Park\""},{"url":"http://www.wsmr-history.org/HonestJohn.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery\". www.canadiansoldiers.com. Retrieved 4 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/corpsbranches/royalregimentofcanadianartillery.htm","url_text":"\"Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery\""}]},{"reference":"\"1- Les insignes des unités Honest John et des unités de soutien\". artillerie.asso.fr. Retrieved 28 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://artillerie.asso.fr/basart/article.php3?id_article=1895","url_text":"\"1- Les insignes des unités Honest John et des unités de soutien\""}]},{"reference":"\"528th U.S. Army Artillery Group\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?https&&&www.usarmygermany.com/Units/Ordnance/USAREUR_528th%20USAAG.htm","url_text":"\"528th U.S. Army Artillery Group\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22","external_links_name":"\"MGR-1 Honest John\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22MGR-1+Honest+John%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://rcamuseum.com/","external_links_name":"The Central Museum of The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, Shilo Manitoba"},{"Link":"http://www.thm.dk/","external_links_name":"The Royal Danish Arsenal Museum"},{"Link":"http://www.nmm.nl/","external_links_name":"The National Military Museum"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160815174909/http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","external_links_name":"\"Solid\""},{"Link":"http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160815174909/http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","external_links_name":"\"Solid\""},{"Link":"http://www.astronautix.com/s/solid.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041011052933/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm","external_links_name":"\"Honest John\""},{"Link":"http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.wood.army.mil/chmdsd/images/pdfs/Jul-Dec%202006/Kirby3col.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://www.friends-partners.org/mwade/articles/doulants.htm","external_links_name":"\"Double Base Solid Propellants\""},{"Link":"https://history.redstone.army.mil/miss-honestjohn.html","external_links_name":"\"Honest John\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220422121745/https://history.redstone.army.mil/miss-honestjohn.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928070901/http://www.texasmilitaryforcesmuseum.org/exhibits/outdisplay/pages/001.htm","external_links_name":"\"001\""},{"Link":"http://www.texasmilitaryforcesmuseum.org/exhibits/outdisplay/pages/001.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.ci.underwood.mn.us/sights.html","external_links_name":"\"Underwood Online--Sights\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202040/http://www.wsmr-history.org/HonestJohn.htm","external_links_name":"\"White Sands Missile Range Missile Park\""},{"Link":"http://www.wsmr-history.org/HonestJohn.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.canadiansoldiers.com/corpsbranches/royalregimentofcanadianartillery.htm","external_links_name":"\"Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery\""},{"Link":"https://artillerie.asso.fr/basart/article.php3?id_article=1895","external_links_name":"\"1- Les insignes des unités Honest John et des unités de soutien\""},{"Link":"https://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?https&&&www.usarmygermany.com/Units/Ordnance/USAREUR_528th%20USAAG.htm","external_links_name":"\"528th U.S. Army Artillery Group\""},{"Link":"http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/r-1.html","external_links_name":"http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/r-1.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041011052933/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm","external_links_name":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041011052933/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/hontjohn.htm"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090221141933/http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/systems/HONEST_JOHN.html","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1RhwSx1pM4","external_links_name":"Weapons of the Field Artillery – Part 3"},{"Link":"http://www.herzobase.org/","external_links_name":"http://www.herzobase.org"},{"Link":"http://www.olive-drab.com/idphoto/id_photos_m39_missiletrk.php","external_links_name":"http://www.olive-drab.com/idphoto/id_photos_m39_missiletrk.php"},{"Link":"https://www.dropbox.com/sh/4wqwml99ilo5q9q/AADwzEqv53n_bH7BHWoGngZ8a?dl=0","external_links_name":"[3]"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10666092","external_links_name":"NARA"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Pride_Parade | Chicago Pride Parade | ["1 Background","2 Pre-Parade Celebration","3 Dates and Attendance","4 Weather","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Annual LGBT event in Chicago
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Chicago Pride ParadeThe Chicago Pride Parade 2006, on Halsted Street at Brompton AvenueStatusActiveGenrePride paradeLocation(s)ChicagoCountryUSAInauguratedJune 27, 1970 (1970-06-27)Participants+1 millionWebsitehttps://pridechicago.org/
"Video coverage of the 2007 Chicago Gay Pride Parade."
Rainbow flags decorate Lake View East in anticipation of the Chicago Pride Parade.
A Human Rights Campaign float moves past spectators.
The Chicago Pride Parade, also colloquially (and formerly) called the Chicago Gay Pride Parade or PRIDE Chicago, is an annual pride parade held on the last Sunday of June in Chicago, Illinois in the United States. It is considered a culmination of the larger Gay and Lesbian Pride Month in Chicago, as promulgated by the Chicago City Council and Mayor of Chicago. Chicago's Pride Parade is one of the largest by attendance in the world. The event takes place outside and celebrates equal rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people, which is also known as the celebration of LGBTQ rights.
Background
Chicago Gay Pride Parade 2018
The first parade was organized on Saturday, June 27, 1970, as a march from Washington Square Park ("Bughouse Square") to the Water Tower, but then many of the participants spontaneously marched on to the Civic Center Plaza. For many years, the parade was held only in Lake View East, a neighborhood enclave of the Lakeview community area. Recent parades have expanded their outreach (and ability to handle crowds) by extending the route into the Uptown neighborhood, beginning at the corner of Broadway and Montrose. The parade then proceeds south on Broadway to Halsted, continues south on Halsted to Belmont, then east on Belmont to Broadway and finally south again on Broadway to Cannon Drive and Lincoln Park.
With the increasing political participation of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender Americans and the community's relatively high financial resources through political action groups and as individual donors, Illinois politicians have increased their presence at the Chicago Pride Parade. Both the Illinois Democratic and Republican parties have been heavily represented, including by former Governor Rod Blagojevich, a Democrat, and former Treasurer Judy Baar Topinka, a Republican. Both had strong support from many gay and lesbian voters.
On June 28, 2009, more than 500,000 spectators watched the 40th Annual Chicago Pride Parade. Among the entries were several marching bands, dance troupes, twirlers, and many political figures. The 2010 parade featured an appearance from the Chicago Blackhawks' Brent Sopel and the Stanley Cup as part of the Chicago Gay Hockey Association's float. Sopel appeared in the parade to honor Brendan Burke, the gay son of the Maple Leafs' GM Brian Burke. Due to Chicago being one of the largest cities with a massive sports community, some other special guests have attended the Gay Pride Parade in Chicago, those include David Kopay (NFL running back), Billy Bean (major league outfielder) and Greg Louganis (Olympic diver).
The 2011 parade included 250 entries and was attended by over 800,000 spectators, almost double the previous year, causing massive overcrowding and resulted in a reorganization of the parade route for the 2012 parade. Starting in 2013 the Chicago Pride Parade has reached over one million people each year, and the number continues to grow.
In October 2019, Richard Pfeiffer, director of the Parade since 1974, passed away.
The parade was cancelled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 parade was postponed to October 3, 2021, in the hopes that an in-person parade could be held. Due to the Delta variant, the 2021 parade was cancelled. The 2022 pride parade continued with its original scheduling.
Pre-Parade Celebration
The year 2019 marked the 19th Annual Pre-Parade Celebration, also known as Chicago's two day long Pride Festival. 2019's Chicago Pride Festival saw over 100,000 people, the festival is held on the Saturday and Sunday before the Pride Parade. Each year there is a suggested ten dollar donation while entering the festival for LGBTQ fundraisers, events, etc. The festival is open rain or shine and held in Boystown, a neighborhood of Lake View, Chicago. The streets are blocked off from traffic so the celebration can take place throughout the streets all weekend long. Each year there are multiple different performers performing on the three main stages at the festival. Some of 2021's performers included Betty Who, LeAnn Rimes, Pabllo Vittar, Alex Newell and Inaya Day. The Pre-Parade Celebration is just one of the many events held in Boystown in the month of June.
Dates and Attendance
Chicago Pride Parade Details
Edition
Date
Attendance
Ref(s).
1st
June 28, 1970
150–200
2nd
June 27, 1971
1,000
3rd
June 25, 1972
1,000-1,500
4th
June 24, 1973
1,000-2,000
5th
June 30, 1974
2,000
6th
June 29, 1975
2,000-3,000
7th
June 27, 1976
3,000
8th
June 26, 1977
3,000
9th
June 25, 1978
10,000
10th
June 24, 1979
10,000
11th
June 29, 1980
10,000
12th
June 28, 1981
20,000
13th
June 27, 1982
30,000
14th
June 26, 1983
30,000
15th
June 24, 1984
30,000+
16th
June 30, 1985
35,000
17th
June 29, 1986
40,000
18th
June 28, 1987
40,000+
19th
June 26, 1988
50,000
20th
June 25, 1989
60,000+
21st
June 24, 1990
100,000
22nd
June 30, 1991
100,000+
23rd
June 28, 1992
115,000
24th
June 27, 1993
140,000
25th
June 5, 1994
160,000
26th
June 25, 1995
175,000
27th
June 30, 1996
150,000
28th
June 29, 1997
200,000
29th
June 28, 1998
200,000+
30th
June 27, 1999
250,000
31st
June 25, 2000
350,000
32nd
June 24, 2001
350,000
33rd
June 30, 2002
350,000
34th
June 29, 2003
375,000
35th
June 27, 2004
375,000
36th
June 26, 2005
450,000
37th
June 25, 2006
400,000
38th
June 24, 2007
450,000
39th
June 29, 2008
450,000
40th
June 28, 2009
500,000
41st
June 27, 2010
450,000
42nd
June 26, 2011
750,000
43rd
June 24, 2012
850,000
44th
June 30, 2013
1,000,000
45th
June 29, 2014
1,000,000+
46th
June 28, 2015
1,000,000+
47th
June 26, 2016
1,000,000+
48th
June 25, 2017
1,000,000+
49th
June 24, 2018
1,000,000+
50th
June 30, 2019
1,000,000+
51st
June 28, 2020
Cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic
October 3, 2021
Cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic
June 26, 2022
1,000,000+
52nd
June 25, 2023
Weather
The Chicago Pride Parade is held on the last Sunday in June, so the weather is usually warm. The average high temperature at O'Hare Airport for the parade day since 1970 is 83 degrees; the average low is 61 degrees; and 22% of parade days have seen measurable precipitation. The warmest pride parade was 99 degrees in 1983, and the wettest pride parade was in 1978 when 0.92 inches of rain fell.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chicago Pride Parade.
Biography portalLGBT portalChicago portalIllinois portal
LGBT culture in Chicago
Pride Parade
References
^ "12 Biggest Pride Parades In The World". Grunge. June 2, 2022. Retrieved June 4, 2023.
^ "Gay Liberation Stages March to Civic Center". Chicago Tribune. June 28, 1970. p. A3. Retrieved June 9, 2019 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Outspoken: Chicago's Free Speech Tradition". Newberry Library. Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved September 7, 2008.
^ Littke, Jim (June 25, 2010). "Sports' Most Macho Trophy Shows New Kind of Pride". National Hockey League. Associated Press. Retrieved April 24, 2017.
^ Greenfield, Beth (May 25, 2007). "A Month of Coming-Out Parties (Published 2007)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 18, 2021.
^ "The World's Biggest Pride Parades". The Active Times. June 4, 2018.
^ "Richard Pfeiffer, coordinator of Chicago Pride Parade since 1974, dies at 70". ABC7 Chicago. October 8, 2019.
^ "Photos: 2022 Chicago Pride Parade". NBC Chicago. June 26, 2022. Retrieved May 24, 2023.
^ a b c "Chicago Pride Fest 2019 - Pre Parade Celebration". Chicago Pride Fest. Retrieved June 27, 2019.
^ a b c d e f de la Croix, Sukie (November 26, 2009). "Gay Power: A History of Chicago Pride". Chicago Free Press. Archived from the original on December 8, 2009.
^ Rotenberk, Lori (June 26, 1989). "Daley is first mayor to lead gays' parade". Chicago Sun-Times.
^ Baim, Tracy (July 2, 2003). "375,000+ at 2003 Pride Parade". Windy City Times.
^ Wayne, Kevin (June 28, 2004). "Gay Chicago Celebrates Pride". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2007.
^ Wayne, Kevin (June 27, 2005). "Chicago Celebrates 36th Annual Gay Pride Parade". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2006.
^ "Chicago Sun-Times". Archived from the original on July 4, 2008. Retrieved June 27, 2006.
^ "Chicago Tribune news | Registration". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on June 28, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on April 15, 2009. Retrieved June 30, 2008.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "450,000 on hand for diverse mix of stars in Pride Parade". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 1, 2010. Retrieved June 29, 2010.
^ "Chicago Annual Pride Parade". PRIDEChicago. 2010. Archived from the original on July 5, 2010.
^ "Pride Parade 2011". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011.
^ Hinkel, Dan (June 24, 2012). "Expanded Pride Parade Draws Record Number". Chicago Tribune.
^ Toner, Casey. "1 Million Celebrate at Pride Parade". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014.
^ "Chicago's 44th Annual Gay Pride Parade (6/30/13)". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013.
^ Bauer, Kelly & Parker, Alex (June 29, 2014). "Pride Parade 2014: 'You're Not Just a Second-Class Citizen'". DNAinfo. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015.
^ "Estimated 1 Million People Attend Chicago Pride Parade on City's North Side". ABC7 Chicago. Chicago: WLS-TV. June 29, 2015.
^ Berman, Melissa (June 27, 2016). "Chicago Pride Parade Draws an Estimated 1 Million People". Chicago: WGN-TV.
^ Cauguiran, Cate (June 26, 2017). "48th Annual Chicago Pride Parade Held on North Side". ABC7 Chicago. Chicago: WLS-TV.
^ "Grand Marshal announced for Chicago's 49th Pride Parade". Go Pride. May 18, 2018.
^ Ross, Jeremy (June 24, 2018). "Big Crowds Packed Chicago Pride Parade". CBS Chicago. Chicago: WBBM-TV.
^ "Lightfoot Named Honorary Grand Marshal of 2019 Chicago Pride Parade". ChicagoPride.com. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
^ June Daily Weather Records for Chicago Illinois
External links
PRIDEChicago.org — parade's official website
Chicago Pride Fest
chicagopride.gopride.com — comprehensive information and history about the parade and festival weekend, entries and performers
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São Paulo | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gerald_Farinas_Cornelia_Avenue_Bars.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lake View East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_View_East"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChicagoGayPride2005_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"pride parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_parade"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Gay and Lesbian Pride Month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay_and_Lesbian_Pride_Month"},{"link_name":"Chicago City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_City_Council"},{"link_name":"Mayor of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"lesbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian"},{"link_name":"gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay"},{"link_name":"bisexual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisexuality"},{"link_name":"transgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender"},{"link_name":"queer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queer"},{"link_name":"LGBTQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT"}],"text":"\"Video coverage of the 2007 Chicago Gay Pride Parade.\"Rainbow flags decorate Lake View East in anticipation of the Chicago Pride Parade.A Human Rights Campaign float moves past spectators.The Chicago Pride Parade, also colloquially (and formerly) called the Chicago Gay Pride Parade or PRIDE Chicago, is an annual pride parade held on the last Sunday of June in Chicago, Illinois in the United States. It is considered a culmination of the larger Gay and Lesbian Pride Month in Chicago, as promulgated by the Chicago City Council and Mayor of Chicago. Chicago's Pride Parade is one of the largest by attendance in the world.[1] The event takes place outside and celebrates equal rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people, which is also known as the celebration of LGBTQ rights.","title":"Chicago Pride Parade"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chicago_Gay_Pride_Parade_2018_a.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chicago_Tribune-2"},{"link_name":"Washington Square Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Square_Park,_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Water Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Water_Tower"},{"link_name":"Civic Center Plaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_J._Daley_Center#Daley_Plaza"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGP1971w-3"},{"link_name":"Lake View East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_View_East"},{"link_name":"Lakeview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakeview,_Chicago"},{"link_name":"community area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_community_areas"},{"link_name":"Uptown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptown,_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Lincoln Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Park"},{"link_name":"gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay"},{"link_name":"lesbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian"},{"link_name":"bisexual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisexual"},{"link_name":"transgender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender"},{"link_name":"Democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Rod Blagojevich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Blagojevich"},{"link_name":"Treasurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasurer"},{"link_name":"Judy Baar Topinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Baar_Topinka"},{"link_name":"marching bands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marching_band"},{"link_name":"Chicago Blackhawks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks"},{"link_name":"Brent Sopel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brent_Sopel"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cup"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Brendan Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Burke"},{"link_name":"Brian Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Burke_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"David Kopay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Kopay"},{"link_name":"Billy Bean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Bean"},{"link_name":"Greg Louganis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Louganis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Delta variant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_variant"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Chicago Gay Pride Parade 2018The first parade was organized on Saturday, June 27, 1970, as a march[2] from Washington Square Park (\"Bughouse Square\") to the Water Tower, but then many of the participants spontaneously marched on to the Civic Center Plaza.[3] For many years, the parade was held only in Lake View East, a neighborhood enclave of the Lakeview community area. Recent parades have expanded their outreach (and ability to handle crowds) by extending the route into the Uptown neighborhood, beginning at the corner of Broadway and Montrose. The parade then proceeds south on Broadway to Halsted, continues south on Halsted to Belmont, then east on Belmont to Broadway and finally south again on Broadway to Cannon Drive and Lincoln Park.With the increasing political participation of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender Americans and the community's relatively high financial resources through political action groups and as individual donors, Illinois politicians have increased their presence at the Chicago Pride Parade. Both the Illinois Democratic and Republican parties have been heavily represented, including by former Governor Rod Blagojevich, a Democrat, and former Treasurer Judy Baar Topinka, a Republican. Both had strong support from many gay and lesbian voters.On June 28, 2009, more than 500,000 spectators watched the 40th Annual Chicago Pride Parade. Among the entries were several marching bands, dance troupes, twirlers, and many political figures. The 2010 parade featured an appearance from the Chicago Blackhawks' Brent Sopel and the Stanley Cup[4] as part of the Chicago Gay Hockey Association's float. Sopel appeared in the parade to honor Brendan Burke, the gay son of the Maple Leafs' GM Brian Burke. Due to Chicago being one of the largest cities with a massive sports community, some other special guests have attended the Gay Pride Parade in Chicago, those include David Kopay (NFL running back), Billy Bean (major league outfielder) and Greg Louganis (Olympic diver).[5]The 2011 parade included 250 entries and was attended by over 800,000 spectators, almost double the previous year, causing massive overcrowding and resulted in a reorganization of the parade route for the 2012 parade. Starting in 2013 the Chicago Pride Parade has reached over one million people each year, and the number continues to grow.[6]In October 2019, Richard Pfeiffer, director of the Parade since 1974, passed away.[7]The parade was cancelled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 parade was postponed to October 3, 2021, in the hopes that an in-person parade could be held. Due to the Delta variant, the 2021 parade was cancelled. The 2022 pride parade continued with its original scheduling.[8]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Boystown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boystown_(Chicago)"},{"link_name":"Lake View, Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_View,_Chicago"},{"link_name":"Betty Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Who"},{"link_name":"LeAnn Rimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeAnn_Rimes"},{"link_name":"Pabllo Vittar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabllo_Vittar"},{"link_name":"Alex Newell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Newell"},{"link_name":"Inaya Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inaya_Day"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Boystown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boystown,_Chicago"}],"text":"The year 2019 marked the 19th Annual Pre-Parade Celebration, also known as Chicago's two day long Pride Festival.[9] 2019's Chicago Pride Festival saw over 100,000 people, the festival is held on the Saturday and Sunday before the Pride Parade.[9] Each year there is a suggested ten dollar donation while entering the festival for LGBTQ fundraisers, events, etc. The festival is open rain or shine and held in Boystown, a neighborhood of Lake View, Chicago. The streets are blocked off from traffic so the celebration can take place throughout the streets all weekend long. Each year there are multiple different performers performing on the three main stages at the festival. Some of 2021's performers included Betty Who, LeAnn Rimes, Pabllo Vittar, Alex Newell and Inaya Day.[9] The Pre-Parade Celebration is just one of the many events held in Boystown in the month of June.","title":"Pre-Parade Celebration"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Dates and Attendance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"O'Hare Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Hare_Airport"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The Chicago Pride Parade is held on the last Sunday in June, so the weather is usually warm. The average high temperature at O'Hare Airport for the parade day since 1970 is 83 degrees; the average low is 61 degrees; and 22% of parade days have seen measurable precipitation. The warmest pride parade was 99 degrees in 1983, and the wettest pride parade was in 1978 when 0.92 inches of rain fell.[31]","title":"Weather"}] | [{"image_text":"\"Video coverage of the 2007 Chicago Gay Pride Parade.\""},{"image_text":"Rainbow flags decorate Lake View East in anticipation of the Chicago Pride Parade.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Gerald_Farinas_Cornelia_Avenue_Bars.jpg/220px-Gerald_Farinas_Cornelia_Avenue_Bars.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Human Rights Campaign float moves past spectators.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/ChicagoGayPride2005_1.jpg/220px-ChicagoGayPride2005_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chicago Gay Pride Parade 2018","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Chicago_Gay_Pride_Parade_2018_a.jpg/220px-Chicago_Gay_Pride_Parade_2018_a.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Chicago Pride Parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chicago_Pride_Parade"},{"title":"Biography portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography"},{"title":"LGBT portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:LGBT"},{"title":"Chicago portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Chicago"},{"title":"Illinois portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Illinois"},{"title":"LGBT culture in Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_culture_in_Chicago"},{"title":"Pride Parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_parade"}] | [{"reference":"\"12 Biggest Pride Parades In The World\". Grunge. June 2, 2022. Retrieved June 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.grunge.com/882125/12-biggest-pride-parades-in-the-world/","url_text":"\"12 Biggest Pride Parades In The World\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gay Liberation Stages March to Civic Center\". Chicago Tribune. June 28, 1970. p. A3. Retrieved June 9, 2019 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32682595/gay_liberation_stages_march_to_civic/","url_text":"\"Gay Liberation Stages March to Civic Center\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Outspoken: Chicago's Free Speech Tradition\". Newberry Library. Archived from the original on February 17, 2005. Retrieved September 7, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050217142658/http://www.newberry.org/outspoken/exhibit/objectlist_section3.html","url_text":"\"Outspoken: Chicago's Free Speech Tradition\""},{"url":"http://www.newberry.org/outspoken/exhibit/objectlist_section3.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Littke, Jim (June 25, 2010). \"Sports' Most Macho Trophy Shows New Kind of Pride\". National Hockey League. Associated Press. Retrieved April 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nhl.com/news/sports-most-macho-trophy-shows-new-kind-of-pride/c-532725","url_text":"\"Sports' Most Macho Trophy Shows New Kind of Pride\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League","url_text":"National Hockey League"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press","url_text":"Associated Press"}]},{"reference":"Greenfield, Beth (May 25, 2007). \"A Month of Coming-Out Parties (Published 2007)\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 18, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/25/travel/escapes/25Ahead.html","url_text":"\"A Month of Coming-Out Parties (Published 2007)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"The World's Biggest Pride Parades\". The Active Times. June 4, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theactivetimes.com/travel/worlds-biggest-pride-parades","url_text":"\"The World's Biggest Pride Parades\""}]},{"reference":"\"Richard Pfeiffer, coordinator of Chicago Pride Parade since 1974, dies at 70\". ABC7 Chicago. October 8, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://abc7chicago.com/5598693/","url_text":"\"Richard Pfeiffer, coordinator of Chicago Pride Parade since 1974, dies at 70\""}]},{"reference":"\"Photos: 2022 Chicago Pride Parade\". NBC Chicago. June 26, 2022. Retrieved May 24, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/photos-photos-2022-chicago-pride-parade/2866565/","url_text":"\"Photos: 2022 Chicago Pride Parade\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Pride Fest 2019 - Pre Parade Celebration\". Chicago Pride Fest. Retrieved June 27, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://northalsted.com/pridefest/","url_text":"\"Chicago Pride Fest 2019 - Pre Parade Celebration\""}]},{"reference":"de la Croix, Sukie (November 26, 2009). \"Gay Power: A History of Chicago Pride\". Chicago Free Press. Archived from the original on December 8, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091208155326/http://www.chicagofreepress.com/node/1945","url_text":"\"Gay Power: A History of Chicago Pride\""},{"url":"http://www.chicagofreepress.com/node/1945","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Rotenberk, Lori (June 26, 1989). \"Daley is first mayor to lead gays' parade\". Chicago Sun-Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times","url_text":"Chicago Sun-Times"}]},{"reference":"Baim, Tracy (July 2, 2003). \"375,000+ at 2003 Pride Parade\". Windy City Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.windycitymediagroup.com/lgbt/375000-at-2003-Pride-Parade/3252.html","url_text":"\"375,000+ at 2003 Pride Parade\""}]},{"reference":"Wayne, Kevin (June 28, 2004). \"Gay Chicago Celebrates Pride\". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on July 16, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070716231827/http://www.chicagopride.com/news/article.cfm/ArticleID/2044404","url_text":"\"Gay Chicago Celebrates Pride\""},{"url":"http://www.chicagopride.com/news/article.cfm/ArticleID/2044404","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wayne, Kevin (June 27, 2005). \"Chicago Celebrates 36th Annual Gay Pride Parade\". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060629152004/http://www.chicagopride.com/news/article.cfm/articleid/3121081","url_text":"\"Chicago Celebrates 36th Annual Gay Pride Parade\""},{"url":"http://www.chicagopride.com/news/article.cfm/articleid/3121081","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Sun-Times\". Archived from the original on July 4, 2008. Retrieved June 27, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080704150913/http://www.suntimes.com/output/news/cst-nws-gaypride26.html","url_text":"\"Chicago Sun-Times\""},{"url":"http://www.suntimes.com/output/news/cst-nws-gaypride26.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Tribune news | Registration\". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on June 28, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070628204806/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-070624gay-pride,1,2647856.story?coll=chi-news-hed&ctrack=1&cset=true","url_text":"\"Chicago Tribune news | Registration\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"},{"url":"http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/chi-070624gay-pride,1,2647856.story?coll=chi-news-hed&ctrack=1&cset=true","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on April 15, 2009. Retrieved June 30, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090415155548/http://www.suntimes.com/lifestyles/1031266,CST-NWS-pride30.article","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.suntimes.com/lifestyles/1031266,CST-NWS-pride30.article","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"450,000 on hand for diverse mix of stars in Pride Parade\". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 1, 2010. Retrieved June 29, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100701082812/http://www.suntimes.com/news/metro/2439382,CST-NWS-pride28.article","url_text":"\"450,000 on hand for diverse mix of stars in Pride Parade\""},{"url":"http://www.suntimes.com/news/metro/2439382,CST-NWS-pride28.article","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Annual Pride Parade\". PRIDEChicago. 2010. Archived from the original on July 5, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100705231612/http://www.chicagopridecalendar.org/parade.shtml","url_text":"\"Chicago Annual Pride Parade\""},{"url":"http://www.chicagopridecalendar.org/parade.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pride Parade 2011\". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110629181222/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-110626-pride-parade-2011-photo,0,7061831.photogallery","url_text":"\"Pride Parade 2011\""},{"url":"http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi-110626-pride-parade-2011-photo,0,7061831.photogallery","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hinkel, Dan (June 24, 2012). \"Expanded Pride Parade Draws Record Number\". Chicago Tribune.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicagotribune.com/chi-thousands-expected-for-todays-expanded-pride-parade-20120624-story.html","url_text":"\"Expanded Pride Parade Draws Record Number\""}]},{"reference":"Toner, Casey. \"1 Million Celebrate at Pride Parade\". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714200717/http://www.suntimes.com/21058648-761/44th-annual-pride-parade-draws-1-million.html","url_text":"\"1 Million Celebrate at Pride Parade\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times","url_text":"Chicago Sun-Times"},{"url":"http://www.suntimes.com/21058648-761/44th-annual-pride-parade-draws-1-million.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago's 44th Annual Gay Pride Parade (6/30/13)\". ChicagoPride.com. Archived from the original on June 16, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130616100816/http://chicago.gopride.com/calendar/event.cfm/id/160854","url_text":"\"Chicago's 44th Annual Gay Pride Parade (6/30/13)\""},{"url":"http://chicago.gopride.com/calendar/event.cfm/id/160854","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Kelly & Parker, Alex (June 29, 2014). \"Pride Parade 2014: 'You're Not Just a Second-Class Citizen'\". DNAinfo. Archived from the original on June 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150627014807/http://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20140629/boystown/chicago-pride-parade-2014","url_text":"\"Pride Parade 2014: 'You're Not Just a Second-Class Citizen'\""},{"url":"http://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20140629/boystown/chicago-pride-parade-2014","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Estimated 1 Million People Attend Chicago Pride Parade on City's North Side\". ABC7 Chicago. Chicago: WLS-TV. June 29, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://abc7chicago.com/811823/","url_text":"\"Estimated 1 Million People Attend Chicago Pride Parade on City's North Side\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WLS-TV","url_text":"WLS-TV"}]},{"reference":"Berman, Melissa (June 27, 2016). \"Chicago Pride Parade Draws an Estimated 1 Million People\". Chicago: WGN-TV.","urls":[{"url":"http://wgntv.com/2016/06/27/chicago-pride-parade-draws-an-estimated-1-million-people","url_text":"\"Chicago Pride Parade Draws an Estimated 1 Million People\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGN-TV","url_text":"WGN-TV"}]},{"reference":"Cauguiran, Cate (June 26, 2017). \"48th Annual Chicago Pride Parade Held on North Side\". ABC7 Chicago. Chicago: WLS-TV.","urls":[{"url":"http://abc7chicago.com/entertainment/48th-annual-chicago-pride-parade-held-on-north-side/2144526/","url_text":"\"48th Annual Chicago Pride Parade Held on North Side\""}]},{"reference":"\"Grand Marshal announced for Chicago's 49th Pride Parade\". Go Pride. May 18, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://chicago.gopride.com/news/article.cfm/articleid/94354681","url_text":"\"Grand Marshal announced for Chicago's 49th Pride Parade\""}]},{"reference":"Ross, Jeremy (June 24, 2018). \"Big Crowds Packed Chicago Pride Parade\". CBS Chicago. Chicago: WBBM-TV.","urls":[{"url":"https://chicago.cbslocal.com/2018/06/24/big-crowds-packed-chicago-pride-parade/","url_text":"\"Big Crowds Packed Chicago Pride Parade\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WBBM-TV","url_text":"WBBM-TV"}]},{"reference":"\"Lightfoot Named Honorary Grand Marshal of 2019 Chicago Pride Parade\". ChicagoPride.com. Retrieved May 29, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://chicago.gopride.com/news/article.cfm/articleid/102666384","url_text":"\"Lightfoot Named Honorary Grand Marshal of 2019 Chicago Pride Parade\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chicago_Pride_Parade&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Chicago+Pride+Parade%22","external_links_name":"\"Chicago Pride 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelcynn | English people | ["1 English nationality","1.1 Relationship to Britishness","2 Historical and genetic origins","2.1 Replacement of Neolithic farmers by Bell Beaker populations","2.2 Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans","3 History of English people","3.1 Anglo-Saxon settlement","3.2 Vikings and the Danelaw","3.3 English unification","3.4 Norman and Angevin rule","3.5 United Kingdom","3.6 Immigration and assimilation","3.7 Current national and political identity","4 English diaspora","4.1 United States","4.2 Canada","4.3 Australia","4.4 New Zealand","4.5 Argentina","4.6 Chile","5 Culture","5.1 Religion","5.2 Language","5.3 Literature","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","8.1 Citations","8.2 Sources","9 External links"] | Ethnic group native to England
For other uses, see Demographics of England, English-speaking world, Englishman (disambiguation), and The English (TV series). "English nation" redirects here. For the country of the United Kingdom, see England. "Englander" redirects here. For the surname, see Englander (surname).
Ethnic group
English peopleRegions with significant populationsUnited Kingdom: 37.6 million inEngland and Wales (2011)Significant English diaspora inUnited States46.5 million (2020)aAustralia8.3 million (2021)bCanada6.3 million (2016)cSouth Africa40,000–1.6 million (2011)dNew Zealand210,915 (2018)eArgentina100,000LanguagesEnglish, British SignReligionChristianity, traditionally Anglicanism, but also non-conformists and dissenters (see History of the Church of England), as well as other Protestants; also Roman Catholicism (see Catholic Emancipation); Islam (see Islam in England); Judaism, Irreligion, and other faiths (see Religion in England)Related ethnic groupsother British peopleCeltic BritonsIrish a English American, b English Australian, c English Canadian, d British diaspora in Africa, e English New Zealander, f Anglo-Indians
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The English people are an ethnic group and nation native to England, who speak the English language, a West Germanic language, and share a common ancestry, history, and culture. The English identity began with the Anglo-Saxons, when they were known as the Angelcynn, meaning race or tribe of the Angles. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who invaded Britain around the 5th century AD.
The English largely descend from two main historical population groups: the West Germanic tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who settled in Southern Britain following the withdrawal of the Romans, and the partially Romanised Celtic Britons who already lived there. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become the Kingdom of England by the 10th century, in response to the invasion and extensive settlement of Danes and other Norsemen that began in the late 9th century. This was followed by the Norman Conquest and limited settlement of Normans in England in the late 11th century and a sizeable number of French Protestants who emigrated between the 16th and 18th centuries. Some definitions of English people include, while others exclude, people descended from later migration into England.
England is the largest and most populous country of the United Kingdom. The majority of people living in England are British citizens. In the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland merged to become the Kingdom of Great Britain. Over the years, English customs and identity have become fairly closely aligned with British customs and identity in general. The demonyms for men and women from England are Englishman and Englishwoman.
English nationality
England itself has no devolved government. The 1990s witnessed a rise in English self-awareness. This is linked to the expressions of national self-awareness of the other British nations of Wales, Scotland and, to some extent, Northern Ireland which take their most solid form in the new devolved political arrangements within the United Kingdom – and the waning of a shared British national identity with the growing distance between the end of the British Empire and the present.
Many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities. Use of the word "English" to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their perceived national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as "English", non-white people were more likely to describe themselves as "British".
Relationship to Britishness
It is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. The words "English" and "British" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, especially outside the UK. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say "English, I mean British". He notes that this slip is normally made only by the English themselves and by foreigners: "Non-English members of the United Kingdom rarely say 'British' when they mean 'English'". Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of England's dominant position with the UK, it is also "problematic for the English when it comes to conceiving of their national identity. It tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles".
In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote,
When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago, "England" was still an all-embracing word. It meant indiscriminately England and Wales; Great Britain; the United Kingdom; and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so. Bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as "Prime Minister of England" Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of "England" except for a geographic area brings protests, especially from the Scotch.
However, although Taylor believed this blurring effect was dying out, in his book The Isles: A History (1999), Norman Davies lists numerous examples in history books of "British" still being used to mean "English" and vice versa.
In December 2010, Matthew Parris in The Spectator, analysing the use of "English" over "British", argued that English identity, rather than growing, had existed all along but has recently been unmasked from behind a veneer of Britishness.
Historical and genetic origins
Further information: Genetic history of the British Isles
Replacement of Neolithic farmers by Bell Beaker populations
English people, like most Europeans, largely descend from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from a Cro-Magnon population that arrived in Europe about 45,000 years ago; Neolithic farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago.
Recent genetic studies have suggested that Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by a population from North Continental Europe characterised by the Bell Beaker culture around 2400 BC, associated with the Yamnaya people from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. This population lacked genetic affinity to some other Bell Beaker populations, such as the Iberian Bell Beakers, but appeared to be an offshoot of the Corded Ware single grave people, as developed in Western Europe. It is currently unknown whether these Beaker peoples went on to develop Celtic languages in the British Isles, or whether later Celtic migrations introduced Celtic languages to Britain.
The close genetic affinity of these Beaker people to Continental North Europeans means that British and Irish populations cluster genetically very closely with other Northwest European populations, regardless of how much Anglo-Saxon and Viking ancestry was introduced during the 1st millennium.
Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans
Main article: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
The Incipit to Matthew from the Book of Lindisfarne, an Insular masterpiece
The influence of later invasions and migrations on the English population has been debated, as studies that sampled only modern DNA have produced uncertain results and have thus been subject to a large variety of interpretations. More recently, however, ancient DNA has been used to provide a clearer picture of the genetic effects of these movements of people.
One 2016 study, using Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon era DNA found at grave sites in Cambridgeshire, calculated that ten modern day eastern English samples had 38% Anglo-Saxon ancestry on average, while ten Welsh and Scottish samples each had 30% Anglo-Saxon ancestry, with a large statistical spread in all cases. However, the authors noted that the similarity observed between the various sample groups was likely to be due to more recent internal migration.
Another 2016 study conducted using evidence from burials found in northern England, found that a significant genetic difference was present in bodies from the Iron Age and the Roman period on the one hand, and the Anglo-Saxon period on the other. Samples from modern-day Wales were found to be similar to those from the Iron Age and Roman burials, while samples from much of modern England, East Anglia in particular, were closer to the Anglo-Saxon-era burial. This was found to demonstrate a "profound impact" from the Anglo-Saxon migrations on the modern English gene pool, though no specific percentages were given in the study.
A third study combined the ancient data from both of the preceding studies and compared it to a large number of modern samples from across Britain and Ireland. This study found that modern southern, central and eastern English populations were of "a predominantly Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry" while those from northern and southwestern England had a greater degree of indigenous origin.
A major 2020 study, which used DNA from Viking-era burials in various regions across Europe, found that modern English samples showed nearly equal contributions from a native British "North Atlantic" population and a Danish-like population. While much of the latter signature was attributed to the earlier settlement of the Anglo-Saxons, it was calculated that up to 6% of it could have come from Danish Vikings, with a further 4% contribution from a Norwegian-like source representing the Norwegian Vikings. The study also found an average 18% admixture from a source further south in Europe, which was interpreted as reflecting the legacy of French migration under the Normans.
A landmark 2022 study titled "The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool", found the English to be of plurality Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry, with heavy native Celtic Briton, and newly confirmed medieval French admixture. Significant regional variation was also observed.
History of English people
"History of the English" redirects here. Not to be confused with History of English.
Main article: History of England
Anglo-Saxon settlement
Further information: Anglo-Saxons, Roman Britain, Sub-Roman Britain, Ancient Britons, and Romano-Britons
A replica of the Sutton Hoo helmet
The first people to be called "English" were the Anglo-Saxons, a group of closely related Germanic tribes that began migrating to eastern and southern Britain, from southern Denmark and northern Germany, in the 5th century AD, after the Romans had withdrawn from Britain. The Anglo-Saxons gave their name to England ("Engla land", meaning "Land of the Angles") and to the English.
The Anglo-Saxons arrived in a land that was already populated by people commonly referred to as the "Romano-British"—the descendants of the native Brittonic-speaking population that lived in the area of Britain under Roman rule during the 1st–5th centuries AD. The multi-ethnic nature of the Roman Empire meant that small numbers of other peoples may have also been present in England before the Anglo-Saxons arrived. There is archaeological evidence, for example, of an early North African presence in a Roman garrison at Aballava, now Burgh-by-Sands, in Cumbria: a 4th-century inscription says that the Roman military unit "Numerus Maurorum Aurelianorum" ("unit of Aurelian Moors") from Mauretania (Morocco) was stationed there. Although the Roman Empire incorporated peoples from far and wide, genetic studies suggest the Romans did not significantly mix into the British population.
Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdoms
The exact nature of the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and their relationship with the Romano-British is a matter of debate. The traditional view is that a mass invasion by various Anglo-Saxon tribes largely displaced the indigenous British population in southern and eastern Britain (modern-day England with the exception of Cornwall). This is supported by the writings of Gildas, who gives the only contemporary historical account of the period, and describes the slaughter and starvation of native Britons by invading tribes (aduentus Saxonum). Furthermore, the English language contains no more than a handful of words borrowed from Brittonic sources.
This view was later re-evaluated by some archaeologists and historians, with a more small-scale migration being posited, possibly based around an elite of male warriors that took over the rule of the country and gradually acculturated the people living there. Within this theory, two processes leading to Anglo-Saxonisation have been proposed. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world, where a politically and socially powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority. This process is usually termed "elite dominance". The second process is explained through incentives, such as the Wergild outlined in the law code of Ine of Wessex which produced an incentive to become Anglo-Saxon or at least English speaking. Historian Malcolm Todd writes, "It is much more likely that a large proportion of the British population remained in place and was progressively dominated by a Germanic aristocracy, in some cases marrying into it and leaving Celtic names in the, admittedly very dubious, early lists of Anglo-Saxon dynasties. But how we identify the surviving Britons in areas of predominantly Anglo-Saxon settlement, either archaeologically or linguistically, is still one of the deepest problems of early English history."
An emerging view is that the degree of population replacement by the Anglo-Saxons, and thus the degree of survival of the Romano-Britons, varied across England, and that as such the overall settlement of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons cannot be described by any one process in particular. Large-scale migration and population shift seems to be most applicable in the cases of eastern regions such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire, while in parts of Northumbria, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites. In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox found that the migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons moving to the less fertile hill country and becoming acculturated over a longer period. Fox describes the process by which English came to dominate this region as "a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models."
Vikings and the Danelaw
Further information: Vikings and Danelaw
Æthelred II (c. 966 – 23 April 1016), known as 'the Unready', was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death.
From about 800 AD waves of Danish Viking assaults on the coastlines of the British Isles were gradually followed by a succession of Danish settlers in England. At first, the Vikings were very much considered a separate people from the English. This separation was enshrined when Alfred the Great signed the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum to establish the Danelaw, a division of England between English and Danish rule, with the Danes occupying northern and eastern England.
However, Alfred's successors subsequently won military victories against the Danes, incorporating much of the Danelaw into the nascent kingdom of England. Danish invasions continued into the 11th century, and there were both English and Danish kings in the period following the unification of England (for example, Æthelred II (978–1013 and 1014–1016) was English but Cnut (1016–1035) was Danish).
Gradually, the Danes in England came to be seen as 'English'. They had a noticeable impact on the English language: many English words, such as anger, ball, egg, got, knife, take, and they, are of Old Norse origin, and place names that end in -thwaite and -by are Scandinavian in origin.
English unification
Further information: Treaty of Wedmore and Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum
The English population was not politically unified until the 10th century. Before then, there were a number of petty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of seven states, the most powerful of which were Mercia and Wessex. The English nation state began to form when the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united against Danish Viking invasions, which began around 800 AD. Over the following century and a half England was for the most part a politically unified entity, and remained permanently so after 954.
The nation of England was formed in 12 July 927 by Æthelstan of Wessex after the Treaty of Eamont Bridge, as Wessex grew from a relatively small kingdom in the South West to become the founder of the Kingdom of the English, incorporating all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Danelaw.
Norman and Angevin rule
Further information: Normans
Battle of Hastings, 1066 (from the Bayeux Tapestry)
The Norman conquest of England during 1066 brought Anglo-Saxon and Danish rule of England to an end, as the new French speaking Norman elite almost universally replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and church leaders. After the conquest, "English" normally included all natives of England, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian or Celtic ancestry, to distinguish them from the Norman invaders, who were regarded as "Norman" even if born in England, for a generation or two after the Conquest. The Norman dynasty ruled England for 87 years until the death of King Stephen in 1154, when the succession passed to Henry II, House of Plantagenet (based in France), and England became part of the Angevin Empire until its collapse in 1214.
Various contemporary sources suggest that within 50 years of the invasion most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with Old French remaining the prestige language of government and law largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. Anglo-Norman continued to be used by the Plantagenet kings until Edward I came to the throne. Over time the English language became more important even in the court, and the Normans were gradually assimilated, until, by the 14th century, both rulers and subjects regarded themselves as English and spoke the English language.
Despite the assimilation of the Normans, the distinction between 'English' and 'French' survived in official documents long after it had fallen out of common use, in particular in the legal phrase Presentment of Englishry (a rule by which a hundred had to prove an unidentified murdered body found on their soil to be that of an Englishman, rather than a Norman, if they wanted to avoid a fine). This law was abolished in 1340.
United Kingdom
Main article: History of the formation of the United Kingdom
St George's Cross(England)
St Andrew's Cross(Scotland)
Great Britain
St Patrick's Cross(Ireland)
United Kingdom
Since the 18th century, England has been one part of a wider political entity covering all or part of the British Isles, which today is called the United Kingdom. Wales was annexed by England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, which incorporated Wales into the English state. A new British identity was subsequently developed when James VI of Scotland became James I of England as well, and expressed the desire to be known as the monarch of Britain.
In 1707, England formed a union with Scotland by passing an Act of Union in March 1707 that ratified the Treaty of Union. The Parliament of Scotland had previously passed its own Act of Union, so the Kingdom of Great Britain was born on 1 May 1707. In 1801, another Act of Union formed a union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, about two-thirds of the Irish population (those who lived in 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland), left the United Kingdom to form the Irish Free State. The remainder became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, although this name was not introduced until 1927, after some years in which the term "United Kingdom" had been little used.
Throughout the history of the UK, the English have been dominant in population and in political weight. As a consequence, notions of 'Englishness' and 'Britishness' are often very similar. At the same time, after the Union of 1707, the English, along with the other peoples of the British Isles, have been encouraged to think of themselves as British rather than to identify themselves with the constituent nations.
Immigration and assimilation
See also: Historical immigration to Great Britain and Immigration to the United Kingdom (1922-present day)
England has been the destination of varied numbers of migrants at different periods from the 17th century onwards. While some members of these groups seek to practise a form of pluralism, attempting to maintain a separate ethnic identity, others have assimilated and intermarried with the English. Since Oliver Cromwell's resettlement of the Jews in 1656, there have been waves of Jewish immigration from Russia in the 19th century and from Germany in the 20th.
After the French king Louis XIV declared Protestantism illegal in 1685 in the Edict of Fontainebleau, an estimated 50,000 Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Due to sustained and sometimes mass emigration of the Irish, current estimates indicate that around 6 million people in the UK have at least one grandparent born in the Republic of Ireland.
There has been a small black presence in England since the 16th century due to the slave trade, and a small Indian presence since at least the 17th century because of the East India Company and British Raj. Black and Asian populations have only grown throughout the UK generally, as immigration from the British Empire and the subsequent Commonwealth of Nations was encouraged due to labour shortages during post World War II rebuilding.
However, these groups are often still considered to be ethnic minorities and research has shown that black and Asian people in the UK are more likely to identify as British rather than with one of the state's four constituent nations, including England.
A nationally representative survey published in June 2021 found that a majority of respondents thought that being English was not dependent on race. 77% of white respondents in England agreed that "Being English is open to people of different ethnic backgrounds who identify as English", whereas 14% were of the view that "Only people who are white count as truly English". Amongst ethnic minority respondents, the equivalent figures were 68% and 19%. Research has found that the proportion of people who consider being white to be a necessary component of Englishness has declined over time.
Current national and political identity
The 1990s witnessed a resurgence of English national identity. Survey data shows a rise in the number of people in England describing their national identity as English and a fall in the number describing themselves as British. Today, black and minority ethnic people of England still generally identify as British rather than English to a greater extent than their white counterparts; however, groups such as the Campaign for an English Parliament (CEP) suggest the emergence of a broader civic and multi-ethnic English nationhood. Scholars and journalists have noted a rise in English self-consciousness, with increased use of the English flag, particularly at football matches where the Union flag was previously more commonly flown by fans.
This perceived rise in English self-consciousness has generally been attributed to the devolution in the late 1990s of some powers to the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales. In policy areas for which the devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have responsibility, the UK Parliament votes on laws that consequently only apply to England. Because the Westminster Parliament is composed of MPs from throughout the United Kingdom, this has given rise to the "West Lothian question", a reference to the situation in which MPs representing constituencies outside England can vote on matters affecting only England, but MPs cannot vote on the same matters in relation to the other parts of the UK. Consequently, groups such as the CEP have called for the creation of a devolved English Parliament, claiming that there is now a discriminatory democratic deficit against the English. The establishment of an English parliament has also been backed by a number of Scottish and Welsh nationalists. Writer Paul Johnson has suggested that like most dominant groups, the English have only demonstrated interest in their ethnic self-definition when they were feeling oppressed.
John Curtice argues that "In the early years of devolution...there was little sign" of an English backlash against devolution for Scotland and Wales, but that more recently survey data shows tentative signs of "a form of English nationalism...beginning to emerge among the general public". Michael Kenny, Richard English and Richard Hayton, meanwhile, argue that the resurgence in English nationalism predates devolution, being observable in the early 1990s, but that this resurgence does not necessarily have negative implications for the perception of the UK as a political union. Others question whether devolution has led to a rise in English national identity at all, arguing that survey data fails to portray the complex nature of national identities, with many people considering themselves both English and British. A 2017 survey by YouGov found that 38% of English voters considered themselves both English and British, alongside 19% who felt English but not British.
Recent surveys of public opinion on the establishment of an English parliament have given widely varying conclusions. In the first five years of devolution for Scotland and Wales, support in England for the establishment of an English parliament was low at between 16 and 19%, according to successive British Social Attitudes Surveys. A report, also based on the British Social Attitudes Survey, published in December 2010 suggests that only 29% of people in England support the establishment of an English parliament, though this figure had risen from 17% in 2007.
One 2007 poll carried out for BBC Newsnight, however, found that 61 per cent would support such a parliament being established. Krishan Kumar notes that support for measures to ensure that only English MPs can vote on legislation that applies only to England is generally higher than that for the establishment of an English parliament, although support for both varies depending on the timing of the opinion poll and the wording of the question. Electoral support for English nationalist parties is also low, even though there is public support for many of the policies they espouse. The English Democrats gained just 64,826 votes in the 2010 UK general election, accounting for 0.3 per cent of all votes cast in England. Kumar argued in 2010 that "despite devolution and occasional bursts of English nationalism – more an expression of exasperation with the Scots or Northern Irish – the English remain on the whole satisfied with current constitutional arrangements".
English diaspora
Main article: English diaspora
Numbers of the English diaspora
Year
Country
Population
% of pop.
2021
Australia
8,385,928
33.0
2020
United States
46,550,968
19.8
2016
Canada
6,320,085
18.3
2011
Scotland
459,486
8.7
2018
New Zealand
72,204–210,915
4.5
From the earliest times English people have left England to settle in other parts of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but it is not possible to identify their numbers, as British censuses have historically not invited respondents to identify themselves as English. However, the census does record place of birth, revealing that 8.1% of Scotland's population, 3.7% of the population of Northern Ireland and 20% of the Welsh population were born in England. Similarly, the census of the Republic of Ireland does not collect information on ethnicity, but it does record that there are over 200,000 people living in Ireland who were born in England and Wales.
English ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in the Western world, and in some places, settled in significant numbers. Substantial populations descended from English colonists and immigrants exist in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.
United States
Main article: English Americans
George Washington, known as the "Father of His Country", and first President of the United States, had English ancestors.
In the 2020 United States census, English Americans were the largest group in the United States with 46.5 million Americans self-identifying as having some English origins (many combined with another heritage) representing (19.8%) of the White American population. This includes 25.5 million (12.5%) who were "English alone" - one origin. However, demographers regard this as an undercount, as the index of inconsistency is high, and many, if not most, people from English stock have a tendency (since the introduction of a new 'American' category and ignoring the ancestry question in the 2000 census) to identify as simply Americans or if of mixed European ancestry, identify with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.
Prior to this, in the 2000 census, 24,509,692 Americans described their ancestry as wholly or partly English. In addition, 1,035,133 recorded British ancestry. This was a numerical decrease from the census in 1990 where 32,651,788 people or 13.1% of the population self-identified with English ancestry.
In 1980, over 49 million (49,598,035) Americans claimed English ancestry, at the time around 26.3% of the total population and largest reported group which, even today, would make them the largest ethnic group in the United States. Scots-Irish Americans are descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English (specifically: County Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland and Westmorland) settlers who colonised Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century.
Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply "American" due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. Relative to ethnic groups of other European origins, this may be due to the early establishment of English settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.
Canada
Main article: English Canadians
In the Canada 2016 Census, 'English' was the most common ethnic origin (ethnic origin refers to the ethnic or cultural group(s) to which the respondent's ancestors belong) recorded by respondents; 6,320,085 people or 18.3% of the population self-identified themselves as wholly or partly English. On the other hand, people identifying as Canadian but not English may have previously identified as English before the option of identifying as Canadian was available.
Australia
Main article: English Australians
Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin, 1st and 2nd Prime Minister of Australia both had English parents.
From the beginning of the colonial era until the mid-20th century, the vast majority of settlers to Australia were from the British Isles, with the English being the dominant group. Among the leading ancestries, increases in Australian, Irish and German ancestries and decreases in English, Scottish and Welsh ancestries appear to reflect such shifts in perception or reporting. These reporting shifts at least partly resulted from changes in the design of the census question, in particular the introduction of a tick box format in 2001. English Australians have more often come from the south than the north of England.
Australians of English descent, are both the single largest ethnic group in Australia and the largest 'ancestry' identity in the Australian census. In the 2016 census, 7.8 million or 36.1% of the population identified as "English" or a combination including English, a numerical increase from 7.2 million over the 2011 census figure. The census also documented 907,572 residents or 3.9% of Australia as being born in England, and are the largest overseas-born population.
New Zealand
See also: English New Zealanders and Pākehā settlers
English ancestry is the largest single ancestry New Zealanders share. Several million New Zealanders are estimated to have some English ancestry From 1840, the English comprised the largest single group among New Zealand's overseas-born, consistently being over 50 percent of the total population.
Despite this, after the early 1850s, the English-born slowly fell from being a majority of the colonial population. In the 1851 census, 50.5% of the total population were born in England, this proportion fell to 36.5% (1861) and 24.3% by 1881. New Zealand's foundational culture was English, given the strong representation in the mid and late-nineteenth century with the English being the largest in migration inflows.
In the 2013 census, there were 215,589 English-born representing 21.5% of all overseas-born residents or 5 percent of the total population and the most-common birthplace outside New Zealand.
In the recent 2018 census, 210,915 were born in England or 4.49% of the total population, a slight decrease from 2013.
Argentina
Main article: English Argentines
William Henry Hudson was an Argentine author, naturalist, and ornithologist of English origin.
English settlers arrived in Buenos Aires in 1806 (then a Spanish colony) in small numbers, mostly as businessmen, when Argentina was an emerging nation and the settlers were welcomed for the stability they brought to commercial life. As the 19th century progressed, more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the large-scale growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the export trade in crops and animal products and imported the luxuries that the growing Argentine middle classes sought.
As well as those who went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners, others went as railway engineers, civil engineers and to work in banking and commerce. Others went to become whalers, missionaries and simply to seek out a future. English families sent second and younger sons, or what were described as the black sheep of the family, to Argentina to make their fortunes in cattle and wheat. English settlers introduced football to Argentina. Some English families owned sugar plantations.
Chile
Main article: English Chileans
Since the Port of Valparaíso opened its coasts to free trade in 1811, the English began to congregate in Valparaíso. The English eventually numbered more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period during the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries
Culture
Main article: Culture of England
The culture of England is sometimes difficult to separate clearly from the culture of the United Kingdom, so influential has English culture been on the cultures of the British Isles and, on the other hand, given the extent to which other cultures have influenced life in England.
Religion
Main article: Religion in England
Wells Cathedral, Somerset
The established religion of the realm is the Church of England, whose titular head is Charles III although the worldwide Anglican Communion is overseen by the General Synod of its bishops under the authority of Parliament. 26 of the church's 42 bishops are Lords Spiritual, representing the church in the House of Lords. In 2010, the Church of England counted 25 million baptised members out of the 41 million Christians in Great Britain's population of about 60 million; around the same time, it also claimed to baptise one in eight newborn children. Generally, anyone in England may marry or be buried at their local parish church, whether or not they have been baptised in the church. Actual attendance has declined steadily since 1890, with around one million, or 10% of the baptised population attending Sunday services on a regular basis (defined as once a month or more) and three million -roughly 15%- joining Christmas Eve and Christmas services.
A crowd celebrates Saint George's Day at an event in Trafalgar Square in 2010.
Saint George is recognised as the patron saint of England, and the flag of England consists of his cross. Before Edward III, the patron saint was St Edmund; and St Alban is also honoured as England's first martyr.
A survey carried out in the end of 2008 by Ipsos MORI on behalf of The Catholic Agency For Overseas Development found the population of England and Wales to be 47.0% affiliated with the Church of England, which is also the state church, 9.6% with the Roman Catholic Church and 8.7% were other Christians, mainly Free church Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians. 4.8% were Muslim, 3.4% were members of other religions, 5.3% were agnostics, 6.8% were atheists and 15.0% were not sure about their religious affiliation or refused to answer to the question.
Religious observance of St George's Day (23 April) changes when it is too close to Easter. According to the Church of England's calendar, when St George's Day falls between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is moved to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.
Language
See also: Old English and English language in England
Map showing phonological variation within England of the vowel in bath, grass, and dance: 'a' 'aa' 'ah' anomalies
English people traditionally speak the English language, a member of the West Germanic language family. The modern English language evolved from Middle English (the form of language in use by the English people from the 12th to the 15th century); Middle English was influenced lexically by Norman-French, Old French and Latin. In the Middle English period Latin was the language of administration and the nobility spoke Norman French. Middle English was itself derived from the Old English of the Anglo-Saxon period; in the Northern and Eastern parts of England the language of Danish settlers had influenced the language, a fact still evident in Northern English dialects.
There were once many different dialects of modern English in England, which were recorded in projects such as the English Dialect Dictionary (late 19th century) and the Survey of English Dialects (mid 20th century), but there has been widespread dialect levelling in recent time as a result of education, the media and socio-economic pressures.
Cornish, a Celtic language, is one of three existing Brittonic languages; its usage has been revived in Cornwall. Historically, another Brittonic Celtic language, Cumbric, was spoken in Cumbria in North West England, but it died out in the 11th century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through newspapers, books, the telegraph, the telephone, phonograph records, radio, satellite television, broadcasters (such as the BBC) and the Internet, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, Modern English has become the international language of business, science, communication, sports, aviation, and diplomacy.
Literature
Main article: English literature
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (February 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Geoffrey Chaucer (/ˈtʃɔːsər/; c. 1340s – 25 October 1400) was an English poet and author. Widely seen as the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales.
English literature begins with Anglo-Saxon literature, which was written in Old English and produced epic works such as Beowulf and the fragmentary The Battle of Maldon, The Seafarer and The Wanderer. For many years, Latin and French were the preferred literary languages of England, but in the medieval period there was a flourishing of literature in Middle English; Geoffrey Chaucer is the most famous writer of this period.
The Elizabethan era is sometimes described as the golden age of English literature with writers such as William Shakespeare, Thomas Nashe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson.
Other famous English writers include Jane Austen, Arnold Bennett, Rupert Brooke, Agatha Christie, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, A. E. Housman, George Orwell and the Lake Poets.
In 2003 the BBC carried out a UK survey entitled The Big Read in order to find the "nation's best-loved novel" of all time, with works by English novelists J. R. R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Philip Pullman, Douglas Adams and J. K. Rowling making up the top five on the list.
See also
England portal
English diaspora
British people
List of English people
Old English (Ireland)
Celtic peoples
Culture of England
English art
Architecture of England
English folklore
English nationalism
Manx people
Genetic history of Europe
European ethnic groups
Modern immigration to the United Kingdom
Population of England (historical estimates)
100% English (Channel 4 TV programme, 2006)
Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)
White British
Language:
Anglicisation
English language
English-speaking world
Old English
Middle English
Early Modern English
Cumbric language
Cornish language
Brythonic language
Diaspora:
British diaspora in Africa
Anglo-Burmese
Metis people
Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Irish
Anglo-Scot
English American
English Argentine
English Australian
English Brazilian
English Chilean
English Canadian
New Zealand European
Notes
^ Spellings of this name most common in modern texts are "Ethelred" and "Æthelred" (or "Aethelred"), the latter being closer to the original Old English form Æþelræd.
^ Those who self-identified as English ethnic group
^ 210915 listed their birthplace as England.
References
Citations
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^ Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, 'Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.
^ Mary C. Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p. 36.
^ US Census 2000 data Archived 18 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, table PHC-T-43.
^ "1990 Census of Population Detailed Ancestry Groups for States" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. 18 September 1992. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
^ "Table 2: Persons Who Reported at Least One Specific Ancestry Group for the United States: 1980" (PDF). 1980 United States Census. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
^ From many strands: ethnic and racial groups in contemporary América Archived 10 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine by Stanley Lieberson
^ "Ethnic Origin". 2001 Census. Statistics Canada. 4 November 2002. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
^ Chui, Tina (April 2008). Canada's Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census (PDF). Statistics Canada. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-662-48324-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. the presence of the Canadian example has led to an increase in Canadian being reported and has had an impact on the counts of other groups, especially for French, English, Irish and Scottish. People who previously reported these origins in the census had the tendency to now report Canadian.
^ "Population characteristics: Ancestry of Australia's population". 4102.0 - Australian Social Trends, 2003. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 3 June 2003. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.
^ J. Jupp, The English in Australia, Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 103
^ "Census 2016: Summary of result – Population by states and territories, 2011 and 2016 Census". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia Archived 7 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Ancestry 2016
^ "English – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". 20 September 2008. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008.
^ a b Bueltmann, Tanja; Gleeson, David T.; MacRaild, Donald M. (2010). Locating the English Diaspora 1500–2010. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1846318191. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2020 – via Google Books.
^ Bueltmann, Tanja; Gleeson, David T.; MacRaild, Donald M. (2012). Locating the English Diaspora 1500-2010. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9781846318191.
^ "Birthplace (detailed) For the census usually resident population count 2001, 2006, and 2013 Censuses Table 11" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
^ "Emigration of Scots, English and Welsh-speaking people to Argentina in the nineteenth century". British Settlers in Argentina – studies in 19th and 20th century emigration. Archived from the original on 30 January 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2008.
^ Carr, Raymond (2003). "The invention of Great Britain: A review of The Making of English Identity by Krishnan Kumar". The Spectator. UK. Archived from the original on 11 November 2011.
^ Gledhill, Ruth (15 February 2007). "Catholics set to pass Anglicans as leading UK church". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
^ "How many Catholics are there in Britain?". BBC. London. 15 September 2010. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
^ "2009 Church Statistics" (PDF). Church of England. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ See the pages linked from "Life Events". Church of England. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2018..
^ Bowler, Peter J. (2001). Reconciling science and religion: the debate in early-twentieth-century Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 194..
^ "Facts and Stats". Church of England. Archived from the original on 27 September 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
^ "Research and Statistics". Church of England. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012..
^ "Understanding the 21st Century Catholic Community" (PDF). CAFOD, Ipsos MORI. November 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 September 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
^ Pocklington, David (24 April 2019). "St George's Day: Church and State". Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
^ Wolfgang Vierick (1964), Der English Dialect Survey und der Linguistic Survey of Scotland – Arbeitsmethoden und bisherige Ergebnisse, Zeitschrift für Mundartforschung 31, 333–335 in Shorrocks, Graham (1999). A Grammar of the Dialect of the Bolton Area, Part 1. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. p. 58. ISBN 3-631-33066-9.
^ The Routes of English.
^ "The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
Sources
"Expert Links: English Family History and Genealogy". Price and Associates: Professional Genealogy and Family History Services. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008.
Condor, Susan; Gibson, Stephen; Abell, Jackie (2006). "English identity and ethnic diversity in the context of UK constitutional change" (PDF). Ethnicities. 6 (2): 123–158. doi:10.1177/1468796806063748. S2CID 145498328. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2011.
Fox, Kate (2004). Watching the English. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-81886-2.
Kumar, Krishan (2003). The Making of English National Identity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77736-0.
Kumar, Krishan (2010). "Negotiating English identity: Englishness, Britishness and the future of the United Kingdom". Nations and Nationalism. 16 (3): 469–487. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2010.00442.x.
Paxman, Jeremy (1999). The English. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-026723-5.
"The Routes of English". BBC. 1 August 2015. Archived from the original on 24 October 2015. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
Young, Robert J.C. (2008). The Idea of English Ethnicity. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4051-0129-5.
Diaspora
Bueltmann, Tanja; Gleeson, David T.; MacRaild, Donald M., eds. (2012). Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010. Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9781781387061.
External links
Quotations related to English people at Wikiquote
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2 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Demographics of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_England"},{"link_name":"English-speaking world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"},{"link_name":"Englishman (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englishman_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"The English (TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_English_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Englander (surname)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englander_(surname)"},{"link_name":"ethnic group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group"},{"link_name":"nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language_in_England"},{"link_name":"West Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"link_name":"Angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"ethnonym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnonym"},{"link_name":"Germanic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"Jutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes"},{"link_name":"Southern Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"partially Romanised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British_culture"},{"link_name":"Celtic Britons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England"},{"link_name":"invasion and extensive settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danelaw"},{"link_name":"Danes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danes_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Norsemen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemen"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Norman Conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Conquest"},{"link_name":"Normans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans"},{"link_name":"French Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenots"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-campbell10-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham,_Nicholas_J._2013._p7-19-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"country of the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Nations"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"Acts of Union 1707","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"English customs and identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_England"},{"link_name":"British customs and identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"For other uses, see Demographics of England, English-speaking world, Englishman (disambiguation), and The English (TV series). \"English nation\" redirects here. For the country of the United Kingdom, see England. \"Englander\" redirects here. For the surname, see Englander (surname).Ethnic groupThe English people are an ethnic group and nation native to England, who speak the English language, a West Germanic language, and share a common ancestry, history, and culture.[8] The English identity began with the Anglo-Saxons, when they were known as the Angelcynn, meaning race or tribe of the Angles. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, one of the Germanic peoples who invaded Britain around the 5th century AD.[9]The English largely descend from two main historical population groups: the West Germanic tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who settled in Southern Britain following the withdrawal of the Romans, and the partially Romanised Celtic Britons who already lived there.[10][11][12][13] Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, they founded what was to become the Kingdom of England by the 10th century, in response to the invasion and extensive settlement of Danes and other Norsemen that began in the late 9th century.[14][15] This was followed by the Norman Conquest and limited settlement of Normans in England in the late 11th century and a sizeable number of French Protestants who emigrated between the 16th and 18th centuries.[16][17][18][19][10][20] Some definitions of English people include, while others exclude, people descended from later migration into England.[21]England is the largest and most populous country of the United Kingdom. The majority of people living in England are British citizens. In the Acts of Union 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland merged to become the Kingdom of Great Britain.[22] Over the years, English customs and identity have become fairly closely aligned with British customs and identity in general. The demonyms for men and women from England are Englishman[23] and Englishwoman.[24]","title":"English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2003262%E2%80%93290-25"},{"link_name":"devolved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devolution"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2003[httpsassetscambridgeorg9780521771887sample9780521771887wspdf_1%E2%80%9318]-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorGibsonAbell2006-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"ethnic minorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_minorities"},{"link_name":"Annual Population Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Population_Survey"},{"link_name":"Office for National Statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics"},{"link_name":"national identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_identity"},{"link_name":"white people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_people"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"England itself has no devolved government. The 1990s witnessed a rise in English self-awareness.[25] This is linked to the expressions of national self-awareness of the other British nations of Wales, Scotland and, to some extent, Northern Ireland which take their most solid form in the new devolved political arrangements within the United Kingdom – and the waning of a shared British national identity with the growing distance between the end of the British Empire and the present.[26][27][28]Many recent immigrants to England have assumed a solely British identity, while others have developed dual or mixed identities.[29][30][31][32][33] Use of the word \"English\" to describe Britons from ethnic minorities in England is complicated by most non-white people in England identifying as British rather than English. In their 2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics compared the ethnic identities of British people with their perceived national identity. They found that while 58% of white people in England described their nationality as \"English\", non-white people were more likely to describe themselves as \"British\".[34]","title":"English nationality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Krishan Kumar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishan_Kumar_(sociologist)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar20031%E2%80%932-35"},{"link_name":"A. J. P. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor"},{"link_name":"Oxford History of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_History_of_England"},{"link_name":"Great Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Power"},{"link_name":"Bonar Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonar_Law"},{"link_name":"Scotch Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Canadian"},{"link_name":"Scotch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"The Isles: A History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Isles:_A_History"},{"link_name":"Norman Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Davies"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Matthew Parris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Parris"},{"link_name":"The Spectator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spectator"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Relationship to Britishness","text":"It is unclear how many British people consider themselves English. The words \"English\" and \"British\" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, especially outside the UK. In his study of English identity, Krishan Kumar describes a common slip of the tongue in which people say \"English, I mean British\". He notes that this slip is normally made only by the English themselves and by foreigners: \"Non-English members of the United Kingdom rarely say 'British' when they mean 'English'\". Kumar suggests that although this blurring is a sign of England's dominant position with the UK, it is also \"problematic for the English [...] when it comes to conceiving of their national identity. It tells of the difficulty that most English people have of distinguishing themselves, in a collective way, from the other inhabitants of the British Isles\".[35]In 1965, the historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote,When the Oxford History of England was launched a generation ago, \"England\" was still an all-embracing word. It meant indiscriminately England and Wales; Great Britain; the United Kingdom; and even the British Empire. Foreigners used it as the name of a Great Power and indeed continue to do so. Bonar Law, by origin a Scotch Canadian, was not ashamed to describe himself as \"Prime Minister of England\" [...] Now terms have become more rigorous. The use of \"England\" except for a geographic area brings protests, especially from the Scotch.[36]However, although Taylor believed this blurring effect was dying out, in his book The Isles: A History (1999), Norman Davies lists numerous examples in history books of \"British\" still being used to mean \"English\" and vice versa.[37]In December 2010, Matthew Parris in The Spectator, analysing the use of \"English\" over \"British\", argued that English identity, rather than growing, had existed all along but has recently been unmasked from behind a veneer of Britishness.[38]","title":"English nationality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genetic history of the British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles"}],"text":"Further information: Genetic history of the British Isles","title":"Historical and genetic origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indo-European-39"},{"link_name":"hunter-gatherers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer"},{"link_name":"Cro-Magnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_European_modern_humans"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Neolithic farmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_European_Farmers"},{"link_name":"Neolithic Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Steppe pastoralists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders"},{"link_name":"Indo-European migrations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_migrations"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Indo-European-39"},{"link_name":"Bell Beaker culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture"},{"link_name":"Yamnaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamnaya"},{"link_name":"Pontic-Caspian Steppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic-Caspian_Steppe"},{"link_name":"Corded Ware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corded_Ware"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-42"}],"sub_title":"Replacement of Neolithic farmers by Bell Beaker populations","text":"English people, like most Europeans, largely descend from three distinct lineages:[39] Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from a Cro-Magnon population that arrived in Europe about 45,000 years ago;[40] Neolithic farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago;[41] and Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago.[39]Recent genetic studies have suggested that Britain's Neolithic population was largely replaced by a population from North Continental Europe characterised by the Bell Beaker culture around 2400 BC, associated with the Yamnaya people from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe. This population lacked genetic affinity to some other Bell Beaker populations, such as the Iberian Bell Beakers, but appeared to be an offshoot of the Corded Ware single grave people, as developed in Western Europe.[42][43] It is currently unknown whether these Beaker peoples went on to develop Celtic languages in the British Isles, or whether later Celtic migrations introduced Celtic languages to Britain.[44]The close genetic affinity of these Beaker people to Continental North Europeans means that British and Irish populations cluster genetically very closely with other Northwest European populations, regardless of how much Anglo-Saxon and Viking ancestry was introduced during the 1st millennium.[45][42]","title":"Historical and genetic origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg"},{"link_name":"Incipit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incipit"},{"link_name":"Book of Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oppenheimer-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-12"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Celtic Briton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and Normans","text":"The Incipit to Matthew from the Book of Lindisfarne, an Insular masterpieceThe influence of later invasions and migrations on the English population has been debated, as studies that sampled only modern DNA have produced uncertain results and have thus been subject to a large variety of interpretations.[46][47][48] More recently, however, ancient DNA has been used to provide a clearer picture of the genetic effects of these movements of people.One 2016 study, using Iron Age and Anglo-Saxon era DNA found at grave sites in Cambridgeshire, calculated that ten modern day eastern English samples had 38% Anglo-Saxon ancestry on average, while ten Welsh and Scottish samples each had 30% Anglo-Saxon ancestry, with a large statistical spread in all cases. However, the authors noted that the similarity observed between the various sample groups was likely to be due to more recent internal migration.[49]Another 2016 study conducted using evidence from burials found in northern England, found that a significant genetic difference was present in bodies from the Iron Age and the Roman period on the one hand, and the Anglo-Saxon period on the other. Samples from modern-day Wales were found to be similar to those from the Iron Age and Roman burials, while samples from much of modern England, East Anglia in particular, were closer to the Anglo-Saxon-era burial. This was found to demonstrate a \"profound impact\" from the Anglo-Saxon migrations on the modern English gene pool, though no specific percentages were given in the study.[12]A third study combined the ancient data from both of the preceding studies and compared it to a large number of modern samples from across Britain and Ireland. This study found that modern southern, central and eastern English populations were of \"a predominantly Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry\" while those from northern and southwestern England had a greater degree of indigenous origin.[50]A major 2020 study, which used DNA from Viking-era burials in various regions across Europe, found that modern English samples showed nearly equal contributions from a native British \"North Atlantic\" population and a Danish-like population. While much of the latter signature was attributed to the earlier settlement of the Anglo-Saxons, it was calculated that up to 6% of it could have come from Danish Vikings, with a further 4% contribution from a Norwegian-like source representing the Norwegian Vikings. The study also found an average 18% admixture from a source further south in Europe, which was interpreted as reflecting the legacy of French migration under the Normans.[51]A landmark 2022 study titled \"The Anglo-Saxon migration and the formation of the early English gene pool\", found the English to be of plurality Anglo-Saxon-like ancestry, with heavy native Celtic Briton, and newly confirmed medieval French admixture. Significant regional variation was also observed.[52]","title":"Historical and genetic origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_English"}],"text":"\"History of the English\" redirects here. Not to be confused with History of English.","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Roman Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"Sub-Roman Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"Ancient Britons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brython"},{"link_name":"Romano-Britons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British_culture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxons"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Romans had withdrawn from Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain"},{"link_name":"Romano-British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Aballava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aballava"},{"link_name":"Burgh-by-Sands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgh-by-Sands"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg"},{"link_name":"petty kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_kingdom"},{"link_name":"the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Gildas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildas"},{"link_name":"aduentus Saxonum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_invasion"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Brittonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languages"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ward-Perkins,_Bryan_2000-60"},{"link_name":"Wergild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wergild"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H%C3%A4rke,_Heinrich_2011-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Anglo-Saxon settlement","text":"Further information: Anglo-Saxons, Roman Britain, Sub-Roman Britain, Ancient Britons, and Romano-BritonsA replica of the Sutton Hoo helmetThe first people to be called \"English\" were the Anglo-Saxons, a group of closely related Germanic tribes that began migrating to eastern and southern Britain, from southern Denmark and northern Germany, in the 5th century AD, after the Romans had withdrawn from Britain. The Anglo-Saxons gave their name to England (\"Engla land\", meaning \"Land of the Angles\") and to the English.The Anglo-Saxons arrived in a land that was already populated by people commonly referred to as the \"Romano-British\"—the descendants of the native Brittonic-speaking population that lived in the area of Britain under Roman rule during the 1st–5th centuries AD. The multi-ethnic nature of the Roman Empire meant that small numbers of other peoples may have also been present in England before the Anglo-Saxons arrived. There is archaeological evidence, for example, of an early North African presence in a Roman garrison at Aballava, now Burgh-by-Sands, in Cumbria: a 4th-century inscription says that the Roman military unit \"Numerus Maurorum Aurelianorum\" (\"unit of Aurelian Moors\") from Mauretania (Morocco) was stationed there.[53] Although the Roman Empire incorporated peoples from far and wide, genetic studies suggest the Romans did not significantly mix into the British population.[54]Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdomsThe exact nature of the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and their relationship with the Romano-British is a matter of debate. The traditional view is that a mass invasion by various Anglo-Saxon tribes largely displaced the indigenous British population in southern and eastern Britain (modern-day England with the exception of Cornwall). This is supported by the writings of Gildas, who gives the only contemporary historical account of the period, and describes the slaughter and starvation of native Britons by invading tribes (aduentus Saxonum).[55] Furthermore, the English language contains no more than a handful of words borrowed from Brittonic sources.[56]This view was later re-evaluated by some archaeologists and historians, with a more small-scale migration being posited, possibly based around an elite of male warriors that took over the rule of the country and gradually acculturated the people living there.[57][58][59] Within this theory, two processes leading to Anglo-Saxonisation have been proposed. One is similar to culture changes observed in Russia, North Africa and parts of the Islamic world, where a politically and socially powerful minority culture becomes, over a rather short period, adopted by a settled majority. This process is usually termed \"elite dominance\".[60] The second process is explained through incentives, such as the Wergild outlined in the law code of Ine of Wessex which produced an incentive to become Anglo-Saxon or at least English speaking.[61] Historian Malcolm Todd writes, \"It is much more likely that a large proportion of the British population remained in place and was progressively dominated by a Germanic aristocracy, in some cases marrying into it and leaving Celtic names in the, admittedly very dubious, early lists of Anglo-Saxon dynasties. But how we identify the surviving Britons in areas of predominantly Anglo-Saxon settlement, either archaeologically or linguistically, is still one of the deepest problems of early English history.\"[62]An emerging view is that the degree of population replacement by the Anglo-Saxons, and thus the degree of survival of the Romano-Britons, varied across England, and that as such the overall settlement of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons cannot be described by any one process in particular. Large-scale migration and population shift seems to be most applicable in the cases of eastern regions such as East Anglia and Lincolnshire,[63][64][65][66][67] while in parts of Northumbria, much of the native population likely remained in place as the incomers took over as elites.[68][69] In a study of place names in northeastern England and southern Scotland, Bethany Fox found that the migrants settled in large numbers in river valleys, such as those of the Tyne and the Tweed, with the Britons moving to the less fertile hill country and becoming acculturated over a longer period. Fox describes the process by which English came to dominate this region as \"a synthesis of mass-migration and elite-takeover models.\"[70]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vikings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings"},{"link_name":"Danelaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danelaw"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ethelred_the_Unready.jpg"},{"link_name":"King of the English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"Alfred the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Alfred_and_Guthrum"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Æthelred II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Cnut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnut"},{"link_name":"of Old Norse origin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"}],"sub_title":"Vikings and the Danelaw","text":"Further information: Vikings and DanelawÆthelred II (c. 966 – 23 April 1016), known as 'the Unready', was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death.From about 800 AD waves of Danish Viking assaults on the coastlines of the British Isles were gradually followed by a succession of Danish settlers in England. At first, the Vikings were very much considered a separate people from the English. This separation was enshrined when Alfred the Great signed the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum to establish the Danelaw, a division of England between English and Danish rule, with the Danes occupying northern and eastern England.[71]However, Alfred's successors subsequently won military victories against the Danes, incorporating much of the Danelaw into the nascent kingdom of England. Danish invasions continued into the 11th century, and there were both English and Danish kings in the period following the unification of England (for example, Æthelred II[a] (978–1013 and 1014–1016) was English but Cnut (1016–1035) was Danish).Gradually, the Danes in England came to be seen as 'English'. They had a noticeable impact on the English language: many English words, such as anger, ball, egg, got, knife, take, and they, are of Old Norse origin,[72] and place names that end in -thwaite and -by are Scandinavian in origin.[73]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Treaty of Wedmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Wedmore"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Alfred_and_Guthrum"},{"link_name":"petty kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_kingdom"},{"link_name":"heptarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptarchy"},{"link_name":"Mercia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercia"},{"link_name":"Wessex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex"},{"link_name":"nation state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state"},{"link_name":"Æthelstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelstan"},{"link_name":"Eamont Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eamont_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rowse-78"}],"sub_title":"English unification","text":"Further information: Treaty of Wedmore and Treaty of Alfred and GuthrumThe English population was not politically unified until the 10th century. Before then, there were a number of petty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of seven states, the most powerful of which were Mercia and Wessex. The English nation state began to form when the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united against Danish Viking invasions, which began around 800 AD. Over the following century and a half England was for the most part a politically unified entity, and remained permanently so after 954.The nation of England was formed in 12 July 927 by Æthelstan of Wessex after the Treaty of Eamont Bridge,[74][75][76] as Wessex grew from a relatively small kingdom in the South West to become the founder of the Kingdom of the English, incorporating all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Danelaw.[77]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Normans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Hastings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings"},{"link_name":"Bayeux Tapestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry"},{"link_name":"Norman conquest of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England"},{"link_name":"French speaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normans"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"King Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_of_England"},{"link_name":"Henry II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"House of Plantagenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet"},{"link_name":"Angevin Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angevin_Empire"},{"link_name":"Old French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French"},{"link_name":"Edward I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Presentment of Englishry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentment_of_Englishry"},{"link_name":"hundred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_(country_subdivision)"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"sub_title":"Norman and Angevin rule","text":"Further information: NormansBattle of Hastings, 1066 (from the Bayeux Tapestry)The Norman conquest of England during 1066 brought Anglo-Saxon and Danish rule of England to an end, as the new French speaking Norman elite almost universally replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and church leaders. After the conquest, \"English\" normally included all natives of England, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon, Scandinavian or Celtic ancestry, to distinguish them from the Norman invaders, who were regarded as \"Norman\" even if born in England, for a generation or two after the Conquest.[78] The Norman dynasty ruled England for 87 years until the death of King Stephen in 1154, when the succession passed to Henry II, House of Plantagenet (based in France), and England became part of the Angevin Empire until its collapse in 1214.Various contemporary sources suggest that within 50 years of the invasion most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with Old French remaining the prestige language of government and law largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. Anglo-Norman continued to be used by the Plantagenet kings until Edward I came to the throne.[79] Over time the English language became more important even in the court, and the Normans were gradually assimilated, until, by the 14th century, both rulers and subjects regarded themselves as English and spoke the English language.[80]Despite the assimilation of the Normans, the distinction between 'English' and 'French' survived in official documents long after it had fallen out of common use, in particular in the legal phrase Presentment of Englishry (a rule by which a hundred had to prove an unidentified murdered body found on their soil to be that of an Englishman, rather than a Norman, if they wanted to avoid a fine). This law was abolished in 1340.[81]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flags_of_the_Union_Jack.svg"},{"link_name":"St George's Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_England"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England"},{"link_name":"St Andrew's Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"St Patrick's Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick%27s_Flag"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"annexed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation"},{"link_name":"Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"James VI of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"James I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Act of Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1707"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Union"},{"link_name":"Parliament of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Act of Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Union_1800"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish Free State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"St George's Cross(England)\nSt Andrew's Cross(Scotland)\nGreat Britain\nSt Patrick's Cross(Ireland)\nUnited KingdomSince the 18th century, England has been one part of a wider political entity covering all or part of the British Isles, which today is called the United Kingdom. Wales was annexed by England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, which incorporated Wales into the English state.[82] A new British identity was subsequently developed when James VI of Scotland became James I of England as well, and expressed the desire to be known as the monarch of Britain.[83]In 1707, England formed a union with Scotland by passing an Act of Union in March 1707 that ratified the Treaty of Union. The Parliament of Scotland had previously passed its own Act of Union, so the Kingdom of Great Britain was born on 1 May 1707. In 1801, another Act of Union formed a union between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, about two-thirds of the Irish population (those who lived in 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland), left the United Kingdom to form the Irish Free State. The remainder became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, although this name was not introduced until 1927, after some years in which the term \"United Kingdom\" had been little used.[citation needed]Throughout the history of the UK, the English have been dominant in population and in political weight. As a consequence, notions of 'Englishness' and 'Britishness' are often very similar. At the same time, after the Union of 1707, the English, along with the other peoples of the British Isles, have been encouraged to think of themselves as British rather than to identify themselves with the constituent nations.[84]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Historical immigration to Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_immigration_to_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Immigration to the United Kingdom (1922-present day)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom_(1922-present_day)"},{"link_name":"assimilated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_assimilation"},{"link_name":"intermarried","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interracial_marriage"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"resettlement of the Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resettlement_of_the_Jews_in_England"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Protestantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Edict of Fontainebleau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Fontainebleau"},{"link_name":"Huguenots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people"},{"link_name":"slave trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery#British_Isles"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackhistory-89"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent"},{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"British Raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackhistory-89"},{"link_name":"Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_British"},{"link_name":"Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Asian"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"Immigration and assimilation","text":"See also: Historical immigration to Great Britain and Immigration to the United Kingdom (1922-present day)England has been the destination of varied numbers of migrants at different periods from the 17th century onwards. While some members of these groups seek to practise a form of pluralism, attempting to maintain a separate ethnic identity, others have assimilated and intermarried with the English. Since Oliver Cromwell's resettlement of the Jews in 1656, there have been waves of Jewish immigration from Russia in the 19th century and from Germany in the 20th.[85]After the French king Louis XIV declared Protestantism illegal in 1685 in the Edict of Fontainebleau, an estimated 50,000 Protestant Huguenots fled to England.[86] Due to sustained and sometimes mass emigration of the Irish, current estimates indicate that around 6 million people in the UK have at least one grandparent born in the Republic of Ireland.[87]There has been a small black presence in England since the 16th century due to the slave trade,[88] and a small Indian presence since at least the 17th century because of the East India Company[89] and British Raj.[88] Black and Asian populations have only grown throughout the UK generally, as immigration from the British Empire and the subsequent Commonwealth of Nations was encouraged due to labour shortages during post World War II rebuilding.[90]\nHowever, these groups are often still considered to be ethnic minorities and research has shown that black and Asian people in the UK are more likely to identify as British rather than with one of the state's four constituent nations, including England.[91]A nationally representative survey published in June 2021 found that a majority of respondents thought that being English was not dependent on race. 77% of white respondents in England agreed that \"Being English is open to people of different ethnic backgrounds who identify as English\", whereas 14% were of the view that \"Only people who are white count as truly English\". Amongst ethnic minority respondents, the equivalent figures were 68% and 19%.[92] Research has found that the proportion of people who consider being white to be a necessary component of Englishness has declined over time.[93]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Economist-95"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Campaign for an English Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_for_an_English_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"English flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_flag"},{"link_name":"Union flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_flag"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2003262-99"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"devolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devolution"},{"link_name":"Scottish Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Parliament"},{"link_name":"National Assembly for Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senedd"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Economist-95"},{"link_name":"West Lothian question","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Lothian_question"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"devolved English Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devolved_English_parliament"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Paul Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"John Curtice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Curtice"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Richard English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_English"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECondorGibsonAbell2006128-107"},{"link_name":"YouGov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"British Social Attitudes Surveys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Social_Attitudes_Survey"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_TV"},{"link_name":"Newsnight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsnight"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2010484-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"English Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Democrats"},{"link_name":"2010 UK general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_breakdown_of_the_2010_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2010478-115"}],"sub_title":"Current national and political identity","text":"The 1990s witnessed a resurgence of English national identity.[94] Survey data shows a rise in the number of people in England describing their national identity as English and a fall in the number describing themselves as British.[95] Today, black and minority ethnic people of England still generally identify as British rather than English to a greater extent than their white counterparts;[96] however, groups such as the Campaign for an English Parliament (CEP) suggest the emergence of a broader civic and multi-ethnic English nationhood.[97] Scholars and journalists have noted a rise in English self-consciousness, with increased use of the English flag, particularly at football matches where the Union flag was previously more commonly flown by fans.[98][99]This perceived rise in English self-consciousness has generally been attributed to the devolution in the late 1990s of some powers to the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales.[94] In policy areas for which the devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have responsibility, the UK Parliament votes on laws that consequently only apply to England. Because the Westminster Parliament is composed of MPs from throughout the United Kingdom, this has given rise to the \"West Lothian question\", a reference to the situation in which MPs representing constituencies outside England can vote on matters affecting only England, but MPs cannot vote on the same matters in relation to the other parts of the UK.[100] Consequently, groups such as the CEP have called for the creation of a devolved English Parliament, claiming that there is now a discriminatory democratic deficit against the English. The establishment of an English parliament has also been backed by a number of Scottish and Welsh nationalists.[101][102] Writer Paul Johnson has suggested that like most dominant groups, the English have only demonstrated interest in their ethnic self-definition when they were feeling oppressed.[103]John Curtice argues that \"In the early years of devolution...there was little sign\" of an English backlash against devolution for Scotland and Wales, but that more recently survey data shows tentative signs of \"a form of English nationalism...beginning to emerge among the general public\".[104] Michael Kenny, Richard English and Richard Hayton, meanwhile, argue that the resurgence in English nationalism predates devolution, being observable in the early 1990s, but that this resurgence does not necessarily have negative implications for the perception of the UK as a political union.[105] Others question whether devolution has led to a rise in English national identity at all, arguing that survey data fails to portray the complex nature of national identities, with many people considering themselves both English and British.[106] A 2017 survey by YouGov found that 38% of English voters considered themselves both English and British, alongside 19% who felt English but not British.[107]Recent surveys of public opinion on the establishment of an English parliament have given widely varying conclusions. In the first five years of devolution for Scotland and Wales, support in England for the establishment of an English parliament was low at between 16 and 19%, according to successive British Social Attitudes Surveys.[108] A report, also based on the British Social Attitudes Survey, published in December 2010 suggests that only 29% of people in England support the establishment of an English parliament, though this figure had risen from 17% in 2007.[109]One 2007 poll carried out for BBC Newsnight, however, found that 61 per cent would support such a parliament being established.[110] Krishan Kumar notes that support for measures to ensure that only English MPs can vote on legislation that applies only to England is generally higher than that for the establishment of an English parliament, although support for both varies depending on the timing of the opinion poll and the wording of the question.[111] Electoral support for English nationalist parties is also low, even though there is public support for many of the policies they espouse.[112] The English Democrats gained just 64,826 votes in the 2010 UK general election, accounting for 0.3 per cent of all votes cast in England.[113] Kumar argued in 2010 that \"despite devolution and occasional bursts of English nationalism – more an expression of exasperation with the Scots or Northern Irish – the English remain on the whole satisfied with current constitutional arrangements\".[114]","title":"History of English people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"Western world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"From the earliest times English people have left England to settle in other parts of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but it is not possible to identify their numbers, as British censuses have historically not invited respondents to identify themselves as English.[121][failed verification] However, the census does record place of birth, revealing that 8.1% of Scotland's population,[122] 3.7% of the population of Northern Ireland[123] and 20% of the Welsh population were born in England.[124] Similarly, the census of the Republic of Ireland does not collect information on ethnicity, but it does record that there are over 200,000 people living in Ireland who were born in England and Wales.[125]English ethnic descent and emigrant communities are found primarily in the Western world, and in some places, settled in significant numbers. Substantial populations descended from English colonists and immigrants exist in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.[citation needed]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"ancestors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_family"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"2020 United States census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"White American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Americans"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"demographers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_ethnicity"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"2000 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"ancestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Scots-Irish Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch-Irish_American"},{"link_name":"Lowland Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowland_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Northern English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England"},{"link_name":"County Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Durham"},{"link_name":"Cumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland"},{"link_name":"Westmorland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westmorland"},{"link_name":"Plantation of Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster"},{"link_name":"Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"George Washington, known as the \"Father of His Country\", and first President of the United States, had English ancestors.[126]In the 2020 United States census, English Americans were the largest group in the United States with 46.5 million Americans self-identifying as having some English origins (many combined with another heritage) representing (19.8%) of the White American population. This includes 25.5 million (12.5%) who were \"English alone\" - one origin.[127] However, demographers regard this as an undercount, as the index of inconsistency[clarification needed] is high, and many, if not most, people from English stock have a tendency (since the introduction of a new 'American' category and ignoring the ancestry question in the 2000 census) to identify as simply Americans[128][129][130][131] or if of mixed European ancestry, identify with a more recent and differentiated ethnic group.[132]Prior to this, in the 2000 census, 24,509,692 Americans described their ancestry as wholly or partly English. In addition, 1,035,133 recorded British ancestry.[133] This was a numerical decrease from the census in 1990 where 32,651,788 people or 13.1% of the population self-identified with English ancestry.[134]In 1980, over 49 million (49,598,035) Americans claimed English ancestry, at the time around 26.3% of the total population and largest reported group which, even today, would make them the largest ethnic group in the United States.[135] Scots-Irish Americans are descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English (specifically: County Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland and Westmorland) settlers who colonised Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century.Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply \"American\" due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. Relative to ethnic groups of other European origins, this may be due to the early establishment of English settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.[136]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canada 2016 Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_2016_Census"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census_Profile,_2016_Census-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto3-119"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"In the Canada 2016 Census, 'English' was the most common ethnic origin (ethnic origin refers to the ethnic or cultural group(s) to which the respondent's ancestors belong[137]) recorded by respondents; 6,320,085 people or 18.3% of the population self-identified themselves as wholly or partly English.[117][118] On the other hand, people identifying as Canadian but not English may have previously identified as English before the option of identifying as Canadian was available.[138]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EBarton2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edmund Barton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Barton"},{"link_name":"Alfred Deakin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Deakin"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"colonial era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788-1850)"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abs.gov.au-142"},{"link_name":"south","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_England"},{"link_name":"north of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Australians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australians"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Census2016-036-144"},{"link_name":"2016 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Australian_census"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-145"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin, 1st and 2nd Prime Minister of Australia both had English parents.From the beginning of the colonial era until the mid-20th century, the vast majority of settlers to Australia were from the British Isles, with the English being the dominant group. Among the leading ancestries, increases in Australian, Irish and German ancestries and decreases in English, Scottish and Welsh ancestries appear to reflect such shifts in perception or reporting. These reporting shifts at least partly resulted from changes in the design of the census question, in particular the introduction of a tick box format in 2001.[139] English Australians have more often come from the south than the north of England.[140]Australians of English descent, are both the single largest ethnic group in Australia and the largest 'ancestry' identity in the Australian census.[141] In the 2016 census, 7.8 million or 36.1% of the population identified as \"English\" or a combination including English, a numerical increase from 7.2 million over the 2011 census figure. The census also documented 907,572 residents or 3.9% of Australia as being born in England, and are the largest overseas-born population.[142]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English New Zealanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_New_Zealanders"},{"link_name":"Pākehā settlers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81keh%C4%81_settlers"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto4-147"},{"link_name":"1851 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1851_New_Zealand_census"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto4-147"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_culture"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_New_Zealand_census"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"2018 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_New_Zealand_census"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-results-6"}],"sub_title":"New Zealand","text":"See also: English New Zealanders and Pākehā settlersEnglish ancestry is the largest single ancestry New Zealanders share. Several million New Zealanders are estimated to have some English ancestry[143] From 1840, the English comprised the largest single group among New Zealand's overseas-born, consistently being over 50 percent of the total population.[144]\nDespite this, after the early 1850s, the English-born slowly fell from being a majority of the colonial population. In the 1851 census, 50.5% of the total population were born in England, this proportion fell to 36.5% (1861) and 24.3% by 1881.[144] New Zealand's foundational culture was English, given the strong representation in the mid and late-nineteenth century with the English being the largest in migration inflows.[145]In the 2013 census, there were 215,589 English-born representing 21.5% of all overseas-born residents or 5 percent of the total population and the most-common birthplace outside New Zealand.[146]\nIn the recent 2018 census, 210,915 were born in England or 4.49% of the total population, a slight decrease from 2013.[6]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Henry_Hudson.png"},{"link_name":"William Henry Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Hudson"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BSIA001-150"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"railway engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad_engineer"},{"link_name":"civil engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_engineer"},{"link_name":"banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce"},{"link_name":"whalers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaler"},{"link_name":"missionaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missionaries"},{"link_name":"black sheep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_sheep"},{"link_name":"cattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle"},{"link_name":"wheat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"sugar plantations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Argentina","text":"William Henry Hudson was an Argentine author, naturalist, and ornithologist of English origin.English settlers arrived in Buenos Aires in 1806 (then a Spanish colony) in small numbers, mostly as businessmen, when Argentina was an emerging nation and the settlers were welcomed for the stability they brought to commercial life. As the 19th century progressed, more English families arrived, and many bought land to develop the potential of the Argentine pampas for the large-scale growing of crops. The English founded banks, developed the export trade in crops and animal products and imported the luxuries that the growing Argentine middle classes sought.[147]As well as those who went to Argentina as industrialists and major landowners, others went as railway engineers, civil engineers and to work in banking and commerce. Others went to become whalers, missionaries and simply to seek out a future. English families sent second and younger sons, or what were described as the black sheep of the family, to Argentina to make their fortunes in cattle and wheat. English settlers introduced football to Argentina. Some English families owned sugar plantations.[citation needed]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Chile","text":"Since the Port of Valparaíso opened its coasts to free trade in 1811, the English began to congregate in Valparaíso. The English eventually numbered more than 32,000 during the port of Valparaíso's boom period during the saltpeter bonanza at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries[citation needed]","title":"English diaspora"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"culture of the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"}],"text":"The culture of England is sometimes difficult to separate clearly from the culture of the United Kingdom,[148] so influential has English culture been on the cultures of the British Isles and, on the other hand, given the extent to which other cultures have influenced life in England.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wells_Cathedral_West_Front_Exterior,_UK_-_Diliff.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wells Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"established religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Established_church"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"Charles III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_III"},{"link_name":"Anglican Communion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Communion"},{"link_name":"General Synod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Synod"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Lords Spiritual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lords_Spiritual"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-londontimes-152"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beeboop-153"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"parish church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_George%27s_Day_2010_-_14.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saint George's Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George%27s_Day_in_England"},{"link_name":"Trafalgar Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafalgar_Square"},{"link_name":"Saint George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George"},{"link_name":"patron saint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patron_saint"},{"link_name":"flag of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_England"},{"link_name":"his cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_George_cross"},{"link_name":"Edward III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_III_of_England"},{"link_name":"St Edmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_the_Martyr"},{"link_name":"St Alban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Alban"},{"link_name":"first martyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protomartyr"},{"link_name":"Ipsos MORI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipsos_MORI"},{"link_name":"The Catholic Agency For Overseas Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAFOD"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"state church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_church"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_England"},{"link_name":"Free church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_church"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Christians"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2009_ipsos-159"},{"link_name":"St George's Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_George%27s_Day"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"Palm Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_Sunday"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"Wells Cathedral, SomersetThe established religion of the realm is the Church of England, whose titular head is Charles III although the worldwide Anglican Communion is overseen by the General Synod of its bishops under the authority of Parliament. 26 of the church's 42 bishops are Lords Spiritual, representing the church in the House of Lords. In 2010, the Church of England counted 25 million baptised members out of the 41 million Christians in Great Britain's population of about 60 million;[149][150] around the same time, it also claimed to baptise one in eight newborn children.[151] Generally, anyone in England may marry or be buried at their local parish church, whether or not they have been baptised in the church.[152] Actual attendance has declined steadily since 1890,[153] with around one million, or 10% of the baptised population attending Sunday services on a regular basis (defined as once a month or more) and three million -roughly 15%- joining Christmas Eve and Christmas services.[154][155]A crowd celebrates Saint George's Day at an event in Trafalgar Square in 2010.Saint George is recognised as the patron saint of England, and the flag of England consists of his cross. Before Edward III, the patron saint was St Edmund; and St Alban is also honoured as England's first martyr.\nA survey carried out in the end of 2008 by Ipsos MORI on behalf of The Catholic Agency For Overseas Development found the population of England and Wales to be 47.0% affiliated with the Church of England, which is also the state church, 9.6% with the Roman Catholic Church and 8.7% were other Christians, mainly Free church Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians. 4.8% were Muslim, 3.4% were members of other religions, 5.3% were agnostics, 6.8% were atheists and 15.0% were not sure about their religious affiliation or refused to answer to the question.[156]Religious observance of St George's Day (23 April) changes when it is too close to Easter. According to the Church of England's calendar, when St George's Day falls between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is moved to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.[157]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"English language in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language_in_England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Local_pronunciations_of_bath_in_England.jpg"},{"link_name":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"West Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"language family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English_language"},{"link_name":"Old French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_language"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"English Dialect Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Dialect_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"Survey of English Dialects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_of_English_Dialects"},{"link_name":"dialect levelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect_levelling"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Cornish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_language"},{"link_name":"Celtic language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languages"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Cumbric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbric_language"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"North West England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_West_England"},{"link_name":"Early Modern English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_English"},{"link_name":"printing press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press"},{"link_name":"Great Vowel Shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"international language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_language"},{"link_name":"business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication"},{"link_name":"sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports"},{"link_name":"aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation"},{"link_name":"diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomacy"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_Routes_of_English-162"}],"sub_title":"Language","text":"See also: Old English and English language in EnglandMap showing phonological variation within England of the vowel in bath, grass, and dance: 'a' [ä] 'aa' [æː] 'ah' [ɑː] anomaliesEnglish people traditionally speak the English language, a member of the West Germanic language family. The modern English language evolved from Middle English (the form of language in use by the English people from the 12th to the 15th century); Middle English was influenced lexically by Norman-French, Old French and Latin. In the Middle English period Latin was the language of administration and the nobility spoke Norman French. Middle English was itself derived from the Old English of the Anglo-Saxon period; in the Northern and Eastern parts of England the language of Danish settlers had influenced the language, a fact still evident in Northern English dialects.[citation needed]There were once many different dialects of modern English in England, which were recorded in projects such as the English Dialect Dictionary (late 19th century) and the Survey of English Dialects (mid 20th century), but there has been widespread dialect levelling in recent time as a result of education, the media and socio-economic pressures.[158]Cornish, a Celtic language, is one of three existing Brittonic languages; its usage has been revived in Cornwall. Historically, another Brittonic Celtic language, Cumbric, was spoken in Cumbria in North West England, but it died out in the 11th century although traces of it can still be found in the Cumbrian dialect. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through newspapers, books, the telegraph, the telephone, phonograph records, radio, satellite television, broadcasters (such as the BBC) and the Internet, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, Modern English has become the international language of business, science, communication, sports, aviation, and diplomacy.[159]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Geoffrey_Chaucer_(4671380)_(cropped)_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"/ˈtʃɔːsər/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"The Canterbury Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_literature"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"Beowulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf"},{"link_name":"The Battle of Maldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_Maldon"},{"link_name":"The Seafarer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)"},{"link_name":"The Wanderer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Old_English_poem)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"medieval period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_period"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Chaucer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer"},{"link_name":"Elizabethan era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_era"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Thomas Nashe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nashe"},{"link_name":"Edmund Spenser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Spenser"},{"link_name":"Sir Philip Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Philip_Sidney"},{"link_name":"Christopher Marlowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe"},{"link_name":"Ben Jonson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonson"},{"link_name":"Jane Austen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"},{"link_name":"Arnold Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Rupert Brooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Brooke"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie"},{"link_name":"Charles Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hardy"},{"link_name":"A. E. Housman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Housman"},{"link_name":"George Orwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Orwell"},{"link_name":"Lake Poets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Poets"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"The Big Read","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Read"},{"link_name":"J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Jane Austen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen"},{"link_name":"Philip Pullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Pullman"},{"link_name":"Douglas Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams"},{"link_name":"J. K. Rowling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._K._Rowling"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"}],"sub_title":"Literature","text":"Geoffrey Chaucer (/ˈtʃɔːsər/; c. 1340s – 25 October 1400) was an English poet and author. Widely seen as the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales.English literature begins with Anglo-Saxon literature, which was written in Old English and produced epic works such as Beowulf and the fragmentary The Battle of Maldon, The Seafarer and The Wanderer. For many years, Latin and French were the preferred literary languages of England, but in the medieval period there was a flourishing of literature in Middle English; Geoffrey Chaucer is the most famous writer of this period.The Elizabethan era is sometimes described as the golden age of English literature with writers such as William Shakespeare, Thomas Nashe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson.Other famous English writers include Jane Austen, Arnold Bennett, Rupert Brooke, Agatha Christie, Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, A. E. Housman, George Orwell and the Lake Poets.In 2003 the BBC carried out a UK survey entitled The Big Read in order to find the \"nation's best-loved novel\" of all time, with works by English novelists J. R. R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Philip Pullman, Douglas Adams and J. K. Rowling making up the top five on the list.[160]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-72"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-121"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-122"}],"text":"^ Spellings of this name most common in modern texts are \"Ethelred\" and \"Æthelred\" (or \"Aethelred\"), the latter being closer to the original Old English form Æþelræd.\n\n^ Those who self-identified as English ethnic group\n\n^ 210915 listed their birthplace as England.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"The Incipit to Matthew from the Book of Lindisfarne, an Insular masterpiece","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg/220px-LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg"},{"image_text":"A replica of the Sutton Hoo helmet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg/220px-2008-05-17-SuttonHoo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdoms","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/300px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Æthelred II (c. 966 – 23 April 1016), known as 'the Unready', was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ethelred_the_Unready.jpg/150px-Ethelred_the_Unready.jpg"},{"image_text":"Battle of Hastings, 1066 (from the Bayeux Tapestry)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg/220px-Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg"},{"image_text":"George Washington, known as the \"Father of His Country\", and first President of the United States, had English ancestors.[126]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg/200px-Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin, 1st and 2nd Prime Minister of Australia both had English parents.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/EBarton2.jpg/230px-EBarton2.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Henry Hudson was an Argentine author, naturalist, and ornithologist of English origin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/William_Henry_Hudson.png/180px-William_Henry_Hudson.png"},{"image_text":"Wells Cathedral, Somerset","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wells_Cathedral_West_Front_Exterior%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg/220px-Wells_Cathedral_West_Front_Exterior%2C_UK_-_Diliff.jpg"},{"image_text":"A crowd celebrates Saint George's Day at an event in Trafalgar Square in 2010.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/St_George%27s_Day_2010_-_14.jpg/230px-St_George%27s_Day_2010_-_14.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map showing phonological variation within England of the vowel in bath, grass, and dance: 'a' [ä] 'aa' [æː] 'ah' [ɑː] anomalies","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Local_pronunciations_of_bath_in_England.jpg/220px-Local_pronunciations_of_bath_in_England.jpg"},{"image_text":"Geoffrey Chaucer (/ˈtʃɔːsər/; c. 1340s – 25 October 1400) was an English poet and author. Widely seen as the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Portrait_of_Geoffrey_Chaucer_%284671380%29_%28cropped%29_02.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Geoffrey_Chaucer_%284671380%29_%28cropped%29_02.jpg"}] | [{"title":"England portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:England"},{"title":"English diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_diaspora"},{"title":"British people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_people"},{"title":"List of English people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_people"},{"title":"Old English (Ireland)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_(Ireland)"},{"title":"Celtic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts"},{"title":"Culture of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_England"},{"title":"English art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_art"},{"title":"Architecture of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_England"},{"title":"English folklore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_folklore"},{"title":"English nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_nationalism"},{"title":"Manx people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_people"},{"title":"Genetic history of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe"},{"title":"European ethnic groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_ethnic_groups"},{"title":"Modern immigration to the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_immigration_to_the_United_Kingdom"},{"title":"Population of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_of_England"},{"title":"100% English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100%25_English"},{"title":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"title":"Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)"},{"title":"White British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_British"},{"title":"Anglicisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicisation"},{"title":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"title":"English-speaking world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"},{"title":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"title":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"title":"Early Modern English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_English"},{"title":"Cumbric language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbric_language"},{"title":"Cornish language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_language"},{"title":"Brythonic language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittonic_languages"},{"title":"British diaspora in Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_diaspora_in_Africa"},{"title":"Anglo-Burmese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Burmese"},{"title":"Metis people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-M%C3%A9tis"},{"title":"Anglo-Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Indian"},{"title":"Anglo-Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish"},{"title":"Anglo-Scot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Scot"},{"title":"English American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_American"},{"title":"English Argentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Argentine"},{"title":"English Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Australian"},{"title":"English Brazilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Brazilian"},{"title":"English Chilean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Chilean"},{"title":"English Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Canadian"},{"title":"New Zealand European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_European"}] | [{"reference":"\"Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales\". www.ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022. The 2011 England and Wales census reports that in England and Wales 32.4 million people associated themselves with an English identity alone and 37.6 million identified themselves with an English identity either on its own or combined with other identities, being 57.7% and 67.1% respectively of the population of England and Wales.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11","url_text":"\"Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics","url_text":"Office for National Statistics"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012603/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"English Most Common Race or Ethnicity in 2020 Census\". United States census. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/10/2020-census-dhc-a-white-population.html","url_text":"\"English Most Common Race or Ethnicity in 2020 Census\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_census","url_text":"United States census"}]},{"reference":"\"2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats | Australian Bureau of Statistics\". www.abs.gov.au.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS","url_text":"\"2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats | Australian Bureau of Statistics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Census Profile, 2016 Census\". Statistics Canada. 8 February 2017. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=&Code2=&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0#fnb95-ref","url_text":"\"Census Profile, 2016 Census\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada","url_text":"Statistics Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210308142033/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=&Code2=&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1&type=0#fnb95-ref","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Census 2011: Census in brief (PDF). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. 2012. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-621-41388-5. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiraea_japonica | Spiraea japonica | ["1 Description","2 Distribution","3 Habitat","4 Uses","5 References","6 External links"] | Flowering plant in the family Rosaceae
Spiraea japonica
Inflorescence
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Eudicots
Clade:
Rosids
Order:
Rosales
Family:
Rosaceae
Genus:
Spiraea
Species:
S. japonica
Binomial name
Spiraea japonicaL.f.
Spiraea japonica, the Japanese meadowsweet or Japanese spiraea, is a plant in the family Rosaceae.
Synonyms for the species name are Spiraea bumalda Burv. and Spiraea japonica var. alpina Maxim.
Description
Spiraea japonica is one of several Spiraea shrubs with alternate, simple leaves, on wiry, freely branching, erect stems. The stems are brown to reddish-brown, round in cross-section and sometimes hairy. The shrub reaches 1.2 m to almost 2 m in height and about the same in width. The deciduous leaves are generally an ovate shape about 2.5 cm to 7.5 cm long, have toothed margins, and alternate along the stem. Clusters of rosy-pink flowers are found at the tips of the branches. The seeds measure about 2.5 mm in length and are found in small lustrous capsules.
It is naturally variable in form and there are many varieties of it in the horticulture trade. So far, nine varieties have been described within the species.
Distribution
Flower of Japanese spiraea in Japan
Spiraea japonica 'Goldflame' - foliage
Spiraea japonica is a deciduous, perennial shrub native to Japan, China, and Korea. Southwest China is the center for biodiversity of the species. It is naturalized throughout much of the Northeast, Southeast, and Midwest areas of the United States, and parts of Canada.
Habitat
A common habitat for S. japonica in general seems to be in riparian areas, bogs, or other wetland habitats. It is found growing along streams, rivers, forest edges, roadsides, successional fields, and power line right-of-ways. It prefers full sun, but can tolerate partial shade. It prefers much water during the growing season; however, it cannot tolerate saturated soils for extended periods of time. It prefers a rich, moist loam, but it can grow in a wide variety of soils, including those on the alkaline side.
Uses
Spiraea japonica was introduced in North America as an ornamental landscape plant and first cultivated in the northeastern states around 1870.
Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use. The tall forms may be grown as hedges, low screens, or foundation shrubs. The low-growing forms can be used as groundcover or in borders. In the UK, the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
'Candlelight'
'Dart's Red'
Golden Princess = ‘Lisp’
Magic Carpet = ‘Walbuma’
'Nana'
S. japonica has been used as traditional medicine by native people, and extracts from the plants were found to be bioactive.
References
^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Spiraea japonica". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
^ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
^ "Spiraea japonica". floridata.com. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ a b c d e f "Spiraea japonica (shrub)". Invasive Species Specialist Group. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ a b "Japanese spiraea". National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 99. Retrieved 1 November 2018.
^ "RHS Plant Selector - Spiraea japonica 'Candlelight'". Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ "RHS Plant Selector - Spiraea japonica 'Dart's Red'". Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ "RHS Plant Selector - Spiraea japonica Golden Princess 'Lisp'". Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ "RHS Plant Selector - Spiraea japonica Magic Carpet 'Walbuma'". Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ "RHS Plant Selector - Spiraea japonica 'Nana'". Retrieved 5 March 2021.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spiraea japonica.
Species Profile - Japanese Spiraea (Spiraea japonica), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for Japanese Spiraea.
Taxon identifiersSpiraea japonica
Wikidata: Q158201
Wikispecies: Spiraea japonica
APA: 3219
BioLib: 39501
BOLD: 403714
CoL: 4Z6KJ
EoL: 627220
EPPO: SPVJA
EUNIS: 180733
FNA: 200011761
FoC: 200011761
GBIF: 3026403
GISD: 622
GRIN: 35295
iNaturalist: 125790
IPA: 3076
IPNI: 742319-1
ITIS: 25335
MichiganFlora: 2573
MoBotPF: 286473
NatureServe: 2.142504
NBN: NHMSYS0000463915
NCBI: 309823
NZOR: b320177f-8021-4856-8dcc-0e0dd925d468
NZPCN: 2814
Observation.org: 129696
Open Tree of Life: 785024
PFI: 1887
Plant List: rjp-462
PLANTS: SPJA
POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:742319-1
RHS: 23532
Tropicos: 27801441
VASCAN: 8979
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas%27s_leaf_warbler | Pallas's leaf warbler | ["1 Taxonomy","2 Description","3 Distribution and habitat","3.1 Other movements","4 Behaviour","4.1 Breeding","4.2 Feeding","5 Status","6 Notes","7 References","8 Cited texts","9 Further reading","10 External links"] | A small migratory passerine bird that breeds in northern Asia
"Pallas's warbler" redirects here. For the grass warbler, see Pallas's grasshopper warbler.
Pallas's leaf warbler
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Passeriformes
Family:
Phylloscopidae
Genus:
Phylloscopus
Species:
P. proregulus
Binomial name
Phylloscopus proregulus(Pallas, 1811)
Range of P. proregulus Breeding Passage Non-breeding
Pallas's leaf warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus) or Pallas's warbler, is a bird that breeds in mountain forests from southern Siberia east to northern Mongolia and northeast China. It is named for German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who first formally described it. This leaf warbler is strongly migratory, wintering mainly in south China and adjacent areas of southeast Asia, although in recent decades increasing numbers have been found in Europe in autumn.
Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest Palearctic warblers, with a relatively large head and short tail. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, a lemon-yellow rump, and yellow double wingbars, supercilia and central crown stripe. It is similar in appearance to several other Asian warblers, including some that were formerly considered to be its subspecies, although its distinctive vocalisations aid identification.
The female builds a cup nest in a tree or bush, and incubates the four to six eggs, which hatch after 12–13 days. The chicks are fed mainly by the female and fledge when they are 12–14 days old; both parents then bring food for about a week. Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects and spiders. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and its numbers are believed to be stable. It therefore is evaluated as of "least concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Taxonomy
The English name of Pallas's leaf warbler commemorates the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who found it on the Ingoda River in Siberia in May 1772. He named the new species as Motacilla proregulus when he finally published his findings in 1811. The current genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, "leaf", and skopos, "seeker" (from skopeo, "to watch"). The specific proregulus is from Greek pro, "close to", and the name regulus, referring to the similar-looking goldcrest, Regulus regulus.
First described by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826, the genus Phylloscopus comprises about 50 species of small insectivorous Old World woodland warblers that are either greenish or brown above and yellowish, white or buff below. The genus was formerly part of the Old World warbler family Sylvidae, but has now been split off as a separate family, the Phylloscopidae.
Within the genus, Pallas's leaf warbler is one of a group of similar tiny Asiatic species characterised by a yellow rump, a strong supercilium (stripe over the eye), double wing bars and a stripe on the crown of the head, once separated as the genus Abrornis but currently retained in Phylloscopus.
Pallas's leaf warbler was itself formerly treated as a complex of several subspecies, with the nominate form P. p. proregulus breeding in northern Asia, and other subspecies breeding much further south at high altitudes in the mountains from the western Himalayas east to western China (Yunnan and north to Gansu and Hebei).
Although field naturalists, such as Gilbert White in the 18th century and William Edwin Brooks in the 19th, had noted the importance of calls in separating often very similar-looking leaf warblers, for many years their views were not always accepted by the ornithological establishment. More recently, vocalisations have become increasingly important in taxonomy. In the case of the former subspecies of Pallas's leaf warbler, even though they differ only slightly in plumage, the southern forms are very distinctive vocally. Their songs and calls differ from those of the nominate race, and DNA analysis from 2006 has confirmed these forms to be sufficiently distinct that they are now treated as separate species, leaving Pallas's leaf warbler as a monotypic taxon. The split species are:
Lemon-rumped warbler Phylloscopus chloronotus. Himalayas, southwest China. Three subspecies, P. c. chloronotus, P. c. forresti and P. c. simlaensis.
Gansu leaf warbler Phylloscopus kansuensis. Central western China, monotypic.
Chinese leaf warbler Phylloscopus yunnanensis (synonym P. sichuanensis). Western China, monotypic.
Of these, Phylloscopus chloronotus forresti is possibly also a separate species, but further analysis is required to confirm this. The breeding ranges of the Gansu leaf warbler and the Chinese leaf warbler overlap in southern Gansu, but the species are separated ecologically: the Gansu leaf warbler is found in taller forest habitats and the Chinese leaf warbler uses lower, often scrubby habitats. "Lemon-rumped warbler" was sometimes used as synonym for Pallas's leaf warbler before the species' split. Pallas's leaf warbler appears to have diverged from the Chinese leaf warbler 4.1–5.5 million years ago, and from its other former subspecies about 1.7–3.2 million years ago.
Description
Showing head stripes
Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest warblers, with a large head and short tail. At 9–10 centimetres (3.5–3.9 in) long and 4–7 grams (0.14–0.25 oz) in weight, it is slightly smaller than a yellow-browed warbler and barely any larger than a goldcrest. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, but is very striking, with prominent pale yellow double wingbars on the wing covert feathers, bold yellow supercilia and central crown stripe, and a lemon-yellow rump. The bill is blackish-brown with a yellowish tinge to the cutting edges and the base of the lower mandible, the iris is brown, and the legs are brown with a green or greyish tinge. Although the yellow rump is obvious when a bird is low in vegetation or hovering, it can otherwise be hard to see.
In Asia, Pallas's leaf warbler can be distinguished from its former subspecies by its yellower head stripes, wingbars and throat as well as its different vocalisations. Other yellow-rumped Asiatic warblers resemble Pallas's; buff-barred and Brooks's leaf warblers are larger, much duller green above and less strongly marked, and their wing bars are buff and white respectively, not yellow. Ashy-throated warbler has grey head markings, face and throat, and pale yellow underparts.
The sexes of Pallas's leaf warbler have similar plumage, but non-breeding birds are somewhat brighter green above and have broad, bright fringes to their flight feathers. Juveniles are like the adults, but have a brown tinge to the upperparts, greyish-white underparts and a duller supercilium. Adults have a complete post-breeding moult in August or September before migrating south. Juveniles and pre-breeding adults have a partial moult in March or April, replacing all the body plumage and some tail feathers.
The song of Pallas's leaf warbler is delivered from a concealed perch near the top of a tall tree. It is strong and prolonged, with a medley of whistles, tirrit-tirrt-tirrit-terchee-choo-choo-chee-chee-chee or similar, with some phrases reminiscent of a canary, and interspersed trills. It lasts 2–4 seconds and may be heard in the winter quarters as well as from breeding birds. The call is a short, soft dju-ee. In contrast, the former subspecies have quite different songs, with sustained rattles for several seconds, or sometimes minutes. Their calls are typically sharp and monosyllabic.
Distribution and habitat
Siberian taiga woodland
Pallas's leaf warbler breeds in coniferous taiga forests including fir, spruce, pine and larch, or in mixed forest with rhododendron, karsu oak and a high percentage of conifers. In southern Russia, it was found breeding at up to 1,500–1,700 metres (4,900–5,600 ft). In winter, it uses a wider range of habitats, including broadleaf forest and scrub as well as conifers, and can be found in river valleys down to 100 metres (330 ft).
Pallas's leaf warbler breeds in Siberia from the Altai Mountains east to the Sea of Okhotsk, northern Mongolia, northeast China and possibly North Korea. It is strongly migratory and winters mainly in subtropical south China, northern Thailand and elsewhere in northeastern Indochina. It is rare but annual in Japan.
Other movements
From John Gould's 1837 illustration of "Dalmatian Regulus"
Pallas's leaf warbler now occurs regularly in Europe in autumn. The first known European record was shot in 1829 in Dalmatia, now Croatia, but John Gould, who formally described it, did not realise the species had already been discovered in Asia, and named it as the "Dalmatian Regulus", Regulus modestus. German ornithologist Heinrich Gätke, who moved to the then-British island of Heligoland in 1837 and stayed there for some fifty years, subsequently showed that several Asiatic species, including an occasional Pallas's leaf warbler, were regularly found there in autumn.
In the far west of Europe, the UK's first Pallas's leaf warbler was shot in 1896, although it was not until 1951 that the second was found. Thereafter, this species became increasingly common, ceasing to be a national rarity at the end of 1990. In 2003, for example, 313 were recorded in Britain. Pallas's leaf warbler also occurs at least annually in Sweden, Finland and Denmark.
Most Pallas's leaf warblers found in Europe are first-year birds, and several reasons for the large increase in numbers in autumn have been proposed. In the past, these warblers were widely considered to be vagrants or reverse migrants, but were more recently thought to be undertaking a regular migration, taking advantage of the mild oceanic climate on the western fringes of Europe for overwintering. A flaw in that theory is that many birds should winter in Spain, particularly in the northwest, but Pallas's leaf warbler is rare in that country and tends to occur in the east. Spanish ornithologist Eduardo de Juana has therefore proposed that once the warblers reach northwest Europe, they then reorientate to a south easterly direction.
Outside Europe, Pallas's leaf warbler has been recorded as a vagrant in north Africa (Tunisia and Morocco), western Asia (Israel, Turkey and Iran), central Asia (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), southeast Asia (Bangladesh and Taiwan), and Alaska.
Behaviour
Pallas's leaf warbler is not wary but its unobtrusive arboreal lifestyle makes it difficult to observe, particularly in thick foliage. It is constantly in motion, and often hovers briefly like a goldcrest, although more frequently, and may sometimes hang upside-down.
Breeding
Nesting is from June to July, with eggs laid from mid-June. The nest is built by the female in a conifer, usually next to the trunk at 0.5–10 metres (1.6–32.8 ft) above ground, sometimes in a bush. It is a round or elliptical cup made from twigs, leaves and other vegetation and lined with finer material including feathers, hair or fine grasses. Four to six blue-grey flecked white eggs are laid and incubated by the female. They hatch after 12–13 days, with the chicks fledging when 12–14 days old. They are fed mainly by the female while in the nest, but by both parents for about a week after fledging. In the south of the range, a pair may sometimes raise a second brood. The breeding territory in central Siberia is usually 3–5 hectares (7.4–12.4 acres), infrequently as much as 10 hectares (25 acres).
Pallas's leaf warbler, as with other members of its genus, is a host of the oriental cuckoo, a brood parasite. The cuckoo's egg is similar in appearance, though larger, to those of the host species.
Feeding
Like its relatives, Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects including flies, moths and aphids; spiders are also taken. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. When not breeding, they may join mixed-species foraging flocks together with tits, goldcrests and other warblers. In Asia, accompanying species may also include white-eyes, minivets and babblers.
Status
The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and although global population trends have not been quantified, numbers are believed to be stable. This species does not approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (that is, declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as of "least concern" by the IUCN.
Pallas's leaf warbler is widespread, common and locally abundant in Russia and northeast China. Breeding densities of up to 35–50 pairs/km2 (90–130 pairs/mi2) have been recorded in southeast Russia, with only slightly lower figures in Siberia. It is locally common in parts of its wintering grounds in southeast Asia.
Notes
^ Pallas led a scientific expedition to Siberia, sponsored by Catherine the Great, between 1768 and 1774.
^ Gould did the preliminary sketch, and his wife Elizabeth completed the detailed final painting.
References
^ a b c BirdLife International (2016). "Phylloscopus proregulus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22734364A95083830. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734364A95083830.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
^ Masterson, James R; Brower, Helen (1947). "Bering's Successors, 1745–1780. Contributions of Peter Simon Pallas to the History of Russian Exploration toward Alaska". Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 38 (1): 35–83. JSTOR 40486763.
^ Pallas, Peter Simon (1811). Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica (in Latin). Vol. 1. Saint Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences. p. 499.
^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 305, 318. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
^ Alström, Per; Ericson, Per G P; Olsson, Urban; Sundberg, Per (2006). "Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 38 (2): 381–397. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015. PMID 16054402.
^ Baker (1997) pp. 252–253.
^ Gray, John Edward (1846). Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet. Presented by B.H. Hodgson to the British Museum. London: British Museum. p. 66.
^ Baker (1997) p. 282.
^ Williamson, Kenneth (1976). Identification for Ringers 2 (PDF). Field guide. Vol. 8. Tring, Herts: British Trust for Ornithology. pp. 8, 13–15.
^ a b c del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). "Family Sylviidae Old World Warblers". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
^ White, Gilbert (1840). The natural history of Selborne: with observations on various parts of nature, and the naturalist's calendar. London: J Chidley. p. 38.
^ Brooks, William Edwin (1894). "A few observations on some species of Phylloscopus". Ibis. 6 (22): 261–268. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1894.tb07751.x.
^ Alexander, Horace Gundry (1955). "Field notes on some Asian leaf-warblers" (PDF). British Birds. 48 (11): 293–299.
^ Alström, Per (2006). "Species concepts and their application: insights from the genera Seicercus and Phylloscopus" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Sinica. 52 (Supplement): 429–434.
^ a b Martens, Jochen; Tietze, Dieter Thomas; Eck, Siegfried; Veith, Michael (2004). "Radiation and species limits in the Asian Pallas's Warbler complex (Phylloscopus proregulus s.l.)". Journal of Ornithology. 145 (3): 206–222. doi:10.1007/s10336-004-0042-9. S2CID 21114761.
^ a b c d e f Baker (1997) pp. 283–285.
^ a b c d Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Birds of Europe. London: HarperCollins. pp. 334–335. ISBN 0-00-219728-6.
^ a b c d e f g h i del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). "Pallas's Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
^ a b Brazil, Mark (2009). Birds of East Asia. London: A & C Black. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-7136-7040-0.
^ a b c Simms, Eric (1985). British Warblers (New Naturalist Series). London: Collins. pp. 338–340. ISBN 0-00-219810-X.
^ del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). "Lemon-rumped Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus chloronotus)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
^ del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). "Chinese Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus yunnanensis)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.
^ Jenkins, Alan C (1978). The Naturalists: Pioneers of Natural History. London: Hamish Hamilton. pp. 84–86. ISBN 0-241-89999-0.
^ Gould, John (1837). Birds of Europe. Vol. 2. London: self-published. p. 149.
^ Seebohm, Henry (1877). "On the Phylloscopi or Willow-Warblers". Ibis. 19 (1): 66–108. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06167.x.
^ Seebohm, Henry (1877). "Supplementary notes on the ornithology of Heligoland". Ibis. 19 (2): 156–165. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06176.x.
^ Southwell, Thomas (1896). "Occurrence of Phylloscopus proregulus in Norfolk". The Zoologist. 20: 466–467.
^ Ennion, Eric (1952). "Pallas's Warbler at Monks' House, Northumberland" (PDF). British Birds. 45 (7): 258–260.
^ Rogers, Michael J; the Rarities Committee (1992). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1991" (PDF). British Birds. 85 (10): 507–555.
^ Fraser, Peter A; Rogers, Michael J (2006). "Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2003 Part 2: Short-toed Lark to Little Bunting" (PDF). British Birds. 99 (3): 129–147.
^ a b Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1324–1325. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
^ Gilroy, James; Lees, Alex (2003). "Vagrancy theories: are autumn vagrants really reverse migrants?" (PDF). British Birds. 96 (9): 427–438.
^ de Juana, Eduardo (2008). "Where do Pallas's and Yellow-browed warblers (Phylloscopus proregulus, Ph. Inornatus) go after visiting northwest Europe in autumn? An iberian perspective" (PDF). Ardeola. 55 (2): 179–192.
^ a b "Phylloscopus proregulus, Pallas's Warbler, Cuculus saturatus, Cuculus optatus, Oriental Cuckoo" (in Russian and English). Zoological Museum of Moscow University. 24 September 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ Johnsgard, Paul A (1997). The Avian Brood Parasites: Deception at the Nest. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-19-535499-0.
^ Zhang, Qiang; Han, Richou; Huang, Zhongliang; Zou, Fasheng (2013). "Linking vegetation structure and bird organization: response of mixed-species bird flocks to forest succession in subtropical China". Biodiversity and Conservation. 22 (9): 1965–1989. doi:10.1007/s10531-013-0521-5. S2CID 11490845.
Cited texts
Baker, Kevin (1997). Warblers of Europe, Asia and North Africa (Helm Identification Guides). London: Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-3971-1.
Further reading
Stoddart, Andy M (2016). Siberia's Sprite: A history of fascination and desire. Self-published. ISBN 978-1-5327-6903-0.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phylloscopus proregulus.
Song and calls at xeno-canto
Taxon identifiersPhylloscopus proregulus
Wikidata: Q752513
Wikispecies: Phylloscopus proregulus
ABA: pallwa
ADW: Phylloscopus_proregulus
Avibase: 943E36CADFE7551B
BioLib: 8919
BirdLife: 22734364
BOLD: 93232
BOW: palwar5
CoL: 77FN7
eBird: palwar5
EUNIS: 101220
EURING: 12980
Fauna Europaea: 97361
Fauna Europaea (new): e8b50c0c-eb4b-454b-b784-24d5a25fdcc5
GBIF: 2493090
IBC: pallass-leaf-warbler-phylloscopus-proregulus
iNaturalist: 117041
IRMNG: 10802491
ITIS: 562148
IUCN: 22734364
NBN: NHMSYS0000530755
NCBI: 56435
TSA: 13774
Xeno-canto: Phylloscopus-proregulus | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"grass warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_warbler"},{"link_name":"Pallas's grasshopper warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas%27s_grasshopper_warbler"},{"link_name":"bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"Mongolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia"},{"link_name":"northeast China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China"},{"link_name":"zoologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology"},{"link_name":"Peter Simon Pallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas"},{"link_name":"leaf warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_warbler"},{"link_name":"migratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"south China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China"},{"link_name":"southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"Palearctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palearctic"},{"link_name":"warblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warbler"},{"link_name":"supercilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercilium"},{"link_name":"crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"subspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies"},{"link_name":"vocalisations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_vocalization"},{"link_name":"cup nest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_nest#Cup"},{"link_name":"incubates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_incubation#Avian_incubation"},{"link_name":"hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatchling"},{"link_name":"fledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fledge"},{"link_name":"insectivorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectivore"},{"link_name":"larvae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"pupa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupa"},{"link_name":"insects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect"},{"link_name":"spiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider"},{"link_name":"least concern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-concern_species"},{"link_name":"International Union for Conservation of Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature"}],"text":"A small migratory passerine bird that breeds in northern Asia\"Pallas's warbler\" redirects here. For the grass warbler, see Pallas's grasshopper warbler.Pallas's leaf warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus) or Pallas's warbler, is a bird that breeds in mountain forests from southern Siberia east to northern Mongolia and northeast China. It is named for German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who first formally described it. This leaf warbler is strongly migratory, wintering mainly in south China and adjacent areas of southeast Asia, although in recent decades increasing numbers have been found in Europe in autumn.Pallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest Palearctic warblers, with a relatively large head and short tail. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, a lemon-yellow rump, and yellow double wingbars, supercilia and central crown stripe. It is similar in appearance to several other Asian warblers, including some that were formerly considered to be its subspecies, although its distinctive vocalisations aid identification.The female builds a cup nest in a tree or bush, and incubates the four to six eggs, which hatch after 12–13 days. The chicks are fed mainly by the female and fledge when they are 12–14 days old; both parents then bring food for about a week. Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects and spiders. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and its numbers are believed to be stable. It therefore is evaluated as of \"least concern\" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).","title":"Pallas's leaf warbler"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"zoologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology"},{"link_name":"Peter Simon Pallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas"},{"link_name":"Ingoda River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingoda_River"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZRA-4"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"goldcrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldcrest"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-job-5"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Boie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Boie"},{"link_name":"insectivorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insectivore"},{"link_name":"Old World warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_warbler"},{"link_name":"Phylloscopidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylloscopidae"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alstrom-6"},{"link_name":"supercilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercilium"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gray-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker2-9"},{"link_name":"subspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies"},{"link_name":"nominate form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies#Nominotypical_subspecies_and_subspecies_autonyms"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"Yunnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan"},{"link_name":"Gansu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu"},{"link_name":"Hebei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebei"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-will-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbwonlinefam-11"},{"link_name":"Gilbert White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_White"},{"link_name":"William Edwin Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edwin_Brooks"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-white-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brooks-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alex-14"},{"link_name":"plumage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumage"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"monotypic taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypic_taxon"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbwonlinefam-11"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alstrom2006-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martens-16"},{"link_name":"Lemon-rumped warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon-rumped_warbler"},{"link_name":"Gansu leaf warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu_leaf_warbler"},{"link_name":"monotypic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypic_taxon"},{"link_name":"Chinese leaf warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_leaf_warbler"},{"link_name":"synonym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)"},{"link_name":"ecologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbwonlinefam-11"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martens-16"}],"text":"The English name of Pallas's leaf warbler commemorates the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas, who found it on the Ingoda River in Siberia in May 1772.[a] He named the new species as Motacilla proregulus when he finally published his findings in 1811.[3] The current genus name Phylloscopus is from Ancient Greek phullon, \"leaf\", and skopos, \"seeker\" (from skopeo, \"to watch\"). The specific proregulus is from Greek pro, \"close to\", and the name regulus, referring to the similar-looking goldcrest, Regulus regulus.[4]First described by German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1826, the genus Phylloscopus comprises about 50 species of small insectivorous Old World woodland warblers that are either greenish or brown above and yellowish, white or buff below. The genus was formerly part of the Old World warbler family Sylvidae, but has now been split off as a separate family, the Phylloscopidae.[5]Within the genus, Pallas's leaf warbler is one of a group of similar tiny Asiatic species characterised by a yellow rump, a strong supercilium (stripe over the eye), double wing bars and a stripe on the crown of the head,[6] once separated as the genus Abrornis but currently retained in Phylloscopus.[7][8]Pallas's leaf warbler was itself formerly treated as a complex of several subspecies, with the nominate form P. p. proregulus breeding in northern Asia, and other subspecies breeding much further south at high altitudes in the mountains from the western Himalayas east to western China (Yunnan and north to Gansu and Hebei).[9][10]Although field naturalists, such as Gilbert White in the 18th century and William Edwin Brooks in the 19th, had noted the importance of calls in separating often very similar-looking leaf warblers,[11][12] for many years their views were not always accepted by the ornithological establishment.[13] More recently, vocalisations have become increasingly important in taxonomy. In the case of the former subspecies of Pallas's leaf warbler, even though they differ only slightly in plumage, the southern forms are very distinctive vocally. Their songs and calls differ from those of the nominate race, and DNA analysis from 2006 has confirmed these forms to be sufficiently distinct that they are now treated as separate species, leaving Pallas's leaf warbler as a monotypic taxon. The split species are:[10][14][15]Lemon-rumped warbler Phylloscopus chloronotus. Himalayas, southwest China. Three subspecies, P. c. chloronotus, P. c. forresti and P. c. simlaensis.\nGansu leaf warbler Phylloscopus kansuensis. Central western China, monotypic.\nChinese leaf warbler Phylloscopus yunnanensis (synonym P. sichuanensis). Western China, monotypic.Of these, Phylloscopus chloronotus forresti is possibly also a separate species, but further analysis is required to confirm this. The breeding ranges of the Gansu leaf warbler and the Chinese leaf warbler overlap in southern Gansu, but the species are separated ecologically: the Gansu leaf warbler is found in taller forest habitats and the Chinese leaf warbler uses lower, often scrubby habitats.[10] \"Lemon-rumped warbler\" was sometimes used as synonym for Pallas's leaf warbler before the species' split.[16] Pallas's leaf warbler appears to have diverged from the Chinese leaf warbler 4.1–5.5 million years ago, and from its other former subspecies about 1.7–3.2 million years ago.[15]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pallas%27s_Leaf-Warbler_-_great_rarity_in_Italy_S4E1751_(19261546342).jpg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svensson-18"},{"link_name":"yellow-browed warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-browed_warbler"},{"link_name":"covert feathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covert_feather"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svensson-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"mandible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandible"},{"link_name":"iris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svensson-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"buff-barred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buff-barred_warbler"},{"link_name":"Brooks's leaf warblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks%27s_leaf_warbler"},{"link_name":"Ashy-throated warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashy-throated_warbler"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"flight feathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_feather"},{"link_name":"moult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulting"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brazil-20"},{"link_name":"canary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_canary"},{"link_name":"trills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_(music)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simms-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbwlemon-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hbwyunnan-23"}],"text":"Showing head stripesPallas's leaf warbler is one of the smallest warblers, with a large head and short tail.[17] At 9–10 centimetres (3.5–3.9 in) long and 4–7 grams (0.14–0.25 oz) in weight, it is slightly smaller than a yellow-browed warbler and barely any larger than a goldcrest. It has greenish upperparts and white underparts, but is very striking, with prominent pale yellow double wingbars on the wing covert feathers, bold yellow supercilia and central crown stripe, and a lemon-yellow rump.[17][18] The bill is blackish-brown with a yellowish tinge to the cutting edges and the base of the lower mandible, the iris is brown, and the legs are brown with a green or greyish tinge.[16] Although the yellow rump is obvious when a bird is low in vegetation or hovering, it can otherwise be hard to see.[17]In Asia, Pallas's leaf warbler can be distinguished from its former subspecies by its yellower head stripes, wingbars and throat as well as its different vocalisations.[18] Other yellow-rumped Asiatic warblers resemble Pallas's; buff-barred and Brooks's leaf warblers are larger, much duller green above and less strongly marked, and their wing bars are buff and white respectively, not yellow. Ashy-throated warbler has grey head markings, face and throat, and pale yellow underparts.[16]The sexes of Pallas's leaf warbler have similar plumage, but non-breeding birds are somewhat brighter green above and have broad, bright fringes to their flight feathers. Juveniles are like the adults, but have a brown tinge to the upperparts, greyish-white underparts and a duller supercilium. Adults have a complete post-breeding moult in August or September before migrating south. Juveniles and pre-breeding adults have a partial moult in March or April, replacing all the body plumage and some tail feathers.[16]The song of Pallas's leaf warbler is delivered from a concealed perch near the top of a tall tree.[19] It is strong and prolonged, with a medley of whistles, tirrit-tirrt-tirrit-terchee-choo-choo-chee-chee-chee or similar, with some phrases reminiscent of a canary, and interspersed trills. It lasts 2–4 seconds and may be heard in the winter quarters as well as from breeding birds.[20] The call is a short, soft dju-ee.[16] In contrast, the former subspecies have quite different songs, with sustained rattles for several seconds, or sometimes minutes. Their calls are typically sharp and monosyllabic.[21][22]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pinega_Krasnaya_gorka.JPG"},{"link_name":"coniferous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer"},{"link_name":"taiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga"},{"link_name":"fir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fir"},{"link_name":"spruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spruce"},{"link_name":"pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine"},{"link_name":"larch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larch"},{"link_name":"rhododendron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhododendron"},{"link_name":"karsu oak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus_semecarpifolia"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bakerpallas-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"Altai Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Sea of Okhotsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk"},{"link_name":"northeast China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_China"},{"link_name":"North Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea"},{"link_name":"migratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"south China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Indochina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brazil-20"}],"text":"Siberian taiga woodlandPallas's leaf warbler breeds in coniferous taiga forests including fir, spruce, pine and larch, or in mixed forest with rhododendron, karsu oak and a high percentage of conifers. In southern Russia, it was found breeding at up to 1,500–1,700 metres (4,900–5,600 ft). In winter, it uses a wider range of habitats, including broadleaf forest and scrub as well as conifers, and can be found in river valleys down to 100 metres (330 ft).[16][18]Pallas's leaf warbler breeds in Siberia from the Altai Mountains east to the Sea of Okhotsk, northern Mongolia, northeast China and possibly North Korea. It is strongly migratory and winters mainly in subtropical south China, northern Thailand and elsewhere in northeastern Indochina.[18] It is rare but annual in Japan.[19]","title":"Distribution and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dalmatian_regulus_gould.jpg"},{"link_name":"John Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gould"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Dalmatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatia"},{"link_name":"John Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gould"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gould-26"},{"link_name":"ornithologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithologist"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Gätke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_G%C3%A4tke"},{"link_name":"Heligoland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heligoland"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seeb1-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seeb2-28"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zoo-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb1952-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb1992-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb2006-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BWP-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BWP-33"},{"link_name":"vagrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagrancy_(biology)"},{"link_name":"reverse migrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_migration_(birds)"},{"link_name":"oceanic climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_climate"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gilroy-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-juana-35"},{"link_name":"north Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn_status_19_November_2021-1"},{"link_name":"western Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Asia"},{"link_name":"central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"},{"link_name":"southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"}],"sub_title":"Other movements","text":"From John Gould's 1837 illustration of \"Dalmatian Regulus\"[b]Pallas's leaf warbler now occurs regularly in Europe in autumn. The first known European record was shot in 1829 in Dalmatia, now Croatia, but John Gould, who formally described it, did not realise the species had already been discovered in Asia, and named it as the \"Dalmatian Regulus\", Regulus modestus.[24] German ornithologist Heinrich Gätke, who moved to the then-British island of Heligoland in 1837 and stayed there for some fifty years, subsequently showed that several Asiatic species, including an occasional Pallas's leaf warbler, were regularly found there in autumn.[25][26]In the far west of Europe, the UK's first Pallas's leaf warbler was shot in 1896,[27] although it was not until 1951 that the second was found.[28] Thereafter, this species became increasingly common, ceasing to be a national rarity at the end of 1990.[29] In 2003, for example, 313 were recorded in Britain.[30] Pallas's leaf warbler also occurs at least annually in Sweden, Finland and Denmark.[31]Most Pallas's leaf warblers found in Europe are first-year birds,[31] and several reasons for the large increase in numbers in autumn have been proposed. In the past, these warblers were widely considered to be vagrants or reverse migrants, but were more recently thought to be undertaking a regular migration, taking advantage of the mild oceanic climate on the western fringes of Europe for overwintering.[32] A flaw in that theory is that many birds should winter in Spain, particularly in the northwest, but Pallas's leaf warbler is rare in that country and tends to occur in the east. Spanish ornithologist Eduardo de Juana has therefore proposed that once the warblers reach northwest Europe, they then reorientate to a south easterly direction.[33]Outside Europe, Pallas's leaf warbler has been recorded as a vagrant in north Africa (Tunisia[1] and Morocco), western Asia (Israel, Turkey and Iran), central Asia (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), southeast Asia (Bangladesh and Taiwan), and Alaska.[18]","title":"Distribution and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arboreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arboreal"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simms-21"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Svensson-18"}],"text":"Pallas's leaf warbler is not wary but its unobtrusive arboreal lifestyle makes it difficult to observe, particularly in thick foliage. It is constantly in motion, and often hovers briefly like a goldcrest, although more frequently,[20] and may sometimes hang upside-down.[17]","title":"Behaviour"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0-36"},{"link_name":"fledging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fledge"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"oriental cuckoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_cuckoo"},{"link_name":"brood parasite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brood_parasite"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cuckoo-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0-36"}],"sub_title":"Breeding","text":"Nesting is from June to July, with eggs laid from mid-June. The nest is built by the female in a conifer, usually next to the trunk at 0.5–10 metres (1.6–32.8 ft) above ground, sometimes in a bush. It is a round or elliptical cup made from twigs, leaves and other vegetation and lined with finer material including feathers, hair or fine grasses.[18] Four to six blue-grey flecked white eggs are laid and incubated by the female.[34] They hatch after 12–13 days, with the chicks fledging when 12–14 days old. They are fed mainly by the female while in the nest, but by both parents for about a week after fledging. In the south of the range, a pair may sometimes raise a second brood. The breeding territory in central Siberia is usually 3–5 hectares (7.4–12.4 acres), infrequently as much as 10 hectares (25 acres).[18]Pallas's leaf warbler, as with other members of its genus, is a host of the oriental cuckoo, a brood parasite.[35] The cuckoo's egg is similar in appearance, though larger, to those of the host species.[34]","title":"Behaviour"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"larvae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"pupa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupa"},{"link_name":"flies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly"},{"link_name":"moths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moth"},{"link_name":"aphids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphid"},{"link_name":"spiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider"},{"link_name":"mixed-species foraging flocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-species_foraging_flock"},{"link_name":"tits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tit_(bird)"},{"link_name":"goldcrests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldcrest"},{"link_name":"warblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_warbler"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simms-21"},{"link_name":"white-eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-eye"},{"link_name":"minivets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minivet"},{"link_name":"babblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World_babbler"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhang-38"}],"sub_title":"Feeding","text":"Like its relatives, Pallas's leaf warbler is insectivorous, feeding on the adults, larvae and pupa of small insects including flies, moths and aphids; spiders are also taken. Birds forage in bushes and trees, picking items from leaves or catching prey in short flights or while hovering. When not breeding, they may join mixed-species foraging flocks together with tits, goldcrests and other warblers.[18][20] In Asia, accompanying species may also include white-eyes, minivets and babblers.[36]","title":"Behaviour"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IUCN Red List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List"},{"link_name":"least concern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-concern_species"},{"link_name":"IUCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn_status_19_November_2021-1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoyo-19"}],"text":"The Pallas's leaf warbler has a large range, and although global population trends have not been quantified, numbers are believed to be stable. This species does not approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (that is, declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, it is evaluated as of \"least concern\" by the IUCN.[1]Pallas's leaf warbler is widespread, common and locally abundant in Russia and northeast China. Breeding densities of up to 35–50 pairs/km2 (90–130 pairs/mi2) have been recorded in southeast Russia, with only slightly lower figures in Siberia. It is locally common in parts of its wintering grounds in southeast Asia.[18]","title":"Status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Catherine the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Gould_(illustrator)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-egould-24"}],"text":"^ Pallas led a scientific expedition to Siberia, sponsored by Catherine the Great, between 1768 and 1774.[2]\n\n^ Gould did the preliminary sketch, and his wife Elizabeth completed the detailed final painting.[23]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Helm Identification Guides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helm_Identification_Guides"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7136-3971-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-3971-1"}],"text":"Baker, Kevin (1997). Warblers of Europe, Asia and North Africa (Helm Identification Guides). London: Helm. ISBN 978-0-7136-3971-1.","title":"Cited texts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-5327-6903-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5327-6903-0"}],"text":"Stoddart, Andy M (2016). Siberia's Sprite: A history of fascination and desire. Self-published. ISBN 978-1-5327-6903-0.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Showing head stripes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Pallas%27s_Leaf-Warbler_-_great_rarity_in_Italy_S4E1751_%2819261546342%29.jpg/220px-Pallas%27s_Leaf-Warbler_-_great_rarity_in_Italy_S4E1751_%2819261546342%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siberian taiga woodland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Pinega_Krasnaya_gorka.JPG/220px-Pinega_Krasnaya_gorka.JPG"},{"image_text":"From John Gould's 1837 illustration of \"Dalmatian Regulus\"[b]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Dalmatian_regulus_gould.jpg/170px-Dalmatian_regulus_gould.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"BirdLife International (2016). \"Phylloscopus proregulus\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22734364A95083830. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734364A95083830.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22734364/95083830","url_text":"\"Phylloscopus proregulus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List","url_text":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734364A95083830.en","url_text":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22734364A95083830.en"}]},{"reference":"Masterson, James R; Brower, Helen (1947). \"Bering's Successors, 1745–1780. Contributions of Peter Simon Pallas to the History of Russian Exploration toward Alaska\". Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 38 (1): 35–83. JSTOR 40486763.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_Quarterly","url_text":"Pacific Northwest Quarterly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40486763","url_text":"40486763"}]},{"reference":"Pallas, Peter Simon (1811). Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica (in Latin). Vol. 1. Saint Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences. p. 499.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas","url_text":"Pallas, Peter Simon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#History","url_text":"Imperial Academy of Sciences"},{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/29114434","url_text":"499"}]},{"reference":"Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 305, 318. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling","url_text":"The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Helm_Publishers","url_text":"Christopher Helm"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n305","url_text":"305"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-2501-4","url_text":"978-1-4081-2501-4"}]},{"reference":"Alström, Per; Ericson, Per G P; Olsson, Urban; Sundberg, Per (2006). \"Phylogeny and classification of the avian superfamily Sylvioidea\". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 38 (2): 381–397. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015. PMID 16054402.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolution","url_text":"Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2005.05.015","url_text":"10.1016/j.ympev.2005.05.015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16054402","url_text":"16054402"}]},{"reference":"Gray, John Edward (1846). Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet. Presented by B.H. Hodgson to the British Museum. London: British Museum. p. 66.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Edward_Gray","url_text":"Gray, John Edward"},{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/77056#page/82/mode/1up","url_text":"Catalogue of the specimens and drawings of mammalia and birds of Nepal and Thibet. Presented by B.H. Hodgson to the British Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum","url_text":"British Museum"}]},{"reference":"Williamson, Kenneth (1976). Identification for Ringers 2 (PDF). Field guide. Vol. 8. Tring, Herts: British Trust for Ornithology. pp. 8, 13–15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bto.org/sites/default/files/u17/downloads/publications/Williamson%20Guide%202%20searchable.pdf","url_text":"Identification for Ringers 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Trust_for_Ornithology","url_text":"British Trust for Ornithology"}]},{"reference":"del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). \"Family Sylviidae Old World Warblers\". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hbw.com/family/old-world-warblers-sylviidae","url_text":"\"Family Sylviidae Old World Warblers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynx_Edicions","url_text":"Lynx Edicions"}]},{"reference":"White, Gilbert (1840). The natural history of Selborne: with observations on various parts of nature, and the naturalist's calendar. London: J Chidley. p. 38.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_White","url_text":"White, Gilbert"}]},{"reference":"Brooks, William Edwin (1894). \"A few observations on some species of Phylloscopus\". Ibis. 6 (22): 261–268. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1894.tb07751.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edwin_Brooks","url_text":"Brooks, William Edwin"},{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16282941","url_text":"\"A few observations on some species of Phylloscopus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibis_(journal)","url_text":"Ibis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1894.tb07751.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1474-919X.1894.tb07751.x"}]},{"reference":"Alexander, Horace Gundry (1955). \"Field notes on some Asian leaf-warblers\" (PDF). British Birds. 48 (11): 293–299.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Alexander","url_text":"Alexander, Horace Gundry"},{"url":"https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V48/V48_N07/V48_N07_P293_299_A053.pdf","url_text":"\"Field notes on some Asian leaf-warblers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Birds_(magazine)","url_text":"British Birds"}]},{"reference":"Alström, Per (2006). \"Species concepts and their application: insights from the genera Seicercus and Phylloscopus\" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Sinica. 52 (Supplement): 429–434.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.actazool.org/temp/%7BD12A500A-EAD9-4908-BDB7-35A4CF1BB9A7%7D.pdf","url_text":"\"Species concepts and their application: insights from the genera Seicercus and Phylloscopus\""}]},{"reference":"Martens, Jochen; Tietze, Dieter Thomas; Eck, Siegfried; Veith, Michael (2004). \"Radiation and species limits in the Asian Pallas's Warbler complex (Phylloscopus proregulus s.l.)\". Journal of Ornithology. 145 (3): 206–222. doi:10.1007/s10336-004-0042-9. S2CID 21114761.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Ornithology","url_text":"Journal of Ornithology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10336-004-0042-9","url_text":"10.1007/s10336-004-0042-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21114761","url_text":"21114761"}]},{"reference":"Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Birds of Europe. London: HarperCollins. pp. 334–335. ISBN 0-00-219728-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-219728-6","url_text":"0-00-219728-6"}]},{"reference":"del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). \"Pallas's Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus)\". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hbw.com/species/pallass-leaf-warbler-phylloscopus-proregulus","url_text":"\"Pallas's Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus)\""}]},{"reference":"Brazil, Mark (2009). Birds of East Asia. London: A & C Black. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-7136-7040-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_%26_C_Black","url_text":"A & C Black"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-7040-0","url_text":"978-0-7136-7040-0"}]},{"reference":"Simms, Eric (1985). British Warblers (New Naturalist Series). London: Collins. pp. 338–340. ISBN 0-00-219810-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Collins,_Sons","url_text":"Collins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-219810-X","url_text":"0-00-219810-X"}]},{"reference":"del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). \"Lemon-rumped Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus chloronotus)\". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hbw.com/species/lemon-rumped-leaf-warbler-phylloscopus-chloronotus","url_text":"\"Lemon-rumped Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus chloronotus)\""}]},{"reference":"del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A; de Juana, Eduardo, eds. (2013). \"Chinese Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus yunnanensis)\". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hbw.com/species/chinese-leaf-warbler-phylloscopus-yunnanensis","url_text":"\"Chinese Leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus yunnanensis)\""}]},{"reference":"Jenkins, Alan C (1978). The Naturalists: Pioneers of Natural History. London: Hamish Hamilton. pp. 84–86. ISBN 0-241-89999-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamish_Hamilton","url_text":"Hamish Hamilton"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-89999-0","url_text":"0-241-89999-0"}]},{"reference":"Gould, John (1837). Birds of Europe. Vol. 2. London: self-published. p. 149.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gould","url_text":"Gould, John"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/birdsEuropeIIGoul#page/149/mode/2up/search/regulus","url_text":"Birds of Europe"}]},{"reference":"Seebohm, Henry (1877). \"On the Phylloscopi or Willow-Warblers\". Ibis. 19 (1): 66–108. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06167.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Seebohm","url_text":"Seebohm, Henry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1877.tb06167.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06167.x"}]},{"reference":"Seebohm, Henry (1877). \"Supplementary notes on the ornithology of Heligoland\". Ibis. 19 (2): 156–165. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06176.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8801680","url_text":"\"Supplementary notes on the ornithology of Heligoland\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1474-919X.1877.tb06176.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1474-919X.1877.tb06176.x"}]},{"reference":"Southwell, Thomas (1896). \"Occurrence of Phylloscopus proregulus in Norfolk\". The Zoologist. 20: 466–467.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Southwell_(naturalist)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Southwell, Thomas"},{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/122977#page/494/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Occurrence of Phylloscopus proregulus in Norfolk\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zoologist","url_text":"The Zoologist"}]},{"reference":"Ennion, Eric (1952). \"Pallas's Warbler at Monks' House, Northumberland\" (PDF). British Birds. 45 (7): 258–260.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V45/V45_N07/V45_N07_P257_263_N048.pdf","url_text":"\"Pallas's Warbler at Monks' House, Northumberland\""}]},{"reference":"Rogers, Michael J; the Rarities Committee (1992). \"Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1991\" (PDF). British Birds. 85 (10): 507–555.","urls":[{"url":"https://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V85/V85_N10/V85_N10_P507_554_A145.pdf","url_text":"\"Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1991\""}]},{"reference":"Fraser, Peter A; Rogers, Michael J (2006). \"Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2003 Part 2: Short-toed Lark to Little Bunting\" (PDF). British Birds. 99 (3): 129–147.","urls":[{"url":"https://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V99/V99_N03/V99_N03_P129_147_A002.pdf","url_text":"\"Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2003 Part 2: Short-toed Lark to Little Bunting\""}]},{"reference":"Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1324–1325. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-854099-X","url_text":"0-19-854099-X"}]},{"reference":"Gilroy, James; Lees, Alex (2003). \"Vagrancy theories: are autumn vagrants really reverse migrants?\" (PDF). British Birds. 96 (9): 427–438.","urls":[{"url":"https://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V96/V96_N09/V96_N09_P427_438_A003.pdf","url_text":"\"Vagrancy theories: are autumn vagrants really reverse migrants?\""}]},{"reference":"de Juana, Eduardo (2008). \"Where do Pallas's and Yellow-browed warblers (Phylloscopus proregulus, Ph. Inornatus) go after visiting northwest Europe in autumn? An iberian perspective\" (PDF). Ardeola. 55 (2): 179–192.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/media/www/pag-33468/2008_Ardeola_55_179.pdf","url_text":"\"Where do Pallas's and Yellow-browed warblers (Phylloscopus proregulus, Ph. Inornatus) go after visiting northwest Europe in autumn? An iberian perspective\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phylloscopus proregulus, Pallas's Warbler, Cuculus saturatus, Cuculus optatus, Oriental Cuckoo\" (in Russian and English). Zoological Museum of Moscow University. 24 September 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fotoparus.com/photogalery/animals/wild_animals/aves/15_CUCULIFORMES_CUCULIDAE_Cuculus_saturatus/slides/eggs_museum_Phylloscopus_proregulus_Cuculus_saturatus201009241619.html","url_text":"\"Phylloscopus proregulus, Pallas's Warbler, Cuculus saturatus, Cuculus optatus, Oriental Cuckoo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoological_Museum_of_Moscow_University","url_text":"Zoological Museum of Moscow University"}]},{"reference":"Johnsgard, Paul A (1997). The Avian Brood Parasites: Deception at the Nest. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-19-535499-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Johnsgard","url_text":"Johnsgard, Paul A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-535499-0","url_text":"0-19-535499-0"}]},{"reference":"Zhang, Qiang; Han, Richou; Huang, Zhongliang; Zou, Fasheng (2013). \"Linking vegetation structure and bird organization: response of mixed-species bird flocks to forest succession in subtropical China\". Biodiversity and Conservation. 22 (9): 1965–1989. doi:10.1007/s10531-013-0521-5. S2CID 11490845.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10531-013-0521-5","url_text":"10.1007/s10531-013-0521-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11490845","url_text":"11490845"}]},{"reference":"Baker, Kevin (1997). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watts_(crater) | Watts (crater) | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Coordinates: 8°54′N 46°18′E / 8.9°N 46.3°E / 8.9; 46.3Crater on the Moon
Not to be confused with Watt (crater).
Feature on the moonWattsApollo 15 mapping camera imageCoordinates8°54′N 46°18′E / 8.9°N 46.3°E / 8.9; 46.3Diameter15 kmColongitude314° at sunriseEponymChester B. Watts
Lunar Orbiter 4 image
Watts is a small lunar impact crater that is located at the extreme northern edge of the Mare Fecunditatis. It was named after American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts. Just one crater diameter to the northwest is the irregular da Vinci. Farther to the south is the larger crater Taruntius.
The rim of this crater is broken in the south and the interior is flooded with lava. The terrain about the crater has also been resurfaced by past lava flows, leaving on a low rim raised about the nearly level surroundings. The southwest rim is attached to a low rim that connects with da Vinci.
This crater was previously designated Taruntius D before being named by the IAU.
References
^ "Watts (crater)". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology Research Program.
Andersson, L. E.; Whitaker, E. A. (1982). NASA Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature. NASA RP-1097.
Bussey, B.; Spudis, P. (2004). The Clementine Atlas of the Moon. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81528-4.
Cocks, Elijah E.; Cocks, Josiah C. (1995). Who's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature. Tudor Publishers. ISBN 978-0-936389-27-1.
McDowell, Jonathan (July 15, 2007). "Lunar Nomenclature". Jonathan's Space Report. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
Menzel, D. H.; Minnaert, M.; Levin, B.; Dollfus, A.; Bell, B. (1971). "Report on Lunar Nomenclature by the Working Group of Commission 17 of the IAU". Space Science Reviews. 12 (2): 136–186. Bibcode:1971SSRv...12..136M. doi:10.1007/BF00171763. S2CID 122125855.
Moore, Patrick (2001). On the Moon. Sterling Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-304-35469-6.
Price, Fred W. (1988). The Moon Observer's Handbook. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33500-3.
Rükl, Antonín (1990). Atlas of the Moon. Kalmbach Books. ISBN 978-0-913135-17-4.
Webb, Rev. T. W. (1962). Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes (6th revised ed.). Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20917-3.
Whitaker, Ewen A. (1999). Mapping and Naming the Moon. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62248-6.
Wlasuk, Peter T. (2000). Observing the Moon. Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-193-1.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Watts (crater).
LTO-61B3 Watts — L&PI topographic map | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Watt (crater)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt_(crater)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Normal_Watts_LO-IV-191H_LTVT.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lunar Orbiter 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Orbiter_4"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_craters"},{"link_name":"impact crater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater"},{"link_name":"Mare Fecunditatis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mare_Fecunditatis"},{"link_name":"Chester Burleigh Watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Burleigh_Watts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Vinci_(lunar_crater)"},{"link_name":"Taruntius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taruntius_(crater)"},{"link_name":"lava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava"},{"link_name":"IAU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union"}],"text":"Crater on the MoonNot to be confused with Watt (crater).Feature on the moonLunar Orbiter 4 imageWatts is a small lunar impact crater that is located at the extreme northern edge of the Mare Fecunditatis. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(motion) | Envelope (motion) | ["1 Wheel envelope","2 Robot's working envelope","3 References"] | For other uses, see Envelope (disambiguation).
In mechanical engineering, an envelope is a solid representing all positions which may be occupied by an object during its normal range of motion.
Another (jargon) word for this is a "flop".
Wheel envelope
In automobile design, a wheel envelope may be used to model all positions a wheel and tire combo may be expected to occupy during driving. This will take into account the maximum jounce and rebound allowed by the suspension system and the maximum turn and tilt allowed by the steering mechanism. Minimum and maximum tire inflation pressures and wear conditions may also be considered when generating the envelope.
This envelope is then compared with the wheel housing and other components in the area to perform an interference/collision analysis. The results of this analysis tell the engineers whether that wheel/tire combo will strike the housing and components under normal driving conditions. If so, either a redesign is in order, or that wheel/tire combo will not be recommended.
A different wheel envelope must be generated for each wheel/tire combo for which the vehicle is rated. Much of this analysis is done using CAD/CAE systems running on computers. Of course, high speed collisions, during an accident, are not considered "normal driving conditions", so the wheel and tire may very well contact other parts of the vehicle at that time.
Robot's working envelope
In robotics, the working envelope or work area is the volume of working or reaching space. Some factors of a robot's design (configurations, axes or degrees of freedom) influence its working envelope.
References
^ OSHA TECHNICAL MANUAL – SECTION IV: CHAPTER 4 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Envelope (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"mechanical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering"},{"link_name":"jargon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon"}],"text":"For other uses, see Envelope (disambiguation).In mechanical engineering, an envelope is a solid representing all positions which may be occupied by an object during its normal range of motion.Another (jargon) word for this is a \"flop\".","title":"Envelope (motion)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automobile design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_design"},{"link_name":"wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel"},{"link_name":"tire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire"},{"link_name":"jounce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jounce"},{"link_name":"suspension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(vehicle)"},{"link_name":"steering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steering"},{"link_name":"CAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design"},{"link_name":"CAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_engineering"}],"text":"In automobile design, a wheel envelope may be used to model all positions a wheel and tire combo may be expected to occupy during driving. This will take into account the maximum jounce and rebound allowed by the suspension system and the maximum turn and tilt allowed by the steering mechanism. Minimum and maximum tire inflation pressures and wear conditions may also be considered when generating the envelope.This envelope is then compared with the wheel housing and other components in the area to perform an interference/collision analysis. The results of this analysis tell the engineers whether that wheel/tire combo will strike the housing and components under normal driving conditions. If so, either a redesign is in order, or that wheel/tire combo will not be recommended.A different wheel envelope must be generated for each wheel/tire combo for which the vehicle is rated. Much of this analysis is done using CAD/CAE systems running on computers. Of course, high speed collisions, during an accident, are not considered \"normal driving conditions\", so the wheel and tire may very well contact other parts of the vehicle at that time.","title":"Wheel envelope"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic_axe"},{"link_name":"degrees of freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"In robotics, the working envelope or work area is the volume of working or reaching space. Some factors of a robot's design (configurations, axes or degrees of freedom) influence its working envelope.[1]","title":"Robot's working envelope"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_4.html","external_links_name":"OSHA TECHNICAL MANUAL – SECTION IV: CHAPTER 4"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter_(Caravaggio) | Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Caravaggio) | ["1 History","2 Description","3 Style","4 Related works","5 See also","6 References","7 Bibliography","8 External links"] | Painting by Caravaggio
Crucifixion of Saint PeterItalian: Crocifissione di San PietroArtistCaravaggioYear1601MediumOil on canvasDimensions230 cm × 175 cm (91 in × 69 in)LocationSanta Maria del Popolo, Rome
The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Italian: Crocifissione di san Pietro) is a work by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painted in 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. Across the chapel is a second Caravaggio work depicting the Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus (1601). On the altar between the two is the Assumption of the Virgin Mary by Annibale Carracci.
History
The two lateral paintings were commissioned in September 1600 by Monsignor Tiberio Cerasi, Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII, who purchased the chapel from the Augustinian friars on 8 July 1600 and commissioned Carlo Maderno to rebuild the small edifice in Baroque style. The contract for the altarpiece with Carracci has not been preserved but it is generally assumed that the document had been signed somewhat earlier, and Caravaggio had to take into consideration the other artist's work and the overall iconographic programme of the chapel. Cerasi nourished a deep devotion towards Saint Peter and Paul, and invoked them in his will. Together the two saints represented the foundation of the Catholic Church, and they were called the Princes of the Apostles. Both had a strong connection to the city of Rome and the papacy. Caravaggio's paintings were thus intended to express Cerasi's attachment to the Church of Rome and his closeness to papal power. Their position in the chapel was important but the devotional focus was still on the Assumption of the Virgin Mary on the altar in the middle. The juxtaposition of the two scenes had a well-known precedent in the frescos of the Capella Paolina at the Apostolic Palace (1542–1549) but the paintings of Caravaggio were starkly different from the crowded Mannerist scenes of Michelangelo.
A notary's copy of the contract between Caravaggio and Cerasi.Although much has been said about the supposed rivalry between Carracci and Caravaggio, there is no historical evidence about any serious tensions. Both were successful and sought-after artists in Rome. Caravaggio gained the Cerasi commission right after his celebrated works in the Contarelli Chapel had been finished, and Carracci was busy creating his great fresco cycle in the Palazzo Farnese. In these circumstances there was little reason for them to regard each other as business rivals, states Denis Mahon.
The contract signed on 24 September 1600 stipulates that "the distinguished painter, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio" will paint two large cypress panels, ten palms high and eight palms wide, representing the conversion of Saint Paul and the martyrdom of Saint Peter within eight months for the price of 400 scudi. The contract gave a free hand to the painter to choose the figures, persons and ornaments depicted in the way as he saw fit, "to the satisfaction however of his Lordship", and he was also obliged to submit preparatory studies before the execution of the paintings. Caravaggio received 50 scudi as advance payment from the banker Vincenzo Giustiniani with the rest earmarked to be paid on completion. The dimensions specified for the panels are virtually the same as the size of the existing canvasses.
When Tiberio Cerasi died on 3 May 1601, Caravaggio was still working on the paintings, as attested by an avviso dated 5 May which mentioned that the chapel was being decorated by the hand of the "famosissimo Pittore", Michelangelo da Caravaggio. A second avviso dated 2 June proves that Caravaggio was still at work on the paintings a month later. He completed them sometime before 10 November when he received the final instalment from the heirs of Tiberio Cerasi, the Fathers of the Ospedale della Consolazione. The total compensation for the paintings was reduced to 300 scudi for unknown reasons.
The paintings were finally installed in the chapel on 1 May 1605 by the woodworker Bartolomeo who received four scudi and fifty baiocchi from the Ospedale for his work.
The first version
Giovanni Baglione's Life of Michelagnolo da Caravaggio, published in 1642
Giovanni Baglione in his 1642 biography about Caravaggio reported that the first versions of both paintings were rejected:
"The panels at first had been painted in a different style, but because they did not please the patron, Cardinal Sannesio took them; in their place he painted the two oil paintings that can be seen there today, since he did not use any other medium. And – so to speak – Fortune and Fame carried him along."
This report is the only historical source for the well-known story. Although the biography was written decades after the events, its veracity has generally been accepted. Baglione provided no further explanation about the reasons and circumstances of the rejection but modern scholarship put forward several theories and conjectures. The first versions of the paintings were obviously acquired by Giacomo Sannesio, secretary of the Sacra Consulta and an avid collector of art. Caravaggio's biographer, Giulio Mancini mentioned these paintings being in the collection of Cardinal Sannesio around 1620 but he thought them retouched copies of the originals. The paintings reappeared in an inventory of Francesco Sannesio, Cardinal Giacomo's heir, dated to 19 February 1644 that recorded "two large panels, that represent Saint Peter crucified and the other the conversion of Saint Paul, framed in gold". This time the heirs sold the paintings to the Spanish Viceroy of Naples, Juan Alfonso Enríquez de Cabrera who transported them to Madrid two years later. After his death, the paintings were recorded again in the inventory of his assets on 7 August 1647. At the time "The Martyrdom of Saint Peter" was valued to a total of 3300 ducats, its gilded and carved frame estimated to have a value of 300 ducats in itself. The panel was registered for the last time in the inventory of the possessions of Juan Gaspar Enríquez de Cabrera, the tenth Admiral of Castile, in 1691. After that the first version of the Crucifixion of Peter has disappeared from the documents, and its further fate remains unknown. The painting of this subject in the Museo del Patriarca in Valencia is attributed to Caravaggio and may be the first version.
Description
The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (detail)
The painting depicts the martyrdom of St. Peter. According to ancient and well-known tradition, Peter, when he was condemned to death in Rome, requested to be crucified upside-down because he did not believe that a man is worthy to be killed in the same manner as Jesus Christ.
"But now it is time for thee, Peter, to deliver up thy body unto them that take it. Receive it then, ye unto whom it belongeth. I beseech you the executioners, crucify me thus, with the head downward and not otherwise: and the reason wherefore, I will tell unto them that hear" – Acts of Peter
The large canvas shows the three executioners fighting to straighten the cross. Peter is already nailed to the rafters, his hands and feet are bleeding. The apostle is practically naked, which emphasizes his vulnerability. He is an old man, with a gray beard and a bald head, but his aging body is still muscular, suggesting considerable strength. He rises from the cross with great effort, turning his whole body, as if he wants to look towards something that is out of the picture (God). His eyes do not look at the executioners but he has a lost look.
The lifting of the cross requires the efforts of three men. One is pulling it up with ropes while his helpers try to raise the heavy equipment with their arms and shoulders. The yellow-breeched workman, who is crouching under the cross, grabs a shovel that was used to dig a hole into the rocky ground for the stake. The whole process seems disorganized and chaotic as if the sudden heaviness of the cross caught the executioners off-guard. Their faces are largely shielded from the viewer making them characterless executors of an unjust act ordered by an invisible authority. The background of the scene looks like a wall of impenetrable darkness but it is in fact a cliff of rock. This is an allusion to the meaning of Peter's name: the "rock" upon which Christ declared his Church to be built (Gospel of Matthew 16:18).
Style
Copy drawing by Gerrit van Honthorst from 1616
According to Denis Mahon, the two paintings in the Cerasi Chapel form "a closely-knit group of sufficiently clear character" with The Inspiration of Saint Matthew in the Contarelli Chapel and The Entombment of Christ in the Pinacoteca Vaticana. He called these four works "the middle group" and stated that they belong to Caravaggio's mature period. Comparing the two paintings in the Cerasi Chapel, Mahon saw the Conversion of Saint Paul "much more animated than its companion" which does not succeed conveying such a vivid sense of movement.
The most striking feature of the painting is its pronounced realism: the saint is "very much the poor fisherman from Bethsaida, and the executioners, their hands heavily veined and reddened, their feet dusty, are toiling workmen", says Helen Langdon. This was the beginning of a new phase in Caravaggio's art where he concentrated on the Christian ethos of humility and salvation through suffering.
Related works
The painting was copied in 1616 by Gerrit van Honthorst when he studied in Rome. His drawing was discovered in the Nasjonalgalleriet in Oslo and published in 1946 by Jan Gerrit van Gelder. The young Honthorst was strongly influenced by the works of Caravaggio, and later became one of the Utrecht caravaggisti who tried to emulate the naturalism and tenebrosity of the Italian painter. Honthorst signed and dated the drawing in the lower left-hand corner. He must have observed the painting very carefully because only few details of the original were omitted. This copy drawing proves that the two Caravaggios in the Cerasi Chapel were already held in high regard a few years after they had been installed.
Some scholars have identified the first version of the Crucifixion with a painting now in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, but this is not generally accepted (in the Hermitage catalog Martyrdom of St. Peter is attributed, with a question mark, to Lionello Spada and dated on the first quarter of the 17th century).
See also
List of paintings by Caravaggio
References
^ Hibbard, Howard (1983). Caravaggio. Westview Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-06-430128-1.
^ Denis Mahon: Egregius in Urbe Pictor: Caravaggio revised, The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 93, No. 580 (Jul., 1951), p. 226
^ Denis Mahon op. cit. p. 230
^ Walter F. Friedlaender: Caravaggio Studies, Schocken Books, 1969, pp. 302–303
^ Christopher L. C. E. Witcombe, Two "Avvisi", Caravaggio, and Giulio Mancini, in: Source: Notes in the History of Art, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Spring 1993), pp. 22, 25.
^ Stefania Macioce: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: fonti e documenti 1532–1724, Ugo Bozzi, 2003, doc. 116., p. 106
^ Stefania Macioce, op. cit., p. 161
^ Giovanni Baglione: The Life of Michelagnolo da Caravaggio, in Giulio Mancini, Giovanni Baglione, Giovanni Pietro Bellori: Lives of Caravaggio, Pallas Athene, 2005
^ Howard Hibbard: Caravaggio, Harper & Row, 1983, p. 121 and p. 298
^ The paintings are documented in the Florentine manuscript of Mancini, transcribed by Friedlaender in Caravaggio Studies, p. 255.
^ Maurizio Marini: Caravaggio «pictor praestantissimus», Newton Compton, Roma, 1989, p. 447
^ Macioce, op. cit., p. 358
^ The Apocryphal New Testament, translated by Montague Rhodes James, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924, p. 834
^ Pietro Caiazza: Caravaggio e gli occhi di Pietro Morente, 2005, published at
^ Helen Langdon: Caravaggio. A Life, Westview Press, 2000, p. 222
^ J. Richard Judson: Gerrit van Honthorst: A Discussion of his Position in Dutch Art, Springer Science+Business Media, Dordrecht, 1959, p. 18
Bibliography
Gash, John (2004). Caravaggio. Chaucer. ISBN 1-904449-22-0.
Langdon, Helen (1998). Caravaggio: A Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-11894-9.
Robb, Peter (1998). M. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-27474-0.
External links
Smarthistory - Caravaggio's Crucifixion of Saint Peter Archived 2014-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
Media related to Crucifixion of Saint Peter by Caravaggio at Wikimedia Commons
vteCaravaggioList of paintings1593–1594
Boy Peeling Fruit (c. 1592)
Young Sick Bacchus (c. 1593)
Boy with a Basket of Fruit (c. 1593)
Boy Bitten by a Crayfish (c. 1593; lost)
The Fortune Teller (c. 1594)
The Cardsharps (c. 1594)
1595–1599Del Monte paintings
The Musicians (c. 1595)
Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (c. 1595)
Boy Bitten by a Lizard (c. 1596)
The Lute Player (c. 1596)
Bacchus (c. 1596)
Penitent Magdalene (c. 1597)
Rest on the Flight into Egypt (c. 1597)
Medusa (c. 1597)
Portrait of a Courtesan (Fillide Melandroni) (c. 1597)
Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto (c. 1597)
Saint Catherine of Alexandria (c. 1598)
The Sacrifice of Isaac (Princeton; c. 1598)
John the Baptist (c. 1598)
Martha and Mary Magdalene (c. 1598)
Portrait of Maffeo Barberini (1598)
Basket of Fruit (c. 1599)
Judith Beheading Holofernes (c. 1599)
David and Goliath (c. 1599)
Narcissus (c. 1599)
1600–1606Most famouspainter in Rome
The Calling of Saint Matthew (1599–1600)
The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (1599–1600)
The Conversion of Saint Paul (1600)
The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1601)
The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus (1601)
Supper at Emmaus (London; 1601)
Amor Victorious (1602)
Saint Matthew and the Angel (1602; destroyed)
The Inspiration of Saint Matthew (1602)
The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (c. 1602)
The Taking of Christ (1602)
The Entombment of Christ (c. 1603)
Saint Francis in Prayer (c. 1603)
The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew (c. 1603–1606)
Madonna of Loreto (Madonna dei Pellegrini, Pilgrims' Madonna) (c. 1604)
The Crowning with Thorns (Prato; 1604)
The Death of the Virgin (1604)
Christ on the Mount of Olives (1605)
Ecce Homo (Genoa; c. 1605)
Saint Jerome in Meditation (c. 1605)
Saint Jerome Writing (Rome; c. 1605)
Portrait of Pope Paul V (1605)
Still Life with Fruit (1605)
Madonna and Child with Saint Anne (Dei Palafrenieri) (1606)
1606–1608Naples and Malta
Ecce Homo (Madrid; c. 1605–1609)
Mary Magdalen in Ecstasy (1606)
Saint Francis in Meditation (1606)
Supper at Emmaus (Milan; 1606)
The Seven Works of Mercy (1606)
The Crucifixion of Saint Andrew (1607)
David with the Head of Goliath (Vienna; 1607)
Madonna of the Rosary (1607)
The Crowning with Thorns (Vienna; 1607)
The Flagellation of Christ (c. 1607)
Christ at the Column (c. 1607)
Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (London; c. 1607)
Saint Jerome Writing (Valletta; 1607)
Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page (1607–1608)
Portrait of Fra Antonio Martelli (1608)
The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (1608)
Sleeping Cupid (1608)
1608–1610Sicily and Naples
The Annunciation (1608)
The Burial of Saint Lucy (1608)
The Raising of Lazarus (1609)
Adoration of the Shepherds (1609)
Nativity with Saint Francis and Saint Lawrence (1609; lost)
Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid; 1609)
Denial of Saint Peter (1610)
The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (1610)
David with the Head of Goliath (Rome; 1610)
Related
Paintings attributed to Caravaggio
Utrecht Caravaggism
Caravaggisti
Caravaggio, il pittore maledetto
Caravaggio (1986 film)
Caravaggio (2007 film)
Caravaggio's Shadow | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio"},{"link_name":"Cerasi Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerasi_Chapel"},{"link_name":"Santa Maria del Popolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Maria_del_Popolo"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_on_the_Way_to_Damascus"},{"link_name":"Assumption of the Virgin Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assumption_of_the_Virgin_(Cerasi_Chapel)"},{"link_name":"Annibale Carracci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annibale_Carracci"}],"text":"The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Italian: Crocifissione di san Pietro) is a work by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painted in 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. 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Together the two saints represented the foundation of the Catholic Church, and they were called the Princes of the Apostles. Both had a strong connection to the city of Rome and the papacy. Caravaggio's paintings were thus intended to express Cerasi's attachment to the Church of Rome and his closeness to papal power. Their position in the chapel was important but the devotional focus was still on the Assumption of the Virgin Mary on the altar in the middle. The juxtaposition of the two scenes had a well-known precedent in the frescos of the Capella Paolina at the Apostolic Palace (1542–1549) but the paintings of Caravaggio were starkly different from the crowded Mannerist scenes of Michelangelo.A notary's copy of the contract between Caravaggio and Cerasi.Although much has been said about the supposed rivalry between Carracci and Caravaggio, there is no historical evidence about any serious tensions. Both were successful and sought-after artists in Rome. Caravaggio gained the Cerasi commission right after his celebrated works in the Contarelli Chapel had been finished, and Carracci was busy creating his great fresco cycle in the Palazzo Farnese. In these circumstances there was little reason for them to regard each other as business rivals, states Denis Mahon.[3]The contract signed on 24 September 1600 stipulates that \"the distinguished painter, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio\" will paint two large cypress panels, ten palms high and eight palms wide, representing the conversion of Saint Paul and the martyrdom of Saint Peter within eight months for the price of 400 scudi. The contract gave a free hand to the painter to choose the figures, persons and ornaments depicted in the way as he saw fit, \"to the satisfaction however of his Lordship\", and he was also obliged to submit preparatory studies before the execution of the paintings. Caravaggio received 50 scudi as advance payment from the banker Vincenzo Giustiniani with the rest earmarked to be paid on completion. The dimensions specified for the panels are virtually the same as the size of the existing canvasses.[4]When Tiberio Cerasi died on 3 May 1601, Caravaggio was still working on the paintings, as attested by an avviso dated 5 May which mentioned that the chapel was being decorated by the hand of the \"famosissimo Pittore\", Michelangelo da Caravaggio. A second avviso dated 2 June proves that Caravaggio was still at work on the paintings a month later. He completed them sometime before 10 November when he received the final instalment from the heirs of Tiberio Cerasi, the Fathers of the Ospedale della Consolazione.[5] The total compensation for the paintings was reduced to 300 scudi for unknown reasons.[6]The paintings were finally installed in the chapel on 1 May 1605 by the woodworker Bartolomeo who received four scudi and fifty baiocchi from the Ospedale for his work.[7]The first versionGiovanni Baglione's Life of Michelagnolo da Caravaggio, published in 1642Giovanni Baglione in his 1642 biography about Caravaggio reported that the first versions of both paintings were rejected:\"The panels at first had been painted in a different style, but because they did not please the patron, Cardinal Sannesio took them; in their place he painted the two oil paintings that can be seen there today, since he did not use any other medium. And – so to speak – Fortune and Fame carried him along.\"[8]This report is the only historical source for the well-known story. Although the biography was written decades after the events, its veracity has generally been accepted. Baglione provided no further explanation about the reasons and circumstances of the rejection but modern scholarship put forward several theories and conjectures. The first versions of the paintings were obviously acquired by Giacomo Sannesio, secretary of the Sacra Consulta and an avid collector of art. Caravaggio's biographer, Giulio Mancini mentioned these paintings being in the collection of Cardinal Sannesio around 1620 but he thought them retouched copies of the originals.[9][10] The paintings reappeared in an inventory of Francesco Sannesio, Cardinal Giacomo's heir, dated to 19 February 1644 that recorded \"two large panels, that represent Saint Peter crucified and the other the conversion of Saint Paul, framed in gold\".[11] This time the heirs sold the paintings to the Spanish Viceroy of Naples, Juan Alfonso Enríquez de Cabrera who transported them to Madrid two years later. After his death, the paintings were recorded again in the inventory of his assets on 7 August 1647. At the time \"The Martyrdom of Saint Peter\" was valued to a total of 3300 ducats, its gilded and carved frame estimated to have a value of 300 ducats in itself.[12] The panel was registered for the last time in the inventory of the possessions of Juan Gaspar Enríquez de Cabrera, the tenth Admiral of Castile, in 1691. After that the first version of the Crucifixion of Peter has disappeared from the documents, and its further fate remains unknown. The painting of this subject in the Museo del Patriarca in Valencia is attributed to Caravaggio and may be the first version.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo_Merisi_da_Caravaggio_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter_(detail)_-_WGA04131.jpg"},{"link_name":"St. Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"crucified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion"},{"link_name":"Jesus Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ"},{"link_name":"Acts of Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Peter"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Gospel of Matthew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew"}],"text":"The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (detail)The painting depicts the martyrdom of St. Peter. According to ancient and well-known tradition, Peter, when he was condemned to death in Rome, requested to be crucified upside-down because he did not believe that a man is worthy to be killed in the same manner as Jesus Christ.\"But now it is time for thee, Peter, to deliver up thy body unto them that take it. Receive it then, ye unto whom it belongeth. I beseech you the executioners, crucify me thus, with the head downward and not otherwise: and the reason wherefore, I will tell unto them that hear\" – Acts of Peter[13]The large canvas shows the three executioners fighting to straighten the cross. Peter is already nailed to the rafters, his hands and feet are bleeding. The apostle is practically naked, which emphasizes his vulnerability. He is an old man, with a gray beard and a bald head, but his aging body is still muscular, suggesting considerable strength. He rises from the cross with great effort, turning his whole body, as if he wants to look towards something that is out of the picture (God). His eyes do not look at the executioners but he has a lost look.\n[14]The lifting of the cross requires the efforts of three men. One is pulling it up with ropes while his helpers try to raise the heavy equipment with their arms and shoulders. The yellow-breeched workman, who is crouching under the cross, grabs a shovel that was used to dig a hole into the rocky ground for the stake. The whole process seems disorganized and chaotic as if the sudden heaviness of the cross caught the executioners off-guard. Their faces are largely shielded from the viewer making them characterless executors of an unjust act ordered by an invisible authority. The background of the scene looks like a wall of impenetrable darkness but it is in fact a cliff of rock. This is an allusion to the meaning of Peter's name: the \"rock\" upon which Christ declared his Church to be built (Gospel of Matthew 16:18).","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Honthorst_crucifixion.png"},{"link_name":"The Inspiration of Saint Matthew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Inspiration_of_Saint_Matthew"},{"link_name":"Contarelli Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contarelli_Chapel"},{"link_name":"The Entombment of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Entombment_of_Christ_(Caravaggio)"},{"link_name":"Pinacoteca Vaticana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinacoteca_Vaticana"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Copy drawing by Gerrit van Honthorst from 1616According to Denis Mahon, the two paintings in the Cerasi Chapel form \"a closely-knit group of sufficiently clear character\" with The Inspiration of Saint Matthew in the Contarelli Chapel and The Entombment of Christ in the Pinacoteca Vaticana. He called these four works \"the middle group\" and stated that they belong to Caravaggio's mature period. Comparing the two paintings in the Cerasi Chapel, Mahon saw the Conversion of Saint Paul \"much more animated than its companion\" which does not succeed conveying such a vivid sense of movement.The most striking feature of the painting is its pronounced realism: the saint is \"very much the poor fisherman from Bethsaida, and the executioners, their hands heavily veined and reddened, their feet dusty, are toiling workmen\", says Helen Langdon.[15] This was the beginning of a new phase in Caravaggio's art where he concentrated on the Christian ethos of humility and salvation through suffering.","title":"Style"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gerrit van Honthorst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_van_Honthorst"},{"link_name":"Nasjonalgalleriet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_(Norway)"},{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Utrecht caravaggisti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggism"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Hermitage Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum"},{"link_name":"St. Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Lionello Spada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonello_Spada"}],"text":"The painting was copied in 1616 by Gerrit van Honthorst when he studied in Rome. His drawing was discovered in the Nasjonalgalleriet in Oslo and published in 1946 by Jan Gerrit van Gelder. The young Honthorst was strongly influenced by the works of Caravaggio, and later became one of the Utrecht caravaggisti who tried to emulate the naturalism and tenebrosity of the Italian painter. Honthorst signed and dated the drawing in the lower left-hand corner. He must have observed the painting very carefully because only few details of the original were omitted.[16] This copy drawing proves that the two Caravaggios in the Cerasi Chapel were already held in high regard a few years after they had been installed.Some scholars have identified the first version of the Crucifixion with a painting now in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, but this is not generally accepted (in the Hermitage catalog Martyrdom of St. Peter is attributed, with a question mark, to Lionello Spada and dated on the first quarter of the 17th century).","title":"Related works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-904449-22-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904449-22-0"},{"link_name":"Caravaggio: A Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/caravaggiolife00lang"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-374-11894-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-11894-9"},{"link_name":"Robb, Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Robb_(author)"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_(Peter_Robb_book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-312-27474-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-27474-0"}],"text":"Gash, John (2004). Caravaggio. Chaucer. ISBN 1-904449-22-0.\nLangdon, Helen (1998). Caravaggio: A Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-11894-9.\nRobb, Peter (1998). M. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-27474-0.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"A notary's copy of the contract between Caravaggio and Cerasi.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Caravaggio_cerasi_contract.png/170px-Caravaggio_cerasi_contract.png"},{"image_text":"Giovanni Baglione's Life of Michelagnolo da Caravaggio, published in 1642","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Baglione_caravaggio_vita.png/170px-Baglione_caravaggio_vita.png"},{"image_text":"The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (detail)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Michelangelo_Merisi_da_Caravaggio_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter_%28detail%29_-_WGA04131.jpg/170px-Michelangelo_Merisi_da_Caravaggio_-_The_Crucifixion_of_Saint_Peter_%28detail%29_-_WGA04131.jpg"},{"image_text":"Copy drawing by Gerrit van Honthorst from 1616","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Honthorst_crucifixion.png/170px-Honthorst_crucifixion.png"}] | [{"title":"List of paintings by Caravaggio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paintings_by_Caravaggio"}] | [{"reference":"Hibbard, Howard (1983). Caravaggio. Westview Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-06-430128-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westview_Press","url_text":"Westview Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-430128-1","url_text":"0-06-430128-1"}]},{"reference":"Gash, John (2004). Caravaggio. Chaucer. ISBN 1-904449-22-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904449-22-0","url_text":"1-904449-22-0"}]},{"reference":"Langdon, Helen (1998). Caravaggio: A Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-11894-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/caravaggiolife00lang","url_text":"Caravaggio: A Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-11894-9","url_text":"0-374-11894-9"}]},{"reference":"Robb, Peter (1998). M. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-27474-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Robb_(author)","url_text":"Robb, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_(Peter_Robb_book)","url_text":"M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-27474-0","url_text":"978-0-312-27474-0"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://news-art.it/news/caravaggio-e-la-crocifissione-di-pietro--gli-enigmi-di-un-c.htm","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/caravaggiolife00lang","external_links_name":"Caravaggio: A Life"},{"Link":"https://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/crucifixion-of-st.-peter.html","external_links_name":"Smarthistory - Caravaggio's Crucifixion of Saint Peter"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141008035208/http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/crucifixion-of-st.-peter.html","external_links_name":"Archived"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_universities_in_France | Lists of universities in France | ["1 List of public universities in France","2 List of communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France","3 List of historical or other universities","4 See also","5 Notes and references"] | In France, various types of institution have the term "University" in their name. These include the public universities, which are the autonomous institutions that are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education and research that practice open admissions, and that are designated with the label "Université" by the French ministry of Higher Education and Research. These also include the communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs), which are degree-granting federated groups of universities and other institutes of higher education. The COMUEs replace the earlier Pôles de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur (PRES), which were groupings of universities and institutes of higher education that existed from 2007 to 2013. As opposed to the PRES, the COMUEs can grant degrees in their own names.
Other types of French university-like institutions can be found in the list of colleges and universities in France; these include the national polytechnic institutes, the grandes écoles (among which are the three universities of technology), and private universities, such as the Catholic universities, the Protestant universities, the private secular universities, and the American University of Paris.
List of public universities in France
As of 16 February 2021, there are 67 public universities in France:
vtePublic universities in France, by academy
Aix-Marseille
Aix-Marseille
Avignon
Amiens
Picardy Jules Verne
Besançon
Franche-Comté
Bordeaux
Bordeaux
Bordeaux Montaigne
Pau and the Adour
Clermont-Ferrand
Clermont Auvergne
Corsica
Corsica Pasquale Paoli
Créteil
Gustave Eiffel
Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis
Paris-East Créteil
Sorbonne Paris North
Dijon
Burgundy
French Guiana
French Guiana
French Polynesia
French Polynesia
Grenoble
Grenoble Alps
Savoie Mont Blanc
Guadeloupe
French Antilles
Lille
Artois
Lille
Littoral Opal Coast
Polytechnic Hauts-de-France
Limoges
Limoges
Lyon
Claude Bernard Lyon 1
Jean Monnet
Jean Moulin Lyon 3
Lumière Lyon 2
Montpellier
Montpellier
Nîmes
Paul Valéry Montpellier 3
Perpignan Via Domitia
Nantes
Angers
Le Mans
Nantes
New Caledonia
New Caledonia
Nice
Côte d'Azur
Toulon
Normandy
Caen Normandy
Le Havre Normandy
Rouen Normandy
Orléans and Tours
Orléans
Tours
Paris
Paris Cité
Paris Sciences et Lettres
Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne
Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas
Sorbonne
Sorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3
Poitiers
La Rochelle
Poitiers
Reims
Reims Champagne-Ardenne
Rennes
Rennes 1
Rennes 2
Southern Brittany
Western Brittany
Réunion
Reunion Island
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
Upper Alsace
Toulouse
Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier
Toulouse 1 Capitole
Toulouse-Jean Jaurès
Versailles
CY Cergy Paris
Évry Val d'Essonne
Paris Nanterre
Paris-Saclay
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines
Public universities in France
Short name
Article
French Wikipedia article
Academy
Aix-Marseille
Aix-Marseille University
Université d'Aix-Marseille
Aix-Marseille
Angers
University of Angers
Université d'Angers
Nantes
Artois
University of Artois
Université d'Artois
Lille
Avignon
Avignon University
Avignon Université
Aix-Marseille
Bordeaux
University of Bordeaux
Université de Bordeaux
Bordeaux
Bordeaux Montaigne
Bordeaux Montaigne University
Université Bordeaux-Montaigne
Bordeaux
Burgundy
University of Burgundy
Université de Bourgogne
Dijon
Caen Normandy
University of Caen Normandy
Université de Caen-Normandie
Normandy
Claude Bernard Lyon 1
Claude Bernard University Lyon 1
Université Claude-Bernard-Lyon-I
Lyon
Clermont Auvergne
Clermont Auvergne University
Université Clermont-Auvergne
Clermont-Ferrand
Corsica Pasquale Paoli
University Pasquale Paoli
Université de Corse-Pascal-Paoli
Corsica
Côte d'Azur
Côte d'Azur University
Université Côte-d'Azur
Nice
CY Cergy Paris
CY Cergy Paris University
Université de Cergy-Pontoise
Versailles
Évry Val d'Essonne
University of Évry Val d'Essonne
Université d'Évry
Versailles
Franche-Comté
University of Franche-Comté
Université de Franche-Comté
Besançon
French Antilles
University of the French Antilles
Université des Antilles
Guadeloupe
French Guiana
University of French Guiana
Université de Guyane
French Guiana
French Polynesia
University of French Polynesia
Université de la Polynésie française
French Polynesia
Grenoble Alpes
Grenoble Alpes University
Université Grenoble-Alpes
Grenoble
Gustave Eiffel
Gustave Eiffel University
Université Gustave-Eiffel
Créteil
Jean Monnet
Jean Monnet University
Université Jean-Monnet-Saint-Étienne
Lyon
Jean Moulin Lyon 3
Jean Moulin University Lyon 3
Université Jean-Moulin-Lyon-III
Lyon
La Rochelle
La Rochelle University
Université de la Rochelle
Poitiers
Le Havre Normandy
Le Havre Normandy University
Université Le Havre Normandie
Normandy
Le Mans
Le Mans University
Université du Mans
Nantes
Lille
University of Lille
Université de Lille
Lille
Limoges
University of Limoges
Université de Limoges
Limoges
Littoral Opal Coast
University of the Littoral Opal Coast
Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale
Lille
Lumière Lyon 2
Lumière University Lyon 2
Lumière Université Lyon 2
Lyon
Montpellier
University of Montpellier
Université de Montpellier
Montpellier
Nantes
University of Nantes
Université de Nantes
Nantes
New Caledonia
University of New Caledonia
Université de la Nouvelle Calédonie
New Caledonia
Nîmes
University of Nîmes
Université de Nîmes
Montpellier
Orléans
University of Orléans
Université d'Orléans
Orléans and Tours
Paris
Paris Cité University
Université Paris Cité
Paris
Paris-East Créteil
Paris-East Créteil University
Université Paris-Est-Créteil-Val-de-Marne
Créteil
Paris Nanterre
Paris Nanterre University
Paris Nanterre Université
Versailles
Paris-Saclay
Paris-Saclay University
Paris-Saclay Université
Versailles
Paris Sciences et Lettres
Paris Sciences et Lettres University
Université Paris Sciences et Lettres
Paris
Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne
Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne University
Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne Université
Paris
Paris 2 Panthéon Assas
Paris 2 Panthéon Assas University
Paris 2 Panthéon Assas Université
Paris
Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis
Paris 8 University Vincennes-Saint-Denis
Université Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis
Créteil
Pau and the Adour
University of Pau and the Adour Region
Université de Pau et des pays de l'Adour
Bordeaux
Paul Valéry Montpellier 3
Paul Valéry University Montpellier 3
Paul Valéry Université Montpellier 3
Montpellier
Perpignan Via Domitia
University of Perpignan Via Domitia
Université de Perpignan Via Domitia
Montpellier
Picardy Jules Verne
University of Picardy Jules Verne
Université de Picardie Jules Verne
Amiens
Poitiers
University of Poitiers
Université de Poitiers
Poitiers
Polytechnic Hauts-de-France
Polytechnic University of Hauts-de-France
Université polytechnique Hauts-de-France
Lille
Rennes 1
University of Rennes 1
Université de Rennes 1
Rennes
Rennes 2
Rennes 2 University
Rennes 2 Université
Rennes
Reims Champagne-Ardenne
University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne
Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne
Reims
Reunion Island
University of Reunion Island
Université de Réunion
Réunion
Rouen Normandy
University of Rouen Normandy
Université de Rouen
Normandy
Savoie Mont Blanc
Université Savoie Mont Blanc
Université Savoie Mont Blanc
Grenoble
Sorbonne
Sorbonne University
Sorbonne Université
Paris
Sorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3
Sorbonne Nouvelle University Paris 3
Sorbonne Nouvelle Université Paris 3
Paris
Sorbonne Paris North
Sorbonne Paris North University
Université Sorbonne-Paris-Nord
Créteil
Southern Brittany
Southern Brittany University
Université de Bretagne Sud
Rennes
Strasbourg
University of Strasbourg
Université de Strasbourg
Strasbourg
Toulon
University of Toulon
Université de Toulon
Nice
Toulouse III
Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier University
Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III
Toulouse
Toulouse 1 Capitole
Toulouse 1 Capitole University
Université Toulouse 1 Capitole
Toulouse
Toulouse-Jean Jaurès
University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès
Université de Toulouse-Jean-Jaurès
Toulouse
Tours
University of Tours
Université de Tours
Orléans and Tours
Upper Alsace
University of Upper Alsace
Université de Haute Alsace
Strasbourg
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines
University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines
Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines
Versailles
Western Brittany
University of Western Brittany
Université de Bretagne Occidentale
Rennes
List of communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France
As of 5 May 2021, there are eight university groups known as COMUEs, or communities of universities and institutions, in France:
vteCommunities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France
Burgundy - Franche-Comté University Group
Federal University of Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées University Group
HESAM University Group
Leonardo da Vinci University Group
Normandy University Group
Paris-Est Sup University Group
Paris Lumières University Group
University of Lyon University Group
Article
French Wikipedia article
Burgundy - Franche-Comté University Group
Université Bourgogne - Franche-Comté
Federal University of Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées University Group
Université fédérale de Toulouse-Midi-Pyrénées
HESAM University Group
Hesam Université
Leonardo da Vinci University Group
Université confédérale Léonard de Vinci
Normandy University Group
Normandie Université
Paris-Est Sup University Group
Paris-Est Sup
Paris Lumières University Group
Université Paris Lumières
University of Lyon University Group
Université de Lyon
List of historical or other universities
Historically, France has had city-wide public university systems:
University of Clermont-Ferrand
University of Paris
University of Grenoble
University of Lyon
Centre universitaire de formation et de recherche de Mayotte
University of Rennes
Université européenne de Bretagne
Louis Pasteur University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)
Marc Bloch University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)
Robert Schuman University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)
University of Toulouse
UniverSud Paris
Lille 1, Lille 2, Lille 3 (now part of the University of Lille)
See also
List of colleges and universities in France
List of colleges and universities by country
Pôle de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur
Grandes écoles
Education in France
Franco-German University
Notes and references
^ "Principal establishments of higher education". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
^ "Principaux établissements d'enseignement supérieur". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
^ "Fédérations - Communautés d'universités et établissements". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
^ French public universities in some cities are commonly spoken of as being multiple campuses of a larger city university system. For instance, the University of Paris system is said to be composed of 13 campuses, Paris I through Paris XIII, and this was the case in 1970. However, this view no longer reflects the reality as of 2007, which is of largely autonomous universities that fall under the academies in ways that do not necessarily respect the old groupings. To take the Paris example, three universities that bear the University of Paris name, Paris VIII, Paris XII, and Paris XIII, are in fact in the Academy of Créteil, and two others, Paris X and Paris XI, are in the Academy of Versailles, whereas the University of Marne la Vallée, which does not have a University of Paris campus number, is governed by the Academy of Paris.
vteFrench scientific research facilitiesUniversity-grade institutes
Universities
Autonomous institutes
Écoles normales supérieures
Grands établissements
Public research institutes
IRSTEA (agriculture)
CNRS (fundamental sciences)
INED (demography)
INRA (agronomy)
IFSTTAR (transports and civil engineering)
INRIA (computer science and control)
INSERM (medicine)
IRD (development)
Public industry
BRGM (geoscience)
CEA (nuclear industry and renewables)
IFREMER (maritime applications)
ONERA (aerospace)
vtePublic universities and higher education institutes in FrancePublic universities in France, by academy
Aix-Marseille
Aix-Marseille
Avignon
Amiens
Verne
Besançon
Franche-Comté
Bordeaux
Bordeaux 1
Segalen
Montaigne
Montesquieu
Pau/Adour
Caen
Caen
Clermont-Ferrand
Auvergne
Pascal
Corsica
Paoli
Créteil
Paris 8
Paris 12
Paris 13
Marne la Vallée
Dijon
Burgundy
French Guiana
French West Indies/Guiana
French Polynesia
French Polynesia
Grenoble
Grenoble Alpes
Savoie Mont Blanc
Lille
Lille
Artois
Littoral
Valenciennes/Hainault-Cambrésis
Limoges
Limoges
Lyon
Bernard
Lumière
Moulin
Monnet
Montpellier
Montpellier 1
Montpellier 2
Valéry
Unîmes
Perpignan
Nancy/Metz
Verlaine
Poincaré
Nancy 2
Nantes
Angers
Maine
Nantes
Nice
Nice
South
Orleans/Tours
Orléans
Rabelais
New Caledonia
New Caledonia
Paris
Panthéon-Sorbonne
Panthéon-Assas
New Sorbonne
Sorbonne
Descartes
Diderot
Poitiers
Poitiers
La Rochelle
Reims
Reims
Rennes
Western Brittany
Southern Brittany
Rennes 1
Upper Brittany
Réunion
Réunion
Rouen
Le Havre
Rouen
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
Upper Alsace
Toulouse
Toulouse 1
Le Mirail
Sabatier
Champollion
Versailles
Cergy-Pontoise
Versailles
Évry
Nanterre
Paris-Sud
Autonomous public higher education institutes
École centrale de Lille
Lyon
Nantes
Marseille
École nationale supérieure des arts et industries textiles
Institut national des sciences appliquées
de Lyon
Rennes
Toulouse
Rouen
Strasbourg
Institut supérieur de mécanique de Paris
Universités de technologie
Compiègne
Belfort-Montbéliard
Troyes
Écoles normales supérieures
Paris
Cachan
Lyon
École Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines
Écoles françaises à l'étranger
Casa de Velázquez
École française d'archéologie d'Athènes
École française d'Extrême-Orient
École française de Rome
Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale
Grands établissements
Collège de France
Conservatoire national des arts et métiers
École centrale Paris
École des hautes études en sciences sociales
École Nationale des Chartes
Arts et Métiers ParisTech
École nationale supérieure des sciences de l'information et des bibliothèques
École pratique des hautes études
Sciences Po
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris
Institut national d'histoire de l'art
Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales
Institut polytechnique de Grenoble
Muséum national d'histoire naturelle
Observatoire de Paris
Palais de la Découverte
Université Paris-Dauphine | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ministry-1"},{"link_name":"Pôles de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4le_de_recherche_et_d%27enseignement_sup%C3%A9rieur"},{"link_name":"list of colleges and universities in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"national polytechnic institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Polytechnic_Institutes_(France)"},{"link_name":"grandes écoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandes_%C3%A9coles"},{"link_name":"universities of technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universities_of_Technology_(France)"},{"link_name":"Catholic universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France#Catholic_universities"},{"link_name":"Protestant universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France#Protestant_universities"},{"link_name":"private secular universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France#Private_secular_universities"},{"link_name":"American University of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France#Other_universities"}],"text":"In France, various types of institution have the term \"University\" in their name. These include the public universities, which are the autonomous institutions that are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education and research that practice open admissions, and that are designated with the label \"Université\" by the French ministry of Higher Education and Research.[1] These also include the communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs), which are degree-granting federated groups of universities and other institutes of higher education. The COMUEs replace the earlier Pôles de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur (PRES), which were groupings of universities and institutes of higher education that existed from 2007 to 2013. As opposed to the PRES, the COMUEs can grant degrees in their own names.Other types of French university-like institutions can be found in the list of colleges and universities in France; these include the national polytechnic institutes, the grandes écoles (among which are the three universities of technology), and private universities, such as the Catholic universities, the Protestant universities, the private secular universities, and the American University of Paris.","title":"Lists of universities in France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_universities_in_France&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Public_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Public_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"Public universities in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#List_of_public_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"Aix-Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-Marseille_University"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon_University"},{"link_name":"Picardy Jules Verne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Picardy_Jules_Verne"},{"link_name":"Franche-Comté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Franche-Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux Montaigne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bordeaux_Montaigne_University"},{"link_name":"Pau and the Adour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pau_and_the_Adour_Region"},{"link_name":"Clermont Auvergne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clermont_Auvergne_University"},{"link_name":"Corsica Pasquale Paoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Corsica_Pasquale_Paoli"},{"link_name":"Gustave Eiffel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Eiffel_University"},{"link_name":"Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_8_University_Vincennes-Saint-Denis"},{"link_name":"Paris-East Créteil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris-East_Cr%C3%A9teil_University"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne Paris North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbonne_Paris_North_University"},{"link_name":"Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"French Guiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_French_Guiana"},{"link_name":"French Polynesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_French_Polynesia"},{"link_name":"Grenoble Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble_Alpes_University"},{"link_name":"Savoie Mont Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Savoie_Mont_Blanc"},{"link_name":"French Antilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_French_Antilles"},{"link_name":"Artois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Artois"},{"link_name":"Lille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lille"},{"link_name":"Littoral Opal Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Littoral_Opal_Coast"},{"link_name":"Polytechnic Hauts-de-France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytechnic_University_of_Hauts-de-France"},{"link_name":"Limoges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Limoges"},{"link_name":"Claude Bernard Lyon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernard_University_Lyon_1"},{"link_name":"Jean Monnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Monnet_University"},{"link_name":"Jean Moulin Lyon 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Moulin_University_Lyon_3"},{"link_name":"Lumière Lyon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8re_University_Lyon_2"},{"link_name":"Montpellier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Montpellier"},{"link_name":"Nîmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_N%C3%AEmes"},{"link_name":"Paul Valéry Montpellier 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry_University_Montpellier_3"},{"link_name":"Perpignan Via Domitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Perpignan_Via_Domitia"},{"link_name":"Angers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Angers"},{"link_name":"Le Mans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mans_University"},{"link_name":"Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nantes"},{"link_name":"New Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_Caledonia"},{"link_name":"Côte d'Azur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Azur_University"},{"link_name":"Toulon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toulon"},{"link_name":"Caen Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Caen_Normandy"},{"link_name":"Le Havre Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Havre_Normandy_University"},{"link_name":"Rouen Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rouen_Normandy"},{"link_name":"Orléans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Orl%C3%A9ans"},{"link_name":"Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"Paris Cité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Paris_Cit%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Paris Sciences et Lettres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Sciences_et_Lettres_University"},{"link_name":"Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_1_Panth%C3%A9on-Sorbonne_University"},{"link_name":"Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_2_Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbonne_University"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbonne_Nouvelle_University_Paris_3"},{"link_name":"La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Rochelle_University"},{"link_name":"Poitiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Poitiers"},{"link_name":"Reims Champagne-Ardenne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reims_Champagne-Ardenne"},{"link_name":"Rennes 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rennes_1"},{"link_name":"Rennes 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennes_2_University"},{"link_name":"Southern Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Brittany_University"},{"link_name":"Western Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Brittany"},{"link_name":"Reunion Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reunion_Island"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Upper Alsace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Upper_Alsace"},{"link_name":"Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse_III_-_Paul_Sabatier_University"},{"link_name":"Toulouse 1 Capitole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse_1_Capitole_University"},{"link_name":"Toulouse-Jean Jaurès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toulouse-Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s"},{"link_name":"CY Cergy Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CY_Cergy_Paris_University"},{"link_name":"Évry Val d'Essonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_%C3%89vry_Val_d%27Essonne"},{"link_name":"Paris Nanterre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Nanterre_University"},{"link_name":"Paris-Saclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris-Saclay_University"},{"link_name":"Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Versailles_Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines"}],"text":"As of 16 February 2021,[update] there are 67 public universities in France:[2]vtePublic universities in France, by academy\nAix-Marseille\nAix-Marseille\nAvignon\nAmiens\nPicardy Jules Verne\nBesançon\nFranche-Comté\nBordeaux\nBordeaux\nBordeaux Montaigne\nPau and the Adour\nClermont-Ferrand\nClermont Auvergne\nCorsica\nCorsica Pasquale Paoli\nCréteil\nGustave Eiffel\nParis 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis\nParis-East Créteil\nSorbonne Paris North\nDijon\nBurgundy\nFrench Guiana\nFrench Guiana\nFrench Polynesia\nFrench Polynesia\nGrenoble\nGrenoble Alps\nSavoie Mont Blanc\nGuadeloupe\nFrench Antilles\nLille\nArtois\nLille\nLittoral Opal Coast\nPolytechnic Hauts-de-France\nLimoges\nLimoges\nLyon\nClaude Bernard Lyon 1\n Jean Monnet\nJean Moulin Lyon 3\nLumière Lyon 2\nMontpellier\nMontpellier\nNîmes\nPaul Valéry Montpellier 3\nPerpignan Via Domitia\nNantes\nAngers\nLe Mans\nNantes\nNew Caledonia\nNew Caledonia\nNice\nCôte d'Azur\nToulon\nNormandy\nCaen Normandy\nLe Havre Normandy\nRouen Normandy\nOrléans and Tours\nOrléans\nTours\nParis\nParis Cité\nParis Sciences et Lettres\nParis 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne\nParis 2 Panthéon-Assas\nSorbonne\nSorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3\nPoitiers\nLa Rochelle\nPoitiers\nReims\nReims Champagne-Ardenne\nRennes\nRennes 1\nRennes 2\nSouthern Brittany\nWestern Brittany\nRéunion\nReunion Island\nStrasbourg\nStrasbourg\nUpper Alsace\nToulouse\nToulouse III - Paul Sabatier\nToulouse 1 Capitole\nToulouse-Jean Jaurès\nVersailles\nCY Cergy Paris\nÉvry Val d'Essonne\nParis Nanterre\nParis-Saclay\nVersailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines","title":"List of public universities in France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communities of universities and institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_universities_and_higher_education_institutions"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Communities_of_universities_and_institutions_(France)"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Communities_of_universities_and_institutions_(France)"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communities_of_universities_and_institutions_(France)"},{"link_name":"Communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#List_of_communities_of_universities_and_institutions_(COMUEs)_in_France"},{"link_name":"Burgundy - Franche-Comté University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundy_-_Franche-Comt%C3%A9_University_Group"},{"link_name":"Federal University of Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Toulouse_Midi-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es_University_Group"},{"link_name":"HESAM University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HESAM_University_Group"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci_University_Group"},{"link_name":"Normandy University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_University_Group"},{"link_name":"Paris-Est Sup University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris-Est_Sup_University_Group"},{"link_name":"Paris Lumières University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Lumi%C3%A8res_University_Group"},{"link_name":"University of Lyon University Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lyon_University_Group"}],"text":"As of 5 May 2021, there are eight university groups known as COMUEs, or communities of universities and institutions, in France:[3]vteCommunities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France\nBurgundy - Franche-Comté University Group\nFederal University of Toulouse Midi-Pyrénées University Group\nHESAM University Group\nLeonardo da Vinci University Group\nNormandy University Group\nParis-Est Sup University Group\nParis Lumières University Group\nUniversity of Lyon University Group","title":"List of communities of universities and institutions (COMUEs) in France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"university systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_system"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"University of Clermont-Ferrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Clermont-Ferrand"},{"link_name":"University of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"University of Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Grenoble"},{"link_name":"University of Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lyon"},{"link_name":"Centre universitaire de formation et de recherche de Mayotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centre_universitaire_de_formation_et_de_recherche_de_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_universitaire_de_formation_et_de_recherche_de_Mayotte"},{"link_name":"University of Rennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rennes"},{"link_name":"Université européenne de Bretagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_europ%C3%A9enne_de_Bretagne"},{"link_name":"Louis Pasteur University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur_University"},{"link_name":"University of Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Marc Bloch University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Bloch_University"},{"link_name":"University of Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Robert Schuman University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Robert_Schuman"},{"link_name":"University of Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"University of Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toulouse"},{"link_name":"UniverSud Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniverSud_Paris"},{"link_name":"Lille 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lille_University_of_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"Lille 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lille_2_University_of_Health_and_Law"},{"link_name":"Lille 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle_University_%E2%80%93_Lille_III"},{"link_name":"University of Lille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Lille"}],"text":"Historically, France has had city-wide public university systems:[4]University of Clermont-Ferrand\nUniversity of Paris\nUniversity of Grenoble\nUniversity of Lyon\nCentre universitaire de formation et de recherche de Mayotte [fr]\nUniversity of Rennes\nUniversité européenne de Bretagne\nLouis Pasteur University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)\nMarc Bloch University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)\nRobert Schuman University (now part of the University of Strasbourg)\nUniversity of Toulouse\nUniverSud Paris\nLille 1, Lille 2, Lille 3 (now part of the University of Lille)","title":"List of historical or other universities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ministry_1-0"},{"link_name":"\"Principal establishments of higher education\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/explore/dataset/fr-esr-principaux-etablissements-enseignement-superieur/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Principaux établissements d'enseignement supérieur\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/explore/dataset/fr-esr-principaux-etablissements-enseignement-superieur/information/?disjunctive.type_d_etablissement&disjunctive.typologie_d_universites_et_assimiles&refine.type_d_etablissement=Universit%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Fédérations - Communautés d'universités et établissements\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid148417/www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid148417/federations-communautes-d-universites-et-etablissements.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"University of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Academy of Créteil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Academy_of_Cr%C3%A9teil"},{"link_name":"Academy of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Academy_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"Academy of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Academy_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Scientific_research_in_France"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Scientific_research_in_France"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientific_research_in_France"},{"link_name":"University-grade institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_public_%C3%A0_caract%C3%A8re_scientifique,_culturel_et_professionnel"},{"link_name":"Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France"},{"link_name":"Autonomous institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_public_%C3%A0_caract%C3%A8re_scientifique,_culturel_et_professionnel#Different_types_of_EPSCP"},{"link_name":"Écoles normales supérieures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure"},{"link_name":"Grands établissements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grands_%C3%A9tablissements"},{"link_name":"Public research institutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Public_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Establishment"},{"link_name":"IRSTEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_de_recherche_en_sciences_et_technologies_pour_l%27environnement_et_l%27agriculture"},{"link_name":"CNRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_National_Centre_for_Scientific_Research"},{"link_name":"INED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_d%C3%A9mographiques"},{"link_name":"INRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_de_la_recherche_agronomique"},{"link_name":"IFSTTAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFSTTAR"},{"link_name":"INRIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Institute_for_Research_in_Computer_Science_and_Automation"},{"link_name":"INSERM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inserm"},{"link_name":"IRD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Institute_for_Development"},{"link_name":"Public industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_public_%C3%A0_caract%C3%A8re_industriel_et_commercial"},{"link_name":"BRGM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_de_Recherches_G%C3%A9ologiques_et_Mini%C3%A8res"},{"link_name":"CEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"IFREMER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFREMER"},{"link_name":"ONERA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ONERA"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Public_universities_and_higher_education_institutes_in_France"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Public_universities_and_higher_education_institutes_in_France"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_universities_and_higher_education_institutes_in_France"},{"link_name":"Aix-Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Aix_and_Marseille"},{"link_name":"Aix-Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-Marseille_University"},{"link_name":"Avignon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Avignon"},{"link_name":"Amiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Amiens"},{"link_name":"Verne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Picardie_Jules_Verne"},{"link_name":"Besançon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Besan%C3%A7on"},{"link_name":"Franche-Comté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Franche-Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Bordeaux"},{"link_name":"Bordeaux 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1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Montpellier_1"},{"link_name":"Montpellier 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpellier_2_University"},{"link_name":"Valéry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry_University,_Montpellier_III"},{"link_name":"Unîmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_N%C3%AEmes"},{"link_name":"Perpignan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Perpignan_Via_Domitia"},{"link_name":"Nancy/Metz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Nancy_and_Metz"},{"link_name":"Verlaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Verlaine_University_-_Metz"},{"link_name":"Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9_University"},{"link_name":"Nancy 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Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_New_Caledonia"},{"link_name":"New Caledonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_Caledonia"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"Panthéon-Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris_1_Pantheon-Sorbonne"},{"link_name":"Panthéon-Assas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on-Assas_University"},{"link_name":"New Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris_III:_Sorbonne_Nouvelle"},{"link_name":"Sorbonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbonne_University"},{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Descartes_University"},{"link_name":"Diderot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Diderot_University"},{"link_name":"Poitiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Poitiers"},{"link_name":"Poitiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Poitiers"},{"link_name":"La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_La_Rochelle"},{"link_name":"Reims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Reims"},{"link_name":"Reims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reims_Champagne-Ardenne"},{"link_name":"Rennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Rennes"},{"link_name":"Western Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Brittany"},{"link_name":"Southern Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southern_Brittany"},{"link_name":"Rennes 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rennes_1"},{"link_name":"Upper Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rennes_2_-_Upper_Brittany"},{"link_name":"Réunion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_R%C3%A9union"},{"link_name":"Réunion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_La_R%C3%A9union"},{"link_name":"Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Rouen"},{"link_name":"Le Havre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Le_Havre"},{"link_name":"Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Rouen"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France_by_academy#Academy_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Upper Alsace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Alsace_University"},{"link_name":"Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Toulouse"},{"link_name":"Toulouse 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse_1_University_Social_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Le Mirail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toulouse_II_-_Le_Mirail"},{"link_name":"Sabatier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Sabatier_University"},{"link_name":"Champollion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion_University_Center_for_Teaching_and_Research"},{"link_name":"Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_universities_in_France#Academy_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"Cergy-Pontoise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cergy-Pontoise_University"},{"link_name":"Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versailles_Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines_University"},{"link_name":"Évry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_%C3%89vry_Val_d%27Essonne"},{"link_name":"Nanterre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_X_University_Nanterre"},{"link_name":"Paris-Sud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris-Sud_11_University"},{"link_name":"École centrale de Lille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_centrale_de_Lille"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_centrale_de_Lyon"},{"link_name":"Nantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_centrale_de_Nantes"},{"link_name":"Marseille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_centrale_de_Marseille"},{"link_name":"École nationale supérieure des arts et industries textiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENSAIT"},{"link_name":"Institut national des sciences appliquées","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_des_sciences_appliqu%C3%A9es"},{"link_name":"de Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_des_sciences_appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Lyon"},{"link_name":"Rennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_National_des_Sciences_Appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Rennes"},{"link_name":"Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_National_des_Sciences_Appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Toulouse"},{"link_name":"Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_National_des_Sciences_Appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Rouen"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_des_sciences_appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Strasbourg"},{"link_name":"Institut supérieur de mécanique de Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supmeca"},{"link_name":"Compiègne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_technologie_de_Compi%C3%A8gne"},{"link_name":"Belfort-Montbéliard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_de_technologie_de_Belfort-Montb%C3%A9liard"},{"link_name":"Troyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Technology_of_Troyes"},{"link_name":"Écoles normales supérieures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_normale_sup%C3%A9rieure_(rue_d%27Ulm)"},{"link_name":"Cachan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure_de_Cachan"},{"link_name":"Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure_de_Lyon"},{"link_name":"École Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure_Lettres_et_Sciences_Humaines"},{"link_name":"Casa de Velázquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_de_Vel%C3%A1zquez"},{"link_name":"École française d'archéologie d'Athènes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_d%27Ath%C3%A8nes"},{"link_name":"École française d'Extrême-Orient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient"},{"link_name":"École française de Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_de_Rome"},{"link_name":"Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Fran%C3%A7ais_d%27Arch%C3%A9ologie_Orientale"},{"link_name":"Grands établissements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_%C3%A9tablissement"},{"link_name":"Collège de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France"},{"link_name":"Conservatoire national des arts et métiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatoire_national_des_arts_et_m%C3%A9tiers"},{"link_name":"École centrale Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_centrale_Paris"},{"link_name":"École des hautes études en sciences sociales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_hautes_%C3%A9tudes_en_sciences_sociales"},{"link_name":"École Nationale des Chartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Nationale_des_Chartes"},{"link_name":"Arts et Métiers ParisTech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_et_M%C3%A9tiers_ParisTech"},{"link_name":"École nationale supérieure des sciences de l'information et des bibliothèques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_sciences_de_l%27information_et_des_biblioth%C3%A8ques"},{"link_name":"École pratique des hautes études","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_pratique_des_hautes_%C3%A9tudes"},{"link_name":"Sciences Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences_Po"},{"link_name":"Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_Physique_du_Globe_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Institut national d'histoire de l'art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_d%27histoire_de_l%27art"},{"link_name":"Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_national_des_langues_et_civilisations_orientales"},{"link_name":"Institut polytechnique de Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_polytechnique_de_Grenoble"},{"link_name":"Muséum national d'histoire naturelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9um_national_d%27histoire_naturelle"},{"link_name":"Observatoire de Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatoire_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"Palais de la Découverte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_de_la_D%C3%A9couverte"},{"link_name":"Université Paris-Dauphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Paris-Dauphine"}],"text":"^ \"Principal establishments of higher education\". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. Retrieved 24 July 2015.\n\n^ \"Principaux établissements d'enseignement supérieur\". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. Retrieved 18 April 2021.\n\n^ \"Fédérations - Communautés d'universités et établissements\". French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 6 April 2022.\n\n^ French public universities in some cities are commonly spoken of as being multiple campuses of a larger city university system. For instance, the University of Paris system is said to be composed of 13 campuses, Paris I through Paris XIII, and this was the case in 1970. However, this view no longer reflects the reality as of 2007, which is of largely autonomous universities that fall under the academies in ways that do not necessarily respect the old groupings. To take the Paris example, three universities that bear the University of Paris name, Paris VIII, Paris XII, and Paris XIII, are in fact in the Academy of Créteil, and two others, Paris X and Paris XI, are in the Academy of Versailles, whereas the University of Marne la Vallée, which does not have a University of Paris campus number, is governed by the Academy of Paris.vteFrench scientific research facilitiesUniversity-grade institutes\nUniversities\nAutonomous institutes\nÉcoles normales supérieures\nGrands établissements\nPublic research institutes\nIRSTEA (agriculture)\nCNRS (fundamental sciences)\nINED (demography)\nINRA (agronomy)\nIFSTTAR (transports and civil engineering)\nINRIA (computer science and control)\nINSERM (medicine)\nIRD (development)\nPublic industry\nBRGM (geoscience)\nCEA (nuclear industry and renewables)\nIFREMER (maritime applications)\nONERA (aerospace)vtePublic universities and higher education institutes in FrancePublic universities in France, by academy\nAix-Marseille\nAix-Marseille\nAvignon\nAmiens\nVerne\nBesançon\nFranche-Comté\nBordeaux\nBordeaux 1\nSegalen\nMontaigne\nMontesquieu\nPau/Adour\nCaen\nCaen\nClermont-Ferrand\nAuvergne\nPascal\nCorsica\nPaoli\nCréteil\nParis 8\nParis 12\nParis 13\nMarne la Vallée\nDijon\nBurgundy\nFrench Guiana\nFrench West Indies/Guiana\nFrench Polynesia\nFrench Polynesia\nGrenoble\nGrenoble Alpes\nSavoie Mont Blanc\nLille\nLille\nArtois\nLittoral\nValenciennes/Hainault-Cambrésis\nLimoges\nLimoges\nLyon\nBernard\nLumière\nMoulin\nMonnet\nMontpellier\nMontpellier 1\nMontpellier 2\nValéry\nUnîmes\nPerpignan\nNancy/Metz\nVerlaine\nPoincaré\nNancy 2\nNantes\nAngers\nMaine\nNantes\nNice\nNice\nSouth\nOrleans/Tours\nOrléans\nRabelais\nNew Caledonia\nNew Caledonia\nParis\nPanthéon-Sorbonne\nPanthéon-Assas\nNew Sorbonne\nSorbonne\nDescartes\nDiderot\nPoitiers\nPoitiers\nLa Rochelle\nReims\nReims\nRennes\nWestern Brittany\nSouthern Brittany\nRennes 1\nUpper Brittany\nRéunion\nRéunion\nRouen\nLe Havre\nRouen\nStrasbourg\nStrasbourg\nUpper Alsace\nToulouse\nToulouse 1\nLe Mirail\nSabatier\nChampollion\nVersailles\nCergy-Pontoise\nVersailles\nÉvry\nNanterre\nParis-Sud\nAutonomous public higher education institutes\nÉcole centrale de Lille\nLyon\nNantes\nMarseille\nÉcole nationale supérieure des arts et industries textiles\nInstitut national des sciences appliquées\nde Lyon\nRennes\nToulouse\nRouen\nStrasbourg\nInstitut supérieur de mécanique de Paris\nUniversités de technologie\nCompiègne\nBelfort-Montbéliard\nTroyes\nÉcoles normales supérieures\nParis\nCachan\nLyon\nÉcole Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines\nÉcoles françaises à l'étranger\nCasa de Velázquez\nÉcole française d'archéologie d'Athènes\nÉcole française d'Extrême-Orient\nÉcole française de Rome\nInstitut Français d'Archéologie Orientale\nGrands établissements\nCollège de France\nConservatoire national des arts et métiers\nÉcole centrale Paris\nÉcole des hautes études en sciences sociales\nÉcole Nationale des Chartes\nArts et Métiers ParisTech\nÉcole nationale supérieure des sciences de l'information et des bibliothèques\nÉcole pratique des hautes études\nSciences Po\nInstitut de Physique du Globe de Paris\nInstitut national d'histoire de l'art\nInstitut national des langues et civilisations orientales\nInstitut polytechnique de Grenoble\nMuséum national d'histoire naturelle\nObservatoire de Paris\nPalais de la Découverte\nUniversité Paris-Dauphine","title":"Notes and references"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of colleges and universities in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France"},{"title":"List of colleges and universities by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_by_country"},{"title":"Pôle de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B4le_de_recherche_et_d%27enseignement_sup%C3%A9rieur"},{"title":"Grandes écoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandes_%C3%A9coles"},{"title":"Education in France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_France"},{"title":"Franco-German University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-German_University"}] | [{"reference":"\"Principal establishments of higher education\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_mythology | Scottish mythology | ["1 Nature myths","1.1 Great Mother","2 National mythology","3 Ulster Cycle","4 Finn and Fianna","5 Hebridean myths and legends","6 Orkney and Shetland folklore","7 Religious mythology","8 Loch Ness Monster","9 Arthurian legend","10 See also","11 References","12 Further reading","13 External links"] | Mythologies of Scotland
Part of a series onCeltic mythologies
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Kings' Cycles
Mabinogion
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Motifs
Otherworld
Beheading game
Champion's portion
Geas
Imbas
Sovereignty goddess/Loathly lady
Magic mist
Niskai
Sacred trees
Shapeshifting
Silver Branch
Threefold death
Wasteland
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Category
Mythology portalvte
Scottish mythology is the collection of myths that have emerged throughout the history of Scotland, sometimes being elaborated upon by successive generations, and at other times being rejected and replaced by other explanatory narratives.
Nature myths
The Corryvreckan whirlpool
The myths and legends of Scotland have a "local colour" as they tell about the way of life during the olden times, apart from giving a perspective of the nature of the country during various seasons of the year. It was the belief that Beira, the Queen of Winter, had a firm hold on the country by raising storms during January and February thus preventing greenery to emerge. She was considered a tough and brutal old woman who stirred the deadly spiraling action of Corryvreckan, ushering snow, as well as torrents resulting in the overflow of rivers. Even the creation of lochs and mountains were attributed to her.
Scottish mythology is not like the Greek and Roman myths as it deals with various aspects of nature. In this context the most powerful and feared goddess representing winter is Beira who rules winter for its entire duration. On Beltane she readily concedes to Brighid, who enjoys power until Samhain. This myth is akin to the popular myth of the Mayans and deals with female power in the "creation and the cycle of the year". However, Donald Mackenzie in his book Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend states that the goddesses of the Scottish myths are not glorified, very much unlike the goddesses of ancient Greece.
The rivers in Scotland were considered the dwelling places of goddesses with their characteristic denoting the nature of the river, such as the River Forth being called "deaf or soundless river" on account of its silent flow conditions, and the River Clyde called as "the purifying river" as it caused scouring and cleansing, carrying "mud and clay" during the flood season.
Great Mother
Ceann Caillí ('Hag's Head'), the southernmost tip of the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare. One of many locations named for the Cailleach The Celtic goddesses were authoritative and were associated with female fertility as related to female divinity and earth. In olden times the Celtics land and national societies were both linked with the body of the goddess (also attributed as "tribal goddess") and her representative on earth was the queen. Another "ambivalent" character in Scottish myths was the "hag", the Goddess, the Gaelic Cailleach, and the Giantess, a divine being who is harmful. The hag is also considered a "healer" and helpful during childbirth and is divine and said to have "long ancestry and incredible longevity". She is also known as "at once creator and destroyer, gentle and fierce, mother and nurturer".
National mythology
Several origin legends for the Scots arose during the historical period, serving various purposes.
One Scottish origin legend, or pseudo-historical account of the foundation of the Scottish people, appears in adapted form in the tenth-century Latin Life of St. Cathróe of Metz. It relates that settlers from Greek Asia Minor sailed the seas and arrived at Cruachan Feli "the mountain of Ireland", probably for Cruachan Éli (Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo), a well-known place in Hiberno-Latin hagiography since Tírechán's Collectanea. As they roamed through Ireland, from Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Kildare to Cork, and finally, to Bangor, they were continually engaged at war with the Pictanei. After some time, they crossed the Irish Sea to invade Caledonia North of Roman Britain, successively capturing Iona, the cities of Rigmhonath and Bellathor in the process. The latter places are echoed by the appearance of Cinnrígmonaid and Cinnbelathoir in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba. The territory so conquered was then named Scotia after Scota, the Egyptian wife of Spartan commander Nél or Niul, and St. Patrick converted the people to Christianity.
Once the Picts adopted Gaelic culture and their actual characteristics faded out of memory, folkloric elements filled the gaps of history. Their "sudden disappearance" was explained as a slaughter happening at a banquet given by Kenneth MacAlpin (an international folklore motif) and they were ascribed with powers like those of the fairies, brewing heather from secret recipes and living in underground chambers. In the eighteenth century the Picts were co-opted as a "Germanic" race.
Callanish Standing stones
In the Celtic domains of Scotland, also known as Gàidhealtachd, there were ancient pre-Christian structures. In the farthest end of northwest Scotland there are standing stones at Callanish on the Isle of Lewis, in a vertical position, which are akin to the Stonehenge; these are believed to be older than Stonehenge and are standing for more than 5000 years and said to be denoting sun worship.
Ulster Cycle
Main article: Ulster Cycle
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Because of the movement of people from Ulster to west Scotland, which resulted in close linguistic links between Ulster and the west of Scotland, much of Gaelic mythology was imported to Scotland, and possibly some of it was composed in Scotland. The Ulster Cycle, set around the beginning of the Christian era, consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, the great hero Cúchulainn, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the Ulaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at Emain Macha, close to the modern city of Armagh. The Ulaid had close links with Gaelic Scotland, where Cúchulainn is said to have learned the arts of war.
The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written for the most part in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son, Fled Bricrenn "Bricriu's Feast", and Togail Bruidne Dá Derga "The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel". This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle of the rest of the Gaelic speaking world. Some characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While it may be supposed that a few characters, such as Medb or Cú Roí, once were deities—Cúchulainn in particular displaying superhuman prowess—the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. Scottish Gaelic adaptations of Ulster Cycle tales appear in the Glenmasan manuscript.
Finn and Fianna
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The stories of Finn (Old, Middle, Modern Irish: Find, Finn, Fionn) mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers the Fianna, appear to be set around the 3rd century in Gaelic Ireland and Scotland. They differ from other Gaelic mythological cycles in the strength of their links with the Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in verse and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic.
The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the Acallam na Senórach (Colloquy of the Ancients), which is found in two 15th-century manuscripts, the Book of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th-century manuscript from Killiney, County Dublin. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and Saint Patrick and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories, the same oral tradition which was interpreted from Gaelic to English by James Macpherson in the Ossian stories.
The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionnghall, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, Goll mac Morna. Goll killed Fionnghall's father, Cumhal, in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Gaelic tales, Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne) and Oisin in Tír na nÓg form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of Tristan and Iseult.
The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. There is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.
Hebridean myths and legends
Main article: Hebridean Myths and Legends
The Blue men of the Minch (also known as storm kelpies), who occupy the stretch of water between Lewis and mainland Scotland, looking for sailors to drown and stricken boats to sink.
Kelpies are fabled water-spirits in the Lowland Scotland which are said to assume different shapes. Normally, they appear in the form of a horse. There is another spirit known as water-kelpie which reportedly "haunts" lakes and rivers, and indulge in drowning people. It is also reported to help running mills during night hours. Kelpies are known for standing besides the shore side of lochs and rivers appearing to be calm and approachable waiting for their victim to hop on their back in hopes to cross the waters. A Kelpies can also take on the appearance of a beautiful young woman to lure young men in to devour them. One of the more commonly known story of the Kelpies is that of ten children a Kelpie tried to lure to their death. The mystic water spirit was able to get nine of them on their back, when the tenth child pet the horse’s nose his fingers became stuck to the horse fur as if magic had bonded them together. The child was able to free himself by cutting of his fingers before the horse drug all of its victims to their watery grave. Today in Falkirk, Scotland stands the largest equine structure in the world, two horse heads stand 30 meters high to represent the Kelpies that watch over the bodies of water in Scotland and to represent the horse-powered industrial heritage within the country.
Seonaidh was a Celtic water-spirit which the residents of Lewis used to worship with offer of a glass of ale. According to Dr. Martin, one night the people of Lewis appeased Seonaidh. They assembled at the church of St. Mulway, each person carried food and necessities needed for the worship. Then, from the bag of malt collected from each family, ale was brewed. Then a chosen member of the congregation waded into the sea to waist deep level holding the ale filled cup, and offered ale to Seonaidh with the prayer: "I give thee this cup of ale, hoping that thou wilt be so good as to send us plenty of seaware for enriching our ground during the coming year". This event occurred in the night. After performing the offering the person who made the offering returned to the beach, and all the assembled people moved to the church where at the altar a lighted candle was shining. After some time, when the time was appropriate, the candle was put out. The inhabitants then assembled in a field behind the church and celebrated by drinking ale. They then went back home with the hope that they would be blessed with a surfeit of crops in the coming season.
Changeling is a fairy tale in which a fairy abducts a baby from the crib and then substitutes with another fairy. It is usually normal and grown up though it appears like a child.
Orkney and Shetland folklore
Selkies are said to live as seals in the sea but shed their skin to become human on land, often to dance in the light of the full moon. If they lose their skin whilst in human form, they will however, be stuck in their human form forever. When taking human form they are said to have beautiful green hair. They will often reside on rocks and islands that are hidden among the waves, in order to protect themselves from humans. Selkies are mortal creatures. The legend is apparently most common in Orkney and Shetland and is very similar to those of swan maidens.
Religious mythology
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Myth is sometimes an aspect of folklore, but not all myth is folklore, nor is all folklore myth or mythological. People who express an interest in mythology are often most focused on non-human (sometimes referred to as "supernatural") beings. There have been numerous groups of such entities in Scottish culture, some of them specific to particular ethnic groups (Gaelic, Norse, Germanic, etc.), others of them probably evolving from the circumstances unique to Scotland.
The Aos-sídhe, Sìdhichean, or "Fairies" were originally the pre-Christian divinities of Gaelic Scotland. Christianity began to supersede most original mythology, causing the myths to diminish in power and prominence. The medieval Gaelic literati grouped them together as the Tuatha Dé Danann, who share certain characteristics with other characters in Celtic literature. Folk beliefs about the Banshee also reflect aspects of these beings. There are other supernatural beings whose characteristics reflect folkloric patterns from around the world. Ancestral spirits, and giants who help to form the landscape and represent the forces of nature, are ubiquitous and may point to non-elite registers of mythology.
Loch Ness Monster
Main article: Loch Ness Monster
Loch Ness, the loch in Scotland in which the monster was reported to have been sighted
The Loch Ness Monster is a legendary aquatic creature reported from many sightings over many years. A popular belief is that the monster is a lone survivor of the "long-extinct plesiosaurs". Although the sighting of the monster was reported as far back as the 6th century, in recent times the sightings were reported once the road around the loch was built. The first reporting of sighting of Nessie on land was about 20 yards from the loch as the monster was approaching towards the loch; it was seen by Spicer and his wife on 22 July 1933. In April 1934 a photograph was taken by a London surgeon when he was traveling to Inverness but its authenticity has been disputed. Sightings were even reported during the World War II days in May 1943 by C.B. Farrel of the Royal Observer Corps.
Loch Ness measures 22+1⁄2 miles (36 kilometres) and has a width of 1+1⁄2 miles (2.5 kilometres) at the widest. Its depth is 754 feet (230 metres) and the bed of the loch is flat like a "bowling green". The Loch's volume is the largest in Great Britain.
The first reported sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in 565 AD. The Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he came across the locals burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man had been swimming the river when he was attacked by a "water beast" that had mauled him and dragged him under. They tried to rescue him in a boat, but were able only to drag up his corpse. Hearing this, Columba stunned the Picts by sending his follower Luigne moccu Min to swim across the river. The beast came after him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and commanded: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once." The beast immediately halted as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and fled in terror, and both Columba's men and the pagan Picts praised God for the miracle.
Arthurian legend
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Arthurian mythology native to Scotland can be found in oral traditions. An example is the Scots Gaelic song 'Am Bròn Binn' (The Sweet Sorrow), which has been called "an Arthurian ballad in Scottish Gaelic". In Arthurian legend Mordred, nephew of King Arthur, was raised in Orkney and it is speculated that Camelon in Stirlingshire may have been the original 'Camelot'. There is a tradition that Arthur had a Scottish son called Smervie More.
See also
Scotland portal
Glenmasan manuscript
Hebridean Myths and Legends
Horseman's Word
Second sight
References
Citations
^ Mackenzie 1997, p. 9-10.
^ McNeill, F. Marian (1959). The Silver Bough, Vol.2: A Calendar of Scottish National Festivals, Candlemas to Harvest Home. William MacLellan. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-85335-162-7.
^ Tekin 2012, p. 72.
^ Mackenzie 1997, p. 12.
^ Germanà 2010, p. 63.
^ Dumville, "St Cathróe of Metz." 174-6; Reimann or Ousmann, De S. Cadroe abbate §§ II-V.
^ McLoughlin & Pinnock 2002, p. 379.
^ "kelpie". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 21 September 2015. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^ "The Kelpie, Mythical Scottish Water Horse". Historic UK. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
^ Armstrong 1825, p. 501.
^ Baughman 1966, p. 212.
^ Westwood, Jennifer & Kingshill, Sophia (2011). The Lore of Scotland: A guide to Scottish legends. Arrow Books. pp. 404–405. ISBN 9780099547167.
^ Monaghan, Patricia (2009). The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing. p. 411. ISBN 978-1438110370.
^ "Loch Ness monster Legendary creature". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
^ "Searching for Nessie". Official website of Loch Ness Organization. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
^ "Legend of Loch Ness". Official website of Loch Ness Organization. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
^ "Loch Ness: Lake, Scotland, United Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
^ Garves, Dan. "Columba Encountered Loch Ness Monster". christianity.com. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
^ Gowans, Linda (1992). Am Bròn Binn: An Arthurian Ballad in Scottish Gaelic. Eastbourne: Published by the author. ISBN 9780951940808.
^ Gibb, Alexander (1904). The Stirling Antiquary: Reprinted from "The Stirling Sentinel," 1888-. Stirling: Cook & Wylie. p. 360.
^ Fettes, Miranda (13 July 2004). . Evening News . p. 14. Retrieved 3 March 2022. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
Bibliography
Armstrong, Robert Archibald (1825). A Gaelic Dictionary: In Two Parts I. Guelic and English. – II. English and Gaelic.
Baughman, Ernest W. (1966). Type and Motif-Index of the Folktales of England and North America. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-140277-2.
Dumville, D.N. "St Cathróe of Metz and the hagiography of exoticism." In Studies in Irish Hagiography. Saints and scholars, ed. John Carey, Máire Herbert and Pádraig Ó Riain. Dublin, 2001. 172–88.
Germanà, Monica (2010). Scottish Women's Gothic and Fantastic Writing: Fiction Since 1978. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3764-5.
Mackenzie, Donald Alexander (1997). Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-29677-7.
McLoughlin, William; Pinnock, Jill (2002). Mary for Earth and Heaven: Papers on Mary and Ecumenism Given at International Congresses of the Ecumenical Society of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Leeds (1998) and Oxford (2000) and Conferences at Woldingham (1997) and Maynooth (2001). Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-556-3.
Reimann or Ousmann, De S. Cadroe abbate, ed. John Colgan, Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae, Vol. 1. pp. 494 ff; in part reprinted by W.F. Skene, Chronicles of the Picts, Chronicles of the Scots. pp. 106–116; ed. the Bollandists, Acta Sanctorum. 1865. 1 March, 473-80 (incomplete); ed. and tr. A.O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500 to 1286. (from Colgan's edition, pp. 495–7). No full translation has appeared to this date.
Saxby, Jessie M. (1932). Shetland Traditional Lore. Grant & Murray.
Tekin, Inci Bilgin (1 February 2012). Myths of Oppression: Revisited in Cherrie Moraga's and Liz Lochhead's Drama. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-3-8382-6308-3.
Further reading
Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 1-84158-207-7
Carmichael, Alexander (1992) Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations (with illustrative notes on wards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the highlands and islands of Scotland by Alexander Carmichael). Hudson, NY, Lindisfarne. ISBN 0-940262-50-9
Robert Chambers (1842) Popular Rhymes, Fireside Stories, & Amusements of Scotland.
Lizanne Henderson and Edward J. Cowan, Scottish Fairy Belief: A History (Edinburgh, 2001; 2007)
McNeill, F. Marian (1959). The Silver Bough, Vol. 1-4. Glasgow, William MacLellan
Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition. Berkeley, University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05284-6
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mythology of Scotland.
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^ Harris, Jason Marc (2009). "Perilous Shores: The Unfathomable Supernaturalism of Water in 19th-Century Scottish Folklore". Mythlore. 28 (1/2 (107/108)): 5–25. ISSN 0146-9339.
^ Hutton, Ronald (2011). "Witch-Hunting in Celtic Societies". Past & Present (212): 43–71. ISSN 0031-2746.
^ Parker, Harbison (1947). "The "Clerk Colvill" Mermaid". The Journal of American Folklore. 60 (237): 265–285. doi:10.2307/536380. ISSN 0021-8715. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"myths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_mythology"},{"link_name":"history of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Scotland"}],"text":"Scottish mythology is the collection of myths that have emerged throughout the history of Scotland, sometimes being elaborated upon by successive generations, and at other times being rejected and replaced by other explanatory narratives.","title":"Scottish mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corryvreckan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Corryvreckan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Corryvreckan"},{"link_name":"Beira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beira_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Corryvreckan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Corryvreckan"},{"link_name":"lochs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lochs"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie19979-10-1"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_myths"},{"link_name":"Roman myths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_myths"},{"link_name":"Beira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailleach"},{"link_name":"Beltane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltane"},{"link_name":"Brighid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighid"},{"link_name":"Samhain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samhain"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McNeill-2"},{"link_name":"Mayans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayans"},{"link_name":"Donald Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Alexander_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETekin201272-3"},{"link_name":"River Forth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Forth"},{"link_name":"River Clyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Clyde"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMackenzie199712-4"}],"text":"The Corryvreckan whirlpoolThe myths and legends of Scotland have a \"local colour\" as they tell about the way of life during the olden times, apart from giving a perspective of the nature of the country during various seasons of the year. It was the belief that Beira, the Queen of Winter, had a firm hold on the country by raising storms during January and February thus preventing greenery to emerge. She was considered a tough and brutal old woman who stirred the deadly spiraling action of Corryvreckan, ushering snow, as well as torrents resulting in the overflow of rivers. Even the creation of lochs and mountains were attributed to her.[1]Scottish mythology is not like the Greek and Roman myths as it deals with various aspects of nature. In this context the most powerful and feared goddess representing winter is Beira who rules winter for its entire duration. On Beltane she readily concedes to Brighid, who enjoys power until Samhain.[2] This myth is akin to the popular myth of the Mayans and deals with female power in the \"creation and the cycle of the year\". However, Donald Mackenzie in his book Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend states that the goddesses of the Scottish myths are not glorified, very much unlike the goddesses of ancient Greece.[3]The rivers in Scotland were considered the dwelling places of goddesses with their characteristic denoting the nature of the river, such as the River Forth being called \"deaf or soundless river\" on account of its silent flow conditions, and the River Clyde called as \"the purifying river\" as it caused scouring and cleansing, carrying \"mud and clay\" during the flood season.[4]","title":"Nature myths"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lightmatter_cliffs_of_moher_in_County_Clare_Ireland.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cliffs of Moher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliffs_of_Moher"},{"link_name":"County Clare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Clare"},{"link_name":"Celtic goddesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_goddesses"},{"link_name":"Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels"},{"link_name":"Cailleach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailleach"},{"link_name":"Giantess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giantess"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerman%C3%A0201063-5"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"sub_title":"Great Mother","text":"Ceann Caillí ('Hag's Head'), the southernmost tip of the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare. One of many locations named for the CailleachThe Celtic goddesses were authoritative and were associated with female fertility as related to female divinity and earth. In olden times the Celtics land and national societies were both linked with the body of the goddess (also attributed as \"tribal goddess\") and her representative on earth was the queen. Another \"ambivalent\" character in Scottish myths was the \"hag\", the Goddess, the Gaelic Cailleach, and the Giantess, a divine being who is harmful. The hag is also considered a \"healer\" and helpful during childbirth and is divine and said to have \"long ancestry and incredible longevity\". She is also known as \"at once creator and destroyer, gentle and fierce, mother and nurturer\".[5][better source needed]","title":"Nature myths"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cathróe of Metz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathr%C3%B3e_of_Metz"},{"link_name":"Croagh Patrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croagh_Patrick"},{"link_name":"Tírechán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADrech%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Chronicle of the Kings of Alba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_Kings_of_Alba"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Picts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picts"},{"link_name":"Kenneth MacAlpin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_MacAlpin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Callanish_standing_stones_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Callanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callanish"},{"link_name":"Isle of Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Lewis"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlinPinnock2002379-7"}],"text":"Several origin legends for the Scots arose during the historical period, serving various purposes.One Scottish origin legend, or pseudo-historical account of the foundation of the Scottish people, appears in adapted form in the tenth-century Latin Life of St. Cathróe of Metz. It relates that settlers from Greek Asia Minor sailed the seas and arrived at Cruachan Feli \"the mountain of Ireland\", probably for Cruachan Éli (Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo), a well-known place in Hiberno-Latin hagiography since Tírechán's Collectanea. As they roamed through Ireland, from Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Kildare to Cork, and finally, to Bangor, they were continually engaged at war with the Pictanei. After some time, they crossed the Irish Sea to invade Caledonia North of Roman Britain, successively capturing Iona, the cities of Rigmhonath and Bellathor in the process. The latter places are echoed by the appearance of Cinnrígmonaid and Cinnbelathoir in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba. The territory so conquered was then named Scotia after Scota, the Egyptian wife of Spartan commander Nél or Niul, and St. Patrick converted the people to Christianity.[6]Once the Picts adopted Gaelic culture and their actual characteristics faded out of memory, folkloric elements filled the gaps of history. Their \"sudden disappearance\" was explained as a slaughter happening at a banquet given by Kenneth MacAlpin (an international folklore motif) and they were ascribed with powers like those of the fairies, brewing heather from secret recipes and living in underground chambers. In the eighteenth century the Picts were co-opted as a \"Germanic\" race.[citation needed]Callanish Standing stonesIn the Celtic domains of Scotland, also known as Gàidhealtachd, there were ancient pre-Christian structures. In the farthest end of northwest Scotland there are standing stones at Callanish on the Isle of Lewis, in a vertical position, which are akin to the Stonehenge; these are believed to be older than Stonehenge and are standing for more than 5000 years and said to be denoting sun worship.[7]","title":"National mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster"},{"link_name":"Ulster Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Cycle"},{"link_name":"Táin Bó Cúailnge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1in_B%C3%B3_C%C3%BAailnge"},{"link_name":"Fled Bricrenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fled_Bricrenn"},{"link_name":"Togail Bruidne Dá Derga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togail_Bruidne_D%C3%A1_Derga"},{"link_name":"Medb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medb"},{"link_name":"Cú Roí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%BA_Ro%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Glenmasan manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenmasan_manuscript"}],"text":"Because of the movement of people from Ulster to west Scotland, which resulted in close linguistic links between Ulster and the west of Scotland, much of Gaelic mythology was imported to Scotland, and possibly some of it was composed in Scotland. The Ulster Cycle, set around the beginning of the Christian era, consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, the great hero Cúchulainn, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the Ulaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at Emain Macha, close to the modern city of Armagh. The Ulaid had close links with Gaelic Scotland, where Cúchulainn is said to have learned the arts of war.The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written for the most part in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son, Fled Bricrenn \"Bricriu's Feast\", and Togail Bruidne Dá Derga \"The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel\". This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle of the rest of the Gaelic speaking world. Some characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While it may be supposed that a few characters, such as Medb or Cú Roí, once were deities—Cúchulainn in particular displaying superhuman prowess—the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. Scottish Gaelic adaptations of Ulster Cycle tales appear in the Glenmasan manuscript.","title":"Ulster Cycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Finn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fionn_mac_Cumhaill"},{"link_name":"Fianna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna"},{"link_name":"Fenian Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenian_Cycle"},{"link_name":"Acallam na Senórach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acallam_na_Sen%C3%B3rach"},{"link_name":"Book of Lismore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Lismore"},{"link_name":"Saint Patrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Patrick"},{"link_name":"James Macpherson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Macpherson"},{"link_name":"Ossian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossian"},{"link_name":"Goll mac Morna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goll_mac_Morna"},{"link_name":"Cumhal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumhal"},{"link_name":"Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pursuit_of_Diarmuid_and_Gr%C3%A1inne"},{"link_name":"Diarmuid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarmuid_Ua_Duibhne"},{"link_name":"Gráinne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A1inne"},{"link_name":"Tír na nÓg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADr_na_n%C3%93g"},{"link_name":"Tristan and Iseult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_and_Iseult"}],"text":"The stories of Finn (Old, Middle, Modern Irish: Find, Finn, Fionn) mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers the Fianna, appear to be set around the 3rd century in Gaelic Ireland and Scotland. They differ from other Gaelic mythological cycles in the strength of their links with the Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in verse and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic.The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the Acallam na Senórach (Colloquy of the Ancients), which is found in two 15th-century manuscripts, the Book of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th-century manuscript from Killiney, County Dublin. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and Saint Patrick and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories, the same oral tradition which was interpreted from Gaelic to English by James Macpherson in the Ossian stories.The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionnghall, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, Goll mac Morna. Goll killed Fionnghall's father, Cumhal, in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Gaelic tales, Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne) and Oisin in Tír na nÓg form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of Tristan and Iseult.The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. There is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.","title":"Finn and Fianna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blue men of the Minch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_men_of_the_Minch"},{"link_name":"Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Lewis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Kelpies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpie"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Seonaidh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seonaidh"},{"link_name":"ale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale"},{"link_name":"St. Mulway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Mulway&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArmstrong1825501-10"},{"link_name":"Changeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changeling"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaughman1966212-11"}],"text":"The Blue men of the Minch (also known as storm kelpies), who occupy the stretch of water between Lewis and mainland Scotland, looking for sailors to drown and stricken boats to sink.[citation needed]Kelpies are fabled water-spirits in the Lowland Scotland which are said to assume different shapes. Normally, they appear in the form of a horse. There is another spirit known as water-kelpie which reportedly \"haunts\" lakes and rivers, and indulge in drowning people. It is also reported to help running mills during night hours.[8] Kelpies are known for standing besides the shore side of lochs and rivers appearing to be calm and approachable waiting for their victim to hop on their back in hopes to cross the waters. A Kelpies can also take on the appearance of a beautiful young woman to lure young men in to devour them. One of the more commonly known story of the Kelpies is that of ten children a Kelpie tried to lure to their death. The mystic water spirit was able to get nine of them on their back, when the tenth child pet the horse’s nose his fingers became stuck to the horse fur as if magic had bonded them together. The child was able to free himself by cutting of his fingers before the horse drug all of its victims to their watery grave. Today in Falkirk, Scotland stands the largest equine structure in the world, two horse heads stand 30 meters high to represent the Kelpies that watch over the bodies of water in Scotland and to represent the horse-powered industrial heritage within the country. [9]Seonaidh was a Celtic water-spirit which the residents of Lewis used to worship with offer of a glass of ale. According to Dr. Martin, one night the people of Lewis appeased Seonaidh. They assembled at the church of St. Mulway, each person carried food and necessities needed for the worship. Then, from the bag of malt collected from each family, ale was brewed. Then a chosen member of the congregation waded into the sea to waist deep level holding the ale filled cup, and offered ale to Seonaidh with the prayer: \"I give thee this cup of ale, hoping that thou wilt be so good as to send us plenty of seaware for enriching our ground during the coming year\". This event occurred in the night. After performing the offering the person who made the offering returned to the beach, and all the assembled people moved to the church where at the altar a lighted candle was shining. After some time, when the time was appropriate, the candle was put out. The inhabitants then assembled in a field behind the church and celebrated by drinking ale. They then went back home with the hope that they would be blessed with a surfeit of crops in the coming season.[10]Changeling is a fairy tale in which a fairy abducts a baby from the crib and then substitutes with another fairy. It is usually normal and grown up though it appears like a child.[11]","title":"Hebridean myths and legends"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Selkies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selkie"},{"link_name":"seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinniped"},{"link_name":"sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea"},{"link_name":"Orkney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney"},{"link_name":"Shetland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lore_of_Scotland-12"},{"link_name":"swan maidens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_maiden"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Monaghan-13"}],"text":"Selkies are said to live as seals in the sea but shed their skin to become human on land, often to dance in the light of the full moon. If they lose their skin whilst in human form, they will however, be stuck in their human form forever. When taking human form they are said to have beautiful green hair. They will often reside on rocks and islands that are hidden among the waves, in order to protect themselves from humans. Selkies are mortal creatures. The legend is apparently most common in Orkney and Shetland[12] and is very similar to those of swan maidens.[13]","title":"Orkney and Shetland folklore"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"folklore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore"},{"link_name":"Tuatha Dé Danann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuatha_D%C3%A9_Danann"},{"link_name":"Banshee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banshee"}],"text":"Myth is sometimes an aspect of folklore, but not all myth is folklore, nor is all folklore myth or mythological. People who express an interest in mythology are often most focused on non-human (sometimes referred to as \"supernatural\") beings. There have been numerous groups of such entities in Scottish culture, some of them specific to particular ethnic groups (Gaelic, Norse, Germanic, etc.), others of them probably evolving from the circumstances unique to Scotland.The Aos-sídhe, Sìdhichean, or \"Fairies\" were originally the pre-Christian divinities of Gaelic Scotland. Christianity began to supersede most original mythology, causing the myths to diminish in power and prominence. The medieval Gaelic literati grouped them together as the Tuatha Dé Danann, who share certain characteristics with other characters in Celtic literature. Folk beliefs about the Banshee also reflect aspects of these beings. There are other supernatural beings whose characteristics reflect folkloric patterns from around the world. Ancestral spirits, and giants who help to form the landscape and represent the forces of nature, are ubiquitous and may point to non-elite registers of mythology.","title":"Religious mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LochNessUrquhart.jpg"},{"link_name":"Loch Ness Monster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loch_Ness_Monster"},{"link_name":"plesiosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiosaurs"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Inverness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverness"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britt-17"},{"link_name":"River Ness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Ness"},{"link_name":"Columba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graves-18"}],"text":"Loch Ness, the loch in Scotland in which the monster was reported to have been sightedThe Loch Ness Monster is a legendary aquatic creature reported from many sightings over many years. A popular belief is that the monster is a lone survivor of the \"long-extinct plesiosaurs\".[14] Although the sighting of the monster was reported as far back as the 6th century, in recent times the sightings were reported once the road around the loch was built. The first reporting of sighting of Nessie on land was about 20 yards from the loch as the monster was approaching towards the loch; it was seen by Spicer and his wife on 22 July 1933. In April 1934 a photograph was taken by a London surgeon when he was traveling to Inverness but its authenticity has been disputed. Sightings were even reported during the World War II days in May 1943 by C.B. Farrel of the Royal Observer Corps.[15]Loch Ness measures 22+1⁄2 miles (36 kilometres) and has a width of 1+1⁄2 miles (2.5 kilometres) at the widest. Its depth is 754 feet (230 metres) and the bed of the loch is flat like a \"bowling green\".[16] The Loch's volume is the largest in Great Britain.[17]The first reported sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in 565 AD. The Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he came across the locals burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man had been swimming the river when he was attacked by a \"water beast\" that had mauled him and dragged him under. They tried to rescue him in a boat, but were able only to drag up his corpse. Hearing this, Columba stunned the Picts by sending his follower Luigne moccu Min to swim across the river. The beast came after him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and commanded: \"Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once.\" The beast immediately halted as if it had been \"pulled back with ropes\" and fled in terror, and both Columba's men and the pagan Picts praised God for the miracle.[18]","title":"Loch Ness Monster"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Mordred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordred"},{"link_name":"King Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur"},{"link_name":"Orkney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney"},{"link_name":"Camelon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelon"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Arthurian mythology native to Scotland can be found in oral traditions. An example is the Scots Gaelic song 'Am Bròn Binn' (The Sweet Sorrow), which has been called \"an Arthurian ballad in Scottish Gaelic\".[19] In Arthurian legend Mordred, nephew of King Arthur, was raised in Orkney and it is speculated that Camelon in Stirlingshire may have been the original 'Camelot'.[20] There is a tradition that Arthur had a Scottish son called Smervie More.[21]","title":"Arthurian legend"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-84158-207-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84158-207-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-940262-50-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940262-50-9"},{"link_name":"Popular Rhymes, Fireside Stories, & Amusements of Scotland.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.presscom.co.uk/chambers/chambers_popular.html"},{"link_name":"Lizanne Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizanne_Henderson"},{"link_name":"Scottish Fairy Belief: A History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_Fairy_Belief:_A_History&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"McNeill, F. Marian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._Marian_McNeill"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-05284-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05284-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 1-84158-207-7\nCarmichael, Alexander (1992) Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations (with illustrative notes on wards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the highlands and islands of Scotland by Alexander Carmichael). Hudson, NY, Lindisfarne. ISBN 0-940262-50-9\nRobert Chambers (1842) Popular Rhymes, Fireside Stories, & Amusements of Scotland.\nLizanne Henderson and Edward J. Cowan, Scottish Fairy Belief: A History (Edinburgh, 2001; 2007)\nMcNeill, F. Marian (1959). The Silver Bough, Vol. 1-4. Glasgow, William MacLellan\nNagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition. Berkeley, University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05284-6\n[1]\n[2]\n[3]","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"The Corryvreckan whirlpool","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Corryvreckan.jpg/220px-Corryvreckan.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ceann Caillí ('Hag's Head'), the southernmost tip of the Cliffs of Moher in County Clare. One of many locations named for the Cailleach","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Lightmatter_cliffs_of_moher_in_County_Clare_Ireland.jpg/220px-Lightmatter_cliffs_of_moher_in_County_Clare_Ireland.jpg"},{"image_text":"Callanish Standing stones","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Callanish_standing_stones_1.jpg/220px-Callanish_standing_stones_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Loch Ness, the loch in Scotland in which the monster was reported to have been sighted","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/LochNessUrquhart.jpg/220px-LochNessUrquhart.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Scotland portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Scotland"},{"title":"Glenmasan manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenmasan_manuscript"},{"title":"Hebridean Myths and Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebridean_Myths_and_Legends"},{"title":"Horseman's Word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseman%27s_Word"},{"title":"Second sight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_sight"}] | [{"reference":"McNeill, F. Marian (1959). The Silver Bough, Vol.2: A Calendar of Scottish National Festivals, Candlemas to Harvest Home. William MacLellan. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0-85335-162-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85335-162-7","url_text":"0-85335-162-7"}]},{"reference":"\"kelpie\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/102848","url_text":"\"kelpie\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"\"The Kelpie, Mythical Scottish Water Horse\". Historic UK. Retrieved 2 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Kelpie/","url_text":"\"The Kelpie, Mythical Scottish Water Horse\""}]},{"reference":"Westwood, Jennifer & Kingshill, Sophia (2011). The Lore of Scotland: A guide to Scottish legends. Arrow Books. pp. 404–405. ISBN 9780099547167.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1-ORpjD6XEcC&pg=PA404","url_text":"The Lore of Scotland: A guide to Scottish legends"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780099547167","url_text":"9780099547167"}]},{"reference":"Monaghan, Patricia (2009). The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing. p. 411. ISBN 978-1438110370.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nd9R6GQBB_0C&pg=PA411","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438110370","url_text":"978-1438110370"}]},{"reference":"\"Loch Ness monster Legendary creature\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Loch-Ness-monster-legendary-creature","url_text":"\"Loch Ness monster Legendary creature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Searching for Nessie\". Official website of Loch Ness Organization. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nessie.co.uk/htm/searching_for_nessie/search.html","url_text":"\"Searching for Nessie\""}]},{"reference":"\"Legend of Loch Ness\". Official website of Loch Ness Organization. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nessie.co.uk/","url_text":"\"Legend of Loch Ness\""}]},{"reference":"\"Loch Ness: Lake, Scotland, United Kingdom\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.britannica.com/place/Loch-Ness-lake-Scotland-United-Kingdom#ref32751","url_text":"\"Loch Ness: Lake, Scotland, United Kingdom\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Garves, Dan. \"Columba Encountered Loch Ness Monster\". christianity.com. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/301-600/columba-encountered-loch-ness-monster-11629714.html","url_text":"\"Columba Encountered Loch Ness Monster\""}]},{"reference":"Gowans, Linda (1992). Am Bròn Binn: An Arthurian Ballad in Scottish Gaelic. Eastbourne: Published by the author. ISBN 9780951940808.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780951940808","url_text":"9780951940808"}]},{"reference":"Gibb, Alexander (1904). The Stirling Antiquary: Reprinted from \"The Stirling Sentinel,\" 1888-[1906]. Stirling: Cook & Wylie. p. 360.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fettes, Miranda (13 July 2004). [link.gale.com/apps/doc/A119233417/STND?u=tel_a_uots&sid=ebsco&xid=06164f02 \"Quest for the truth about Arthur and Scotland\"]. Evening News [Edinburgh, Scotland]. p. 14. Retrieved 3 March 2022.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Armstrong, Robert Archibald (1825). A Gaelic Dictionary: In Two Parts I. Guelic and English. – II. English and Gaelic.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bd9EAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA501","url_text":"A Gaelic Dictionary: In Two Parts I. Guelic and English. – II. English and Gaelic"}]},{"reference":"Baughman, Ernest W. (1966). Type and Motif-Index of the Folktales of England and North America. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-140277-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uk-W8g_68b8C&pg=PA212","url_text":"Type and Motif-Index of the Folktales of England and North America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-140277-2","url_text":"978-3-11-140277-2"}]},{"reference":"Germanà, Monica (2010). Scottish Women's Gothic and Fantastic Writing: Fiction Since 1978. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3764-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=i0MWFrV7-EsC&pg=PA63","url_text":"Scottish Women's Gothic and Fantastic Writing: Fiction Since 1978"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-3764-5","url_text":"978-0-7486-3764-5"}]},{"reference":"Mackenzie, Donald Alexander (1997). Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-29677-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XehL0_BtdBEC","url_text":"Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-29677-7","url_text":"978-0-486-29677-7"}]},{"reference":"McLoughlin, William; Pinnock, Jill (2002). Mary for Earth and Heaven: Papers on Mary and Ecumenism Given at International Congresses of the Ecumenical Society of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Leeds (1998) and Oxford (2000) and Conferences at Woldingham (1997) and Maynooth (2001). Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-556-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Dx4WrfzZMsoC&pg=PA379","url_text":"Mary for Earth and Heaven: Papers on Mary and Ecumenism Given at International Congresses of the Ecumenical Society of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Leeds (1998) and Oxford (2000) and Conferences at Woldingham (1997) and Maynooth (2001)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85244-556-3","url_text":"978-0-85244-556-3"}]},{"reference":"Saxby, Jessie M. (1932). Shetland Traditional Lore. Grant & Murray.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessie_Saxby","url_text":"Saxby, Jessie M."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-YUmAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Shetland Traditional Lore"}]},{"reference":"Tekin, Inci Bilgin (1 February 2012). Myths of Oppression: Revisited in Cherrie Moraga's and Liz Lochhead's Drama. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-3-8382-6308-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Qk__BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA72","url_text":"Myths of Oppression: Revisited in Cherrie Moraga's and Liz Lochhead's Drama"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8382-6308-3","url_text":"978-3-8382-6308-3"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Jason Marc (2009). \"Perilous Shores: The Unfathomable Supernaturalism of Water in 19th-Century Scottish Folklore\". Mythlore. 28 (1/2 (107/108)): 5–25. ISSN 0146-9339.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/26815460","url_text":"\"Perilous Shores: The Unfathomable Supernaturalism of Water in 19th-Century Scottish Folklore\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0146-9339","url_text":"0146-9339"}]},{"reference":"Hutton, Ronald (2011). \"Witch-Hunting in Celtic Societies\". Past & Present (212): 43–71. ISSN 0031-2746.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23014785","url_text":"\"Witch-Hunting in Celtic Societies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746","url_text":"0031-2746"}]},{"reference":"Parker, Harbison (1947). \"The \"Clerk Colvill\" Mermaid\". The Journal of American Folklore. 60 (237): 265–285. doi:10.2307/536380. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptoriana_%E2%80%93_The_Seductiveness_of_Decay | Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay | ["1 Background and promotion","2 Track listing","3 Personnel","4 Charts","5 References"] | 2017 studio album by Cradle of FilthCryptoriana – The Seductiveness of DecayStudio album by Cradle of FilthReleased22 September 2017RecordedDecember 2016 – April 2017StudioGrindstone Studios (Suffolk, England)GenreExtreme metalLength52:53LabelNuclear BlastProducerScott AtkinsCradle of Filth chronology
Hammer of the Witches(2015)
Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay(2017)
Existence Is Futile(2021)
Singles from Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay
"Heartbreak and Seance"Released: 11 July 2017
"You Will Know the Lion by His Claw"Released: 8 August 2017
"Achingly Beautiful"Released: 15 September 2017
Professional ratingsAggregate scoresSourceRatingMetacritic77/100Review scoresSourceRatingAllMusic
Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay is the twelfth studio album by English extreme metal band Cradle of Filth. It was released on 22 September 2017 through Nuclear Blast Records. It is the second and final album to feature Lindsay Schoolcraft on narration before her departure in February 2020.
Background and promotion
Dani Filth said the album "is deeply infused with Victorian gothic horror and thus the title is a reflection of that. 'Cryptoriana' implies the Victorians' infatuation with the supernatural, the grave and the ghoulish. And the subtitle, 'The Seductiveness of Decay', further cements this attraction to death and the glittering lengthy process of self-annihilation".
The first promotional single, "Heartbreak and Seance", premiered alongside an accompanying music video on 11 July 2017.
The second single, "You Will Know the Lion by His Claw", premiered together with a lyric music video on 8 August 2017.
The third single, "Achingly Beautiful", was also released in conjunction with a lyric video on 15 September. Vocalist Dani Filth stated the single "has a very old-school Cradle vibe" and compared it to the song "A Gothic Romance" from the album Dusk and Her Embrace.
Track listing
No.TitleLength1."Exquisite Torments Await..."2:152."Heartbreak and Seance"6:243."Achingly Beautiful"7:024."Wester Vespertine"7:245."The Seductiveness of Decay"7:386."Vengeful Spirit" (featuring Liv Kristine)6:007."You Will Know the Lion by His Claw"7:228."Death and the Maiden"8:48Total length:52:53
Digipack, digital and vinyl versionNo.TitleLength9."The Night at Catafalque Manor"7:3110."Alison Hell" (Annihilator cover)5:01Total length:65:25
Personnel
All information from the album booklet.
Cradle of Filth
Dani Filth – lead vocals, lyrics
Martin 'Marthus' Škaroupka – drums, keyboards, orchestration, choir vocals, score arrangements, choir and soprano arrangements
Daniel Firth – bass
Lindsay Schoolcraft – narration
Richard Shaw – guitars
Marek 'Ashok' Šmerda – guitars
Additional musicians
Liv Kristine – vocals on "Vengeful Spirit"
Linda Nepivodova – choir and alto vocals
Lucie Korinkova – choir, alto and soprano vocals
Petr Janovsky – choir and bass vocals
Vit Starka – choir and bass vocals
Miloš Makovský – choir vocals
Martin Franze – choir and baritone vocals, artistic leader
Dana Toncrová – choir and soprano vocals
Ivan Nepivoda – choir and tenor vocals
Jakub Herzan – choir and tenor vocals
Production
Chris Schäfer – engineering
Arthur Berzinsh – artwork
Scott Atkins – producer, engineering, mixing, mastering
Roman Jez – engineering
Igor Mores – engineering
Flame Hel – photography
Dan Goldsworthy – layout
Charts
Chart (2017)
Peakposition
Australian Albums (ARIA)
53
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)
20
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)
35
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)
42
Czech Albums (ČNS IFPI)
17
Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)
111
Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)
8
French Albums (SNEP)
110
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)
15
Hungarian Albums (MAHASZ)
32
Scottish Albums (OCC)
31
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)
24
UK Albums (OCC)
50
US Independent Albums (Billboard)
14
US Top Hard Rock Albums (Billboard)
15
References
^ "CRADLE OF FILTH To Begin Recording New Album In December". Blabbermouth.net. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
^ "Vocals finished for Cradle of Filth's 12th studio album!". Blabbermouth.net. 25 March 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
^ a b "CRADLE OF FILTH to release 'Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay' Album in September". Blabbermouth.com. 16 June 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
^ "Reviews and Tracks for Cryptoriana: The Seductiveness of Decay by Cradle of Filth". Metacritic. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
^ "Cryptoriana: The Seductiveness of Decay - Cradle of Filth". allmusic.com. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
^ "CRADLE OF FILTH Parts Ways With Keyboardist Lindsay Schoolcraft". Metal Injection. 12 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
^ "Video Premiere: CRADLE OF FILTH's 'Heartbreak And Séance'". Blabbermouth.com. 11 July 2017. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
^ "CRADLE OF FILTH: Lyric Video For New Song 'You Will Know The Lion By His Claw'". Blabbermouth.com. 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2017.
^ "CRADLE OF FILTH: Official Lyric Video For New Song 'Achingly Beautiful'". Blabbermouth.com. 15 September 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
^ (2017). "Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay liner notes". In Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay . Nuclear Blast.
^ "ARIA Chart Watch #440". auspOp. 30 September 2017. Archived from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^ "Austriancharts.at – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay" (in German). Hung Medien. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
^ "Ultratop.be – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ "Ultratop.be – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ "Czech Albums – Top 100". ČNS IFPI. Note: On the chart page, select 39.Týden 2017 on the field besides the words "CZ – ALBUMS – TOP 100" to retrieve the correct chart. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
^ "Cradle of Filth: Cryptoriana-The Seductiveness of Decay" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
^ "Lescharts.com – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay". Hung Medien. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ "Album Top 40 slágerlista – 2017. 39. hét" (in Hungarian). MAHASZ. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
^ "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^ "Swisscharts.com – Cradle of Filth – Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay". Hung Medien. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^ "Cradle of Filth Chart History (Independent Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
^ "Cradle of Filth Chart History (Top Hard Rock Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
vteCradle of Filth
Dani Filth
Martin Škaroupka
Daniel Firth
Marek "Ashok" Šmerda
Donny Burbage
Zoe Marie Federoff
Darren Gardner
Jon Pritchard
William Sarginson
Paul Ryan
Benjamin Ryan
Jon Kennedy
Andrea Haugen
Damien Gregori
Nicholas Barker
Stuart Anstis
Les Smith
James McIlroy
Paul Allender
Robin Eaglestone
Sarah Jezebel Deva
Gian Pyres
Adrian Erlandsson
Dave Pybus
Martin Powell
Charles Hedger
Rosie Smith
Ashley Ellyllon
Caroline Campbell
Lindsay Schoolcraft
Richard Shaw
Anabelle Iratni
Studio albums
The Principle of Evil Made Flesh
Dusk and Her Embrace
Cruelty and the Beast
Midian
Damnation and a Day
Nymphetamine
Thornography
Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder
Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa
The Manticore and Other Horrors
Hammer of the Witches
Cryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay
Existence Is Futile
Extended plays
V Empire or Dark Faerytales in Phallustein
From the Cradle to Enslave
Bitter Suites to Succubi
Evermore Darkly
Demo albums
Total Fucking Darkness
Live albums
Live Bait for the Dead
Compilation albums
Lovecraft & Witch Hearts
Midnight in the Labyrinth
Video releases
PanDaemonAeon
Heavy, Left-Handed and Candid
Babalon A.D. (So Glad for the Madness)
Peace Through Superior Firepower
Related articles
Discography
Members
The Gospel of Filth
Cradle of Fear
Anathema
Angtoria
The Blood Divine
Alex Chandon
Devilment
Doug Bradley
From the Cradle to the Grave
Vestal Masturbation T-shirt
Categories
Albums
Members
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"extreme metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_metal"},{"link_name":"Cradle of Filth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_Filth"},{"link_name":"Nuclear Blast Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Blast_Records"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blabbermouth-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"2017 studio album by Cradle of FilthCryptoriana – The Seductiveness of Decay is the twelfth studio album by English extreme metal band Cradle of Filth. 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Vocalist Dani Filth stated the single \"has a very old-school Cradle vibe\" and compared it to the song \"A Gothic Romance\" from the album Dusk and Her Embrace.[9]","title":"Background and promotion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liv Kristine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv_Kristine"},{"link_name":"Annihilator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annihilator_(band)"}],"text":"No.TitleLength1.\"Exquisite Torments Await...\"2:152.\"Heartbreak and Seance\"6:243.\"Achingly Beautiful\"7:024.\"Wester Vespertine\"7:245.\"The Seductiveness of Decay\"7:386.\"Vengeful Spirit\" (featuring Liv Kristine)6:007.\"You Will Know the Lion by His Claw\"7:228.\"Death and the Maiden\"8:48Total length:52:53Digipack, digital and vinyl versionNo.TitleLength9.\"The Night at Catafalque Manor\"7:3110.\"Alison Hell\" (Annihilator cover)5:01Total length:65:25","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Dani Filth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dani_Filth"},{"link_name":"Martin 'Marthus' Škaroupka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marthus_%C5%A0karoupka"},{"link_name":"orchestration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestration"},{"link_name":"Liv Kristine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv_Kristine"}],"text":"All information from the album booklet.[10]Cradle of FilthDani Filth – lead vocals, lyrics\nMartin 'Marthus' Škaroupka – drums, keyboards, orchestration, choir vocals, score arrangements, choir and soprano arrangements\nDaniel Firth – bass\nLindsay Schoolcraft – narration\nRichard Shaw – guitars\nMarek 'Ashok' Šmerda – guitarsAdditional musiciansLiv Kristine – vocals on \"Vengeful Spirit\"\nLinda Nepivodova – choir and alto vocals\nLucie Korinkova – choir, alto and soprano vocals\nPetr Janovsky – choir and bass vocals\nVit Starka – choir and bass vocals\nMiloš Makovský – choir vocals\nMartin Franze – choir and baritone vocals, artistic leader\nDana Toncrová – choir and soprano vocals\nIvan Nepivoda – choir and tenor vocals\nJakub Herzan – choir and tenor vocalsProductionChris Schäfer – engineering\nArthur Berzinsh – artwork\nScott Atkins – producer, engineering, mixing, mastering\nRoman Jez – engineering\nIgor Mores – engineering\nFlame Hel – photography\nDan Goldsworthy – layout","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Charts"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"CRADLE OF FILTH To Begin Recording New Album In December\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._God_(novel) | Mrs. God (novel) | ["1 Summary","2 Sources"] | 1990 novel by Peter Straub
Mrs. God Cover of the first editionAuthorPeter StraubIllustratorRick BerryCover artistRick BerryLanguageEnglishGenreFantasyPublisherDonald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc.Publication date1990Publication placeUnited StatesMedia typePrint (Hardback)Pages201, ivISBN0-937986-96-8 (deluxe edition)ISBN 0-937986-97-6 (trade edition)OCLC24427510Dewey Decimal813/.54 20LC ClassPS3569.T6914 M77 1990
Mrs. God is a fantasy novel by American writer Peter Straub. It was first published in 1990 by Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc. in an edition of 1,350 copies, of which 600 copies were signed by the author and the artist, bound in quarter leather and slipcased as a deluxe edition. The novel is expanded from the short novel of the same name that appeared in Straub's collection Houses Without Doors. A trade edition hardcover was issued later.
Summary
The novel, a modern Gothic, concerns an American professor, William Standish, who is researching the poems of his grandmother Isobel Standish at an English manor, Esswood House, home and estate of the Seneschal family, aristocratic patrons of the literary arts for well over a hundred years. D. H. Lawrence, T. S. Eliot, Ford Madox Ford, and Henry James were amongst those privileged to call themselves guests and Esswood Fellows. We learn that Isobel Standish found in Esswood a respite from the outer world, and in its refined atmosphere an inspiration for her work. There was always talk of a hidden secret in Esswoods past, and the Seneschal children were often pale and sickly. For Prof William Standish, fleeing the unfaithfulness of his wife and her previous abortion, and her second pregnancy, which he believes is the result of an affair she had with an academic rival, Esswood offers him the chance to study Isobel's private manuscripts at close hand, which thrills him beyond his wildest ambitions.
At the same time, he finds himself at sea in England with its different customs, and especially at Esswood, a grand Gothic pile, with its meals served by invisible servants, its rococo library, its hidden basements containing bones and giant dollhouses. Drawn into a nightmarish landscape where he is pursued by dead babies, or births of various kinds (one of Isobel's manuscripts is titled 'B.P.' which he interprets as 'Birth of the Past'), he hears faint laughter in the halls, the pitter-pattering of small feet in the night; strange faces appear in the windows of the library. Standish is increasingly unable to distinguish fact from reality as, caught in a vortex of hallucinatory images, he is subject to the unfolding of the dark secrets of Esswood.
Sources
Brown, Charles N.; William G. Contento (2007-11-20). "The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)". Retrieved 2008-06-16.
Chalker, Jack L.; Mark Owings (1998). The Science-Fantasy Publishers: A Bibliographic History, 1923-1998. Westminster, MD and Baltimore: Mirage Press, Ltd. p. 334.
Clute, John; John Grant (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 902. ISBN 0-88184-708-9.
vteWorks by Peter StraubNovels
Marriages (1973)
Under Venus (1974)
Julia (1975)
If You Could See Me Now (1977)
Ghost Story (1979)
Shadowland (1980)
Floating Dragon (1983)
The Talisman (1984)
Koko (1988)
Mystery (1990)
The Throat (1993)
The Hellfire Club (1995)
Mr. X (1999)
Black House (2001)
Lost Boy, Lost Girl (2003)
In the Night Room (2004)
A Dark Matter (2010)
Novellas
The General's Wife (1982)
Mrs. God (1990)
Bunny is Good Bread (1993)
Mr. Clubb and Mr. Cuff (1997)
Pork Pie Hat (1999)
A Special Place: The Heart of a Dark Matter (2010)
The Ballad of Ballard and Sandrine (2011) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fantasy novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_novel"},{"link_name":"Peter Straub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_in_literature"},{"link_name":"Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_M._Grant,_Publisher,_Inc."},{"link_name":"short novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_novel"}],"text":"Mrs. God is a fantasy novel by American writer Peter Straub. It was first published in 1990 by Donald M. Grant, Publisher, Inc. in an edition of 1,350 copies, of which 600 copies were signed by the author and the artist, bound in quarter leather and slipcased as a deluxe edition. The novel is expanded from the short novel of the same name that appeared in Straub's collection Houses Without Doors. A trade edition hardcover was issued later.","title":"Mrs. God (novel)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_fiction"},{"link_name":"D. H. Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._H._Lawrence"},{"link_name":"T. S. Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot"},{"link_name":"Ford Madox Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Madox_Ford"},{"link_name":"Henry James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James"}],"text":"The novel, a modern Gothic, concerns an American professor, William Standish, who is researching the poems of his grandmother Isobel Standish at an English manor, Esswood House, home and estate of the Seneschal family, aristocratic patrons of the literary arts for well over a hundred years. D. H. Lawrence, T. S. Eliot, Ford Madox Ford, and Henry James were amongst those privileged to call themselves guests and Esswood Fellows. We learn that Isobel Standish found in Esswood a respite from the outer world, and in its refined atmosphere an inspiration for her work. There was always talk of a hidden secret in Esswoods past, and the Seneschal children were often pale and sickly. For Prof William Standish, fleeing the unfaithfulness of his wife and her previous abortion, and her second pregnancy, which he believes is the result of an affair she had with an academic rival, Esswood offers him the chance to study Isobel's private manuscripts at close hand, which thrills him beyond his wildest ambitions.At the same time, he finds himself at sea in England with its different customs, and especially at Esswood, a grand Gothic pile, with its meals served by invisible servants, its rococo library, its hidden basements containing bones and giant dollhouses. Drawn into a nightmarish landscape where he is pursued by dead babies, or births of various kinds (one of Isobel's manuscripts is titled 'B.P.' which he interprets as 'Birth of the Past'), he hears faint laughter in the halls, the pitter-pattering of small feet in the night; strange faces appear in the windows of the library. Standish is increasingly unable to distinguish fact from reality as, caught in a vortex of hallucinatory images, he is subject to the unfolding of the dark secrets of Esswood.","title":"Summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brown, Charles N.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_N._Brown"},{"link_name":"\"The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.locusmag.com/index/b461.htm#A6722.34"},{"link_name":"Chalker, Jack L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_L._Chalker"},{"link_name":"Clute, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-88184-708-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88184-708-9"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"Peter Straub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"Novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Novels_by_Peter_Straub"},{"link_name":"Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(novel)"},{"link_name":"If You Could See Me Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_You_Could_See_Me_Now_(Straub_novel)"},{"link_name":"Ghost Story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Story_(Straub_novel)"},{"link_name":"Shadowland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadowland_(Straub_novel)"},{"link_name":"Floating Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_Dragon"},{"link_name":"The Talisman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Talisman_(King_and_Straub_novel)"},{"link_name":"Koko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Mystery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Mr. X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._X_(Straub_novel)"},{"link_name":"Black House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_House_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Lost Boy, Lost Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_Boy,_Lost_Girl"},{"link_name":"In the Night Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_the_Night_Room"},{"link_name":"The General's Wife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_General%27s_Wife"},{"link_name":"Mrs. God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"}],"text":"Brown, Charles N.; William G. Contento (2007-11-20). \"The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)\". Retrieved 2008-06-16.\nChalker, Jack L.; Mark Owings (1998). The Science-Fantasy Publishers: A Bibliographic History, 1923-1998. Westminster, MD and Baltimore: Mirage Press, Ltd. p. 334.\nClute, John; John Grant (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 902. ISBN 0-88184-708-9.vteWorks by Peter StraubNovels\nMarriages (1973)\nUnder Venus (1974)\nJulia (1975)\nIf You Could See Me Now (1977)\nGhost Story (1979)\nShadowland (1980)\nFloating Dragon (1983)\nThe Talisman (1984)\nKoko (1988)\nMystery (1990)\nThe Throat (1993)\nThe Hellfire Club (1995)\nMr. X (1999)\nBlack House (2001)\nLost Boy, Lost Girl (2003)\nIn the Night Room (2004)\nA Dark Matter (2010)\nNovellas\nThe General's Wife (1982)\nMrs. God (1990)\nBunny is Good Bread (1993)\nMr. Clubb and Mr. Cuff (1997)\nPork Pie Hat (1999)\nA Special Place: The Heart of a Dark Matter (2010)\nThe Ballad of Ballard and Sandrine (2011)","title":"Sources"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Brown, Charles N.; William G. Contento (2007-11-20). \"The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)\". Retrieved 2008-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_N._Brown","url_text":"Brown, Charles N."},{"url":"http://www.locusmag.com/index/b461.htm#A6722.34","url_text":"\"The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)\""}]},{"reference":"Chalker, Jack L.; Mark Owings (1998). The Science-Fantasy Publishers: A Bibliographic History, 1923-1998. Westminster, MD and Baltimore: Mirage Press, Ltd. p. 334.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_L._Chalker","url_text":"Chalker, Jack L."}]},{"reference":"Clute, John; John Grant (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 902. ISBN 0-88184-708-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute","url_text":"Clute, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88184-708-9","url_text":"0-88184-708-9"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24427510","external_links_name":"24427510"},{"Link":"http://www.locusmag.com/index/b461.htm#A6722.34","external_links_name":"\"The Locus Index to Science Fiction (1984-1998)\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llewelyn_Hughes | Llewelyn Hughes | ["1 Early life","2 Military service","3 Religious career","4 Honours and decorations","5 References"] | Frederick Llewelyn Hughes CB CBE MC TD KHC (12 July 1894 – 4 June 1967) was an Anglican priest and British Army chaplain. He served as Chaplain-General from 1944 to 1951 and Dean of Ripon from 1951 to 1967.
Early life
Hughes was born on 12 July 1894 and educated at Christ's Hospital and Jesus College, Oxford. He matriculated at Oxford in 1913 as an exhibitioner, and was highly regarded as a speaker in the college's Junior Common Room and as a rugby player. In due course, he became President of the JCR and captain of rugby.
Military service
Hughes served in the British Army during World War I. He was commissioned into the King's Regiment (Liverpool) on 24 October 1914 as a second lieutenant (on probation). On 26 May 1916 the then lieutenant was appointed an Adjutant. He was awarded the Military Cross in 1917. As a captain, he was appointed General Staff Officer (Grade 3) on 28 March 1918. He served as a staff captain from 20 December 1918 to 16 May 1919. He relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920 and retained the rank of captain.
Religious career
Hughes was ordained in 1922 and began his career with a curacy at Holy Trinity, Brompton. Subsequently vicar of St Stephen's, Paddington then vicar of Mansfield.
On 18 February 1935, he relinquished his rank of captain to join the Royal Army Chaplains' Department as a Chaplain to the Forces (4th Class). He was promoted to Chaplain to the Forces (3rd Class) on 1 April 1939.
With the outbreak of World War II, Hughes saw active service. He was posted to the Middle East during the first year of the war. By October 1943, he was Chaplain to the Forces (2nd Class), and temporary Chaplain to the Forces (1st Class). He rose to the rank of Archdeacon of the Forces, the most senior Church of England chaplain. Montgomery described him as "the ideal military padre". He was appointed Chaplain-General to the Forces in 1944. He relinquished the position on 6 November 1951.
In November 1945, he was appointed to the Royal Household as a chaplain. He was appointed Dean of Ripon in August 1951.
He died on 4 June 1967.
Honours and decorations
On 1 April 1941, Hughes was mentioned in dispatches "for distinguished services in the Middle East during the period August, 1939, to November, 1940". He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) on 14 October 1943 "in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in the Middle East". He was made an Honorary Chaplain to King George VI (KHC) in 1944. He was mentioned in dispatches on 22 March 1945 "in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in North West Europe". He was awarded the Efficiency Decoration (TD) on 10 October 1947, for which he was awarded three clasps on 16 February 1951. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) on 9 June 1949 as part of that year's King's Birthday Honours. He was made an Officer of the Venerable Order of Saint John (OStJ) in January 1962.
References
^ Who was Who 1897–1990 London, A & C Black, 1991 ISBN 0-7136-3457-X
^ a b c Baker, J. N. L. (1971). Jesus College, Oxford 1571–1971. London: Oxonian Press Ltd. p. 121. ISBN 0-9502164-0-2.
^ "No. 28949". The London Gazette. 23 October 1914. p. 8522.
^ "No. 29709". The London Gazette (Supplement). 15 August 1916. p. 8102.
^ "No. 30621". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 April 1918. p. 4366.
^ "No. 31723". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 January 1920. p. 314.
^ "No. 31902". The London Gazette (Supplement). 14 May 1920. p. 5574.
^ "Holy Trinity website". Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 26 September 2008.
^ "No. 34140". The London Gazette. 8 March 1935. p. 1635.
^ "No. 34632". The London Gazette. 6 June 1939. p. 3787.
^ a b "No. 35120". The London Gazette (Supplement). 28 March 1941. p. 1869.
^ a b "No. 36209". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 October 1943. p. 4539.
^ The Church of England in the Twentieth Century Chandler, A: Boydell Press, 2006 ISBN 1-84383-165-1
^ God and the British Soldier Snape, M: Routledge, 2005 ISBN 0-415-33452-7
^ "No. 36791". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 November 1944. p. 5189.
^ "No. 39375". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 November 1951. p. 5772.
^ "No. 37334". The London Gazette. 2 November 1945. p. 5348.
^ "No. 39315". The London Gazette. 21 August 1951. p. 4445.
^ Obituary – Dean of Ripon The Times Monday, 5 June 1967; pg. 10; Issue 56959; col G
^ "No. 35120". The London Gazette (Supplement). 28 March 1941. p. 1874.
^ "No. 36821". The London Gazette. 1 December 1944. p. 5522.
^ "No. 36994". The London Gazette (Supplement). 20 March 1945. p. 1562.
^ "No. 36994". The London Gazette (Supplement). 20 March 1945. p. 1548.
^ "No. 38092". The London Gazette (Supplement). 7 October 1947. pp. 4745–4746.
^ "No. 39149". The London Gazette (Supplement). 13 February 1951. p. 850.
^ "No. 38628". The London Gazette (Supplement). 3 June 1949. p. 2795.
^ "No. 38628". The London Gazette (Supplement). 3 June 1949. p. 2794.
^ "No. 42573". The London Gazette. 16 January 1962. p. 433.
Church of England titles
Preceded byGodwin Birchenough
Dean of Ripon 1951 – 1967
Succeeded byFrederick Edwin Le Grice
Christianity portal
vteDeans of RiponMinster
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vteAnglican Diocese of Leeds
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Area scheme (2014–present)
Dioceses of Ripon and Leeds, of Wakefield and of Bradford
Office holdersDiocesan bishop
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Area bishops
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Other bishops
AEO: the area Bishop of Wakefield & Rob Munro, Bishop suffragan of Ebbsfleet
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Predecessor offices
diocesan Bishops of Ripon (1836–2014; renamed "Ripon and Leeds" in 1999), of Wakefield (1888–2014) and of Bradford (1919–2014)
Bishop suffragan of Penrith (1888–1889; reappointed to Richmond)
Bishops suffragan of Knaresborough (renamed Ripon), of Pontefract (renamed Wakefield) and of Richmond (renamed Kirkstall)
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Provost of Wakefield (1931–2000; see Dean of Wakefield)
Archdeacon of Craven (1836–2014; merged into Richmond and Craven)
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Archdeacon of Huddersfield (1888–1927; renamed Halifax)
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vteChaplains-General to HM Land Forces (formerly Chaplains-General to the Forces)
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Archdeacons for the Army (since 1987)
Tom Robinson, Deputy Chaplain-General
Graham Roblin, DCG
Alan Dean, DCG
John Holliman, DCG
Stephen Dunwoody, ACG | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Llewelyn Hughes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christ's Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ%27s_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Jesus College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"matriculated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriculation"},{"link_name":"exhibitioner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhibition_(scholarship)"},{"link_name":"Junior Common Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_Common_Room"},{"link_name":"rugby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker-2"}],"text":"Hughes was born on 12 July 1894 and educated at Christ's Hospital and Jesus College, Oxford.[1] He matriculated at Oxford in 1913 as an exhibitioner, and was highly regarded as a speaker in the college's Junior Common Room and as a rugby player. In due course, he became President of the JCR and captain of rugby.[2]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"King's Regiment (Liverpool)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Regiment_(Liverpool)"},{"link_name":"second lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_lieutenant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_23_October_1914-3"},{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"Adjutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjutant"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_15_August_1916-4"},{"link_name":"Military Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Cross"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker-2"},{"link_name":"captain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(British_Army_and_Royal_Marines)"},{"link_name":"General Staff Officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Staff_Officer"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_9_April_1918-5"},{"link_name":"staff captain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staff_(military)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_6_January_1920-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_14_May_1920-7"}],"text":"Hughes served in the British Army during World War I. He was commissioned into the King's Regiment (Liverpool) on 24 October 1914 as a second lieutenant (on probation).[3] On 26 May 1916 the then lieutenant was appointed an Adjutant.[4] He was awarded the Military Cross in 1917.[2] As a captain, he was appointed General Staff Officer (Grade 3) on 28 March 1918.[5] He served as a staff captain from 20 December 1918 to 16 May 1919.[6] He relinquished his commission on 1 April 1920 and retained the rank of captain.[7]","title":"Military service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"curacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curate"},{"link_name":"Holy Trinity, Brompton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Trinity,_Brompton"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"vicar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar"},{"link_name":"Paddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddington"},{"link_name":"Mansfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansfield"},{"link_name":"Royal Army Chaplains' Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Army_Chaplains%27_Department"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_8_March_1935-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_6_June_1939-10"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Middle East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28_March_1941_b-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_12_October_1943-12"},{"link_name":"Archdeacon of the Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archdeacon"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Chaplain-General to the Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplain-General_to_the_Forces"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_10_November_1944-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_6_November_1951-16"},{"link_name":"Royal Household","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Households_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_2_November_1945-17"},{"link_name":"Dean of Ripon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_of_Ripon"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_21_August_1951-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Hughes was ordained in 1922 and began his career with a curacy at Holy Trinity, Brompton.[8] Subsequently vicar of St Stephen's, Paddington then vicar of Mansfield.On 18 February 1935, he relinquished his rank of captain to join the Royal Army Chaplains' Department as a Chaplain to the Forces (4th Class).[9] He was promoted to Chaplain to the Forces (3rd Class) on 1 April 1939.[10]With the outbreak of World War II, Hughes saw active service. He was posted to the Middle East during the first year of the war.[11] By October 1943, he was Chaplain to the Forces (2nd Class), and temporary Chaplain to the Forces (1st Class).[12] He rose to the rank of Archdeacon of the Forces, the most senior Church of England chaplain.[13] Montgomery described him as \"the ideal military padre\".[14] He was appointed Chaplain-General to the Forces in 1944.[15] He relinquished the position on 6 November 1951.[16]In November 1945, he was appointed to the Royal Household as a chaplain.[17] He was appointed Dean of Ripon in August 1951.[18]He died on 4 June 1967.[19]","title":"Religious career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28_March_1941_a-20"},{"link_name":"mentioned in dispatches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentioned_in_dispatches"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28_March_1941_b-11"},{"link_name":"Commander of the Order of the British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_12_October_1943-12"},{"link_name":"Honorary Chaplain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Chaplain_to_the_King"},{"link_name":"King George VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_1_December_1944-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_20_March_1945_a-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_20_March_1945_b-23"},{"link_name":"Efficiency Decoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficiency_Decoration"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_7_October_1947-24"},{"link_name":"clasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medal_bar"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_13_February_1951-25"},{"link_name":"Companion of the Order of the Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companion_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_3_June_1949a-26"},{"link_name":"King's Birthday Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker-2"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_3_June_1949b-27"},{"link_name":"Venerable Order of Saint John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venerable_Order_of_Saint_John"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG_16_January_1962-28"}],"text":"On 1 April 1941, Hughes[20] was mentioned in dispatches \"for distinguished services in the Middle East during the period August, 1939, to November, 1940\".[11] He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) on 14 October 1943 \"in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in the Middle East\".[12] He was made an Honorary Chaplain to King George VI (KHC) in 1944.[21] He[22] was mentioned in dispatches on 22 March 1945 \"in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in North West Europe\".[23] He was awarded the Efficiency Decoration (TD) on 10 October 1947,[24] for which he was awarded three clasps on 16 February 1951.[25] He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) on 9 June 1949[26] as part of that year's King's Birthday Honours.[2][27] He was made an Officer of the Venerable Order of Saint John (OStJ) in January 1962.[28]","title":"Honours and decorations"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Baker, J. N. L. (1971). Jesus College, Oxford 1571–1971. London: Oxonian Press Ltd. p. 121. ISBN 0-9502164-0-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._N._L._Baker","url_text":"Baker, J. N. L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9502164-0-2","url_text":"0-9502164-0-2"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 28949\". The London Gazette. 23 October 1914. p. 8522.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/28949/page/8522","url_text":"\"No. 28949\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 29709\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 15 August 1916. p. 8102.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/29709/supplement/8102","url_text":"\"No. 29709\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 30621\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 April 1918. p. 4366.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/30621/supplement/4366","url_text":"\"No. 30621\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 31723\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 January 1920. p. 314.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/31723/supplement/314","url_text":"\"No. 31723\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 31902\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 14 May 1920. p. 5574.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/31902/supplement/5574","url_text":"\"No. 31902\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"Holy Trinity website\". Archived from the original on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 26 September 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140625102444/http://www.htb.org.uk/","url_text":"\"Holy Trinity website\""},{"url":"http://www.htb.org.uk/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 34140\". The London Gazette. 8 March 1935. p. 1635.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34140/page/1635","url_text":"\"No. 34140\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 34632\". The London Gazette. 6 June 1939. p. 3787.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34632/page/3787","url_text":"\"No. 34632\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 35120\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 28 March 1941. p. 1869.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35120/supplement/1869","url_text":"\"No. 35120\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 36209\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 October 1943. p. 4539.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36209/supplement/4539","url_text":"\"No. 36209\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 36791\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 November 1944. p. 5189.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36791/supplement/5189","url_text":"\"No. 36791\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 39375\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 November 1951. p. 5772.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/39375/supplement/5772","url_text":"\"No. 39375\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 37334\". The London Gazette. 2 November 1945. p. 5348.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/37334/page/5348","url_text":"\"No. 37334\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 39315\". The London Gazette. 21 August 1951. p. 4445.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/39315/page/4445","url_text":"\"No. 39315\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 35120\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 28 March 1941. p. 1874.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/35120/supplement/1874","url_text":"\"No. 35120\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 36821\". The London Gazette. 1 December 1944. p. 5522.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36821/page/5522","url_text":"\"No. 36821\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 36994\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 20 March 1945. p. 1562.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36994/supplement/1562","url_text":"\"No. 36994\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"No. 36994\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Charles_Searle | George Frederick Charles Searle | ["1 Biography","2 Contributions to science","3 Personal life","4 Bibliography","5 References"] | British physicist and teacher
George Frederick Charles SearleBorn(1864-12-03)3 December 1864OakingtonDied16 December 1954(1954-12-16) (aged 90)Alma materUniversity of CambridgeKnown forElectromagnetic massSearle's bar methodSpouseAlice Mary EdwardsAwardsFRSScientific careerInstitutionsCavendish Laboratory
George Frederick Charles Searle FRS (3 December 1864 – 16 December 1954) was a British physicist and teacher. He also raced competitively as a cyclist while at the University of Cambridge.
Biography
Searle was born in Oakington, Cambridgeshire, England. His father was William George Searle.
As a child, he knew Clerk Maxwell, whom he considered to be a humorous individual. In 1888 he began work at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J. Thomson, and ended up working with the lab for 55 years. After World War II, he ran the undergraduate labs. The equipment he used with Thomson to calibrate the ohm in the 1890s was still being used in the undergraduate lab.
Contributions to science
Searle is known for his work on the velocity dependence of the electromagnetic mass. This was a direct predecessor of Einstein's theory of special relativity, when several people were investigating the change of mass with velocity. Following the work of Oliver Heaviside, he defined the "Heaviside ellipsoid", in which the electrostatic field is contracted in the line of motion. Those developments, when modified, were ultimately important for the development of special relativity.
Personal life
Searle was married to Alice Mary Edwards. He contracted a disease at the beginning of World War I, was cured, and became a Christian Scientist. He was a keen cyclist and travelled about proselytizing.
Bibliography
Wikisource has original works by or about:George Frederick Charles Searle
Searle was the author of papers and books, including:
Experimental elasticity (1908) Cambridge Univ. Press
Experimental harmonic motion A Manual for the Laboratory, 1st edition (1915) Cambridge Univ. Press
Experimental harmonic motion, 2nd edition (1922) Cambridge Univ. Press
Experimental optics, 1st edition (1925) Cambridge Univ. Press
Experimental optics, 2nd edition (1935) Cambridge Univ. Press
Experimental physics, (1934) Cambridge Univ. Press
Oliver Heaviside, the man (1987) C.A.M. Publishing, England (written in 1950, published posthumously)
References
^ a b Thomson, George (1955). "George Frederick Charles Searle 1864-1954". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1: 246–252. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0018. JSTOR 769255. S2CID 71913224.
^ Searle, G. F. C. (1896). "On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid". Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 15 (1): 264–278. Bibcode:1896PPSL...15..264S. doi:10.1088/1478-7814/15/1/323.
^ "George Frederick Charles Searle's Palmares at CyclingRanking.com". CyclingRanking.com.
^ "William George Searle". Geni.com. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
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Sir Martin Onslow Forster
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Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins
George William Lamplugh
Ernest William MacBride
Francis Wall Oliver
Sir David Prain
George Frederick Charles Searle
Robert John Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh
Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker
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Ludimar Hermann
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
Henri Moissan
Hugo De Vries
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(October 2020) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frs-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ellipsoid-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"George Frederick Charles Searle FRS[1] (3 December 1864 – 16 December 1954) was a British physicist and teacher.[2] He also raced competitively as a cyclist while at the University of Cambridge.[3]","title":"George Frederick Charles Searle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oakington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakington"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"William George Searle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_George_Searle"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Clerk Maxwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell"},{"link_name":"Cavendish Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"J.J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.J._Thomson"}],"text":"Searle was born in Oakington, Cambridgeshire, England. His father was William George Searle.[4]As a child, he knew Clerk Maxwell, whom he considered to be a humorous individual. In 1888 he began work at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J. Thomson, and ended up working with the lab for 55 years. After World War II, he ran the undergraduate labs. The equipment he used with Thomson to calibrate the ohm in the 1890s was still being used in the undergraduate lab.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electromagnetic mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_mass"},{"link_name":"Oliver Heaviside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside"},{"link_name":"electrostatic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_field"},{"link_name":"contracted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_contraction"},{"link_name":"special relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity"}],"text":"Searle is known for his work on the velocity dependence of the electromagnetic mass. This was a direct predecessor of Einstein's theory of special relativity, when several people were investigating the change of mass with velocity. Following the work of Oliver Heaviside, he defined the \"Heaviside ellipsoid\", in which the electrostatic field is contracted in the line of motion. Those developments, when modified, were ultimately important for the development of special relativity.","title":"Contributions to science"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Searle was married to Alice Mary Edwards. He contracted a disease at the beginning of World War I, was cured, and became a Christian Scientist. He was a keen cyclist and travelled about proselytizing.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"George Frederick Charles Searle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:George_Frederick_Charles_Searle"},{"link_name":"Experimental elasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001479769"},{"link_name":"Experimental harmonic motion A Manual for the Laboratory, 1st edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000670282"},{"link_name":"Experimental harmonic motion, 2nd edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/102010665"}],"text":"Wikisource has original works by or about:George Frederick Charles SearleSearle was the author of papers and books, including:Experimental elasticity (1908) Cambridge Univ. Press\nExperimental harmonic motion A Manual for the Laboratory, 1st edition (1915) Cambridge Univ. Press\nExperimental harmonic motion, 2nd edition (1922) Cambridge Univ. Press\nExperimental optics, 1st edition (1925) Cambridge Univ. Press\nExperimental optics, 2nd edition (1935) Cambridge Univ. Press\nExperimental physics, (1934) Cambridge Univ. Press\nOliver Heaviside, the man (1987) C.A.M. Publishing, England (written in 1950, published posthumously)","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Thomson, George (1955). \"George Frederick Charles Searle 1864-1954\". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 1: 246–252. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1955.0018. JSTOR 769255. S2CID 71913224.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society","url_text":"Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1955.0018","url_text":"10.1098/rsbm.1955.0018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/769255","url_text":"769255"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71913224","url_text":"71913224"}]},{"reference":"Searle, G. F. C. (1896). \"On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid\". Proceedings of the Physical Society of London. 15 (1): 264–278. Bibcode:1896PPSL...15..264S. doi:10.1088/1478-7814/15/1/323.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1431479","url_text":"\"On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1896PPSL...15..264S","url_text":"1896PPSL...15..264S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1478-7814%2F15%2F1%2F323","url_text":"10.1088/1478-7814/15/1/323"}]},{"reference":"\"George Frederick Charles Searle's Palmares at CyclingRanking.com\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Harsha | Harsha | ["1 Early years","2 Ascension","3 Reign","4 Religion and religious policy","5 Literary prowess","6 In popular culture","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading"] | Pushyabhuti Emperor from 606 to 647
"Harshvardhan" redirects here. For other people with similar names, see Harsha Vardhan.
For other uses, see Harsha (disambiguation).
HarshaMaharajadhirajaCoin of Harshavardhana, c. 606–647 CE.Pushyabhuti EmperorReignc. 606 – c. 647 CEPredecessorRajyavardhanaSuccessorArunāsvaBorn590 CEpossibly Sthanvishvara, Pushyabhuti Kingdom (present-day Thanesar, Haryana, India)Died647 CE (aged 56-57)possibly Kanyakubja, Empire of Harsha (present-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh, India)DynastyPushyabhutiFatherPrabhakarvardhanaMotherYasomatiReligionShaivismBuddhism (according to Xuanzang)Signature
Empire of Harsha, 7th century CE India.
Harshavardhana (IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Hun invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar, present-day Haryana. He was a powerful Rajput king belonging to Bais Rajput clan.
At the height of Harsha's power, his realm covered much of northern and northwestern India, with the Narmada River as its southern boundary. He eventually made Kanyakubja (present-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh state) his imperial capital, and reigned till 647 CE. Harsha was defeated by the Emperor Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty in the Battle of Narmada, when he tried to expand his empire into the southern peninsula of India.
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the imperial court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him (as Shiladitya), praising his justice and generosity. His biography Harshacharita ("The Life of Harsha") written by the Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Sthanesvara, besides mentioning a defensive wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (white mansion).
Early years
Palace ruins at "Harsh ka tila" mound area spread over 1 km
Much of the information about Harsha's youth comes from the account of Bāṇabhaṭṭa. Harsha was the second son of Prabhakarvardhana, king of Thanesar. After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, Northern India was split into several independent kingdoms. The northern and western regions of the Indian Subcontinent passed into the hands of a dozen or more feudatory states. Prabhakaravardhana, the monarch of Sthanvesvara, who belonged to the Vardhana family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Prabhakaravardhana was the first monarch of the Vardhana dynasty with his capital at Sthanvesvara. After Prabhakaravardhana's death in 605, his eldest son, Rajyavardhana, ascended the throne. Harshavardhana was Rajyavardhana's younger brother. This period of kings from the same line has been referred to as the Vardhana dynasty in many publications.
At the time of Hiuen Tsang's visit, Kanyakubja was the imperial capital of Harshavardhana, the most powerful sovereign in Northern India.
K.P. Jaiswal in Imperial History of India, says that according to a 7-8th century Buddhist text, Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa, Harsha was born of King Vishnu (Vardhana) and his family was of Vaishya varna. This is supported by some more writers.
Ascension
Seal of Harshavardhana found in Nalanda.
Harsha's sister Rajyashri had been married to the Maukhari monarch, Grahavarman. This king, some years later, had been defeated and killed by King Devagupta of Malwa and after his death Rajyashri had been captured and imprisoned by the victor. Harsha's brother, Rajyavardhana, then the king at Sthanesvara, could not accept this affront to his sister and his family. So he marched against Devagupta and defeated him. However, Shashanka, the King of Gauda in Eastern Bengal, then entered Magadha as a friend of Rajyavardhana, but was in a secret alliance with the Malwa king. Accordingly, Shashanka treacherously murdered Rajyavardhana. In the meantime, Rajyashri escaped into forests. On hearing about the murder of his brother, Harsha resolved at once to march against the treacherous King of Gauda, but this campaign remained inconclusive and beyond a point he turned back. Harsha ascended the throne at the age of 16. His first responsibility was to rescue his sister and to avenge the killings of his brother and brother-in-law. He rescued his sister when she was about to immolate herself.
Reign
As Northern India reverted to small republics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers after the fall of the prior Gupta Empire, Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to central India, and their representatives crowned him emperor at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of Maharajadhiraja. Harsha established an empire that brought all of northern India under his rule. The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the imperial court of Harsha, and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.
Pulakeshin II repelled an invasion led by Harsha on the banks of Narmada in the winter of 618–619. Pulakeshin then entered into a treaty with Harsha, with the Narmada River designated as the border between the Chalukya Empire and that of Harshavardhana.
Xuanzang describes the event thus:
"Shiladityaraja (i.e., Harsha), filled with confidence, marched at the head of his troops to contend with this prince (i.e., Pulakeshin); but he was unable to prevail upon or subjugate him".
In 648, Tang Chinese emperor Tang Taizong sent Wang Xuance to India in response to emperor Harsha having sent an ambassador to China. However once in India, he discovered that Harsha had died and the new king Aluonashun (supposedly Arunāsva) attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates. This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and then mounting a joint expedition of over 7,000 Nepalese mounted infantry and 1,200 Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state on June 16. The success of this attack won Xuance the prestigious title of the "Grand Master for the Closing Court." He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China. 2,000 prisoners were taken from Magadha by the Nepali and Tibetan forces under Wang. Tibetan and Chinese writings document describe Wang Xuance's raid on India with Tibetan soldiers. Nepal had been subdued by the Tibetan King Songtsen. The Indian pretender was among the captives. The war happened in 649. Taizong's grave had a statue of the Indian pretender. The pretender's name was recorded in Chinese records as "Na-fu-ti O-lo-na-shuen" (Dinafudi is probably a reference to Tirabhukti)
Xuanzang mentions that Harsha waged wars to bring "the Five Indias under allegiance" in six years. Xuanzang uses the term "Five Indias" (or "Five Indies" in some translations) inconsistently, variously applying it to refer to Harsha's territories in northern India or to the entire subcontinent, grouped around Central India in the four directions. Based on this statement, historians such as R.K. Mookerji and C.V. Vaidya have dated Harsha conquests to 606-612 CE. However, it is now known that Harsha engaged in wars and conquests for several more years. Moreover, whether Xuanzang used the term "Five Indias" to describe Harsha's territory in narrower or wider sense, his statement is hyperbole and cannot be used to make conclusions about Harsha's actual territory. While Harsha was the most powerful emperor of northern India, he did not rule the entire northern India.
Religion and religious policy
"King Harsha pays homage to Buddha", a 20th-century artist's imagination
Like many other ancient Indian rulers, Harsha was eclectic in his religious views and practices. His seals describe his ancestors as worshippers of the Hindu sun god, Surya, his elder brother as a Buddhist, and himself as a Shaivite Hindu. His land grant inscriptions describe him as Parama-maheshvara (supreme devotee of Shiva). His court poet Bana also describes him as a Shaivite Hindu.
Harsha's play Nāgānanda tells the story of the Bodhisattva Jīmūtavāhavana, and the invocatory verse at the beginning is dedicated to the Buddha, described in the act of vanquishing Māra (so much so that the two verses, together with a third, are also preserved separately in Tibetan translation as the *Mārajit-stotra). Shiva's consort Gauri plays an important role in the play, and raises the hero to life using her divine power.
According to the Chinese Buddhist traveler Xuanzang, Harsha was a devout Buddhist. Xuanzang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, and built monasteries at the places visited by Gautama Buddha. He erected several thousand 100-feet high stupas on the banks of the Ganges river, and built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India. He organized an annual assembly of global scholars, and bestowed charitable alms on them. Every five years, he held a great assembly called Moksha. Xuanzang also describes a 21-day religious festival organized by Harsha in Kanyakubja; during this festival, Harsha and his subordinate kings performed daily rituals before a life-sized golden statue of the Buddha.
Since Harsha's own records describe him as a Shaivite Hindu, his conversion to Buddhism would have happened, if at all, in the later part of his life. Even Xuanzang states that Harsha patronised scholars of all religions, not just Buddhist monks. According to historians such as S. R. Goyal and S. V. Sohoni, Harsha was personally a Shaivite Hindu and his patronage to Buddhists misled Xuanzang to portray him as a Buddhist.
Literary prowess
Further information: List of Sanskrit plays in English translation
Harsha is widely believed to be the author of three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika. While some believe (e.g., Mammata in Kavyaprakasha) that it was Dhāvaka, one of Harsha's court poets, who wrote the plays as a paid commission, Wendy Doniger is "persuaded, however, that king Harsha really wrote the plays ... himself."
In popular culture
A 1926 Indian silent film, Samrat Shiladitya, about the emperor was directed by Mohan Dayaram Bhavnani.
See also
Wikiquote has quotations related to Harsha.
Surasena Kingdom
History of India
References
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^ Bradnock, Robert; Bradnock, Roma (1999). India Handbook 2000. McGraw-Hill/Contemporary. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-8442-4841-7. Thanesar near Kurukshetra , is the birthplace of the ruler Harsha Vardhana ( 590-647)...
^ Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-57958-041-4. Born: c. 590; probably Thanesar, India
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^ Sam Van Schaik (2011). Tibet: A History. Yale University Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-300-17217-1.
^ a b Bireshwar Nath Srivastava (1952). "The Chronology of the Campaigns of Harsha". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 15. Indian History Congress: 98–101. JSTOR 45436464.
^ Sally Wriggins (2020). Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim On The Silk Road. Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 9781000011098.
^ O. W. Wolters (2018). Craig J. Reynolds (ed.). Early Southeast Asia: Selected Essays. Cornell University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781501731150.
^ Shankar Goyal (1992). History and Historiography of the Age of Harsha. Kusumanjali. pp. 217–218.
^ a b c Abraham Eraly (2011). The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-670-08478-4.
^ Michael Hahn (1996). ""The *Mārajitstotra by Harṣadeva, a third version of the Nāndī of the Nāgānanda?", Festschrift Dieter Schlingloff". Reinbek. pp. 109–126.
^ S. R. Goyal (2003). Indian Buddhism After the Buddha. Kusumanjali. p. 294. OCLC 907017497. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
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^ S. V. Sohoni (1989). "Review: Harsha and Buddhism". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 70 (1/4). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: 333–336. JSTOR 41693493.
^ a b Harsha (2006). "The Lady of the Jewel Necklace" and "The Lady who Shows Her Love". Translated by Wendy Doniger. New York University Press. p. 18.
^ Ashish Rajadhyaksha; Paul Willemen (10 July 2014). Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema. Taylor & Francis. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-135-94325-7.
Further reading
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Harsha".
Reddy, Krishna (2011), Indian History, Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi
Price, Pamela (2007), Early Medieval India, HIS2172 - Periodic Evaluation, University of Oslo
"Conquests of Siladitya in the south" Archived 27 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine by S. Srikanta Sastri
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harsha Vardhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsh_Vardhan_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Harsha (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsha_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Pushyabhutis.png"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"IAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAST"},{"link_name":"Pushyabhuti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pushyabhuti_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Prabhakaravardhana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prabhakaravardhana"},{"link_name":"Alchon Hun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchon_Huns"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Rajyavardhana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajyavardhana"},{"link_name":"Thanesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"Haryana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haryana"},{"link_name":"Bais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bais_(clan)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Narmada River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_River"},{"link_name":"Kanyakubja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannauj"},{"link_name":"Uttar Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-8"},{"link_name":"Pulakeshin II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulakeshin_II"},{"link_name":"Chalukya dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Battle of Narmada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Narmada"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-8"},{"link_name":"Xuanzang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang"},{"link_name":"Shiladitya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiladitya"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-8"},{"link_name":"Harshacharita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshacharita"},{"link_name":"Banabhatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banabhatta"},{"link_name":"Sthanesvara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"\"Harshvardhan\" redirects here. For other people with similar names, see Harsha Vardhan.For other uses, see Harsha (disambiguation).Empire of Harsha, 7th century CE India.[5]Harshavardhana (IAST Harṣa-vardhana; c. 590–647 CE) was a Pushyabhuti emperor who ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Hun invaders,[6] and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar, present-day Haryana. He was a powerful Rajput king belonging to Bais Rajput clan.[7]At the height of Harsha's power, his realm covered much of northern and northwestern India, with the Narmada River as its southern boundary. He eventually made Kanyakubja (present-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh state) his imperial capital, and reigned till 647 CE.[8] Harsha was defeated by the Emperor Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty in the Battle of Narmada, when he tried to expand his empire into the southern peninsula of India.[9]The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide.[8] The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the imperial court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him (as Shiladitya), praising his justice and generosity.[8] His biography Harshacharita (\"The Life of Harsha\") written by the Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Sthanesvara, besides mentioning a defensive wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (white mansion).[10]","title":"Harsha"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palace_ruins_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Bāṇabhaṭṭa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%81%E1%B9%87abha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Routledge-4"},{"link_name":"Prabhakarvardhana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prabhakarvardhana"},{"link_name":"Thanesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Routledge-4"},{"link_name":"Gupta Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire"},{"link_name":"Indian Subcontinent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent"},{"link_name":"Sthanvesvara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"Sthanvesvara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Hiuen Tsang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang"},{"link_name":"Kanyakubja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannauj"},{"link_name":"K.P. Jaiswal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._P._Jayaswal"},{"link_name":"Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C3%B1ju%C5%9Br%C4%AB-m%C5%ABla-kalpa"},{"link_name":"Vaishya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishya"},{"link_name":"varna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sailendra_Nath_Sen-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amal_Chattopadhyay-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raj_Narain_Arya-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-V._Ramanathan-19"}],"text":"Palace ruins at \"Harsh ka tila\" mound area spread over 1 kmMuch of the information about Harsha's youth comes from the account of Bāṇabhaṭṭa.[4] Harsha was the second son of Prabhakarvardhana, king of Thanesar.[4] After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, Northern India was split into several independent kingdoms. The northern and western regions of the Indian Subcontinent passed into the hands of a dozen or more feudatory states. Prabhakaravardhana, the monarch of Sthanvesvara, who belonged to the Vardhana family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Prabhakaravardhana was the first monarch of the Vardhana dynasty with his capital at Sthanvesvara. After Prabhakaravardhana's death in 605, his eldest son, Rajyavardhana, ascended the throne. Harshavardhana was Rajyavardhana's younger brother. This period of kings from the same line has been referred to as the Vardhana dynasty in many publications.[11][12][13][14]At the time of Hiuen Tsang's visit, Kanyakubja was the imperial capital of Harshavardhana, the most powerful sovereign in Northern India.K.P. Jaiswal in Imperial History of India, says that according to a 7-8th century Buddhist text, Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa, Harsha was born of King Vishnu (Vardhana) and his family was of Vaishya varna.[15] This is supported by some more writers.[16][17][18][19]","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_of_Harshavardhana_found_in_Nalanda.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nalanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalanda"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Maukhari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maukhari"},{"link_name":"Grahavarman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grahavarman"},{"link_name":"Malwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwa"},{"link_name":"Sthanesvara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanesar"},{"link_name":"Shashanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shashanka"},{"link_name":"Gauda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauda_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal"},{"link_name":"Magadha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadha"},{"link_name":"Malwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malwa"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sinha1977-21"},{"link_name":"King of Gauda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shashanka"}],"text":"Seal of Harshavardhana found in Nalanda.[20]Harsha's sister Rajyashri had been married to the Maukhari monarch, Grahavarman. This king, some years later, had been defeated and killed by King Devagupta of Malwa and after his death Rajyashri had been captured and imprisoned by the victor. Harsha's brother, Rajyavardhana, then the king at Sthanesvara, could not accept this affront to his sister and his family. So he marched against Devagupta and defeated him. However, Shashanka, the King of Gauda in Eastern Bengal, then entered Magadha as a friend of Rajyavardhana, but was in a secret alliance with the Malwa king.[citation needed] Accordingly, Shashanka treacherously murdered Rajyavardhana.[21] In the meantime, Rajyashri escaped into forests. On hearing about the murder of his brother, Harsha resolved at once to march against the treacherous King of Gauda, but this campaign remained inconclusive and beyond a point he turned back. Harsha ascended the throne at the age of 16. His first responsibility was to rescue his sister and to avenge the killings of his brother and brother-in-law. He rescued his sister when she was about to immolate herself.","title":"Ascension"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northern India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_India"},{"link_name":"Gupta Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab"},{"link_name":"Maharajadhiraja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"an empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Harsha"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-8"},{"link_name":"cosmopolitanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitanism"},{"link_name":"Xuanzang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Places_p.507-8"},{"link_name":"Pulakeshin II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulakeshin_II"},{"link_name":"Narmada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada"},{"link_name":"Narmada River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_River"},{"link_name":"Chalukya Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_Empire"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Shiladityaraja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiladitya"},{"link_name":"Tang Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Tang Taizong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang"},{"link_name":"Wang Xuance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Xuance"},{"link_name":"Arunāsva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arun%C4%81sva"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Nepalese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"mounted infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mounted_infantry"},{"link_name":"Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_people"},{"link_name":"infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"full citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Benn2002-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen2003-28"},{"link_name":"Songtsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen2003_2-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yule1915-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pordenone)%E1%B9%ACab%C4%ABb1998-31"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bagchi2011-32"},{"link_name":"Tirabhukti)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_(region)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sircar1990-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schaik2011-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BNS-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"R.K. Mookerji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radha_Kumud_Mukherjee"},{"link_name":"C.V. Vaidya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chintaman_Vinayak_Vaidya"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BNS-36"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"As Northern India reverted to small republics and small monarchical states ruled by Gupta rulers after the fall of the prior Gupta Empire, Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to central India, and their representatives crowned him emperor at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of Maharajadhiraja. Harsha established an empire that brought all of northern India under his rule.[8] The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the imperial court of Harsha, and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.[8]Pulakeshin II repelled an invasion led by Harsha on the banks of Narmada in the winter of 618–619. Pulakeshin then entered into a treaty with Harsha, with the Narmada River designated as the border between the Chalukya Empire and that of Harshavardhana.[22][23]Xuanzang describes the event thus:\"Shiladityaraja (i.e., Harsha), filled with confidence, marched at the head of his troops to contend with this prince (i.e., Pulakeshin); but he was unable to prevail upon or subjugate him\".In 648, Tang Chinese emperor Tang Taizong sent Wang Xuance to India in response to emperor Harsha having sent an ambassador to China. However once in India, he discovered that Harsha had died and the new king Aluonashun (supposedly Arunāsva) attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates.[24] This led to Wang Xuance escaping to Tibet and then mounting a joint expedition of over 7,000 Nepalese mounted infantry and 1,200 Tibetan infantry and attack on the Indian state on June 16. The success of this attack won Xuance the prestigious title of the \"Grand Master for the Closing Court.\"[25] He also secured a reported Buddhist relic for China.[26][full citation needed] 2,000 prisoners were taken from Magadha by the Nepali and Tibetan forces under Wang.[27] Tibetan and Chinese writings document describe Wang Xuance's raid on India with Tibetan soldiers.[28] Nepal had been subdued by the Tibetan King Songtsen.[29] The Indian pretender was among the captives.[30][31] The war happened in 649.[citation needed] Taizong's grave had a statue of the Indian pretender.[32] The pretender's name was recorded in Chinese records as \"Na-fu-ti O-lo-na-shuen\" (Dinafudi is probably a reference to Tirabhukti)[33][34][35]Xuanzang mentions that Harsha waged wars to bring \"the Five Indias under allegiance\" in six years.[36] Xuanzang uses the term \"Five Indias\" (or \"Five Indies\" in some translations) inconsistently, variously applying it to refer to Harsha's territories in northern India or to the entire subcontinent, grouped around Central India in the four directions.[37][38] Based on this statement, historians such as R.K. Mookerji and C.V. Vaidya have dated Harsha conquests to 606-612 CE. However, it is now known that Harsha engaged in wars and conquests for several more years.[36] Moreover, whether Xuanzang used the term \"Five Indias\" to describe Harsha's territory in narrower or wider sense, his statement is hyperbole and cannot be used to make conclusions about Harsha's actual territory. While Harsha was the most powerful emperor of northern India, he did not rule the entire northern India.[39]","title":"Reign"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King_Harsha_pays_homage_to_Buddha.jpg"},{"link_name":"eclectic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclecticism"},{"link_name":"Surya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"Shaivite Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism"},{"link_name":"Bana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%81%E1%B9%87abha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AbrahamEraly_2011-40"},{"link_name":"Nāgānanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagananda"},{"link_name":"the Buddha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha"},{"link_name":"Māra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mara_(demon)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michael_Hahn_1996-41"},{"link_name":"Gauri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvati"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Xuanzang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang"},{"link_name":"Buddhist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist"},{"link_name":"Gautama Buddha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gautama_Buddha"},{"link_name":"stupas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa"},{"link_name":"Ganges river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganges_river"},{"link_name":"hospices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospice"},{"link_name":"Moksha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksha"},{"link_name":"Kanyakubja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannauj"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AbrahamEraly_2011-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AbrahamEraly_2011-40"},{"link_name":"S. V. Sohoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._V._Sohoni"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"\"King Harsha pays homage to Buddha\", a 20th-century artist's imaginationLike many other ancient Indian rulers, Harsha was eclectic in his religious views and practices. His seals describe his ancestors as worshippers of the Hindu sun god, Surya, his elder brother as a Buddhist, and himself as a Shaivite Hindu. His land grant inscriptions describe him as Parama-maheshvara (supreme devotee of Shiva). His court poet Bana also describes him as a Shaivite Hindu.[40]Harsha's play Nāgānanda tells the story of the Bodhisattva Jīmūtavāhavana, and the invocatory verse at the beginning is dedicated to the Buddha, described in the act of vanquishing Māra (so much so that the two verses, together with a third, are also preserved separately in Tibetan translation as the *Mārajit-stotra).[41] Shiva's consort Gauri plays an important role in the play,[42] and raises the hero to life using her divine power.[43]According to the Chinese Buddhist traveler Xuanzang, Harsha was a devout Buddhist. Xuanzang states that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, and built monasteries at the places visited by Gautama Buddha. He erected several thousand 100-feet high stupas on the banks of the Ganges river, and built well-maintained hospices for travellers and poor people on highways across India. He organized an annual assembly of global scholars, and bestowed charitable alms on them. Every five years, he held a great assembly called Moksha. Xuanzang also describes a 21-day religious festival organized by Harsha in Kanyakubja; during this festival, Harsha and his subordinate kings performed daily rituals before a life-sized golden statue of the Buddha.[40]Since Harsha's own records describe him as a Shaivite Hindu, his conversion to Buddhism would have happened, if at all, in the later part of his life. Even Xuanzang states that Harsha patronised scholars of all religions, not just Buddhist monks.[40] According to historians such as S. R. Goyal and S. V. Sohoni, Harsha was personally a Shaivite Hindu and his patronage to Buddhists misled Xuanzang to portray him as a Buddhist.[44]","title":"Religion and religious policy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Sanskrit plays in English translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sanskrit_plays_in_English_translation"},{"link_name":"Ratnavali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratnavali"},{"link_name":"Nagananda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagananda"},{"link_name":"Priyadarsika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priyadarsika"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-45"},{"link_name":"Mammata in Kavyaprakasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//archive.org/details/KavyaPrakash"},{"link_name":"Wendy Doniger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Doniger"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-45"}],"text":"Further information: List of Sanskrit plays in English translationHarsha is widely believed to be the author of three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika.[45] While some believe (e.g., Mammata in Kavyaprakasha) that it was Dhāvaka, one of Harsha's court poets, who wrote the plays as a paid commission, Wendy Doniger is \"persuaded, however, that king Harsha really wrote the plays ... himself.\"[45]","title":"Literary prowess"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indian silent film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_silent_film"},{"link_name":"Samrat Shiladitya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiladitya"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc-46"}],"text":"A 1926 Indian silent film, Samrat Shiladitya, about the emperor was directed by Mohan Dayaram Bhavnani.[46]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"1911 Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"Harsha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Harsha"},{"link_name":"Indian History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=X4j7Nf_MU24C"},{"link_name":"HIS2172 - Periodic Evaluation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iakh/HIS2172/h07/"},{"link_name":"\"Conquests of Siladitya in the south\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.srikanta-sastri.org/conquests-siladitya-in-south/4584992949"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20141027134555/http://www.srikanta-sastri.org/conquests-siladitya-in-south/4584992949"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"S. Srikanta Sastri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Srikanta_Sastri"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q216895#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/1823027/"},{"link_name":"ISNI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isni.org/isni/000000035697689X"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/193711102"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcKKDJPx36wvQVRvxBtrq"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11906956d"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11906956d"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/118983903"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//opac.sbn.it/nome/IEIV044585"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007262307705171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n50082104"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC2018O2460"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p105388831"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9811530443705606"},{"link_name":"CiNii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01184678?l=en"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Biographie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118983903.html?language=en"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/02691543X"}],"text":"Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article \"Harsha\".Reddy, Krishna (2011), Indian History, Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi\nPrice, Pamela (2007), Early Medieval India, HIS2172 - Periodic Evaluation, University of Oslo\n\"Conquests of Siladitya in the south\" Archived 27 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine by S. Srikanta SastriAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nItaly\nIsrael\nUnited States\nKorea\nNetherlands\nPoland\nAcademics\nCiNii\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nOther\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Empire of Harsha, 7th century CE India.[5]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map_of_the_Pushyabhutis.png/220px-Map_of_the_Pushyabhutis.png"},{"image_text":"Palace ruins at \"Harsh ka tila\" mound area spread over 1 km","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Palace_ruins_2.JPG/220px-Palace_ruins_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Seal of Harshavardhana found in Nalanda.[20]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Seal_of_Harshavardhana_found_in_Nalanda.jpg/220px-Seal_of_Harshavardhana_found_in_Nalanda.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"King Harsha pays homage to Buddha\", a 20th-century artist's imagination","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/King_Harsha_pays_homage_to_Buddha.jpg/220px-King_Harsha_pays_homage_to_Buddha.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Harsha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Harsha"},{"title":"Surasena Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surasena_Kingdom"},{"title":"History of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India"}] | [{"reference":"Bradnock, Robert; Bradnock, Roma (1999). India Handbook 2000. McGraw-Hill/Contemporary. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-8442-4841-7. Thanesar near Kurukshetra , is the birthplace of the ruler Harsha Vardhana ( 590-647)...","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-RowAQAAIAAJ&q=harsha+birthplace+thanesar","url_text":"India Handbook 2000"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8442-4841-7","url_text":"978-0-8442-4841-7"}]},{"reference":"Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-57958-041-4. Born: c. 590; probably Thanesar, India","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CurSh3Sh_KMC&dq=harsha+born+thanesar&pg=PA430","url_text":"Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-041-4","url_text":"978-1-57958-041-4"}]},{"reference":"Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-57958-041-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CurSh3Sh_KMC&dq=harsha+born+thanesar&pg=PA430","url_text":"Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-041-4","url_text":"978-1-57958-041-4"}]},{"reference":"Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 146, map XIV.2 (d). ISBN 0226742210. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183","url_text":"A Historical atlas of South Asia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210","url_text":"0226742210"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144259/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Singh, Dr. Udai Pratap (2021). \"The Bais Kshatriya; Rise and Decline of a Rajputs Dynasty in Northern India\". The Asian Man, an international Journal Vol 15 no.1Article. 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An Imperial History Of India.","urls":[{"url":"http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279518","url_text":"An Imperial History Of India"}]},{"reference":"Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999), Ancient Indian History and Civilization, New Age International, p. 546, ISBN 9788122411980, archived from the original on 17 April 2023, retrieved 19 March 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&dq=harsha+vaishya&pg=PA546","url_text":"Ancient Indian History and Civilization"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788122411980","url_text":"9788122411980"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230417082302/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&dq=harsha+vaishya&pg=PA546","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Chattopadhyay, Amal (1994), Bhupendranath Datta and His Study of Indian Society, K.P. Bagchi & Company, p. 103, ISBN 9788170741473, archived from the original on 17 April 2023, retrieved 19 March 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka_kAAAAMAAJ&q=harshavardhan++vaishya","url_text":"Bhupendranath Datta and His Study of Indian Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170741473","url_text":"9788170741473"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230417082306/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka_kAAAAMAAJ&q=harshavardhan++vaishya","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Arya, Raj Narain (2001), Brahmin and Brahminism A Historical Survey, Blumoon Books, p. 82, ISBN 9788187190523, archived from the original on 7 April 2023, retrieved 19 March 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RKDXAAAAMAAJ&q=harshavardhan++vaishya","url_text":"Brahmin and Brahminism A Historical Survey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788187190523","url_text":"9788187190523"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230407015859/https://books.google.com/books?id=RKDXAAAAMAAJ&q=harshavardhan++vaishya","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"V, Ramanathan (2004), Hindu Civilisation and the Twenty-first Century, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, p. 350, ISBN 9788172763329, archived from the original on 6 April 2023, retrieved 19 March 2023","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bbooAAAAYAAJ&q=harsha+vaishya","url_text":"Hindu Civilisation and the Twenty-first Century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788172763329","url_text":"9788172763329"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230406191723/https://books.google.com/books?id=bbooAAAAYAAJ&q=harsha+vaishya","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Sastri, Hirananda (1931). Epigraphia Indica Vol.21. pp. 74–80.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56981/page/n104/mode/1up","url_text":"Epigraphia Indica Vol.21"}]},{"reference":"Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (1977). Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D. Abhinav. p. 151.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA151","url_text":"Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D."}]},{"reference":"\"Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha was in 618 AD\". The Hindu. 25 April 2016. p. 9.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pulakeshins-victory-over-harsha-was-in-618-ad/article8516979.ece","url_text":"\"Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha was in 618 AD\""}]},{"reference":"\"Study unravels nuances of classical Indian history\". The Times of India\". Pune. 23 April 2016. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2 November 2016. 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By Tansen Sen, pg 23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2593-5","url_text":"978-0-8248-2593-5"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230417082308/https://books.google.com/books?id=blBTHAY_A4wC&dq=%22wang+xuance&pg=PA23","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies By International Association of Buddhist Studies\". 4 April 2024. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=frIEAAAAYAAJ&q=%22wang+xuance","url_text":"\"The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies By International Association of Buddhist Studies\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230417082304/https://books.google.com/books?id=frIEAAAAYAAJ&q=%22wang+xuance","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Charles D. Benn (2002). Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-313-30955-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dailylifeintradi00benn","url_text":"Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dailylifeintradi00benn/page/38","url_text":"38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30955-7","url_text":"978-0-313-30955-7"}]},{"reference":"Tansen Sen (January 2003). Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600-1400. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 253–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2593-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=blBTHAY_A4wC&pg=PA253","url_text":"Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600-1400"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2593-5","url_text":"978-0-8248-2593-5"}]},{"reference":"Tansen Sen (January 2003). Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600-1400. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-0-8248-2593-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=blBTHAY_A4wC&q=tibetan+nepal+648&pg=PA22","url_text":"Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600-1400"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2593-5","url_text":"978-0-8248-2593-5"}]},{"reference":"Henry Yule (1915). Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China. Asian Educational Services. pp. 69–. ISBN 978-81-206-1966-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqgAb41ifIC&q=tibetan+nepal+648&pg=PA69","url_text":"Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-1966-1","url_text":"978-81-206-1966-1"}]},{"reference":"Odorico (da Pordenone); Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb; Francesco Balducci Pegolotti; Joannes de Marignolis; Ibn Batuta (1998). Cathay and the Way Thither: Preliminary essay on the intercourse between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 69. ISBN 9788121508391.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=69UMAQAAMAAJ&q=648","url_text":"Cathay and the Way Thither: Preliminary essay on the intercourse between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788121508391","url_text":"9788121508391"}]},{"reference":"Prabodh Chandra Bagchi (2011). India and China : interactions through Buddhism and diplomacy ; a collection of essays. Anthem Press. pp. 158–. ISBN 978-93-80601-17-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MB4CHPi7dycC&q=tibetan+nepal+648&pg=PA158","url_text":"India and China : interactions through Buddhism and diplomacy ; a collection of essays"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-80601-17-5","url_text":"978-93-80601-17-5"}]},{"reference":"D.C. Sircar (1990). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 326–. ISBN 978-81-208-0690-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC&q=tibetan+nepal+648&pg=PA326","url_text":"Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0690-0","url_text":"978-81-208-0690-0"}]},{"reference":"Sam Van Schaik (2011). Tibet: A History. Yale University Press. pp. 48–. ISBN 978-0-300-17217-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RpLAKGG1ZX4C&q=tibetan+nepal+648&pg=PT48","url_text":"Tibet: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17217-1","url_text":"978-0-300-17217-1"}]},{"reference":"Bireshwar Nath Srivastava (1952). \"The Chronology of the Campaigns of Harsha\". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 15. Indian History Congress: 98–101. JSTOR 45436464.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/45436464","url_text":"45436464"}]},{"reference":"Sally Wriggins (2020). Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim On The Silk Road. Routledge. p. 241. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damage_control_surgery | Damage control surgery | ["1 Technique","1.1 Initial laparotomy","1.2 ICU resuscitation","1.3 Definitive reconstruction","2 Resuscitation","2.1 Permissive hypotension","2.2 Transfusion ratios","2.3 Massive transfusion protocol","3 History","4 Outcomes","5 References","6 Bibliography"] | Surgical intervention
Damage control surgery (DCS) is surgical intervention to keep the patient alive rather than correct the anatomy.
It addresses the "lethal triad" for critically ill patients with severe hemorrhage affecting homeostasis leading to metabolic acidosis, hypothermia, and increased coagulopathy.
This lifesaving method has significantly decreased the morbidity and mortality of critically ill patients, though complications can result.
It stabilizes patients for clinicians to subsequently reverse the physiologic insult prior to completing a definitive repair. While the temptation to perform a definitive operation exists, surgeons should avoid this practice because the deleterious effects on patients can result in them succumbing to the physiologic effects of the injury, despite the anatomical correction.
The leading cause of death among trauma patients remains uncontrolled hemorrhage and accounts for approximately 30–40% of trauma-related deaths.
While typically trauma surgeons are heavily involved in treating such patients, the concept has evolved to other sub-specialty services.
A multi-disciplinary group of individuals is required: nurses, respiratory therapist, surgical-medicine intensivists, blood bank personnel and others.
Technique
Damage control surgery can be divided into the following three phases: Initial laparotomy, Intensive Care Unit (ICU) resuscitation, and definitive reconstruction. Each of these phases has defined timing and objectives to ensure best outcomes. The following goes through the different phases to illustrate, step by step, how one might approach this. There are clearly different approaches throughout the country, and no one way is necessarily correct. However, the ability to evaluate objectively the differences and then choose the one that fits your team is important.
Initial laparotomy
This is the first part of the damage control process whereby there are some clear-cut goals surgeons should achieve. The first is controlling hemorrhage followed by contamination control, abdominal packing, and placement of a temporary closure device. Minimizing the length of time spent in this phase is essential. For groups (i.e., trauma centers) to be effective in damage control surgery, a multi-disciplinary team is critical. The approach to caring for such critically ill patients is dependent on nurses, surgeons, critical care physicians, operating room staff, blood bank personnel, and administrative support. In addition to having the right team in place is having a prepared team. The more facile the team is enhances the ability for centers to effectively implement damage control surgery. This is referred to by some as damage control ground zero (DC0). The ability to mobilize personnel, equipment, and other resources is bolstered by preparation; however, standardized protocols ensure that team members from various entities within the health care system are all speaking the same language. This has been seen during implementation of complex processes such as the massive transfusion protocol (MTP). Controlling of hemorrhage as discussed above is the most important step in this phase. Eviscerating the intra-abdominal small bowel and packing all four abdominal quadrants usually helps surgeons establish initial hemorrhagic control. Depending up on the source of hemorrhage a number of different maneuvers might need to be performed allowing for control of aortic inflow. Solid organ injury (i.e., spleen, kidney) should be dealt with by resection. When dealing with hepatic hemorrhage a number of different options exist such as performing a Pringle maneuver that would allow for control of hepatic inflow. Surgeons can also apply manual pressure, perform hepatic packing, or even plugging penetrating wounds. Certain situations might require leaving the liver packed and taking the patient for angio-embolization or if operating in a hybrid operating room having perform an on table angio-embolization. Vessels that are able to be ligated should, and one should consider shunting other vessels that do not fall into this category. This has been described by Reilly and colleagues when they shunted the superior mesenteric artery to decrease the length of time in the operating room. Once hemorrhage control is achieved one should quickly proceed to controlling intra-abdominal contamination from hollow-viscus organs. The perception might be that one could quickly perform an anastomosis. This should not be attempted in the damage control setting. The key is to simply prevent continued intra-abdominal contamination, and to leave patients in discontinuity. A number of different techniques can be employed such as using staplers to come across the bowel, or primary suture closure in small perforations. Once this is complete the abdomen should be packed. Many of these patients become coagulopathic and can develop diffuse oozing. It is important to not only pack areas of injury but also pack areas of surgical dissection. There are various methods that can be used to pack the abdomen. Packing with radiopaque laparotomy pads allow for the benefit of being able to detect them via x-ray prior to definitive closure. As a rule abdomens should not be definitively closed until there has been radiologic confirmation that no retained objects are present in the abdomen. The final step of this phase is applying a temporary closure device. Numerous methods of temporary closure exist, with the most common technique being a negative-vacuum type device. Regardless of which method one decides to use it is important that the abdominal fascia is not reapproximated. The ability to develop Abdominal Compartment Syndrome is a real concern and described by Schwab.
ICU resuscitation
On completion of the initial phase of damage control, the key is to reverse the physiologic insult that took place. This specifically relates to factors such as acidosis, coagulopathy, and hypothermia (lethal triad) that many of these critically ill patients develop. When developing a strategy to best care for these patients, the same principles of having a multi-disciplinary team that work together in parallel for the same result apply. The intensivist is critical in working with the staff to ensure that the physiologic abnormalities are treated. This typically requires close monitoring in the intensive care unit, ventilator support, laboratory monitoring of resuscitation parameters (i.e., lactate).
In using a number of different resuscitation parameters, the critical care team can have a better idea as to which direction is progressing. The first 24 hours often require a significant amount of resources (i.e., blood products) and investment of time from personnel within the critical care team. In many circumstances, especially trauma patients, require that other specialties address a variety of injuries. Moving the patient early on, unless absolutely necessary, can be detrimental. Certain circumstances might require this, and the patients should continue to receive care from the critical care team during the entire transport period. As the literature begins to grow within the field of damage control surgery, the medical community is continuously learning how to improve the process. Certain pitfalls have also become evident, one of which is the potential to develop abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS). While it might sound counterintuitive since the fascia is left open during the placement of these temporary closure devices, they can create a similar type process that leads to ACS. If this occurs the temporary closure device should be taken down immediately.
Definitive reconstruction
The third step in damage control surgery is addressing closure of the abdomen. Definitive reconstruction occurs only when the patient is improving. At this point in process the critical care team has been able to correct the physiologic derangements. The optimization typically takes 24 to 48 hours, depending on how severe the initial insult is. Prior to being taken back to the operating room it is paramount that the resolution of acidosis, hypothermia, and coagulopathy has occurred.
The first step after removing the temporary closure device is to ensure that all abdominal packs are removed. Typically the number of packs has been documented in the initial laparotomy; however, an abdominal radiograph should be taken prior to definitive closure of the fascia to ensure that no retained sponges are left in the abdomen. Once the abdominal packs are removed the next step is to re-explore the abdomen allowing for the identification of potentially missed injuries during the initial laparotomy and re-evaluating the prior injuries. Attention is then turned to performing the necessary bowel anastomosis or other definitive repairs (i.e., vascular injuries).
An attempt should be made to close the abdominal fascia at the first take back, to prevent complications that can result from having an open abdomen. The concern for early closure of the abdomen with development of compartment syndrome is a real one. A method to pre-emptively evaluate whether fascial closure is appropriate would be to determine the difference in peak airway pressure (PAP) prior to closure and the right after closure. An increase of over 10 would suggest that the abdomen be left open. As mentioned above, it is important to obtain an abdominal radiograph to ensure that no retained sponges are left intra-operatively.
Considering that not all patients can undergo definitive reconstruction at first return, there are other options that surgeons can consider. Data would suggest that the longer the abdomen is left open from initial laparotomy the higher the rate of complications. After about one week, if surgeons can't close the abdomen, they should consider placing a Vicryl mesh to cover the abdominal contents. This lets granulation occur over a few weeks, with the subsequent ability to place a split-thickness skin graft (STSG) on top for coverage. These patients clearly have a hernia that must be fixed 9 to 12 months later.
Resuscitation
Damage control resuscitation has had a dramatic impact on how care for critically ill patients is administered.. The core principles of resuscitation involve permissive hypotension, transfusion ratios, and massive transfusion protocol. The resuscitation period lets any physiologic derangements be reversed to give the best outcome for patient care.
Permissive hypotension
Typical resuscitation strategies have used an approach where aggressive crystalloid and/or blood product resuscitation is performed to restore blood volume. The term permissive hypotension refers to maintaining a low blood pressure to mitigate hemorrhage; however, continue providing adequate end-organ perfusion . The key is to prevent exacerbation of hemorrhaging until definitive vascular control can be achieved, the theory being that if clots have formed within a vessel then increasing the patient's blood pressure might dislodge those established clots resulting in more significant bleeding. Permissive hypotension is not a new concept, and had been described in penetrating thoracic trauma patients during World War I by Bickell and colleagues demonstrating an improvement in both survival and complications.
Subsequent animal studies have shown equivalent outcomes with no real benefit in mortality Recently there has been further data in trauma patients that has demonstrated increased survival rates . Cotton and colleagues found that the use of a permissive hypotension resuscitation strategy resulted in better outcomes (increased 30-day survival) in those undergoing damage control laparotomy. This would not be used in situations where patients might have injuries such as a traumatic brain injury considering that such patients are excluded from the studies.
Transfusion ratios
For over a century the casualties of war have provided valuable lessons that can be applied within the civilian sector. Specifically the past decade has seen a paradigm shift in early resuscitation of critically injured patients. Instead of replacing blood volume with high volumes of crystalloid and packed red blood cells with the sporadic use of fresh frozen plasma and platelets, we have now learned that maintaining a transfusion ratio of 1:1:1 of plasma to red blood cells to platelets in patients requiring massive transfusion results in improved outcomes While this was initially demonstrated in the military setting, Holcomb and colleagues extrapolated this to the civilian trauma center showing improved results as well Broad implementation across both the military and civilian sector has demonstrated a decreased mortality in critically injured patients. Debate has gone back and forth as to the correct ratio that should be used; however, recently Holcomb and colleagues published the Prospective Observational Multicenter Major Trauma Transfusion (PROMMTT) Study. They compared administration a higher ratio of plasma and platelets (1:1:1) compared to a lower ratio (1:1:2). The patients that received a higher ratio had an associated three to four-fold decrease in mortality. To help mitigate confounding variables a randomized control trial called the Pragmatic Randomized Optimal Platelet and Plasma Ratios (PROPPR) has been performed to evaluate the transfusion requirement. There was no difference in 24 hour or 30 day mortality between the 1:1:1 group and the 1:1:2 group - https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2107789.
Massive transfusion protocol
Initial resuscitation of trauma patients continues to evolve. Massive transfusion (defined as receiving greater than or equal to 10 units of packed red blood cells with a 24-hour period) is required in up to 5% of civilian trauma patients that arrive severely injured. Patients who are arriving severely injured to trauma centers can be coagulopathic. In fact, data suggests that around 25% of patients arrive having coagulopathy. New ways of measuring coagulopathy such at thromboelstography (TEG) and rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) have allowed for a more robust assessment of the coagulation cascade compared to traditional methods of measuring international normalized ratio (INR) allowing clinicians to better target areas of deficiency. For trauma teams to systematically and efficiently deliver blood products institutions have created protocols that allow for this. The protocols allow for clear communication between the trauma center, blood bank, nurses, and other ancillary staff. They also allow for the quick delivery of certain set of blood products depending upon the institution. One example might be that a “cooler” would contain 10 units of packed red blood cells, 10 units of plasma, and 2 packs of platelets. The idea is that the coolers would continue to be delivered to the location where the patient is being treated until the trauma team leader (typically the trauma surgeon) would discontinue the order Certain factors have been looked at by Callcut and colleagues to determine the predictive ability of patients arriving at trauma centers. The different variables were systolic blood pressure below 90, hemoglobin <11 g/dL, temperature <35.5, INR > 1.5, base deficit >=6, heart rate >= 120 bpm, presence of penetrating trauma, and positive Focused Abdominal Sonography Trauma (FAST) exam. All the variables were found to be predictive of the need of massive transfusion protocol except for temperature (Callcut 2013).
History
Surgeons have used the concept of damage control surgery for years, and controlling hemorrhage with packing is over a century old. Pringle described this technique in patients with substantial hepatic trauma in the early twentieth century. The U.S. military did not encourage this technique during World War II and the Vietnam War. Lucas and Ledgerwood described the principle in a series of patients. Subsequent studies were repeated by Feliciano and colleagues, and they found that hepatic packing increased survival by 90%. This technique was then specifically linked to patients who were hemorrhaging, hypothermic, and coagulopathic. This extrapolation allowed for the first article in 1993 by Rotondo and Schwab specifically adapting the term “damage control”. This term was taken from the United States Navy who initially used the term as “the capacity of a ship to absorb damage and maintain mission integrity” (DOD 1996). This was the first article that brought together the concept of limiting operative time in these critically ill patients to allow for reversal of physiologic insults to improve survival. In addition, the description illustrated how the three phases of damage control surgery can be implemented. Since this description the development of this concept has grown both within the trauma community and beyond.
Outcomes
The data that have been published regarding definitive laparotomy versus damage control surgery demonstrate a decrease in mortality when performed in the critically ill patient. Subsequent studies by Rotondo and colleagues in a group of 961 patients that had undergone damage control surgery demonstrate an overall mortality of 50% and a 40% morbidity rate.
There are four main complications. The first is development of an intra-abdominal abscess. This has been reported as high as 83%. Next is the development of an entero-atmospheric fistula, which ranges from 2 to 25%. The third is abdominal compartment syndrome that has been reported anywhere from 10 to 40% of the time. Finally fascial dehiscence has been shown to result in 9–25% of patients that have undergone damage control surgery.
References
^ Jaunoo SS, Harji DP (April 2009). "Damage control surgery". International Journal of Surgery (London, England). 7 (2): 110–3. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2009.01.008. PMID 19303379.
^ Fries, C. A.; Midwinter, M. J. (2010). "Trauma resuscitation and damage control surgery". Surgery (Oxford). 28 (11): 563. doi:10.1016/j.mpsur.2010.08.002.
^ Garth Meckler; Cline, David; Cydulka, Rita K.; Thomas, Stephen R.; Dan Handel (2012). Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine Manual 7/E. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-178184-8.
^ a b c d e Duchesne, Juan C.; McSwain, Norman E.; Cotton, Bryan A.; Hunt, John P.; Dellavolpe, Jeff; Lafaro, Kelly; Marr, Alan B.; Gonzalez, Earnest A.; Phelan, Herb A.; Bilski, Tracy; Greiffenstein, Patrick; Barbeau, James M.; Rennie, Kelly V.; Baker, Christopher C.; Brohi, Karim; Jenkins, Donald H.; Rotondo, Michael (October 2010). "Damage Control Resuscitation: The New Face of Damage Control". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 69 (4): 976–990. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3181f2abc9. PMID 20938283. S2CID 10787586.
^ a b Rotondo, Michael F.; Schwab, C. William; McGonigal, Michael D.; Phillips, Gordon R.; Fruchterman, Todd M.; Kauder, Donald R.; Latenser, Barbara A.; Angood, Peter A. (September 1993). "Damage Control". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 35 (3): 375–383. doi:10.1097/00005373-199309000-00008. PMID 8371295.
^ a b Johnson, Jon W.; Gracias, Vicente H.; Schwab, C. William; Reilly, Patrick M.; Kauder, Donald R.; Shapiro, Michael B.; Dabrowski, G. Paul; Rotondo, Michael F. (August 2001). "Evolution in Damage Control for Exsanguinating Penetrating Abdominal Injury". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 51 (2): 261–271. doi:10.1097/00005373-200108000-00007. PMID 11493783.
^ a b Pringle, J Hogarth (October 1908). "V. Notes on the Arrest of Hepatic Hemorrhage Due to Trauma". Annals of Surgery. 48 (4): 541–9. doi:10.1097/00000658-190810000-00005. PMC 1406963. PMID 17862242.
^ Reilly, Patrick M.; Rotondo, Michael F.; Carpenter, Jeffrey P.; Sherr, Scott A.; Schwab, C. William (October 1995). "Temporary Vascular Continuity during Damage Control". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 39 (4): 757–760. doi:10.1097/00005373-199510000-00028. PMID 7473971.
^ a b Hoey, BA; Schwab, CW (2002). "Damage control surgery". Scandinavian Journal of Surgery. 91 (1): 92–103. doi:10.1177/145749690209100115. PMID 12075844. S2CID 73006797.
^ Miller, Richard S.; Morris, John A.; Diaz, Jose J.; Herring, Michael B.; May, Addison K. (December 2005). "Complications after 344 Damage-Control Open Celiotomies". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 59 (6): 1365–1374. doi:10.1097/01.ta.0000196004.49422.af. PMID 16394910.
^ Bickell, William H.; Wall, Matthew J.; Pepe, Paul E.; Martin, R. Russell; Ginger, Victoria F.; Allen, Mary K.; Mattox, Kenneth L. (27 October 1994). "Immediate versus Delayed Fluid Resuscitation for Hypotensive Patients with Penetrating Torso Injuries". New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (17): 1105–1109. doi:10.1056/NEJM199410273311701. PMID 7935634.
^ a b Holcomb JB, Pati S. Optimal trauma resuscitation with plasma as the primary resuscitative fluid: the surgeon's perspective. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2013; 656-9.
^ a b Holcomb, John B.; del Junco, Deborah J.; Fox, Erin E.; Wade, Charles E.; Cohen, Mitchell J.; Schreiber, Martin A.; Alarcon, Louis H.; Bai, Yu; Brasel, Karen J.; Bulger, Eileen M.; Cotton, Bryan A.; Matijevic, Nena; Muskat, Peter; Myers, John G.; Phelan, Herb A.; White, Christopher E.; Zhang, Jiajie; Rahbar, Mohammad H.; PROMMTT Study Group, for the (1 February 2013). "The Prospective, Observational, Multicenter, Major Trauma Transfusion (PROMMTT) Study". JAMA Surgery. 148 (2): 127–36. doi:10.1001/2013.jamasurg.387. PMC 3740072. PMID 23560283.
^ Callcut, Rachael A.; Cotton, Bryan A.; Muskat, Peter; Fox, Erin E.; Wade, Charles E.; Holcomb, John B.; Schreiber, Martin A.; Rahbar, Mohammad H.; Cohen, Mitchell J.; Knudson, M. Margaret; Brasel, Karen J.; Bulger, Eileen M.; del Junco, Deborah J.; Myers, John G.; Alarcon, Louis H.; Robinson, Bryce R.H. (January 2013). "Defining when to initiate massive transfusion". Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 74 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3182788b34. PMC 3771339. PMID 23271078.
^ a b Nunez, Timothy C.; Young, Pampee P.; Holcomb, John B.; Cotton, Bryan A. (June 2010). "Creation, Implementation, and Maturation of a Massive Transfusion Protocol for the Exsanguinating Trauma Patient". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 68 (6): 1498–1505. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3181d3cc25. PMC 3136378. PMID 20539192.
^ Brohi 2008
^ Lucas, Charles E; Ledgerwood, Anna M (June 1976). "Prospective evaluation of hemostatic techniques for liver injuries". The Journal of Trauma. 16 (6): 442–51. doi:10.1097/00005373-197606000-00003. PMID 778397.
^ a b Feliciano, DV; Mattox, KL; Jordan GL, Jr (April 1981). "Intra-abdominal packing for control of hepatic hemorrhage: a reappraisal". The Journal of Trauma. 21 (4): 285–90. doi:10.1097/00005373-198104000-00005. PMID 7012380.
^ a b c Stone HH, Strom PR, Mullins RJ (May 1983). "Management of the major coagulopathy with onset during laparotomy". Annals of Surgery. 197 (5): 532–5. doi:10.1097/00000658-198305000-00005. PMC 1353025. PMID 6847272.
^ Rotondo MF, Schwab CW, McGonigal MD, et al. (September 1993). "'Damage control': an approach for improved survival in exsanguinating penetrating abdominal injury". The Journal of Trauma. 35 (3): 375–82, discussion 382–3. doi:10.1097/00005373-199309000-00008. PMID 8371295.
^ Rotondo, Michael F.; Zonies, David H. (August 1997). "The damage control sequence and underlying logic". Surgical Clinics of North America. 77 (4): 761–777. doi:10.1016/S0039-6109(05)70582-X. PMID 9291979.
^ Moore, Ernest E.; Burch, Jon M.; Franciose, Reginald J.; Offner, Patrick J.; Biffl, Walter L. (14 March 2014). "Staged Physiologic Restoration and Damage Control Surgery". World Journal of Surgery. 22 (12): 1184–1191. doi:10.1007/s002689900542. PMID 9841741. S2CID 10040060.
^ Hirshberg, Asher; Wall, Matthew J.; Mattox, Kenneth L. (September 1994). "Planned Reoperation for Trauma". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 37 (3): 365–369. doi:10.1097/00005373-199409000-00005. PMID 8083894.
^ Barker, Donald E.; Green, John M.; Maxwell, Robert A.; Smith, Philip W.; Mejia, Vicente A.; Dart, Benjamin W.; Cofer, Joseph B.; Roe, S. Michael; Burns, R. Phillip (May 2007). "Experience with Vacuum-Pack Temporary Abdominal Wound Closure in 258 Trauma and General and Vascular Surgical Patients". Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 204 (5): 784–792. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2006.12.039. PMID 17481484.
^ Finlay, I. G.; Edwards, T. J.; Lambert, A. W. (January 2004). "Damage control laparotomy". British Journal of Surgery. 91 (1): 83–85. doi:10.1002/bjs.4434. PMID 14716799. S2CID 6509240.
^ Ekeh, Akpofure Peter; McCarthy, Mary C.; Woods, Randy J.; Walusimbi, Mbaga; Saxe, Jonathan M.; Patterson, Lisa A. (March 2006). "Delayed closure of ventral abdominal hernias after severe trauma". The American Journal of Surgery. 191 (3): 391–395. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2005.10.045. PMID 16490553.
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Trauma.org - Damage Control Surgery overview Archived 2013-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
vteTraumaPrinciples
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Wound healing | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anatomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid19303379-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fries-2"},{"link_name":"\"lethal triad\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_triad_of_death"},{"link_name":"hemorrhage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhage"},{"link_name":"homeostasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis"},{"link_name":"metabolic acidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis"},{"link_name":"hypothermia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia"},{"link_name":"coagulopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation_cascade"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcgraw-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20938283-4"},{"link_name":"trauma surgeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_surgeon"}],"text":"Damage control surgery (DCS) is surgical intervention to keep the patient alive rather than correct the anatomy.[1][2]\nIt addresses the \"lethal triad\" for critically ill patients with severe hemorrhage affecting homeostasis leading to metabolic acidosis, hypothermia, and increased coagulopathy.[3]This lifesaving method has significantly decreased the morbidity and mortality of critically ill patients, though complications can result.\nIt stabilizes patients for clinicians to subsequently reverse the physiologic insult prior to completing a definitive repair. While the temptation to perform a definitive operation exists, surgeons should avoid this practice because the deleterious effects on patients can result in them succumbing to the physiologic effects of the injury, despite the anatomical correction.\nThe leading cause of death among trauma patients remains uncontrolled hemorrhage and accounts for approximately 30–40% of trauma-related deaths.[4]While typically trauma surgeons are heavily involved in treating such patients, the concept has evolved to other sub-specialty services.\nA multi-disciplinary group of individuals is required: nurses, respiratory therapist, surgical-medicine intensivists, blood bank personnel and others.","title":"Damage control surgery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Damage control surgery can be divided into the following three phases: Initial laparotomy, Intensive Care Unit (ICU) resuscitation, and definitive reconstruction. Each of these phases has defined timing and objectives to ensure best outcomes. The following goes through the different phases to illustrate, step by step, how one might approach this. There are clearly different approaches throughout the country, and no one way is necessarily correct. However, the ability to evaluate objectively the differences and then choose the one that fits your team is important.[citation needed]","title":"Technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rotodo1993-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson2001-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pringle1908-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid7473971-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12075844-9"}],"sub_title":"Initial laparotomy","text":"This is the first part of the damage control process whereby there are some clear-cut goals surgeons should achieve. The first is controlling hemorrhage followed by contamination control, abdominal packing, and placement of a temporary closure device.[5] Minimizing the length of time spent in this phase is essential. For groups (i.e., trauma centers) to be effective in damage control surgery, a multi-disciplinary team is critical. The approach to caring for such critically ill patients is dependent on nurses, surgeons, critical care physicians, operating room staff, blood bank personnel, and administrative support. In addition to having the right team in place is having a prepared team. The more facile the team is enhances the ability for centers to effectively implement damage control surgery. This is referred to by some as damage control ground zero (DC0).[6] The ability to mobilize personnel, equipment, and other resources is bolstered by preparation; however, standardized protocols ensure that team members from various entities within the health care system are all speaking the same language. This has been seen during implementation of complex processes such as the massive transfusion protocol (MTP). Controlling of hemorrhage as discussed above is the most important step in this phase. Eviscerating the intra-abdominal small bowel and packing all four abdominal quadrants usually helps surgeons establish initial hemorrhagic control. Depending up on the source of hemorrhage a number of different maneuvers might need to be performed allowing for control of aortic inflow. Solid organ injury (i.e., spleen, kidney) should be dealt with by resection. When dealing with hepatic hemorrhage a number of different options exist such as performing a Pringle maneuver that would allow for control of hepatic inflow.[7] Surgeons can also apply manual pressure, perform hepatic packing, or even plugging penetrating wounds. Certain situations might require leaving the liver packed and taking the patient for angio-embolization or if operating in a hybrid operating room having perform an on table angio-embolization. Vessels that are able to be ligated should, and one should consider shunting other vessels that do not fall into this category. This has been described by Reilly and colleagues when they shunted the superior mesenteric artery to decrease the length of time in the operating room.[8] Once hemorrhage control is achieved one should quickly proceed to controlling intra-abdominal contamination from hollow-viscus organs. The perception might be that one could quickly perform an anastomosis. This should not be attempted in the damage control setting. The key is to simply prevent continued intra-abdominal contamination, and to leave patients in discontinuity. A number of different techniques can be employed such as using staplers to come across the bowel, or primary suture closure in small perforations. Once this is complete the abdomen should be packed. Many of these patients become coagulopathic and can develop diffuse oozing. It is important to not only pack areas of injury but also pack areas of surgical dissection. There are various methods that can be used to pack the abdomen. Packing with radiopaque laparotomy pads allow for the benefit of being able to detect them via x-ray prior to definitive closure. As a rule abdomens should not be definitively closed until there has been radiologic confirmation that no retained objects are present in the abdomen. The final step of this phase is applying a temporary closure device. Numerous methods of temporary closure exist, with the most common technique being a negative-vacuum type device. Regardless of which method one decides to use it is important that the abdominal fascia is not reapproximated. The ability to develop Abdominal Compartment Syndrome is a real concern and described by Schwab.[9]","title":"Technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lethal triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_triad_of_death"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"ICU resuscitation","text":"On completion of the initial phase of damage control, the key is to reverse the physiologic insult that took place. This specifically relates to factors such as acidosis, coagulopathy, and hypothermia (lethal triad) that many of these critically ill patients develop. When developing a strategy to best care for these patients, the same principles of having a multi-disciplinary team that work together in parallel for the same result apply. The intensivist is critical in working with the staff to ensure that the physiologic abnormalities are treated. This typically requires close monitoring in the intensive care unit, ventilator support, laboratory monitoring of resuscitation parameters (i.e., lactate).\nIn using a number of different resuscitation parameters, the critical care team can have a better idea as to which direction is progressing. The first 24 hours often require a significant amount of resources (i.e., blood products) and investment of time from personnel within the critical care team. In many circumstances, especially trauma patients, require that other specialties address a variety of injuries. Moving the patient early on, unless absolutely necessary, can be detrimental. Certain circumstances might require this, and the patients should continue to receive care from the critical care team during the entire transport period. As the literature begins to grow within the field of damage control surgery, the medical community is continuously learning how to improve the process. Certain pitfalls have also become evident, one of which is the potential to develop abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS). While it might sound counterintuitive since the fascia is left open during the placement of these temporary closure devices, they can create a similar type process that leads to ACS. If this occurs the temporary closure device should be taken down immediately.[citation needed]","title":"Technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12075844-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Definitive reconstruction","text":"The third step in damage control surgery is addressing closure of the abdomen. Definitive reconstruction occurs only when the patient is improving. At this point in process the critical care team has been able to correct the physiologic derangements. The optimization typically takes 24 to 48 hours, depending on how severe the initial insult is. Prior to being taken back to the operating room it is paramount that the resolution of acidosis, hypothermia, and coagulopathy has occurred.[citation needed]The first step after removing the temporary closure device is to ensure that all abdominal packs are removed. Typically the number of packs has been documented in the initial laparotomy; however, an abdominal radiograph should be taken prior to definitive closure of the fascia to ensure that no retained sponges are left in the abdomen. Once the abdominal packs are removed the next step is to re-explore the abdomen allowing for the identification of potentially missed injuries during the initial laparotomy and re-evaluating the prior injuries. Attention is then turned to performing the necessary bowel anastomosis or other definitive repairs (i.e., vascular injuries).[citation needed]An attempt should be made to close the abdominal fascia at the first take back, to prevent complications that can result from having an open abdomen. The concern for early closure of the abdomen with development of compartment syndrome is a real one. A method to pre-emptively evaluate whether fascial closure is appropriate would be to determine the difference in peak airway pressure (PAP) prior to closure and the right after closure. An increase of over 10 would suggest that the abdomen be left open.[9] As mentioned above, it is important to obtain an abdominal radiograph to ensure that no retained sponges are left intra-operatively.Considering that not all patients can undergo definitive reconstruction at first return, there are other options that surgeons can consider. Data would suggest that the longer the abdomen is left open from initial laparotomy the higher the rate of complications.[10] After about one week, if surgeons can't close the abdomen, they should consider placing a Vicryl mesh to cover the abdominal contents. This lets granulation occur over a few weeks, with the subsequent ability to place a split-thickness skin graft (STSG) on top for coverage. These patients clearly have a hernia that must be fixed 9 to 12 months later.","title":"Technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Damage control resuscitation has had a dramatic impact on how care for critically ill patients is administered.[citation needed]. The core principles of resuscitation involve permissive hypotension, transfusion ratios, and massive transfusion protocol. The resuscitation period lets any physiologic derangements be reversed to give the best outcome for patient care.","title":"Resuscitation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20938283-4"}],"sub_title":"Permissive hypotension","text":"Typical resuscitation strategies have used an approach where aggressive crystalloid and/or blood product resuscitation is performed to restore blood volume. The term permissive hypotension refers to maintaining a low blood pressure to mitigate hemorrhage; however, continue providing adequate end-organ perfusion [Duchesene, 2010]. The key is to prevent exacerbation of hemorrhaging until definitive vascular control can be achieved, the theory being that if clots have formed within a vessel then increasing the patient's blood pressure might dislodge those established clots resulting in more significant bleeding. Permissive hypotension is not a new concept, and had been described in penetrating thoracic trauma patients during World War I by Bickell and colleagues demonstrating an improvement in both survival and complications.[11]Subsequent animal studies have shown equivalent outcomes with no real benefit in mortality [4] Recently there has been further data in trauma patients that has demonstrated increased survival rates [Morrison, 2011]. Cotton and colleagues found that the use of a permissive hypotension resuscitation strategy resulted in better outcomes (increased 30-day survival) in those undergoing damage control laparotomy. This would not be used in situations where patients might have injuries such as a traumatic brain injury considering that such patients are excluded from the studies.","title":"Resuscitation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20938283-4"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holcomb-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holcomb2013-13"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20938283-4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holcomb2013-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2107789","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2107789"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holcomb-12"}],"sub_title":"Transfusion ratios","text":"For over a century the casualties of war have provided valuable lessons that can be applied within the civilian sector. Specifically the past decade has seen a paradigm shift in early resuscitation of critically injured patients. Instead of replacing blood volume with high volumes of crystalloid and packed red blood cells with the sporadic use of fresh frozen plasma and platelets, we have now learned that maintaining a transfusion ratio of 1:1:1 of plasma to red blood cells to platelets in patients requiring massive transfusion results in improved outcomes [Borgman 2007][4] While this was initially demonstrated in the military setting, Holcomb and colleagues extrapolated this to the civilian trauma center showing improved results as well [12][13] Broad implementation across both the military and civilian sector has demonstrated a decreased mortality in critically injured patients.[4] Debate has gone back and forth as to the correct ratio that should be used; however, recently Holcomb and colleagues published the Prospective Observational Multicenter Major Trauma Transfusion (PROMMTT) Study.[13][14] They compared administration a higher ratio of plasma and platelets (1:1:1) compared to a lower ratio (1:1:2). The patients that received a higher ratio had an associated three to four-fold decrease in mortality. To help mitigate confounding variables a randomized control trial called the Pragmatic Randomized Optimal Platelet and Plasma Ratios (PROPPR) has been performed to evaluate the transfusion requirement. There was no difference in 24 hour or 30 day mortality between the 1:1:1 group and the 1:1:2 group - https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2107789.[12]","title":"Resuscitation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20539192-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20938283-4"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid20539192-15"}],"sub_title":"Massive transfusion protocol","text":"Initial resuscitation of trauma patients continues to evolve. Massive transfusion (defined as receiving greater than or equal to 10 units of packed red blood cells with a 24-hour period) is required in up to 5% of civilian trauma patients that arrive severely injured.[15] Patients who are arriving severely injured to trauma centers can be coagulopathic. In fact, data suggests that around 25% of patients arrive having coagulopathy.[16] New ways of measuring coagulopathy such at thromboelstography (TEG) and rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) have allowed for a more robust assessment of the coagulation cascade compared to traditional methods of measuring international normalized ratio (INR) allowing clinicians to better target areas of deficiency.[4] For trauma teams to systematically and efficiently deliver blood products institutions have created protocols that allow for this. The protocols allow for clear communication between the trauma center, blood bank, nurses, and other ancillary staff. They also allow for the quick delivery of certain set of blood products depending upon the institution. One example might be that a “cooler” would contain 10 units of packed red blood cells, 10 units of plasma, and 2 packs of platelets. The idea is that the coolers would continue to be delivered to the location where the patient is being treated until the trauma team leader (typically the trauma surgeon) would discontinue the order [15] Certain factors have been looked at by Callcut and colleagues to determine the predictive ability of patients arriving at trauma centers. The different variables were systolic blood pressure below 90, hemoglobin <11 g/dL, temperature <35.5, INR > 1.5, base deficit >=6, heart rate >= 120 bpm, presence of penetrating trauma, and positive Focused Abdominal Sonography Trauma (FAST) exam. All the variables were found to be predictive of the need of massive transfusion protocol except for temperature (Callcut 2013).","title":"Resuscitation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pringle1908-7"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid778397-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feliciano1981-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stone-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid8371295-20"}],"text":"Surgeons have used the concept of damage control surgery for years, and controlling hemorrhage with packing is over a century old. Pringle described this technique in patients with substantial hepatic trauma in the early twentieth century.[7] The U.S. military did not encourage this technique during World War II and the Vietnam War. Lucas and Ledgerwood described the principle in a series of patients.[17] Subsequent studies were repeated by Feliciano and colleagues,[18] and they found that hepatic packing increased survival by 90%. This technique was then specifically linked to patients who were hemorrhaging, hypothermic, and coagulopathic.[19] This extrapolation allowed for the first article in 1993 by Rotondo and Schwab specifically adapting the term “damage control”.[20] This term was taken from the United States Navy who initially used the term as “the capacity of a ship to absorb damage and maintain mission integrity” (DOD 1996). This was the first article that brought together the concept of limiting operative time in these critically ill patients to allow for reversal of physiologic insults to improve survival. In addition, the description illustrated how the three phases of damage control surgery can be implemented. Since this description the development of this concept has grown both within the trauma community and beyond.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stone-19"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson2001-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feliciano1981-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stone-19"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rotodo1993-5"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore1998-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hirshberg94-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barker2007-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finlay2004-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ekeh2006-26"}],"text":"The data that have been published regarding definitive laparotomy versus damage control surgery demonstrate a decrease in mortality when performed in the critically ill patient.[19][6] Subsequent studies by Rotondo and colleagues in a group of 961 patients that had undergone damage control surgery demonstrate an overall mortality of 50% and a 40% morbidity rate.[21]There are four main complications. The first is development of an intra-abdominal abscess. This has been reported as high as 83%.[18][19] Next is the development of an entero-atmospheric fistula, which ranges from 2 to 25%.[5][22] The third is abdominal compartment syndrome that has been reported anywhere from 10 to 40% of the time.[23][24] Finally fascial dehiscence has been shown to result in 9–25% of patients that have undergone damage control surgery.[25][26]","title":"Outcomes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-166351-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-166351-9"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1097/CCM.0000000000000050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1097%2FCCM.0000000000000050"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"24335443","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24335443"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"44411659","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44411659"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S0002-9610(01)00786-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0002-9610%2801%2900786-3"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11839329","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11839329"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9393261","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9393261"},{"link_name":"\"Abbreviated laparotomy and planned reoperation for critically injured patients\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1242479"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1097/00000658-199205000-00010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1097%2F00000658-199205000-00010"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1242479","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1242479"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1616384","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1616384"},{"link_name":"\"Retained foreign bodies after emergent trauma surgery: incidence after 2526 cavitary explorations\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1177%2F000313480707301024"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1177/000313480707301024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1177%2F000313480707301024"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"17983075","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17983075"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"28811296","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28811296"},{"link_name":"Trauma.org - Damage Control Surgery overview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.trauma.org/archive/resus/DCSoverview.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130825081456/http://www.trauma.org/archive/resus/DCSoverview.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Trauma"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Trauma"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Trauma"},{"link_name":"Trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury"},{"link_name":"Polytrauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytrauma"},{"link_name":"Major trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_trauma"},{"link_name":"Traumatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatology"},{"link_name":"Triage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triage"},{"link_name":"Resuscitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resuscitation"},{"link_name":"Trauma triad of death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_triad_of_death"},{"link_name":"Clinical prediction rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_prediction_rule"},{"link_name":"Abbreviated Injury Scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviated_Injury_Scale"},{"link_name":"Injury Severity Score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury_Severity_Score"},{"link_name":"NACA score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_score"},{"link_name":"Revised Trauma Score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revised_Trauma_Score"},{"link_name":"Diagnostic peritoneal lavage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_peritoneal_lavage"},{"link_name":"Focused assessment with sonography for trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focused_assessment_with_sonography_for_trauma"},{"link_name":"Advanced trauma life support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_trauma_life_support"},{"link_name":"Damage control surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Early appropriate care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_appropriate_care"},{"link_name":"Trauma center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_center"},{"link_name":"Trauma surgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_surgery"},{"link_name":"Trauma team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_team"},{"link_name":"Resuscitative thoracotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resuscitative_thoracotomy"},{"link_name":"Injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injury"},{"link_name":"Bone fracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture"},{"link_name":"Degloving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degloving"},{"link_name":"Joint dislocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_dislocation"},{"link_name":"Soft tissue injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_tissue_injury"},{"link_name":"Diaphragmatic rupture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragmatic_rupture"},{"link_name":"Flail chest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flail_chest"},{"link_name":"Hemothorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemothorax"},{"link_name":"Pneumothorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax"},{"link_name":"Pulmonary contusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_contusion"},{"link_name":"Cardiac tamponade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_tamponade"},{"link_name":"Internal bleeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_bleeding"},{"link_name":"Thoracic aorta injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic_aorta_injury"},{"link_name":"Blunt kidney trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blunt_kidney_trauma"},{"link_name":"Splenic injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splenic_injury"},{"link_name":"Intracranial hemorrhage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage"},{"link_name":"Penetrating head injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrating_head_injury"},{"link_name":"Traumatic brain injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury"},{"link_name":"Blast injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_injury"},{"link_name":"Blunt trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blunt_trauma"},{"link_name":"Burn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn"},{"link_name":"Crush injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crush_injury"},{"link_name":"Electrocution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocution"},{"link_name":"Gunshot wound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunshot_wound"},{"link_name":"Penetrating trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetrating_trauma"},{"link_name":"Stab wound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stab_wound"},{"link_name":"Abdominal trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_trauma"},{"link_name":"Chest injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_injury"},{"link_name":"Facial trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_trauma"},{"link_name":"Head injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_injury"},{"link_name":"Spinal cord injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury"},{"link_name":"Geriatric trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geriatric_trauma"},{"link_name":"Pediatric trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trauma_in_children"},{"link_name":"Acute respiratory distress syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Chronic traumatic encephalopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy"},{"link_name":"Compartment syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartment_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Contracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracture"},{"link_name":"Volkmann's contracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkmann%27s_contracture"},{"link_name":"Crush syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crush_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Rhabdomyolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis"},{"link_name":"Embolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolism"},{"link_name":"air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_embolism"},{"link_name":"fat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_embolism_syndrome"},{"link_name":"Post-traumatic stress disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder"},{"link_name":"Subcutaneous emphysema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcutaneous_emphysema"},{"link_name":"Wound healing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound_healing"}],"text":"Feliciano, David V.; Mattox, Kenneth L.; Moore, Ernest J (2012). Trauma, Seventh Edition (Trauma (Moore)). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-166351-9.\nWang, Chih-Hung; Hsieh, Wen-Han; Chou, Hao-Chang; Huang, Yu-Sheng; Shen, Jen-Hsiang; Yeo, Yee Hui; Chang, Huai-En; Chen, Shyr-Chyr; Lee, Chien-Chang (April 2014). \"Liberal Versus Restricted Fluid Resuscitation Strategies in Trauma Patients\". Critical Care Medicine. 42 (4): 954–961. doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000000050. PMID 24335443. S2CID 44411659.\nGarner, Glen B; Ware, Drue N; Cocanour, Christine S; Duke, James H; McKinley, Bruce A; Kozar, Rosemary A; Moore, Frederick A (December 2001). \"Vacuum-assisted wound closure provides early fascial reapproximation in trauma patients with open abdomens\". The American Journal of Surgery. 182 (6): 630–638. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(01)00786-3. PMID 11839329.\nAbikhaled, JA; Granchi, TS; Wall, MJ; Hirshberg, A; Mattox, KL (December 1997). \"Prolonged abdominal packing for trauma is associated with increased morbidity and mortality\". The American Surgeon. 63 (12): 1109–12, discussion 1112–3. PMID 9393261.\nBurch, JM; Ortiz, VB; Richardson, RJ; Martin, RR; Mattox, KL; Jordan GL, Jr (May 1992). \"Abbreviated laparotomy and planned reoperation for critically injured patients\". Annals of Surgery. 215 (5): 476–83, discussion 483–4. doi:10.1097/00000658-199205000-00010. PMC 1242479. PMID 1616384.\nSurface Ship Survivability. Naval War Publications 3-20.31. Washington, DC: Department of Defense; 1996.\nTeixeira, PG; Inaba, K; Salim, A; Brown, C; Rhee, P; Browder, T; Belzberg, H; Demetriades, D (October 2007). \"Retained foreign bodies after emergent trauma surgery: incidence after 2526 cavitary explorations\". The American Surgeon. 73 (10): 1031–4. doi:10.1177/000313480707301024. PMID 17983075. S2CID 28811296.\nTrauma.org - Damage Control Surgery overview Archived 2013-08-25 at the Wayback MachinevteTraumaPrinciples\nPolytrauma\nMajor trauma\nTraumatology\nTriage\nResuscitation\nTrauma triad of death\nAssessmentClinical prediction rules\nAbbreviated Injury Scale\nInjury Severity Score\nNACA score\nRevised Trauma Score\nInvestigations\nDiagnostic peritoneal lavage\nFocused assessment with sonography for trauma\nManagementPrinciples\nAdvanced trauma life support\nDamage control surgery\nEarly appropriate care\nTrauma center\nTrauma surgery\nTrauma team\nProcedures\nResuscitative thoracotomy\nPathophysiologyInjury\nMSK\nBone fracture\nDegloving\nJoint dislocation\nSoft tissue injury\nResp\nDiaphragmatic rupture\nFlail chest\nHemothorax\nPneumothorax\nPulmonary contusion\nCardio\nCardiac tamponade\nInternal bleeding\nThoracic aorta injury\nGI\nBlunt kidney trauma\nSplenic injury\nNeuro\nIntracranial hemorrhage\nPenetrating head injury\nTraumatic brain injury\nMechanism\nBlast injury\nBlunt trauma\nBurn\nCrush injury\nElectrocution\nGunshot wound\nPenetrating trauma\nStab wound\nRegion\nAbdominal trauma\nChest injury\nFacial trauma\nHead injury\nSpinal cord injury\nDemographic\nGeriatric trauma\nPediatric trauma\nComplications\nAcute respiratory distress syndrome\nChronic traumatic encephalopathy\nCompartment syndrome\nContracture\nVolkmann's contracture\nCrush syndrome\nRhabdomyolysis\nEmbolism\nair\nfat\nPost-traumatic stress disorder\nSubcutaneous emphysema\nWound healing","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Jaunoo SS, Harji DP (April 2009). \"Damage control surgery\". International Journal of Surgery (London, England). 7 (2): 110–3. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2009.01.008. PMID 19303379.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijsu.2009.01.008","url_text":"\"Damage control surgery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijsu.2009.01.008","url_text":"10.1016/j.ijsu.2009.01.008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19303379","url_text":"19303379"}]},{"reference":"Fries, C. A.; Midwinter, M. J. (2010). \"Trauma resuscitation and damage control surgery\". Surgery (Oxford). 28 (11): 563. doi:10.1016/j.mpsur.2010.08.002.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mpsur.2010.08.002","url_text":"10.1016/j.mpsur.2010.08.002"}]},{"reference":"Garth Meckler; Cline, David; Cydulka, Rita K.; Thomas, Stephen R.; Dan Handel (2012). Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine Manual 7/E. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-178184-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-178184-8","url_text":"978-0-07-178184-8"}]},{"reference":"Duchesne, Juan C.; McSwain, Norman E.; Cotton, Bryan A.; Hunt, John P.; Dellavolpe, Jeff; Lafaro, Kelly; Marr, Alan B.; Gonzalez, Earnest A.; Phelan, Herb A.; Bilski, Tracy; Greiffenstein, Patrick; Barbeau, James M.; Rennie, Kelly V.; Baker, Christopher C.; Brohi, Karim; Jenkins, Donald H.; Rotondo, Michael (October 2010). \"Damage Control Resuscitation: The New Face of Damage Control\". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 69 (4): 976–990. doi:10.1097/TA.0b013e3181f2abc9. PMID 20938283. S2CID 10787586.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2FTA.0b013e3181f2abc9","url_text":"10.1097/TA.0b013e3181f2abc9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20938283","url_text":"20938283"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10787586","url_text":"10787586"}]},{"reference":"Rotondo, Michael F.; Schwab, C. William; McGonigal, Michael D.; Phillips, Gordon R.; Fruchterman, Todd M.; Kauder, Donald R.; Latenser, Barbara A.; Angood, Peter A. (September 1993). \"Damage Control\". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 35 (3): 375–383. doi:10.1097/00005373-199309000-00008. PMID 8371295.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005373-199309000-00008","url_text":"\"Damage Control\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005373-199309000-00008","url_text":"10.1097/00005373-199309000-00008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8371295","url_text":"8371295"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Jon W.; Gracias, Vicente H.; Schwab, C. William; Reilly, Patrick M.; Kauder, Donald R.; Shapiro, Michael B.; Dabrowski, G. Paul; Rotondo, Michael F. (August 2001). \"Evolution in Damage Control for Exsanguinating Penetrating Abdominal Injury\". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 51 (2): 261–271. doi:10.1097/00005373-200108000-00007. PMID 11493783.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005373-200108000-00007","url_text":"10.1097/00005373-200108000-00007"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11493783","url_text":"11493783"}]},{"reference":"Pringle, J Hogarth (October 1908). \"V. Notes on the Arrest of Hepatic Hemorrhage Due to Trauma\". Annals of Surgery. 48 (4): 541–9. doi:10.1097/00000658-190810000-00005. PMC 1406963. PMID 17862242.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1406963","url_text":"\"V. Notes on the Arrest of Hepatic Hemorrhage Due to Trauma\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000658-190810000-00005","url_text":"10.1097/00000658-190810000-00005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1406963","url_text":"1406963"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17862242","url_text":"17862242"}]},{"reference":"Reilly, Patrick M.; Rotondo, Michael F.; Carpenter, Jeffrey P.; Sherr, Scott A.; Schwab, C. William (October 1995). \"Temporary Vascular Continuity during Damage Control\". The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care. 39 (4): 757–760. doi:10.1097/00005373-199510000-00028. PMID 7473971.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00005373-199510000-00028","url_text":"10.1097/00005373-199510000-00028"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7473971","url_text":"7473971"}]},{"reference":"Hoey, BA; Schwab, CW (2002). \"Damage control surgery\". Scandinavian Journal of Surgery. 91 (1): 92–103. doi:10.1177/145749690209100115. PMID 12075844. 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PMID 16394910.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.ta.0000196004.49422.af","url_text":"10.1097/01.ta.0000196004.49422.af"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16394910","url_text":"16394910"}]},{"reference":"Bickell, William H.; Wall, Matthew J.; Pepe, Paul E.; Martin, R. Russell; Ginger, Victoria F.; Allen, Mary K.; Mattox, Kenneth L. (27 October 1994). \"Immediate versus Delayed Fluid Resuscitation for Hypotensive Patients with Penetrating Torso Injuries\". New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (17): 1105–1109. doi:10.1056/NEJM199410273311701. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immobilized_whole_cell | Immobilized whole cell | ["1 References","2 See also"] | The immobilized whole cell system is an alternative to enzyme immobilization. Unlike enzyme immobilization, where the enzyme is attached to a solid support (such as calcium alginate or activated PVA or activated PEI), in immobilized whole cell systems, the target cell is immobilized. Such methods may be implemented when the enzymes required are difficult or expensive to extract, an example being intracellular enzymes. Also, if a series of enzymes are required in the reaction; whole cell immobilization may be used for convenience. This is only done on a commercial basis when the need for the product is more justified.
Multiple enzymes may be introduced into the reaction, thus eliminating the need for immobilization of multiple enzymes. Furthermore, intracellular enzymes need not be extracted prior to the reaction; they may be used directly. However, some enzymes may be used for the metabolic needs of the cell, leading to reduced yield of the cell.
References
^ Zaushitsyna, O.; Berillo, D.; Kirsebom, H.; Mattiasson, B. (2013). "Cryostructured and Crosslinked Viable Cells Forming Monoliths Suitable for Bioreactor Applications". Topics in Catalysis. 57 (5): 339. doi:10.1007/s11244-013-0189-9. S2CID 94773366.
^ Aragão Börner, R.; Zaushitsyna, O.; Berillo, D.; Scaccia, N.; Mattiasson, B.; Kirsebom, H. (2014). "Immobilization of Clostridium acetobutylicum DSM 792 as macroporous aggregates through cryogelation for butanol production". Process Biochemistry. 49: 10–18. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2013.09.027.
See also
Immobilized enzyme
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6-Phosphogluconic_acid | 6-Phosphogluconic acid | [] | 6-Phosphogluconic acid
Names
IUPAC name
6-O-Phosphono-D-gluconic acid
Systematic IUPAC name
(2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5-Tetrahydroxy-6-(phosphonooxy)hexanoic acid
Other names
6-Phosphogluconate
Identifiers
CAS Number
921-62-0 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:48928 Y
ChemSpider
82615 Y
ECHA InfoCard
100.011.882
MeSH
6-phosphogluconate
PubChem CID
422
UNII
W31WK7B8U0 Y
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
DTXSID00872623
InChI
InChI=1S/C6H13O10P/c7-2(1-16-17(13,14)15)3(8)4(9)5(10)6(11)12/h2-5,7-10H,1H2,(H,11,12)(H2,13,14,15)/t2-,3-,4+,5-/m1/s1 YKey: BIRSGZKFKXLSJQ-SQOUGZDYSA-N YInChI=1/C6H13O10P/c7-2(1-16-17(13,14)15)3(8)4(9)5(10)6(11)12/h2-5,7-10H,1H2,(H,11,12)(H2,13,14,15)/t2-,3-,4+,5-/m1/s1Key: BIRSGZKFKXLSJQ-SQOUGZDYBT
SMILES
O=P(O)(O)OC(O)(O)(O)(O)C(=O)O
Properties
Chemical formula
C6H13O10P
Molar mass
276.135 g/mol
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
N verify (what is YN ?)
Infobox references
Chemical compound
6-Phosphogluconic acid (with conjugate base 6-phosphogluconate) is a phosphorylated sugar acid which appears in the pentose phosphate pathway and the Entner–Doudoroff pathway.
During the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway, it is formed from 6-phosphogluconolactone by 6-phosphogluconolactonase, and in turn, it is converted to ribulose 5-phosphate by phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, in an oxidative decarboxylation which also produces NADPH.
In those microorganisms which host the Entner-Doudoroff pathway, 6-phosphogluconic acid may also be acted upon by 6-phosphogluconate dehydratase to produce 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate.
vtePentose phosphate pathway metabolic intermediatesOxidative
6-Phosphogluconolactone
6-Phosphogluconate
Ribulose 5-phosphate
Ribose 5-phosphate
Nonoxidative
Xylulose 5-phosphate
Sedoheptulose 7-phosphate
Erythrose 4-phosphate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropleura | Arthropleura | ["1 Morphology","2 Paleobiology","3 Extinction","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Extinct genus of millipedes
Not to be confused with Anthopleura.
ArthropleuraTemporal range: Early Viséan-Sakmarian, 345–290 Ma
PreꞒ
Ꞓ
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Fossil of A. armata at the Senckenberg Museum of Frankfurt
Life restoration of Arthropleura, head anatomy hypothetically reconstructed after Microdecemplex
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Subphylum:
Myriapoda
Class:
Diplopoda
Subclass:
†Arthropleuridea
Order:
†ArthropleuridaWaterlot, 1933
Family:
†ArthropleuridaeZittel, 1885
Genus:
†ArthropleuraMeyer, 1854
Species
A. armata Meyer, 1854
A. cristata Richardson, 1959
A. fayoli Boule, 1893
A. maillieuxi Pruvost, 1930
A. mammata Salter, 1863
Synonyms
A. affinis Goldenberg, 1873
A. moyseyi Calman, 1914
A. zeilleri Boule, 1893
Arthropleura (Greek for 'jointed ribs') is an extinct genus of massive millipedes that lived in what is now North America and Europe around 345 to 290 million years ago, from the Viséan stage of the lower Carboniferous Period to the Sakmarian stage of the lower Permian Period. The species of the genus are the largest known land invertebrates of all time, and would have had few, if any, predators.
Morphology
Size estimation of the largest specimen of Arthropleura
A. armata grew to be 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) long. Tracks from Arthropleura up to 50 centimetres (20 in) wide have been found at Joggins, Nova Scotia. In 2021 a fossil, probably a shed exoskeleton (exuviae) of an Arthropleura, was reported with an estimated width of 55 centimetres (22 in), length of 1.9 metres (6 ft 3 in) to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) and body mass of 50 kg (110 lb). It is one of the largest arthropods ever known, as large as the eurypterid Jaekelopterus rhenaniae, whose length is estimated at 2.33–2.59 metres (7 ft 8 in – 8 ft 6 in). Arthropleura was able to grow larger than modern arthropods, partly because of the greater partial pressure of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere during the lower Carboniferous and partly because of the lack of large terrestrial vertebrate predators. However, large-sized specimens of Arthropleura are described from the Serpukhovian stage, during which the oxygen pressure was only a bit higher than modern Earth at around 23 percent, suggesting that high oxygen pressure may not have been a primary reason for its gigantism.
Diagrammatic reconstruction of A. armata
Anterior morphology of A. armata
Modern millipede anatomy for comparison
Leg and associated structures
Arthropleura is characterized by a series of well-developed tergites (dorsal exoskeleton) having three lobes like a trilobite, with dorsal surfaces covered by many tubercles. The head is almost unknown, as the anterior oval plate in front of the first trilobate tergite, which previous thought to be head shield, were considered to be a collum (first tergite of millipede trunk) by subsequent studies. Based on the discovery from other arthropleurids (Microdecemplex), the head may have had non-filamentous antennae and trumpet-like organs. It is estimated that Arthropleura had a trilobate tergite number ranging from 28 to 32. The alignment between leg and tergite is not well understood, but at least it is believed to have been diplopodous in some degree: two pairs of legs per tergite, like modern millipede. Alongside the median sternite, there were three pairs of ventral plates located around each leg pair, namely K-, B- and rosette plates, and either the B- or K-plates were thought to be respiratory organs. The body terminated with a trapezoidal telson.
Paleobiology
Fossil footprints of Arthropleura, Laggan Harbour, Isle of Arran, Scotland. This trail is the type specimen of the ichnospecies Diplichnites cuithensis.
All found fossils of Arthropleura are believed to be exuviae (molting shells) instead of carcasses. The good preservation of its thin exuviae, buttressing plates around the leg base, and evidence of 3 cm deep trackway fossils (namely the ichnotaxon Diplichnites cuithensis) altogether suggests that they had a sturdy exoskeleton and roamed the land. Arthropleura was once thought to have lived mainly in coal forests. However, it probably lived a forest-independent life, as fossils of the trackway were found in more open areas and fossils were found even after the Carboniferous rainforest collapse.
There is no solid evidence for the diet of Arthropleura, as the fossils that were once considered coprolites, including lycopod fragments and pteridophyte spores, are later considered to be merely coexistence of plant fossils and exuvia remains. Nonetheless, the interpretation of a herbivorous diet is still accepted, and it is estimated that Arthropleura may have eaten not only spores but also sporophylls and seeds, based on its enormous size that possibly required lots of nutrition.
When it comes to the Arthropleura's diet, it was also found that Arthropleura had a well preserved gut region which was packed with plant remains such, mainly lycopod fragments such as Lepidodendron. This information not only helped us figure out that Arthropleura was herbivorous but also possibly omnivorous.
Through careful observation of the Arthropleura's fossils, the possible behaviors of the Arthropleura were determined. The Arthropleura would invade exposed environments and retreat to levee forests during wet seasons. Thin cuticles on the arthropleurids indicated that these arthropods could have also indicated that these creatures were exposed to a terrestrial habit.
Extinction
Previously, the extinction of Arthropleura was attributed to the decrease of coal forest. However, many fossils have been discovered even after the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, and it is estimated that Arthropleura itself lived a forest-independent life. A more recent proposal is that the diversification of tetrapods and the desiccation of the equator caused it to become extinct.
See also
Arthropods portalPaleontology portal
Diplichnites
References
^ a b c d e f g h i Davies, Neil S.; Garwood, Russell J.; McMahon, William J.; Schneider, Joerg W.; Shillito, Anthony P. (Dec 21, 2021). "The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)". Journal of the Geological Society. 179 (3). doi:10.1144/jgs2021-115. S2CID 245401499.
^ a b "Largest-ever millipede fossil found on Northumberland beach". BBC News. 21 December 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
^ Martino, Ronald L.; Greb, Stephen F. (2009). "Walking trails of the giant terrestrial arthropod Arthropleura from the Upper Carboniferous of Kentucky". Journal of Paleontology. 83 (1): 140–146. Bibcode:2009JPal...83..140M. doi:10.1666/08-093R.1.Archived 2019-12-23 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Mcghee, George R. Jr (2013-11-12). When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231160575.
^ "The Excitement of Discovery". Virtual Museum of Canada. Archived from the original on February 4, 2012. Retrieved 2006-04-17.
^ Braddy, Simon J; Poschmann, Markus; Tetlie, O. Erik (2008-02-23). "Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod". Biology Letters. 4 (1): 106–109. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491. PMC 2412931. PMID 18029297.
^ M. G. Lockley & Christian Meyer (2013). "The tradition of tracking dinosaurs in Europe". Dinosaur Tracks and Other Fossil Footprints of Europe. Columbia University Press. pp. 25–52. ISBN 9780231504607.
^ a b c Sues, Hans-Dieter. "Largest Land-Dwelling "Bug" of All Time". National Geographic. Ford Cochran. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
^ a b c d e Kraus, O.; Brauckmann, C. (2003-05-05). "Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs. Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Atelocerata, Diplopoda): characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction". Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg. 40: 5–50.
^ a b Wilson, Heather M.; Shear, William A. (1999). "Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A." Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 90 (4): 351–375. doi:10.1017/S0263593300002674. S2CID 129597005.
^ a b c d Schneider, Joerg; Lucas, Spencer; Werneburg, Ralf; Rößler, Ronny (2010-05-01). "Euramerican Late Pennsylvanian/Early Permian arthropleurid/tetrapod associations – implications for the habitat and paleobiology of the largest terrestrial arthropod". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 49: 49–70.
^ Adrian P. Hunt; Spencer G. Lucas; Allan Lerner; Joseph T. Hannibal (2004). "The giant Arthropleura trackway Diplichnites cuithensis from the Cutler Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) of New Mexico". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. 36 (5): 66. Archived from the original on 2015-09-28. Retrieved 2006-09-04.
^ D. E. Briggs; A. G. Plint & R. K. Pickerill (1984). "Arthropleura trails from the Westphalian of eastern Canada" (PDF). Palaeontology. 27 (4): 843–855. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-11. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
^ A. C. Scott; W. G. Chaloner & S. Paterson (1985). "Evidence of pteridophyte–arthropod interactions in the fossil record" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 86B: 133–140.
^ Donovan, S. K. (n.d.). Arthropleurid Myriapods. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x
^ Donovan, S. K. (n.d.). Arthropleurid Myriapods. Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x
^ Thom Holmes (2008). "The first land animals". March Onto Land: the Silurian Period to the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Prehistoric Earth. Infobase Publishing. pp. 57–84. ISBN 9780816059591.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arthropleura.
Lyall I. Anderson; Jason A. Dunlop; Carl A. Horrocks; Heather M. Winkelmann; R. M. C. Eagar (1998). "Exceptionally preserved fossils from Bickershaw, Lancashire UK (Upper Carboniferous, Westphalian A (Langsettian))". Geological Journal. 32 (3): 197–210. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1034(199709)32:3<197::aid-gj739>3.0.co;2-6.
vteOrders of the class Diplopoda (millipedes)
Kingdom Animalia
Superphylum Ecdysozoa
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Myriapoda
LivingPenicillata
Polyxenida (bristle-millipedes)
ChilognathaPentazoniaOniscomorpha (pill millipedes)
Glomerida
Sphaerotheriida (giant pill millipedes)
LimacomorphaGlomeridesmidaHelminthomorpha(worm-like millipedes)Colobognatha (suctorial millipedes)
Platydesmida
Polyzoniida
Siphonocryptida
Siphonophorida
EugnathaJuliformia
Julida
Spirobolida
Spirostreptida
Nematophora
Callipodida
Chordeumatida
Siphoniulida
Stemmiulida
Merocheta
Polydesmida (flat-backed millipedes)
ExtinctArthropleuridea
Arthropleurida
Eoarthropleurida
Microdecemplicida
Chilognathaincertae sedis
Zosterogrammida
Pentazonia
Amynilyspedida
Helminthomorpha(worm-like millipedes)Archipolypoda
Archidesmida
Cowiedesmida
Euphoberiida
Palaeosomatida
incertae sedis
Pleurojulida
EugnathaJuliformiaXyloiuloidea (superfamily)
List of families
Diplopoda
Millipedes
Taxon identifiersArthropleura
Wikidata: Q131789
Wikispecies: Arthropleura
EoL: 4327695
GBIF: 4666883
IRMNG: 1269383
Open Tree of Life: 4709276
Paleobiology Database: 238291 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anthopleura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthopleura"},{"link_name":"millipedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millipede"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"million years ago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myr"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-2"},{"link_name":"Viséan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vis%C3%A9an"},{"link_name":"Carboniferous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous"},{"link_name":"Sakmarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakmarian"},{"link_name":"Permian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"invertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Anthopleura.Arthropleura (Greek for 'jointed ribs') is an extinct genus of massive millipedes that lived in what is now North America and Europe around 345 to 290 million years ago,[1][2] from the Viséan stage of the lower Carboniferous Period to the Sakmarian stage of the lower Permian Period.[1][3] The species of the genus are the largest known land invertebrates of all time, and would have had few, if any, predators.","title":"Arthropleura"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20211226_Largest_Arthropleura.png"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Tracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil"},{"link_name":"Joggins, Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joggins,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VMC-5"},{"link_name":"exoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeleton"},{"link_name":"exuviae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exuviae"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"eurypterid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurypterid"},{"link_name":"Jaekelopterus rhenaniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaekelopterus_rhenaniae"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"partial pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_pressure"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"Earth's atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere"},{"link_name":"terrestrial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_animal"},{"link_name":"vertebrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Serpukhovian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpukhovian"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20211224_Arthropleura_armata_diagrammatic_reconstruction.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20211224_Arthropleura_armata_anterior.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Millipede_anterior_anatomy.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20211225_Arthropleura_leg_associated_structures.png"},{"link_name":"tergites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tergites"},{"link_name":"exoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeleton"},{"link_name":"trilobite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilobite"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"Microdecemplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdecemplex"},{"link_name":"antennae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"sternite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sternite"},{"link_name":"respiratory organs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_organs"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-11"},{"link_name":"telson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telson"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"}],"text":"Size estimation of the largest specimen of ArthropleuraA. armata grew to be 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) long.[4] Tracks from Arthropleura up to 50 centimetres (20 in) wide have been found at Joggins, Nova Scotia.[5] In 2021 a fossil, probably a shed exoskeleton (exuviae) of an Arthropleura, was reported with an estimated width of 55 centimetres (22 in), length of 1.9 metres (6 ft 3 in) to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) and body mass of 50 kg (110 lb).[2][1] It is one of the largest arthropods ever known, as large as the eurypterid Jaekelopterus rhenaniae, whose length is estimated at 2.33–2.59 metres (7 ft 8 in – 8 ft 6 in).[6] Arthropleura was able to grow larger than modern arthropods, partly because of the greater partial pressure of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere during the lower Carboniferous and partly because of the lack of large terrestrial vertebrate predators.[7] However, large-sized specimens of Arthropleura are described from the Serpukhovian stage, during which the oxygen pressure was only a bit higher than modern Earth at around 23 percent, suggesting that high oxygen pressure may not have been a primary reason for its gigantism.[1]Diagrammatic reconstruction of A. armata\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAnterior morphology of A. armata\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tModern millipede anatomy for comparison\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLeg and associated structuresArthropleura is characterized by a series of well-developed tergites (dorsal exoskeleton) having three lobes like a trilobite, with dorsal surfaces covered by many tubercles. The head is almost unknown, as the anterior oval plate in front of the first trilobate tergite, which previous thought to be head shield, were considered to be a collum (first tergite of millipede trunk) by subsequent studies.[8][9] Based on the discovery from other arthropleurids (Microdecemplex), the head may have had non-filamentous antennae and trumpet-like organs.[10] It is estimated that Arthropleura had a trilobate tergite number ranging from 28 to 32.[1] The alignment between leg and tergite is not well understood, but at least it is believed to have been diplopodous in some degree: two pairs of legs per tergite, like modern millipede.[10][9] Alongside the median sternite, there were three pairs of ventral plates located around each leg pair, namely K-, B- and rosette plates, and either the B- or K-plates were thought to be respiratory organs.[8][9][11] The body terminated with a trapezoidal telson.[9]","title":"Morphology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fossil_Footprints_Arthropleura_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1994274.jpg"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Diplichnites cuithensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplichnites"},{"link_name":"exuviae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exuviae"},{"link_name":"molting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulting"},{"link_name":"carcasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrion"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-11"},{"link_name":"trackway fossils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil"},{"link_name":"ichnotaxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichnotaxon"},{"link_name":"Diplichnites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplichnites"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Briggsetal84-13"},{"link_name":"exoskeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeleton"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"coal forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_forest"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"Carboniferous rainforest collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"coprolites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprolites"},{"link_name":"lycopod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycopod"},{"link_name":"pteridophyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteridophyte"},{"link_name":"spores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-8"},{"link_name":"herbivorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"},{"link_name":"sporophylls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporophyll"},{"link_name":"seeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seeds"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-11"},{"link_name":"Lepidodendron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidodendron"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Fossil footprints of Arthropleura, Laggan Harbour, Isle of Arran, Scotland. This trail is the type specimen of the ichnospecies Diplichnites cuithensis.All found fossils of Arthropleura are believed to be exuviae (molting shells) instead of carcasses.[11] The good preservation of its thin exuviae, buttressing plates around the leg base, and evidence of 3 cm deep trackway fossils (namely the ichnotaxon Diplichnites cuithensis[12][13]) altogether suggests that they had a sturdy exoskeleton and roamed the land.[1] Arthropleura was once thought to have lived mainly in coal forests.[9] However, it probably lived a forest-independent life, as fossils of the trackway were found in more open areas and fossils were found even after the Carboniferous rainforest collapse.[1]There is no solid evidence for the diet of Arthropleura, as the fossils that were once considered coprolites, including lycopod fragments and pteridophyte spores,[14] are later considered to be merely coexistence of plant fossils and exuvia remains.[8] Nonetheless, the interpretation of a herbivorous diet is still accepted, and it is estimated that Arthropleura may have eaten not only spores but also sporophylls and seeds, based on its enormous size that possibly required lots of nutrition.[11]When it comes to the Arthropleura's diet, it was also found that Arthropleura had a well preserved gut region which was packed with plant remains such, mainly lycopod fragments such as Lepidodendron. This information not only helped us figure out that Arthropleura was herbivorous but also possibly omnivorous.[15]Through careful observation of the Arthropleura's fossils, the possible behaviors of the Arthropleura were determined. The Arthropleura would invade exposed environments and retreat to levee forests during wet seasons. Thin cuticles on the arthropleurids indicated that these arthropods could have also indicated that these creatures were exposed to a terrestrial habit. [16]","title":"Paleobiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coal forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_forest"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"tetrapods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrapod"},{"link_name":"equator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equator"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-11"}],"text":"Previously, the extinction of Arthropleura was attributed to the decrease of coal forest.[17] However, many fossils have been discovered even after the Carboniferous rainforest collapse, and it is estimated that Arthropleura itself lived a forest-independent life. A more recent proposal is that the diversification of tetrapods and the desiccation of the equator caused it to become extinct.[1][11]","title":"Extinction"}] | [{"image_text":"Size estimation of the largest specimen of Arthropleura","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/20211226_Largest_Arthropleura.png/236px-20211226_Largest_Arthropleura.png"},{"image_text":"Fossil footprints of Arthropleura, Laggan Harbour, Isle of Arran, Scotland. This trail is the type specimen of the ichnospecies Diplichnites cuithensis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fossil_Footprints_Arthropleura_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1994274.jpg/170px-Fossil_Footprints_Arthropleura_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1994274.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cercophonius_squama.jpg"},{"title":"Arthropods portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Arthropods"},{"title":"Paleontology portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Paleontology"},{"title":"Diplichnites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplichnites"}] | [{"reference":"Davies, Neil S.; Garwood, Russell J.; McMahon, William J.; Schneider, Joerg W.; Shillito, Anthony P. (Dec 21, 2021). \"The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)\". Journal of the Geological Society. 179 (3). doi:10.1144/jgs2021-115. S2CID 245401499.","urls":[{"url":"https://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/early/2021/11/19/jgs2021-115","url_text":"\"The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fjgs2021-115","url_text":"10.1144/jgs2021-115"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245401499","url_text":"245401499"}]},{"reference":"\"Largest-ever millipede fossil found on Northumberland beach\". BBC News. 21 December 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59734747","url_text":"\"Largest-ever millipede fossil found on Northumberland beach\""}]},{"reference":"Martino, Ronald L.; Greb, Stephen F. (2009). \"Walking trails of the giant terrestrial arthropod Arthropleura from the Upper Carboniferous of Kentucky\". Journal of Paleontology. 83 (1): 140–146. Bibcode:2009JPal...83..140M. doi:10.1666/08-093R.1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPal...83..140M","url_text":"2009JPal...83..140M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1666%2F08-093R.1","url_text":"10.1666/08-093R.1"}]},{"reference":"Mcghee, George R. Jr (2013-11-12). When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231160575.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wFqrAgAAQBAJ&q=some+individuals+of+arthropleura+armata&pg=PA238","url_text":"When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231160575","url_text":"9780231160575"}]},{"reference":"\"The Excitement of Discovery\". Virtual Museum of Canada. Archived from the original on February 4, 2012. Retrieved 2006-04-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120204055638/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/tracefossils/english/sections/whodunnit/traces/diplichnites.html","url_text":"\"The Excitement of Discovery\""},{"url":"http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/tracefossils/english/sections/whodunnit/traces/diplichnites.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Braddy, Simon J; Poschmann, Markus; Tetlie, O. Erik (2008-02-23). \"Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod\". Biology Letters. 4 (1): 106–109. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491. PMC 2412931. PMID 18029297.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2412931","url_text":"\"Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2007.0491","url_text":"10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2412931","url_text":"2412931"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18029297","url_text":"18029297"}]},{"reference":"M. G. Lockley & Christian Meyer (2013). \"The tradition of tracking dinosaurs in Europe\". Dinosaur Tracks and Other Fossil Footprints of Europe. Columbia University Press. pp. 25–52. ISBN 9780231504607.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kji6fde5g-gC&pg=PA32","url_text":"\"The tradition of tracking dinosaurs in Europe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press","url_text":"Columbia University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231504607","url_text":"9780231504607"}]},{"reference":"Sues, Hans-Dieter. \"Largest Land-Dwelling \"Bug\" of All Time\". National Geographic. Ford Cochran. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032740/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/15/largest_landdwelling_bug_of_al/","url_text":"\"Largest Land-Dwelling \"Bug\" of All Time\""},{"url":"http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/15/largest_landdwelling_bug_of_al/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kraus, O.; Brauckmann, C. (2003-05-05). \"Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs. Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Atelocerata, Diplopoda): characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction\". Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg. 40: 5–50.","urls":[{"url":"https://eurekamag.com/research/022/674/022674152.php","url_text":"\"Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs. Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Atelocerata, Diplopoda): characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction\""}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Heather M.; Shear, William A. (1999). \"Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A.\" Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 90 (4): 351–375. doi:10.1017/S0263593300002674. S2CID 129597005.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/abs/microdecemplicida-a-new-order-of-minute-arthropleurideans-arthropoda-myriapoda-from-the-devonian-of-new-york-state-usa/D08D276AF517F289926F7F4543E4488A","url_text":"\"Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263593300002674","url_text":"10.1017/S0263593300002674"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129597005","url_text":"129597005"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, Joerg; Lucas, Spencer; Werneburg, Ralf; Rößler, Ronny (2010-05-01). \"Euramerican Late Pennsylvanian/Early Permian arthropleurid/tetrapod associations – implications for the habitat and paleobiology of the largest terrestrial arthropod\". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 49: 49–70.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257768383","url_text":"\"Euramerican Late Pennsylvanian/Early Permian arthropleurid/tetrapod associations – implications for the habitat and paleobiology of the largest terrestrial arthropod\""}]},{"reference":"Adrian P. Hunt; Spencer G. Lucas; Allan Lerner; Joseph T. Hannibal (2004). \"The giant Arthropleura trackway Diplichnites cuithensis from the Cutler Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) of New Mexico\". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. 36 (5): 66. Archived from the original on 2015-09-28. Retrieved 2006-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150928160714/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_76052.htm","url_text":"\"The giant Arthropleura trackway Diplichnites cuithensis from the Cutler Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) of New Mexico\""},{"url":"http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_76052.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"D. E. Briggs; A. G. Plint & R. K. Pickerill (1984). \"Arthropleura trails from the Westphalian of eastern Canada\" (PDF). Palaeontology. 27 (4): 843–855. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-10-11. Retrieved 2016-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161011172633/http://cdn.palass.org/publications/palaeontology/volume_27/pdf/vol27_part4_pp843-855.pdf","url_text":"\"Arthropleura trails from the Westphalian of eastern Canada\""},{"url":"http://cdn.palass.org/publications/palaeontology/volume_27/pdf/vol27_part4_pp843-855.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"A. C. Scott; W. G. Chaloner & S. Paterson (1985). \"Evidence of pteridophyte–arthropod interactions in the fossil record\" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 86B: 133–140.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41816738","url_text":"\"Evidence of pteridophyte–arthropod interactions in the fossil record\""}]},{"reference":"Thom Holmes (2008). \"The first land animals\". March Onto Land: the Silurian Period to the Middle Triassic Epoch. The Prehistoric Earth. Infobase Publishing. pp. 57–84. ISBN 9780816059591.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j-sOYynMAAMC&pg=PA59","url_text":"\"The first land animals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infobase_Publishing","url_text":"Infobase Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816059591","url_text":"9780816059591"}]},{"reference":"Lyall I. Anderson; Jason A. Dunlop; Carl A. Horrocks; Heather M. Winkelmann; R. M. C. Eagar (1998). \"Exceptionally preserved fossils from Bickershaw, Lancashire UK (Upper Carboniferous, Westphalian A (Langsettian))\". Geological Journal. 32 (3): 197–210. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1034(199709)32:3<197::aid-gj739>3.0.co;2-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291099-1034%28199709%2932%3A3%3C197%3A%3Aaid-gj739%3E3.0.co%3B2-6","url_text":"10.1002/(sici)1099-1034(199709)32:3<197::aid-gj739>3.0.co;2-6"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/early/2021/11/19/jgs2021-115","external_links_name":"\"The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fjgs2021-115","external_links_name":"10.1144/jgs2021-115"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245401499","external_links_name":"245401499"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59734747","external_links_name":"\"Largest-ever millipede fossil found on Northumberland beach\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPal...83..140M","external_links_name":"2009JPal...83..140M"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1666%2F08-093R.1","external_links_name":"10.1666/08-093R.1"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191223234641/https://bioone.org/journals/Journal-of-Paleontology/volume-83/issue-1/08-093R.1/Walking-Trails-of-the-Giant-Terrestrial-Arthropod-Arthropleura-from-the/10.1666/08-093R.1.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wFqrAgAAQBAJ&q=some+individuals+of+arthropleura+armata&pg=PA238","external_links_name":"When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120204055638/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/tracefossils/english/sections/whodunnit/traces/diplichnites.html","external_links_name":"\"The Excitement of Discovery\""},{"Link":"http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/tracefossils/english/sections/whodunnit/traces/diplichnites.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2412931","external_links_name":"\"Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2007.0491","external_links_name":"10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2412931","external_links_name":"2412931"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18029297","external_links_name":"18029297"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kji6fde5g-gC&pg=PA32","external_links_name":"\"The tradition of tracking dinosaurs in Europe\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032740/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/15/largest_landdwelling_bug_of_al/","external_links_name":"\"Largest Land-Dwelling \"Bug\" of All Time\""},{"Link":"http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/15/largest_landdwelling_bug_of_al/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://eurekamag.com/research/022/674/022674152.php","external_links_name":"\"Fossil giants and surviving dwarfs. Arthropleurida and Pselaphognatha (Atelocerata, Diplopoda): characters, phylogenetic relationships and construction\""},{"Link":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/abs/microdecemplicida-a-new-order-of-minute-arthropleurideans-arthropoda-myriapoda-from-the-devonian-of-new-york-state-usa/D08D276AF517F289926F7F4543E4488A","external_links_name":"\"Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A.\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0263593300002674","external_links_name":"10.1017/S0263593300002674"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129597005","external_links_name":"129597005"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257768383","external_links_name":"\"Euramerican Late Pennsylvanian/Early Permian arthropleurid/tetrapod associations – implications for the habitat and paleobiology of the largest terrestrial arthropod\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150928160714/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_76052.htm","external_links_name":"\"The giant Arthropleura trackway Diplichnites cuithensis from the Cutler Group (Upper Pennsylvanian) of New Mexico\""},{"Link":"http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_76052.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161011172633/http://cdn.palass.org/publications/palaeontology/volume_27/pdf/vol27_part4_pp843-855.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Arthropleura trails from the Westphalian of eastern Canada\""},{"Link":"http://cdn.palass.org/publications/palaeontology/volume_27/pdf/vol27_part4_pp843-855.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41816738","external_links_name":"\"Evidence of pteridophyte–arthropod interactions in the fossil record\""},{"Link":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x","external_links_name":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x"},{"Link":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x","external_links_name":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00322.x"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j-sOYynMAAMC&pg=PA59","external_links_name":"\"The first land animals\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291099-1034%28199709%2932%3A3%3C197%3A%3Aaid-gj739%3E3.0.co%3B2-6","external_links_name":"10.1002/(sici)1099-1034(199709)32:3<197::aid-gj739>3.0.co;2-6"},{"Link":"https://eol.org/pages/4327695","external_links_name":"4327695"},{"Link":"https://www.gbif.org/species/4666883","external_links_name":"4666883"},{"Link":"https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1269383","external_links_name":"1269383"},{"Link":"https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=4709276","external_links_name":"4709276"},{"Link":"https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=238291","external_links_name":"238291"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mordaunt_(speaker) | John Mordaunt (speaker) | ["1 References"] | British politician
Sir John Mordaunt (died 1506) was an English landowner, barrister, and parliamentarian of the Tudor period, Speaker of the House of Commons. The offices he held included Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Mordaunt was the son of William Mordaunt of Turvey, Bedfordshire, and entered the Middle Temple to train as a barrister. He was also summoned by Richard III to serve against the Scots in 1484, and fought for Henry VII at Stoke in 1487.
In 1485 and 1487 he served as an MP for unidentified constituencies, (probably in Bedfordshire), on the latter occasion being chosen to serve as speaker of the house. He was elected MP for Grantham in 1491 and knight of the shire for Bedfordshire in 1495. In the 1490s he became more active as a government administrator and lawyer and was knighted for his services in 1503. He was appointed High Steward of Cambridge University in 1504 and later the same year nominated to follow Sir Reginald Bray as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
However, he died soon afterwards and was buried in Turvey church. He had married Edith, coheir of Sir Nicholas Latymer, with whom he had at least two sons and a daughter. His eldest son John would become first Lord Mordaunt.
References
^ Cavill, P. R. (13 August 2009). The English Parliaments of Henry VII. ISBN 9780191610264. Retrieved 16 March 2012.
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Political offices
Preceded bySir Thomas Lovell
Speaker of the House of Commons 1487 – 1489
Succeeded bySir Thomas Fitzwilliam
Preceded bySir Reginald Bray
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1503–1505
Succeeded bySir Richard Empson
vteSpeakers of the House of CommonsHouse of Commonsof England14th century
de Shareshull
De la Mare
Hungerford
De la Mare
Pickering
Guildesborough
Waldegrave
Pickering
Bussy
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Savage
15th century
Esturmy
Tiptoft
Chaucer
Stourton
Doreward
Hungerford
Chaucer
Redman
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Flower
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Vernon
Tyrell
Alington I
Tyrell
Russell
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Burley
W. Tresham
Say
Popham I
W. Tresham
Oldhall
Thorpe
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Wenlock
T. Tresham
Green
Strangeways
Say
Alington II
Wood
Catesby
Lovell
Mordaunt
Fitzwilliam
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16th century
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Sheffield
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More
Audley
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Rich
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Croke
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Gregory
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Trevor
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18th century
Harley
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Smith
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House of Commonsof the United Kingdom19th century
Addington
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Brown
Morrison
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Lloyd
Thomas
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Martin
21st century
Martin
Bercow
Hoyle
This article about a 15th-century Member of the Parliament of England is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tudor period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_period"},{"link_name":"Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Duchy_of_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"speaker of the house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_of_the_house"},{"link_name":"Grantham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantham_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"knight of the shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_of_the_shire"},{"link_name":"Bedfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedfordshire_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"knighted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Duchy_of_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mordaunt,_1st_Baron_Mordaunt"}],"text":"Sir John Mordaunt (died 1506) was an English landowner, barrister, and parliamentarian of the Tudor period, Speaker of the House of Commons. The offices he held included Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.Mordaunt was the son of William Mordaunt of Turvey, Bedfordshire, and entered the Middle Temple to train as a barrister. He was also summoned by Richard III to serve against the Scots in 1484, and fought for Henry VII at Stoke in 1487.In 1485 and 1487 he served as an MP for unidentified constituencies, (probably in Bedfordshire), on the latter occasion being chosen to serve as speaker of the house. He was elected MP for Grantham in 1491 [1] and knight of the shire for Bedfordshire in 1495. In the 1490s he became more active as a government administrator and lawyer and was knighted for his services in 1503. He was appointed High Steward of Cambridge University in 1504 and later the same year nominated to follow Sir Reginald Bray as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.However, he died soon afterwards and was buried in Turvey church. He had married Edith, coheir of Sir Nicholas Latymer, with whom he had at least two sons and a daughter. His eldest son John would become first Lord Mordaunt.","title":"John Mordaunt (speaker)"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Cavill, P. R. (13 August 2009). The English Parliaments of Henry VII. ISBN 9780191610264. Retrieved 16 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KuDpHzAZj7wC&q=john+mordaunt+mp+speaker+grantham+1491&pg=PT164","url_text":"The English Parliaments of Henry VII"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191610264","url_text":"9780191610264"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KuDpHzAZj7wC&q=john+mordaunt+mp+speaker+grantham+1491&pg=PT164","external_links_name":"The English Parliaments of Henry VII"},{"Link":"http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19165?docPos=1","external_links_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Mordaunt_(speaker)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spafaryev_Islands | Spafaryev Islands | ["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Geography","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 59°10′N 149°03′E / 59.167°N 149.050°E / 59.167; 149.050Island group in Far Eastern Federal District, Russian FederationSpafaryev Islands
Остров СпарафьеваIsland groupSpafaryev and Talan IslandsLocation of the Spafaryev Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk.CountryRussian FederationFederal subjectFar Eastern Federal DistrictOblastMagadan Oblast
The Spafaryev Islands, or Spafaryev Island (Остров Спарафьева; Ostrov Spafar’yeva), a relatively large double island, are located in the Sea of Okhotsk. It was formerly known as Korovi Island. It lies 7 km east of the Antamlan Peninsula (also known as Khmitevsky), the southernmost peninsula enclosing the Taui Bay (Тауйская губа; Tauyskaya Guba) from its western side.
Administratively these islands belong to the Magadan Oblast of the Russian Federation.
Etymology
The Spafaryev Islands were named after Major General knight Leontiy Spafaryev (1765–1847) of the Imperial Russian Navy. Spafaryev was Director of the Russian Lighthouse Administration and cartographer of the Russian Admiralty.
History
The islands were frequented by American and French whaleships hunting bowhead and gray whales between 1849 and 1885. Talan was called Green Island, while Spafaryev was called Fog Island. Boats were sent ashore to shoot seabirds and collect eggs and berries as well as to search for whales.
Geography
The Spafaryev Islands are composed of two islands joined by a narrow landspit, less than 750 m wide.
The northern "island", Ryabokon Island (Ostrov Ryabokon’), is roughly triangular in shape. It is the larger of the two, being 9 km (5.6 mi) long and having a maximum width of 5 km (3.1 mi).
Spafaryev Island proper is located at the southern end. It is roughly shovel-shaped and is 7 km (4.3 mi) long and has a maximum width of 4.5 km (2.8 mi).
Talan Island (Остров Талан) 59°18′N 149°05′E / 59.300°N 149.083°E / 59.300; 149.083, is a small roundish island, which lies 11 km (6.8 mi) to the north of Spafaryev's northern tip. It is 2 km (1.2 mi) across. Large colonies of seabirds nest on the island in the spring and summer, including over a million crested auklet, a few hundred thousand tufted and horned puffin, tens of thousands of black-legged kittiwake, and thousands of parakeet auklet and ancient murrelet. Common murre also nest here and in the summer dovekie congregate on the island. Steller's sea eagle prey on these seabirds.
References
^ United States. (1918). Asiatic Pilot, Volume 1: East coast of Siberia, Sakhalin Island and Chosen. Washington: Hydrographic Office.
^ L. Spafarieff or Spafaryev Archived 2007-11-26 at the Wayback Machine
^ India, of New Bedford, July 13, July 29-September 17, 1849, June 27-August 27, 1850, Old Dartmouth Historical Society (ODHS).
^ Betsey Williams, of Stonington, August 13, August 20-21, 1853, Nicholson Whaling Collection (NWC).
^ Florida, of Fairhaven, September 8, 1861, in Williams, H. (1964). One whaling family. Boston, Houghton Mifflin.
^ Mary and Helen II, of San Francisco, September 18-20, 1885, Kendall Whaling Museum.
^ India, of New Bedford, August 18, August 29, 1849, ODHS.
^ India, of New Bedford, June 28, 1850, Spafaryev, July 2, 1850, Talan, ODHS.
^ India, of New Bedford, July 2, 1850, Talan, ODHS.
^ India, of New Bedford, September 18, 1849, Spafaryev, ODHS.
^ Daniel Wood, of New Bedford, August 26-27, 1853, Spafaryev, NWC.
^ Location
^ Talan Island
^ Ostrov Talan
^ Talan location
^ Kondratyev, A. Y., Litvinenko, N. M., Shibaev, Y. V., Vyatkin, P. S., & Kondratyeva, L. F. (2000). "The breeding seabirds of the Russian Far East". Seabirds of the Russian Far East, 37-81.
^ Utekhina, I., Potapov, E., & McGrady, M. J. (2000). "Diet of the Steller's sea eagle in the northern Sea of Okhotsk". In First Symposium on Steller’s and White-tailed Sea Eagles in East Asia. Tokyo, Japan: Wild Bird Society of Japan (pp. 71-92).
External links
Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk
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Zubchaty
59°10′N 149°03′E / 59.167°N 149.050°E / 59.167; 149.050
This Magadan Oblast location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island"},{"link_name":"Sea of Okhotsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AsiaPilot-1"},{"link_name":"Antamlan Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antamlan_Peninsula&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Taui Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taui_Bay"},{"link_name":"Magadan Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magadan_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federation"}],"text":"Island group in Far Eastern Federal District, Russian FederationThe Spafaryev Islands, or Spafaryev Island (Остров Спарафьева; Ostrov Spafar’yeva), a relatively large double island, are located in the Sea of Okhotsk. It was formerly known as Korovi Island.[1] It lies 7 km east of the Antamlan Peninsula (also known as Khmitevsky), the southernmost peninsula enclosing the Taui Bay (Тауйская губа; Tauyskaya Guba) from its western side.Administratively these islands belong to the Magadan Oblast of the Russian Federation.","title":"Spafaryev Islands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leontiy Spafaryev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leontiy_Spafaryev"},{"link_name":"Imperial Russian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Russian Lighthouse Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Lighthouse_Administration"},{"link_name":"Russian Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The Spafaryev Islands were named after Major General knight Leontiy Spafaryev (1765–1847) of the Imperial Russian Navy. Spafaryev was Director of the Russian Lighthouse Administration and cartographer of the Russian Admiralty.[2]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"whaleships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaler"},{"link_name":"bowhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowhead_whale"},{"link_name":"gray whales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_whale"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"seabirds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabird"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The islands were frequented by American and French whaleships hunting bowhead and gray whales between 1849 and 1885.[3][4][5][6] Talan was called Green Island, while Spafaryev was called Fog Island.[7] Boats were sent ashore to shoot seabirds[8] and collect eggs[9] and berries[10] as well as to search for whales.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"59°18′N 149°05′E / 59.300°N 149.083°E / 59.300; 149.083","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Spafaryev_Islands¶ms=59_18_N_149_05_E_"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"seabirds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabird"},{"link_name":"crested auklet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crested_auklet"},{"link_name":"tufted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufted_puffin"},{"link_name":"horned puffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horned_puffin"},{"link_name":"black-legged kittiwake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-legged_kittiwake"},{"link_name":"parakeet auklet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parakeet_auklet"},{"link_name":"ancient murrelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_murrelet"},{"link_name":"Common murre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_murre"},{"link_name":"dovekie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dovekie"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RusSB-16"},{"link_name":"Steller's sea eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steller%27s_sea_eagle"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SSENOS-17"}],"text":"The Spafaryev Islands are composed of two islands joined by a narrow landspit, less than 750 m wide.The northern \"island\", Ryabokon Island (Ostrov Ryabokon’), is roughly triangular in shape. It is the larger of the two, being 9 km (5.6 mi) long and having a maximum width of 5 km (3.1 mi).\nSpafaryev Island proper is located at the southern end. It is roughly shovel-shaped and is 7 km (4.3 mi) long and has a maximum width of 4.5 km (2.8 mi).[12]\nTalan Island (Остров Талан) 59°18′N 149°05′E / 59.300°N 149.083°E / 59.300; 149.083, is a small roundish island, which lies 11 km (6.8 mi) to the north of Spafaryev's northern tip. It is 2 km (1.2 mi) across.[13][14][15] Large colonies of seabirds nest on the island in the spring and summer, including over a million crested auklet, a few hundred thousand tufted and horned puffin, tens of thousands of black-legged kittiwake, and thousands of parakeet auklet and ancient murrelet. Common murre also nest here and in the summer dovekie congregate on the island.[16] Steller's sea eagle prey on these seabirds.[17]","title":"Geography"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Spafaryev_Islands¶ms=59_10_N_149_03_E_region:RU_type:isle_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"59°10′N 149°03′E / 59.167°N 149.050°E / 59.167; 149.050"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Spafaryev_Islands¶ms=59_18_N_149_05_E_","external_links_name":"59°18′N 149°05′E / 59.300°N 149.083°E / 59.300; 149.083"},{"Link":"http://www.vobam.se/spafarieff.htm","external_links_name":"L. Spafarieff or Spafaryev"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071126075846/http://www.vobam.se/spafarieff.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://russia.rin.ru/guides/5931.html","external_links_name":"Location"},{"Link":"http://www.dvs-tour.ru/rus/material/talan_pt.shtml","external_links_name":"Talan Island"},{"Link":"http://www.dvs-tour.ru/rus/material/talan_kt.shtml","external_links_name":"Ostrov Talan"},{"Link":"http://land.worldcitydb.com/ostrov_talan_4225985.html","external_links_name":"Talan location"},{"Link":"http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/CW69-15-4-2000E.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The breeding seabirds of the Russian Far East\""},{"Link":"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/426476/Sea-of-Okhotsk","external_links_name":"Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Spafaryev_Islands¶ms=59_10_N_149_03_E_region:RU_type:isle_source:GNS-enwiki","external_links_name":"59°10′N 149°03′E / 59.167°N 149.050°E / 59.167; 149.050"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spafaryev_Islands&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_album) | Snow (Angus & Julia Stone album) | ["1 Production","2 Critical reception","3 Track listing","4 Personnel","5 Charts","5.1 Weekly charts","5.2 Year-end charts","6 Certifications","7 References"] | 2017 studio album by Angus & Julia StoneSnowStudio album by Angus & Julia StoneReleased15 September 2017 (2017-09-15)StudioByron Bay cottage studioLength52:36LabelEMIProducerAngus & Julia StoneAngus & Julia Stone chronology
Angus & Julia Stone(2014)
Snow(2017)
Life Is Strange(2021)
Singles from Snow
"Snow"Released: 13 June 2017
"Chateau"Released: 24 August 2017
"Cellar Door"Released: 17 November 2017
"Nothing Else"Released: June 2018
Snow is the fourth studio album by Australian singer-songwriter duo Angus & Julia Stone. It was released on 15 September 2017 by EMI in Australia and Nettwerk in the United States. It was preceded by the release of the title track and "Chateau" as singles. "Chateau" was accompanied by a video directed by Jessie Hill. The album was written entirely by the duo and recorded at Angus Stone's Byron Bay cottage studio after it was suggested by Rick Rubin, who produced their 2014 self-titled album.
Two of the album's tracks were voted into the Triple J Hottest 100, 2017: "Chateau" at number three and "Snow" at number 98.
At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018, the album was nominated for two awards; Best Blues and Roots Album and Best Independent Release.
Production
Julia Stone commented that the duo had never written a whole album by themselves, nor spent as much time making an album alone together, saying: "That was the first time that we actually started writing together, in the same room the last phase of writing and recording was just eight weeks of him and me and the quiet of the land." Ideas for the album came about while the duo were in Switzerland, and the album was recorded at Angus' Byron Bay studio over a period of approximately six months. Songs originated from "jam sessions" with friends who were at the pair's home. Angus and Julia included a song about their late grandfather on the album, titled "Cellar Door", as he had helped inspire them to become a band; the track is about Angus revisiting his home town to sing at his funeral.
The album incorporates new instrumentation for the duo: the use of a drum machine and "a more expansive guitar palette". It also incorporates the use of a $150 organ the pair bought from an advertisement on the opening track, "Snow". The track "Sylvester Stallone" includes lyrics referring to a lover who slurs their speech when drunk, and "Sleep Alone" was created after a "'speed-date' songwriting session" with an unnamed DJ, where the duo abandoned the programmed beat but kept the lyrics.
Critical reception
Professional ratingsAggregate scoresSourceRatingAnyDecentMusic?5.5/10Review scoresSourceRatingAllMusicThe Irish TimesThe Line of Best Fit7.5/10The Music AUThe ObserverRenowned for SoundRolling Stone Australia
Darren Levin from Rolling Stone Australia complimented the "call-and-response" of "Snow", saying: "The Stones are at their best when they're playing off each other like this: Julia providing the strong but sympathetic counterpoint to her brother's just-rolled-out-of-a-two-day-bender version of charm." He gave the record three-and-a-half stars out of five, concluding: "They're stronger together – they just realise it now." Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times was less positive, giving the record two out of five stars, writing: "Beige might be a more appropriate title for Angus and Julia Stone's fourth album their songs are bland creations, dripping with laboured pretence, as heard on 'Sleep Alone' and the lacklustre 'Baudelaire'. Only the Springsteen-esque shimmer of guitar on 'Who Do You Think You Are?' inspires any emotional response." She summarised that the album was "studied nonchalance with no real identity of its own".
Track listing
All tracks are written by Angus Stone and Julia Stone.No.TitleLength1."Snow"4:122."Oakwood"3:433."Chateau"4:334."Cellar Door"4:415."Sleep Alone"4:296."Make It Out Alive"3:177."Who Do You Think You Are"6:518."Nothing Else"4:249."My House Your House"4:4210."Bloodhound"3:5811."Baudelaire"4:1412."Sylvester Stallone"3:32Total length:52:36
Personnel
Angus & Julia Stone
Angus Stone – vocals, production (all tracks), bass (1, 3), guitar (2, 4–6, 9–12), organ (4, 7), cigar box bass (8), engineering (3)
Julia Stone – vocals, production (all tracks); guitar (1, 7, 8, 12), drums (2, 4), organ (5), piano (9), trumpet (11), engineering (1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)
Additional musicians
Thomas Bartlet – keyboards (all tracks), drum programming (2, 3, 5–7, 9–12)
Ben Edgar – drums (track 1), guitar (2, 3, 6, 7, 9–11)
Daniel Farrugia – organ (track 1), drums (3, 5–7, 9–12)
Dann Hume – bass (tracks 2, 4–10)
Matt Johnson – drums (tracks 3, 5, 11)
Mikey Bee – group backing vocals (tracks 3, 9)
Vinnie Laduce – group backing vocals (tracks 3, 9)
Rohin Brown – chorus backing vocals (track 4)
Eric Coelho – group backing vocals (tracks 6, 7), bass (11, 12)
Stefan José – group backing vocals (tracks 6, 7)
Ross Irwin – trumpet (tracks 8, 11)
Pete Wilkins – drums (track 8)
Fiona Franklin – group backing vocals (track 9)
Maria Stratton – group backing vocals (track 9)
Mylee Grace – group backing vocals (track 9)
Technical
Greg Calbi – mastering
John O'Mahony – mixing (tracks 1, 2)
Eric J Dubowsky – mixing (tracks 3–12)
Adam Rhodes – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)
Paul Pilsneniks – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)
Dann Hume – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 5–9)
Eric Coelho – engineering (tracks 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11)
Daniel Farrugia – engineering (track 3)
James Yost – engineering (track 11)
Tim Watt – mixing assistance (tracks 3–12)
Charts
Weekly charts
Chart (2017)
Peak position
Australian Albums (ARIA)
2
Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)
51
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)
16
Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)
11
Canadian Albums (Billboard)
64
Dutch Albums (Album Top 100)
17
French Albums (SNEP)
10
German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)
21
New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)
13
Scottish Albums (OCC)
53
Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)
11
UK Albums (OCC)
98
US Heatseekers Albums (Billboard)
18
Year-end charts
Chart (2017)
Position
Australian Albums (ARIA)
100
Chart (2018)
Position
Australian Albums (ARIA)
96
Certifications
Region
Certification
Certified units/sales
Australia (ARIA)
Gold
35,000‡
France (SNEP)
Gold
50,000‡
‡ Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone.
References
^ a b c Williams, Tom (6 July 2017). "Angus & Julia Stone's New Album 'Snow' Finally Has A Release Date". Music Feeds. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ "Snow – Single by Angus & Julia Stone on Apple Music". iTunes Store (AU). Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ "Chateau – Angus & Julia Stone". Deezer. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ "Cellar Door – Angus & Julia Stone". iTunes Store (AU). Retrieved 4 December 2018.
^ "Angus & Julia Stone - Nothing Else". YouTube. 6 June 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2018.
^ "Angus & Julia Stone | EMI Music Publicity Portal". EMI Music Australia. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ "Angus & Julia Stone". Nettwerk. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ 14 September 2017. "Behind The Scenes: Angus & Julia Stone | Features". Clash. Retrieved 16 September 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Brandle, Lars (23 August 2017). "Angus & Julia Stone Check Into 'Chateau': Exclusive Video Premiere". Billboard. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ a b "Angus & Julia Stone Announce Release Date For Upcoming Album ♫ theMusic.com.au". The Music. 6 July 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) (28 November 2018). "And the ARIA Award Goes To..." Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Retrieved 28 November 2018.
^ a b c McGrane, Danielle (14 September 2017). "Angus and Julia Stone get personal on Snow". News.com.au. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ a b c McCabe, Kathy (27 August 2017). "Angus and Julia Stone: How their rapid rise is all to do crashing". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ a b c d Levin, Darren (14 September 2017). "Rolling Stone Australia – Angus & Julia Stone, 'Snow'". Rolling Stone Australia. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ 7 July 2017. "Angus & Julia Stone. 4th Album SNOW – teaser". Get to the Front. Retrieved 16 September 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Snow by Angus and Julia Stone reviews". AnyDecentMusic?. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
^ Donelson, Marcy. "Snow – Angus & Julia Stone". AllMusic. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
^ a b c Murphy, Lauren (14 September 2017). "Angus & Julia Stone – Snow review: blizzard of banalities". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
^ Croft, Charlotte (9 September 2017). "Angus & Julia Stone make a peaceful, polished return". The Line of Best Fit. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ Grulichova, Aneta (11 September 2017). "Angus & Julia Stone – Snow". themusic.com.au. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ Mackay, Emily (17 September 2017). "Angus and Julia Stone: Snow review – dreamy Australian indie rock". The Observer. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
^ de Freitas, Sonia (10 September 2017). "ALBUM REVIEW: ANGUS & JULIA STONE – SNOW". Renowned for Sound. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "Australiancharts.com – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow". Hung Medien. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ "Austriancharts.at – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in German). Hung Medien. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
^ "Ultratop.be – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "Ultratop.be – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in French). Hung Medien. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "Angus & Julia Stone Chart History (Canadian Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in Dutch). Hung Medien. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "Lescharts.com – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow". Hung Medien. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in German). GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "NZ Top 40 Albums Chart". Recorded Music NZ. 25 September 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
^ "Official Scottish Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ "Swisscharts.com – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow". Hung Medien. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
^ "Official Albums Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ "Angus & Julia Stone Chart History (Heatseekers Albums)". Billboard. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
^ "ARIA End of Year Albums 2017". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
^ "ARIA End of Year Albums 2018". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
^ "ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2018 Albums" (PDF). Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
^ "French album certifications – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow" (in French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
vteAngus & Julia Stone
Angus Stone
Julia Stone
Studio albums
A Book Like This
Down the Way
Angus & Julia Stone
Snow
Cape Forestier
Soundtrack
Life is Strange
Compilation albums
Memories of an Old Friend
EPs
Chocolates and Cigarettes
Heart Full of Wine
Singles
"The Beast"
"Big Jet Plane"
"Hollywood"
"Heart Beats Slow"
"The Hanging Tree"
"Snow"
"Chateau"
"Youngblood"
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angus & Julia Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_%26_Julia_Stone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MusicFeeds-1"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI_Music_Australia"},{"link_name":"Nettwerk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettwerk"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MusicFeeds-1"},{"link_name":"Chateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chateau_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_song)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Jessie Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessie_Hill_(director)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Angus Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Stone"},{"link_name":"Byron Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byron_Bay"},{"link_name":"Rick Rubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Rubin"},{"link_name":"2014 self-titled album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_(album)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheMusic-10"},{"link_name":"Triple J Hottest 100, 2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_J_Hottest_100,_2017"},{"link_name":"Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_song)"},{"link_name":"ARIA Music Awards of 2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Music_Awards_of_2018"},{"link_name":"Best Blues and Roots Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Award_for_Best_Blues_and_Roots_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Independent Release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Award_for_Best_Independent_Release"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARIA_Winners-11"}],"text":"2017 studio album by Angus & Julia StoneSnow is the fourth studio album by Australian singer-songwriter duo Angus & Julia Stone. It was released on 15 September 2017[1] by EMI in Australia and Nettwerk in the United States.[6][7] It was preceded by the release of the title track[1] and \"Chateau\" as singles.[8] \"Chateau\" was accompanied by a video directed by Jessie Hill.[9] The album was written entirely by the duo and recorded at Angus Stone's Byron Bay cottage studio after it was suggested by Rick Rubin, who produced their 2014 self-titled album.[10]Two of the album's tracks were voted into the Triple J Hottest 100, 2017: \"Chateau\" at number three and \"Snow\" at number 98.At the ARIA Music Awards of 2018, the album was nominated for two awards; Best Blues and Roots Album and Best Independent Release.[11]","title":"Snow (Angus & Julia Stone album)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julia Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Stone"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheMusic-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-News.com.au-12"},{"link_name":"jam sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam_session"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-News.com.au-12"},{"link_name":"drum machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rolling_Stone-14"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-News.com.au-12"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-13"},{"link_name":"speed-date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_dating"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-13"}],"text":"Julia Stone commented that the duo had never written a whole album by themselves, nor spent as much time making an album alone together, saying: \"That was the first time that we actually started writing together, in the same room [...] the last phase of writing and recording was just eight weeks of him and me and the quiet of the land.\"[10] Ideas for the album came about while the duo were in Switzerland, and the album was recorded at Angus' Byron Bay studio over a period of approximately six months.[12] Songs originated from \"jam sessions\" with friends who were at the pair's home.[13] Angus and Julia included a song about their late grandfather on the album, titled \"Cellar Door\", as he had helped inspire them to become a band; the track is about Angus revisiting his home town to sing at his funeral.[12]The album incorporates new instrumentation for the duo: the use of a drum machine and \"a more expansive guitar palette\".[14] It also incorporates the use of a $150 organ the pair bought from an advertisement on the opening track, \"Snow\".[12][15] The track \"Sylvester Stallone\" includes lyrics referring to a lover who slurs their speech when drunk,[13] and \"Sleep Alone\" was created after a \"'speed-date' songwriting session\" with an unnamed DJ, where the duo abandoned the programmed beat but kept the lyrics.[13]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rolling Stone Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Australia"},{"link_name":"call-and-response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call-and-response"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rolling_Stone-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rolling_Stone-14"},{"link_name":"The Irish Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times"},{"link_name":"Springsteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irish_Times-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irish_Times-18"}],"text":"Darren Levin from Rolling Stone Australia complimented the \"call-and-response\" of \"Snow\", saying: \"The Stones are at their best when they're playing off each other like this: Julia providing the strong but sympathetic counterpoint to her brother's just-rolled-out-of-a-two-day-bender version of charm.\"[14] He gave the record three-and-a-half stars out of five, concluding: \"They're stronger together – they just realise it now.\"[14] Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times was less positive, giving the record two out of five stars, writing: \"Beige might be a more appropriate title for Angus and Julia Stone's fourth album [...] their songs are bland creations, dripping with laboured pretence, as heard on 'Sleep Alone' and the lacklustre 'Baudelaire'. Only the Springsteen-esque shimmer of guitar on 'Who Do You Think You Are?' inspires any emotional response.\"[18] She summarised that the album was \"studied nonchalance with no real identity of its own\".[18]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angus Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Stone"},{"link_name":"Julia Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Stone"},{"link_name":"Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_song)"},{"link_name":"Chateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chateau_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_song)"}],"text":"All tracks are written by Angus Stone and Julia Stone.No.TitleLength1.\"Snow\"4:122.\"Oakwood\"3:433.\"Chateau\"4:334.\"Cellar Door\"4:415.\"Sleep Alone\"4:296.\"Make It Out Alive\"3:177.\"Who Do You Think You Are\"6:518.\"Nothing Else\"4:249.\"My House Your House\"4:4210.\"Bloodhound\"3:5811.\"Baudelaire\"4:1412.\"Sylvester Stallone\"3:32Total length:52:36","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angus Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_Stone"},{"link_name":"production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_producer"},{"link_name":"cigar box bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_box_guitar"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_engineer"},{"link_name":"Julia Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Stone"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bartlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bartlett_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Dann Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dann_Hume"},{"link_name":"Matt Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Johnson_(drummer)"},{"link_name":"Ross Irwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Irwin_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mylee Grace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylee_Grace"},{"link_name":"Greg Calbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Calbi"},{"link_name":"mastering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastering_(audio)"},{"link_name":"mixing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_mixing_(recorded_music)"},{"link_name":"Eric J Dubowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_J_Dubowsky"}],"text":"Angus & Julia StoneAngus Stone – vocals, production (all tracks), bass (1, 3), guitar (2, 4–6, 9–12), organ (4, 7), cigar box bass (8), engineering (3)\nJulia Stone – vocals, production (all tracks); guitar (1, 7, 8, 12), drums (2, 4), organ (5), piano (9), trumpet (11), engineering (1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)Additional musiciansThomas Bartlet – keyboards (all tracks), drum programming (2, 3, 5–7, 9–12)\nBen Edgar – drums (track 1), guitar (2, 3, 6, 7, 9–11)\nDaniel Farrugia – organ (track 1), drums (3, 5–7, 9–12)\nDann Hume – bass (tracks 2, 4–10)\nMatt Johnson – drums (tracks 3, 5, 11)\nMikey Bee – group backing vocals (tracks 3, 9)\nVinnie Laduce – group backing vocals (tracks 3, 9)\nRohin Brown – chorus backing vocals (track 4)\nEric Coelho – group backing vocals (tracks 6, 7), bass (11, 12)\nStefan José – group backing vocals (tracks 6, 7)\nRoss Irwin – trumpet (tracks 8, 11)\nPete Wilkins – drums (track 8)\nFiona Franklin – group backing vocals (track 9)\nMaria Stratton – group backing vocals (track 9)\nMylee Grace – group backing vocals (track 9)TechnicalGreg Calbi – mastering\nJohn O'Mahony – mixing (tracks 1, 2)\nEric J Dubowsky – mixing (tracks 3–12)\nAdam Rhodes – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)\nPaul Pilsneniks – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12)\nDann Hume – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 5–9)\nEric Coelho – engineering (tracks 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11)\nDaniel Farrugia – engineering (track 3)\nJames Yost – engineering (track 11)\nTim Watt – mixing assistance (tracks 3–12)","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snow_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_album)&action=edit§ion=6"},{"link_name":"ARIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Charts"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Australia_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-23"},{"link_name":"Ö3 Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%963_Austria_Top_40"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Austria_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-24"},{"link_name":"Ultratop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Flanders_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-25"},{"link_name":"Ultratop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultratop"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Wallonia_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-26"},{"link_name":"Canadian Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_BillboardCanada_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-27"},{"link_name":"Album Top 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Album_Top_100"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Netherlands_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-28"},{"link_name":"SNEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicat_National_de_l%27%C3%89dition_Phonographique"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_France_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-29"},{"link_name":"Offizielle Top 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GfK_Entertainment_charts"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Germany4_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-30"},{"link_name":"RMNZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recorded_Music_NZ"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Scottish Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Singles_and_Albums_Charts"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Scotland_-32"},{"link_name":"Schweizer Hitparade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Hitparade"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_Switzerland_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-33"},{"link_name":"UK Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Albums_Chart"},{"link_name":"OCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_UK2_-34"},{"link_name":"Heatseekers Albums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Heatseekers"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ac_BillboardHeatseekers_Angus_&_Julia_Stone-35"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snow_(Angus_%26_Julia_Stone_album)&action=edit§ion=7"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"Weekly charts[edit]\n\n\n\nChart (2017)\n\nPeak position\n\n\nAustralian Albums (ARIA)[23]\n\n2\n\n\nAustrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[24]\n\n51\n\n\nBelgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[25]\n\n16\n\n\nBelgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[26]\n\n11\n\n\nCanadian Albums (Billboard)[27]\n\n64\n\n\nDutch Albums (Album Top 100)[28]\n\n17\n\n\nFrench Albums (SNEP)[29]\n\n10\n\n\nGerman Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[30]\n\n21\n\n\nNew Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[31]\n\n13\n\n\nScottish Albums (OCC)[32]\n\n53\n\n\nSwiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[33]\n\n11\n\n\nUK Albums (OCC)[34]\n\n98\n\n\nUS Heatseekers Albums (Billboard)[35]\n\n18\n\n\n\nYear-end charts[edit]\n\n\n\nChart (2017)\n\nPosition\n\n\nAustralian Albums (ARIA)[36]\n\n100\n\n\nChart (2018)\n\nPosition\n\n\nAustralian Albums (ARIA)[37]\n\n96","title":"Charts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Certifications"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Williams, Tom (6 July 2017). \"Angus & Julia Stone's New Album 'Snow' Finally Has A Release Date\". Music Feeds. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://musicfeeds.com.au/news/angus-julia-stones-new-album-snow-finally-release-date/","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone's New Album 'Snow' Finally Has A Release Date\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Feeds","url_text":"Music Feeds"}]},{"reference":"\"Snow – Single by Angus & Julia Stone on Apple Music\". iTunes Store (AU). Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/snow-single/id1245035467","url_text":"\"Snow – Single by Angus & Julia Stone on Apple Music\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store","url_text":"iTunes Store"}]},{"reference":"\"Chateau – Angus & Julia Stone\". Deezer. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.deezer.com/en/album/46123062","url_text":"\"Chateau – Angus & Julia Stone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deezer","url_text":"Deezer"}]},{"reference":"\"Cellar Door – Angus & Julia Stone\". iTunes Store (AU). Retrieved 4 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/cellar-door-single/1305028413","url_text":"\"Cellar Door – Angus & Julia Stone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store","url_text":"iTunes Store"}]},{"reference":"\"Angus & Julia Stone - Nothing Else\". YouTube. 6 June 2018. Retrieved 4 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAVTMcBRujo","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone - Nothing Else\""}]},{"reference":"\"Angus & Julia Stone | EMI Music Publicity Portal\". EMI Music Australia. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.emimusic.com.au/angus-julia-stone/","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone | EMI Music Publicity Portal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI_Music_Australia","url_text":"EMI Music Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Angus & Julia Stone\". Nettwerk. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nettwerk.com/label-film-tv/angus-julia-stone","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettwerk","url_text":"Nettwerk"}]},{"reference":"14 September 2017. \"Behind The Scenes: Angus & Julia Stone | Features\". Clash. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.clashmusic.com/features/behind-the-scenes-angus-julia-stone","url_text":"\"Behind The Scenes: Angus & Julia Stone | Features\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clash_(magazine)","url_text":"Clash"}]},{"reference":"Brandle, Lars (23 August 2017). \"Angus & Julia Stone Check Into 'Chateau': Exclusive Video Premiere\". Billboard. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7940972/angus-julia-stone-chateau-exclusive-video-premiere","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone Check Into 'Chateau': Exclusive Video Premiere\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Billboard"}]},{"reference":"\"Angus & Julia Stone Announce Release Date For Upcoming Album ♫ theMusic.com.au\". The Music. 6 July 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://themusic.com.au/news/all/2017/07/06/angus-and-julia-stone-announce-release-date-for-upcoming-album/","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone Announce Release Date For Upcoming Album ♫ theMusic.com.au\""}]},{"reference":"Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) (28 November 2018). \"And the ARIA Award Goes To...\" Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Retrieved 28 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association","url_text":"Australian Recording Industry Association"},{"url":"https://www.ariaawards.com.au/News/2018/And-The-ARIA-Award-Goes-To","url_text":"\"And the ARIA Award Goes To...\""}]},{"reference":"McGrane, Danielle (14 September 2017). \"Angus and Julia Stone get personal on Snow\". News.com.au. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.news.com.au/national/breaking-news/angus-and-julia-stone-get-personal-on-snow/news-story/7f1ea276a319c03f2713ebe6c812b6a0","url_text":"\"Angus and Julia Stone get personal on Snow\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News.com.au","url_text":"News.com.au"}]},{"reference":"McCabe, Kathy (27 August 2017). \"Angus and Julia Stone: How their rapid rise is all to do crashing\". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/lifestyle/stellar/angus-and-julia-stone-their-steady-rise-is-all-to-do-with-crashing/news-story/2f5cd8b8c9e701a6a083104f0705f65b","url_text":"\"Angus and Julia Stone: How their rapid rise is all to do crashing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_(Sydney)","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"}]},{"reference":"Levin, Darren (14 September 2017). \"Rolling Stone Australia – Angus & Julia Stone, 'Snow'\". Rolling Stone Australia. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://rollingstoneaus.com/reviews/post/angus-and-julia-stone-snow/7062","url_text":"\"Rolling Stone Australia – Angus & Julia Stone, 'Snow'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone_Australia","url_text":"Rolling Stone Australia"}]},{"reference":"7 July 2017. \"Angus & Julia Stone. 4th Album SNOW – teaser\". Get to the Front. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gettothefront.co.uk/angus-julia-stone-snow/","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone. 4th Album SNOW – teaser\""}]},{"reference":"\"Snow by Angus and Julia Stone reviews\". AnyDecentMusic?. Retrieved 3 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anydecentmusic.com/review/8925/Angus--Julia-Stone-Snow.aspx","url_text":"\"Snow by Angus and Julia Stone reviews\""}]},{"reference":"Donelson, Marcy. \"Snow – Angus & Julia Stone\". AllMusic. Retrieved 21 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/snow-mw0003097482","url_text":"\"Snow – Angus & Julia Stone\""}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Lauren (14 September 2017). \"Angus & Julia Stone – Snow review: blizzard of banalities\". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/angus-julia-stone-snow-review-blizzard-of-banalities-1.3214411","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone – Snow review: blizzard of banalities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times","url_text":"The Irish Times"}]},{"reference":"Croft, Charlotte (9 September 2017). \"Angus & Julia Stone make a peaceful, polished return\". The Line of Best Fit. Retrieved 22 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thelineofbestfit.com/reviews/albums/angus-and-julia-stone-snow","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone make a peaceful, polished return\""}]},{"reference":"Grulichova, Aneta (11 September 2017). \"Angus & Julia Stone – Snow\". themusic.com.au. Retrieved 22 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://themusic.com.au/music/albumreviews/2017/09/11/angus-and-julia-stone-snow-aneta-grulichova/","url_text":"\"Angus & Julia Stone – Snow\""}]},{"reference":"Mackay, Emily (17 September 2017). \"Angus and Julia Stone: Snow review – dreamy Australian indie rock\". The Observer. Retrieved 21 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/sep/17/angus-julia-stone-snow-review-australian-indie","url_text":"\"Angus and Julia Stone: Snow review – dreamy Australian indie rock\""}]},{"reference":"de Freitas, Sonia (10 September 2017). \"ALBUM REVIEW: ANGUS & JULIA STONE – SNOW\". Renowned for Sound. Retrieved 22 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://renownedforsound.com/index.php/album-review-angus-julia-stone-snow/","url_text":"\"ALBUM REVIEW: ANGUS & JULIA STONE – SNOW\""}]},{"reference":"\"NZ Top 40 Albums Chart\". Recorded Music NZ. 25 September 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://nztop40.co.nz/chart/albums?chart=4399","url_text":"\"NZ Top 40 Albums Chart\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recorded_Music_NZ","url_text":"Recorded Music NZ"}]},{"reference":"\"ARIA End of Year Albums 2017\". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 5 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ariacharts.com.au/annual-charts/2017/albums-chart","url_text":"\"ARIA End of Year Albums 2017\""}]},{"reference":"\"ARIA End of Year Albums 2018\". Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 10 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ariacharts.com.au/annual-charts/2018/albums-chart","url_text":"\"ARIA End of Year Albums 2018\""}]},{"reference":"\"ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2018 Albums\" (PDF). Australian Recording Industry Association. Retrieved 9 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dropbox.com/sh/k9o2q7p7o4awhqx/AABFFGIVR9Plblvmp9DSoiEia/2018%20Accreds.pdf","url_text":"\"ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2018 Albums\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association","url_text":"Australian Recording Industry Association"}]},{"reference":"\"French album certifications – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow\" (in French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. Retrieved 6 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://snepmusique.com/les-certifications/?categorie=Albums&interprete=Angus+%26+Julia+Stone&titre=Snow","url_text":"\"French album certifications – Angus & Julia Stone – Snow\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndicat_National_de_l%27%C3%89dition_Phonographique","url_text":"Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://musicfeeds.com.au/news/angus-julia-stones-new-album-snow-finally-release-date/","external_links_name":"\"Angus & Julia Stone's New Album 'Snow' Finally Has A Release Date\""},{"Link":"https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/snow-single/id1245035467","external_links_name":"\"Snow – Single by Angus & Julia Stone on Apple Music\""},{"Link":"http://www.deezer.com/en/album/46123062","external_links_name":"\"Chateau – Angus & Julia Stone\""},{"Link":"https://itunes.apple.com/au/album/cellar-door-single/1305028413","external_links_name":"\"Cellar Door – Angus & Julia 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_G._Hall | George G. Hall | ["1 Education and career","2 Books","3 References","4 External links"] | George G. HallBornGeorge Garfield Hall(1925-03-05)5 March 1925Belfast, Northern IrelandDied6 May 2018(2018-05-06) (aged 93)Nottingham, EnglandAlma materQueen's University BelfastCambridge UniversityOccupation(s)mathematician, professor
George Garfield Hall (5 March 1925 – 6 May 2018) was a Northern Irish applied mathematician known for original work and contributions to the field of quantum chemistry. Independently from Clemens C. J. Roothaan, Hall discovered the Roothaan-Hall equations.
Education and career
Hall was educated at Queen's University Belfast and St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied for a PhD under the supervision of John Lennard-Jones. For his work on the Roothaan-Hall equations, Hall was awarded a doctorate by the University of Cambridge in 1950. He then lectured at Cambridge as a Research Assistant in theoretical chemistry, before being elected to a Fellowship at St John's College in 1953. From 1955 to 1962 he lectured in Mathematics at Imperial College London. In 1957–58 he spent a year with Per-Olov Löwdin in Uppsala, Sweden. He became Professor of Mathematics at the University of Nottingham in 1962. In 1982 he took early retirement from Nottingham and was appointed an emeritus professor. He moved in 1983 to Kyoto University, Japan, returning to Nottingham in 1988. He has collaborated with (inter alia) A.T. Amos, K. Collard, and D. Rees. He was Emeritus Professor and Senior Research Fellow in the Shell Centre for Mathematical Education at the University of Nottingham.
He was awarded several honorary degrees for his work: a DSc by Maynooth University (2004), a ScD by Cambridge University and a DEng by Kyoto University. He was a member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science.
Hall had three children and six grandchildren. He died peacefully in Nottingham at the age of 93 on 6 May 2018.
Books
G. G. Hall, Matrices and tensors. Pergamon (1963).
G. G. Hall, Applied Group Theory. Longman (1965) & American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc. (1967).
G. G. Hall, Molecular Solid-State Physics. Springer (1991).
References
^ http://www.iaqms.org/obituary/GeorgeGarfieldHall.pdf
^ George G. Hall at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
External links
His International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science page
A bibliography
Another bibliography
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Netherlands
Academics
CiNii
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
Scopus
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
This article about a British chemist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about a United Kingdom mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northern Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Irish"},{"link_name":"quantum chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Clemens C. J. Roothaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemens_C._J._Roothaan"},{"link_name":"Roothaan-Hall equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roothaan_equations"}],"text":"George Garfield Hall (5 March 1925 – 6 May 2018) was a Northern Irish applied mathematician known for original work and contributions to the field of quantum chemistry.[1] Independently from Clemens C. J. Roothaan, Hall discovered the Roothaan-Hall equations.","title":"George G. Hall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Queen's University Belfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast"},{"link_name":"St John's College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"John Lennard-Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennard-Jones"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"theoretical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Imperial College London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_London"},{"link_name":"Per-Olov Löwdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per-Olov_L%C3%B6wdin"},{"link_name":"Uppsala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"University of Nottingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nottingham"},{"link_name":"Kyoto University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_University"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Maynooth University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth_University"},{"link_name":"International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Academy_of_Quantum_Molecular_Science"}],"text":"Hall was educated at Queen's University Belfast and St John's College, Cambridge, where he studied for a PhD under the supervision of John Lennard-Jones. For his work on the Roothaan-Hall equations, Hall was awarded a doctorate by the University of Cambridge in 1950.[2] He then lectured at Cambridge as a Research Assistant in theoretical chemistry, before being elected to a Fellowship at St John's College in 1953. From 1955 to 1962 he lectured in Mathematics at Imperial College London. In 1957–58 he spent a year with Per-Olov Löwdin in Uppsala, Sweden. He became Professor of Mathematics at the University of Nottingham in 1962. In 1982 he took early retirement from Nottingham and was appointed an emeritus professor. He moved in 1983 to Kyoto University, Japan, returning to Nottingham in 1988. He has collaborated with (inter alia) A.T. Amos, K. Collard, and D. Rees. He was Emeritus Professor and Senior Research Fellow in the Shell Centre for Mathematical Education at the University of Nottingham.He was awarded several honorary degrees for his work: a DSc by Maynooth University (2004), a ScD by Cambridge University and a DEng by Kyoto University. He was a member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science.Hall had three children and six grandchildren. He died peacefully in Nottingham at the age of 93 on 6 May 2018.","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Press"},{"link_name":"Longman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longman"},{"link_name":"Springer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media"}],"text":"G. G. Hall, Matrices and tensors. Pergamon (1963).\nG. G. Hall, Applied Group Theory. Longman (1965) & American Elsevier Publishing Co., Inc. (1967).\nG. G. Hall, Molecular Solid-State Physics. Springer (1991).","title":"Books"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Matrices and tensors","urls":[]},{"reference":"Applied Group Theory","urls":[]},{"reference":"Molecular Solid-State Physics","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.iaqms.org/obituary/GeorgeGarfieldHall.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.iaqms.org/obituary/GeorgeGarfieldHall.pdf"},{"Link":"https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=242537","external_links_name":"George G. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golmaal_Returns | Golmaal Returns | ["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","4 Music","5 Release","5.1 Box office","5.2 Home media","6 Controversies","7 Sequel","8 References","9 External links"] | 2008 comedy film directed by Rohit Shetty
Golmaal ReturnsTheatrical release posterDirected byRohit ShettyWritten byScreenplay:Yunus SajawalDialogues:Farhad-SajidStory byAdapted Story: Rumi Jaffery Original Story: Mulraj RajdaBased onPheka Pheki (1989 film)Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar(1973 film)Produced byDhilin MehtaStarringAjay DevgnKareena KapoorArshad WarsiShreyas TalpadeTusshar KapoorAmrita AroraCelina JaitleyAnjana SukhaniCinematographyNatarajan SubramaniamEdited bySteven H. BernardMusic bySongs:PritamBackground Score:Sanjoy ChowdhuryProductioncompanyShree Ashtavinayak Cine VisionDistributed byIndian FilmsRelease date
29 October 2008 (2008-10-29)
Running time135 minutesCountryIndiaLanguageHindiBudget₹25 croreBox office₹80 crore
Golmaal Returns (transl. Chaos Returns) is a 2008 Indian Hindi-language comedy film directed by Rohit Shetty. The film is a remake of the 1989 Marathi film Pheka Pheki, which itself inspired by 1973 Hindi film Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar, it serves as the second installment in the Golmaal film series. The film stars Ajay Devgn, Arshad Warsi, Tusshar Kapoor, Kareena Kapoor and Shreyas Talpade. It was one of the highest-grossing Hindi films of 2008.
Plot
Gopal lives with his wife Ekta, who is addicted to watching Indian dramas and soap operas. He also lives with his sister Esha and Ekta's mute brother, his brother in law Lucky. Lucky is in love with a deaf girl named Daisy. Investigating Officer Madhav, Esha's boyfriend, who believes that Gopal's company, Golden Fisheries, secretly does drug-smuggling, does not get along with Gopal.
One night, while returning from his office, Gopal saves an attractive young woman named Meera from some dreadful goons. Due to circumstances, both of them decide to stay the night at Gopal's friend's yacht. When he arrives home the next day, an over-suspicious Ekta suspects Gopal of flirting around with his female employees and having an affair with his secretary. Knowing how difficult it is to convince her with the truth, he invents a story about spending the night with a fictitious friend named Anthony Gonsalves. Ekta becomes suspicious and does not believe his story as she knows that he never had a friend by that name, and hence, she decides to write to Anthony to visit her and to confirm Gopal was telling the truth. Later, Gopal meets Laxman Prasad, who has come to interview for a position in his office. He is Meera's boyfriend, which is not known to Gopal. Gopal asks him to pretend to be Anthony, and meet and convince Ekta that he was indeed telling the truth, in return for a job. Laxman agrees to do so, and everything goes according to plan until the address on which Ekta had written a letter to Anthony as well as his name turns out to be real. The real Anthony shows up at Gopal's house but he is scared off in a comical way by Gopal, Lucky and Laxman. Gopal warns the real Anthony not to show up around his residence ever again.
Meanwhile, Gopal finds out that a dead body was found at the same location where he saved Meera from the goons. Madhav finds out that Gopal was missing from his home that very night and that the dead person was Gopal's colleague whom he had threatened to kill over a spat. Madhav soon finds out that Laxman is not the real Anthony and arrests him. He gives Gopal a three-day deadline to get the girl to the police station to prove that Gopal had been with her and did not murder his employee. After three days and a lot of attempts, they still are not able to find the girl. In panic, Laxman and Lucky hire a woman called Munni, who needs money to get her boyfriend Vasooli out of jail, but Munni is kidnapped by the murderer. Unable to prove his innocence, Gopal is arrested. Lucky and Laxman are chased by the cops but they are rescued by Meera. Meera questions Laxman about his involvement in some shady activities. Laxman then reveals that he had to cover up that night's incident for Gopal. However Meera reveals that the girl whom Gopal saved that night is none other than her. Laxman is shocked and distraught over this news as he believes that Gopal and her are having an affair behind his back but Meera gets angry on Laxman for not trusting her. He apologizes and the trio go to the police station. However, Vasooli finds out that Munni has been kidnapped and kidnaps Meera as leverage in anger.
Gopal is later bailed out by Sawant, who is going along with him to the Lover's Point, with Madhav, Esha, Lucky and Laxman following them in pursuit, and Ekta, Vasooli and Meera arriving later. Munni is found tied up in the back of the murderer's jeep and is freed by the group. Gopal learns that this was a plot concocted by Sawant to frame him for the murder, as his illegal drug trade was about to be exposed, confirming Madhav's suspicions. The drama grows, as everyone attempts suicide (except Madhav and Lucky), much to Sawant's anger, until he is driven crazy from this and tries to kill himself.
Ekta and Gopal get back together, Madhav and Gopal also shake hands in the end. Lucky, meanwhile, marries the daughter of the president of Gopal's company, who happens to be Daisy, and becomes the new boss, giving a shock to the others. Gopal and Laxman are declared the junior bosses, while Madhav is declared a 24-hour guard for Lucky.
Cast
Ajay Devgn as Gopal Kumar Santoshi
Arshad Warsi as Inspector Madhav Singh Ghai
Kareena Kapoor as Ekta Gill Santoshi
Tusshar Kapoor as Lucky Gill
Shreyas Talpade as Laxman Prasad Apte / Anthony Gonsalves
Murali Sharma as Vinay Sawant
Amrita Arora as Esha Santoshi Ghai
Celina Jaitly as Meera Iyer
Ashwini Kalsekar as Munni Devi
Anjana Sukhani as Daisy Kapoor
Sajid Samji as Constable Pinky
Mukesh Tiwari as Vasooli
Sharat Saxena as Babloo Kapoor
Vrajesh Hirjee as Anthony Gonsalves / Aatmaram
Rakhee Tandon as Julie Gonsalves
Sanjay Mishra as Subodh Mehra
Shereveer Vakil as Vinay's aide
Robin Bhatt as Gopal's neighbor
Upasana Singh as Lucky's customer
Sharman Joshi as Laxman Prasad (archive footage in photo)
Siddarth Jadhav as Lucky's assistant
Ashish R. Mohan as Hiren
Gulshan Sharma
Ram Kapoor (cameo appearance)
Preeti Bhutani as a female employee in Golden Fisheries
Production
Ajay Devgn is paired opposite Kareena Kapoor. Amongst the rest of the multi-starrer cast, actress Amrita Arora is the love interest of Arshad Warsi whilst Celina Jaitly and Anjana Sukhani are paired opposite Shreyas Talpade and Tusshar Kapoor, respectively.
Originally expected to commence shooting for the film in Dubai on a forty-day schedule, the cast shot for the film in Goa on a twenty-day schedule. Shooting later continued in places like the Filmistan Studios in Mumbai, South Africa and Bangkok.
Music
Golmaal ReturnsSoundtrack album by PritamReleased24 September 2008 (2008-09-24)GenreBollywood film soundtrackLabelT-SeriesProducerDhillin MehtaPritam chronology
Kidnap(2008)
Golmaal Returns(2008)
Billu(2009)
The soundtrack was released on 24 September 2008 by director Rohit Shetty and actors Ajay Devgn, Tusshar Kapoor & Shreyas Talpade on the musical show Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009. While the film's soundtrack contains six new songs composed by Pritam for the sequel, the album also consists of songs from the first film. Lyrics have been penned by Sameer.
The music video of the song "Tha Kar Ke" cost ₹3.5 crore, making it the most expensive Bollywood music video up until that time. Its choreography and picturisation was reportedly inspired by the Sivaji song "Athiradee".
Joginder Tuteja from IndiaFM gave the film's soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and noted, that "Golmaal Returns is yet another winner from Pritam who delivers what is expected from a soundtrack for a film belonging to action-comedy genre. No one attempts to do anything exceptional or different from routine but walk the path which has been successful in the months gone by. The music may not go the Race (2008) way but does well enough to ensure immense awareness about the film due to its fast paced approach." According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 14,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's tenth highest-selling.
Track #
Song
Singer(s)
Duration
Composer
1
"Tha Kar Ke"
Neeraj Shridhar, Anwesha Datta Gupta, Akriti Kakkar, Earl, Indie
4:24
Pritam Chakraborty
2
"Vacancy"
Neeraj Shridhar, Benny Dayal, Suhail Kaul, Suzanne D'Mello
5:04
Pritam Chakraborty
3
"Tu Saala"
Anushka Manchanda
3:27
Pritam Chakraborty
4
"Meow"
Monali Thakur, Suzanne D'Mello
4:24
Pritam Chakraborty
5
"Meow" (English version)
Suzanne D'Mello
4:22
Pritam Chakraborty
6
"Vacancy" (Kilogram Mix)
Neeraj Shridhar, Benny Dayal, Suhail Kaul, Suzanne D'Mello
4:49
Pritam Chakraborty
7
"Tha Kar Ke" (Remix)
Neeraj Shridhar, Anwesha Datta Gupta, Akriti Kakkar, Earl, Indie
4:26
Pritam Chakraborty
8
"Meow" (Remix)
Monali Thakur, Suzanne D'Mello
4:54
Pritam Chakraborty
9
"Tu Saala" (Remix)
Anushka Manchanda
2:46
Pritam Chakraborty
Release
Box office
Golmaal Returns was considered financially successful. It grossed between ₹420–450 million in the first five days.
Home media
The film was released on DVD on 10 December 2010. The release included a single disc edition with the film and special features being the making of the film, and three songs: "Golmaal Remix", "Meeoow", and "Tu Saala".
On the Moser Baer release, it is one disc plus a bonus disc of Golmaal.
Controversies
In 2008, Shakuntala Bhatia, wife of director Rajendra Bhatia filed a complaint against Shree Asthavinayak Cine Vision Ltd., accusing them of directly copying the story of her husband's film Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar (1973).
Sequel
Main article: Golmaal 3
A sequel Golmaal 3 was released in 2010.
References
^ Frater, Patrick (15 January 2009). "TIFC under fire from Altima". Variety. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
^ "Golmaal Returns - Movie - Box Office India". boxofficeindia.com. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
^ Jacinto, Grinell (14 March 2021). "Rohit Shetty Box Office: Top 10 Grossers Of The Director - Where Will Sooryavanshi Stand Among Them?". Koimoi. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
^ Jha, Lata (18 June 2018). "Ten Bollywood remakes of Marathi films". mint. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
^ "3 Bollywood films that were inspired by Marathi movies". filmfare.com. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
^ Arunachalam, Param. BollySwar: 2001 - 2010. Mavrix Infotech Private Limited. ISBN 978-81-938482-0-3.
^ "PIX: Golmaal Returns actress goes nude for French magazine!". Rediff.
^ a b "Is Kareena promoting best friend Amrita the ugliest ugly girl?". Amrita Arora added to cast. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 27 November 2007.
^ "Celina Jaitley goes de-glam". More Bollywood actors added to cast. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2007.
^ "Kareena to make you laugh". GR to be shot in a forty day schedule in Dubai. 20 July 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
^ "Sanju on a fun-raising drive". Cast shoot for film in Goa. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2007.
^ "Bomb shelled!". Kareena gets pranked by Ajay Devgan on sets. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2007.
^ "Kareena, Ajay Devgan… up the temperatures". Cast continue to shoot at Filmistan Studios. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 4 March 2008.
^ "Kareena grooves in Bangkok". GR cast shoot for promotional video in Bangkok. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
^ "'Golmaal Returns' music launch on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009". South Asian Women's Forum (SAUF). Retrieved 11 November 2008.
^ "Tha Karke - 3.5 crores, 1000 dancers, 180 fighters, 10 cars and 12 days". www.santabanta.com. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2014.
^ "News18.com: CNN-News18 Breaking News India, Latest News Headlines, Live News Updates". News18. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014.
^ "Business News Live, Share Market News - Read Latest Finance News, IPO, Mutual Funds News". The Economic Times. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
^ Tuteja, Joginder. "Music Review: Golmaal Returns". IndiaFM. Archived from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
^ "Music Hits 2000–2009 (Figures in Units)". Box Office India. Archived from the original on 24 June 2010.
^ "Box Office 2008". Box Office India. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009. Retrieved 27 January 2008.
^ "Golmaal Returns creates wonders at box office". 9 November 2008. Archived from the original on 9 November 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
^ "Box Office Report". boxofficeindia.com. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008.
^ "Golmaal Returns DVD".
^ Copyright violation charge for Golmaal Returns
External links
Golmaal Returns at IMDb
Golmaal Returns at AllMovie
Golmaal Returns at Bollywood Hungama
vteFilms directed by Rohit ShettyGolmaal series
Golmaal: Fun Unlimited (2006)
Golmaal Returns (2008)
Golmaal 3 (2010)
Golmaal Again (2017)
Cop Universe
Singham (2011)
Singham Returns (2014)
Simmba (2018)
Sooryavanshi (2021)
Singham Again (2024)
Other films
Zameen (2003)
Sunday (2008)
All the Best: Fun Begins (2009)
Bol Bachchan (2012)
Chennai Express (2013)
Dilwale (2015)
Ranveer Ching Returns (2016)
Cirkus (2022)
vteGolmaal series
Golmaal: Fun Unlimited (2006)
Golmaal Returns (2008)
Golmaal 3 (2010)
Golmaal Again (2017)
Golmaal Once Again (2022)
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi"},{"link_name":"comedy film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_film"},{"link_name":"Rohit Shetty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohit_Shetty"},{"link_name":"Marathi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language"},{"link_name":"Pheka Pheki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheka_Pheki"},{"link_name":"Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaj_Ki_Taaza_Khabar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Golmaal film series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golmaal_(film_series)"},{"link_name":"Ajay Devgn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajay_Devgn"},{"link_name":"Arshad Warsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arshad_Warsi"},{"link_name":"Tusshar Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusshar_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"Kareena Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareena_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"Shreyas Talpade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreyas_Talpade"},{"link_name":"highest-grossing Hindi films of 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hindi_films_of_2008#Box_office_collection"}],"text":"Golmaal Returns (transl. Chaos Returns) is a 2008 Indian Hindi-language comedy film directed by Rohit Shetty. The film is a remake of the 1989 Marathi film Pheka Pheki, which itself inspired by 1973 Hindi film Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar,[3][4][5][6] it serves as the second installment in the Golmaal film series. The film stars Ajay Devgn, Arshad Warsi, Tusshar Kapoor, Kareena Kapoor and Shreyas Talpade. It was one of the highest-grossing Hindi films of 2008.","title":"Golmaal Returns"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Gopal lives with his wife Ekta, who is addicted to watching Indian dramas and soap operas. He also lives with his sister Esha and Ekta's mute brother, his brother in law Lucky. Lucky is in love with a deaf girl named Daisy. Investigating Officer Madhav, Esha's boyfriend, who believes that Gopal's company, Golden Fisheries, secretly does drug-smuggling, does not get along with Gopal.One night, while returning from his office, Gopal saves an attractive young woman named Meera from some dreadful goons. Due to circumstances, both of them decide to stay the night at Gopal's friend's yacht. When he arrives home the next day, an over-suspicious Ekta suspects Gopal of flirting around with his female employees and having an affair with his secretary. Knowing how difficult it is to convince her with the truth, he invents a story about spending the night with a fictitious friend named Anthony Gonsalves. Ekta becomes suspicious and does not believe his story as she knows that he never had a friend by that name, and hence, she decides to write to Anthony to visit her and to confirm Gopal was telling the truth. Later, Gopal meets Laxman Prasad, who has come to interview for a position in his office. He is Meera's boyfriend, which is not known to Gopal. Gopal asks him to pretend to be Anthony, and meet and convince Ekta that he was indeed telling the truth, in return for a job. Laxman agrees to do so, and everything goes according to plan until the address on which Ekta had written a letter to Anthony as well as his name turns out to be real. The real Anthony shows up at Gopal's house but he is scared off in a comical way by Gopal, Lucky and Laxman. Gopal warns the real Anthony not to show up around his residence ever again.Meanwhile, Gopal finds out that a dead body was found at the same location where he saved Meera from the goons. Madhav finds out that Gopal was missing from his home that very night and that the dead person was Gopal's colleague whom he had threatened to kill over a spat. Madhav soon finds out that Laxman is not the real Anthony and arrests him. He gives Gopal a three-day deadline to get the girl to the police station to prove that Gopal had been with her and did not murder his employee. After three days and a lot of attempts, they still are not able to find the girl. In panic, Laxman and Lucky hire a woman called Munni, who needs money to get her boyfriend Vasooli out of jail, but Munni is kidnapped by the murderer. Unable to prove his innocence, Gopal is arrested. Lucky and Laxman are chased by the cops but they are rescued by Meera. Meera questions Laxman about his involvement in some shady activities. Laxman then reveals that he had to cover up that night's incident for Gopal. However Meera reveals that the girl whom Gopal saved that night is none other than her. Laxman is shocked and distraught over this news as he believes that Gopal and her are having an affair behind his back but Meera gets angry on Laxman for not trusting her. He apologizes and the trio go to the police station. However, Vasooli finds out that Munni has been kidnapped and kidnaps Meera as leverage in anger.Gopal is later bailed out by Sawant, who is going along with him to the Lover's Point, with Madhav, Esha, Lucky and Laxman following them in pursuit, and Ekta, Vasooli and Meera arriving later. Munni is found tied up in the back of the murderer's jeep and is freed by the group. Gopal learns that this was a plot concocted by Sawant to frame him for the murder, as his illegal drug trade was about to be exposed, confirming Madhav's suspicions. The drama grows, as everyone attempts suicide (except Madhav and Lucky), much to Sawant's anger, until he is driven crazy from this and tries to kill himself.Ekta and Gopal get back together, Madhav and Gopal also shake hands in the end. Lucky, meanwhile, marries the daughter of the president of Gopal's company, who happens to be Daisy, and becomes the new boss, giving a shock to the others. Gopal and Laxman are declared the junior bosses, while Madhav is declared a 24-hour guard for Lucky.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ajay Devgn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajay_Devgn"},{"link_name":"Arshad Warsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arshad_Warsi"},{"link_name":"Kareena Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareena_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"Tusshar Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusshar_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"Shreyas Talpade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreyas_Talpade"},{"link_name":"Murali Sharma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murali_Sharma"},{"link_name":"Amrita Arora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Arora"},{"link_name":"Celina Jaitly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celina_Jaitly"},{"link_name":"Ashwini Kalsekar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashwini_Kalsekar"},{"link_name":"Anjana Sukhani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anjana_Sukhani"},{"link_name":"Sajid Samji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajid_Samji"},{"link_name":"Mukesh Tiwari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukesh_Tiwari"},{"link_name":"Sharat Saxena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharat_Saxena"},{"link_name":"Vrajesh Hirjee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrajesh_Hirjee"},{"link_name":"Rakhee Tandon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakhee_Tandon_(actress)"},{"link_name":"Sanjay Mishra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjay_Mishra_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Shereveer Vakil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shereveer_Vakil"},{"link_name":"Robin Bhatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Bhatt"},{"link_name":"Upasana Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upasana_Singh"},{"link_name":"Sharman Joshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharman_Joshi"},{"link_name":"Siddarth Jadhav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddarth_Jadhav"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Ram Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Kapoor"}],"text":"Ajay Devgn as Gopal Kumar Santoshi\nArshad Warsi as Inspector Madhav Singh Ghai\nKareena Kapoor as Ekta Gill Santoshi\nTusshar Kapoor as Lucky Gill\nShreyas Talpade as Laxman Prasad Apte / Anthony Gonsalves\nMurali Sharma as Vinay Sawant\nAmrita Arora as Esha Santoshi Ghai\nCelina Jaitly as Meera Iyer\nAshwini Kalsekar as Munni Devi\nAnjana Sukhani as Daisy Kapoor\nSajid Samji as Constable Pinky\nMukesh Tiwari as Vasooli\nSharat Saxena as Babloo Kapoor\nVrajesh Hirjee as Anthony Gonsalves / Aatmaram\nRakhee Tandon as Julie Gonsalves\nSanjay Mishra as Subodh Mehra\nShereveer Vakil as Vinay's aide\nRobin Bhatt as Gopal's neighbor\nUpasana Singh as Lucky's customer\nSharman Joshi as Laxman Prasad (archive footage in photo)\nSiddarth Jadhav as Lucky's assistant\nAshish R. Mohan as Hiren\nGulshan Sharma[7]\nRam Kapoor (cameo appearance)\nPreeti Bhutani as a female employee in Golden Fisheries","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ajay Devgn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajay_Devgn"},{"link_name":"Kareena Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareena_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cast_Pairing-8"},{"link_name":"Amrita Arora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Arora"},{"link_name":"Arshad Warsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arshad_Warsi"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cast_Pairing-8"},{"link_name":"Celina Jaitly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celina_Jaitly"},{"link_name":"Anjana Sukhani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anjana_Sukhani"},{"link_name":"Shreyas Talpade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreyas_Talpade"},{"link_name":"Tusshar Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusshar_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Goa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Release-13"},{"link_name":"Bangkok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Ajay Devgn is paired opposite Kareena Kapoor.[8] Amongst the rest of the multi-starrer cast, actress Amrita Arora is the love interest of Arshad Warsi[8] whilst Celina Jaitly and Anjana Sukhani are paired opposite Shreyas Talpade and Tusshar Kapoor, respectively.[9]Originally expected to commence shooting for the film in Dubai on a forty-day schedule,[10] the cast shot for the film in Goa on a twenty-day schedule.[11][12] Shooting later continued in places like the Filmistan Studios in Mumbai,[13] South Africa and Bangkok.[14]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rohit Shetty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohit_Shetty"},{"link_name":"Ajay Devgn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajay_Devgn"},{"link_name":"Tusshar Kapoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusshar_Kapoor"},{"link_name":"Shreyas Talpade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreyas_Talpade"},{"link_name":"Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa_Re_Ga_Ma_Pa_Challenge_2009"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Pritam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritam"},{"link_name":"first film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golmaal_Fun_Unlimited"},{"link_name":"Sameer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameer_(lyricist)"},{"link_name":"crore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crore"},{"link_name":"Bollywood music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollywood_music"},{"link_name":"Sivaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivaji_(film)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(2008_film)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Box Office India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_Office_India"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"The soundtrack was released on 24 September 2008 by director Rohit Shetty and actors Ajay Devgn, Tusshar Kapoor & Shreyas Talpade on the musical show Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Challenge 2009.[15] While the film's soundtrack contains six new songs composed by Pritam for the sequel, the album also consists of songs from the first film. Lyrics have been penned by Sameer.The music video of the song \"Tha Kar Ke\" cost ₹3.5 crore, making it the most expensive Bollywood music video up until that time. Its choreography and picturisation was reportedly inspired by the Sivaji song \"Athiradee\".[16][17][18]Joginder Tuteja from IndiaFM gave the film's soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and noted, that \"Golmaal Returns is yet another winner from Pritam who delivers what is expected from a soundtrack for a film belonging to action-comedy genre. No one attempts to do anything exceptional or different from routine but walk the path which has been successful in the months gone by. The music may not go the Race (2008) way but does well enough to ensure immense awareness about the film due to its fast paced approach.\"[19] According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 14,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's tenth highest-selling.[20]","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Box office","text":"Golmaal Returns was considered financially successful.[21] It grossed between ₹420–450 million in the first five days.[22][23]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Moser Baer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moser_Baer"},{"link_name":"Golmaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golmaal_(2006_film)"}],"sub_title":"Home media","text":"The film was released on DVD on 10 December 2010. The release included a single disc edition with the film and special features being the making of the film, and three songs: \"Golmaal Remix\", \"Meeoow\", and \"Tu Saala\".[24]\nOn the Moser Baer release, it is one disc plus a bonus disc of Golmaal.","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaj_Ki_Taaza_Khabar"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"In 2008, Shakuntala Bhatia, wife of director Rajendra Bhatia filed a complaint against Shree Asthavinayak Cine Vision Ltd., accusing them of directly copying the story of her husband's film Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar (1973).[25]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Golmaal 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golmaal_3"}],"text":"A sequel Golmaal 3 was released in 2010.","title":"Sequel"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Frater, Patrick (15 January 2009). \"TIFC under fire from Altima\". Variety. Retrieved 16 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2009/biz/asia/tifc-under-fire-from-altima-1117998669/","url_text":"\"TIFC under fire from Altima\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"}]},{"reference":"\"Golmaal Returns - Movie - Box Office India\". boxofficeindia.com. Retrieved 27 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=311","url_text":"\"Golmaal Returns - Movie - Box Office India\""}]},{"reference":"Jacinto, Grinell (14 March 2021). \"Rohit Shetty Box Office: Top 10 Grossers Of The Director - Where Will Sooryavanshi Stand Among Them?\". Koimoi. Retrieved 3 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.koimoi.com/box-office/rohit-shetty-box-office-top-10-grossers-of-the-director-where-will-sooryavanshi-stand-among-them/","url_text":"\"Rohit Shetty Box Office: Top 10 Grossers Of The Director - Where Will Sooryavanshi Stand Among Them?\""}]},{"reference":"Jha, Lata (18 June 2018). \"Ten Bollywood remakes of Marathi films\". mint. Retrieved 3 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livemint.com/Consumer/qlQfWuXchh5FFSvms8iShK/Ten-Bollywood-remakes-of-Marathi-films.html","url_text":"\"Ten Bollywood remakes of Marathi films\""}]},{"reference":"\"3 Bollywood films that were inspired by Marathi movies\". filmfare.com. Retrieved 3 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.filmfare.com/features/3-bollywood-films-that-were-inspired-by-marathi-movies-29493.html","url_text":"\"3 Bollywood films that were inspired by Marathi movies\""}]},{"reference":"Arunachalam, Param. BollySwar: 2001 - 2010. Mavrix Infotech Private Limited. ISBN 978-81-938482-0-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UNvyDwAAQBAJ&q=pheka+pheki","url_text":"BollySwar: 2001 - 2010"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-938482-0-3","url_text":"978-81-938482-0-3"}]},{"reference":"\"PIX: Golmaal Returns actress goes nude for French magazine!\". Rediff.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-golmaal-returns-actress-goes-nude-for-french-magazine/20120605.htm","url_text":"\"PIX: Golmaal Returns actress goes nude for French magazine!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Is Kareena promoting best friend Amrita the ugliest ugly girl?\". Amrita Arora added to cast. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 27 November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071213072408/http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2574131.cms","url_text":"\"Is Kareena promoting best friend Amrita the ugliest ugly girl?\""},{"url":"http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2574131.cms","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Celina Jaitley goes de-glam\". More Bollywood actors added to cast. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 15 November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071213010306/http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2547815.cms","url_text":"\"Celina Jaitley goes de-glam\""},{"url":"http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2547815.cms","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Kareena to make you laugh\". GR to be shot in a forty day schedule in Dubai. 20 July 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Delhi_Times/Kareena_to_make_you_laugh/articleshow/2217860.cms","url_text":"\"Kareena to make you laugh\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sanju on a fun-raising drive\". Cast shoot for film in Goa. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071024183614/http://mumbaimirror.com/net/mmpaper.aspx?Page=article","url_text":"\"Sanju on a fun-raising drive\""},{"url":"http://www.mumbaimirror.com/net/mmpaper.aspx?page=article§id=30&contentid=200712082007120803031296876eff91c","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Bomb shelled!\". Kareena gets pranked by Ajay Devgan on sets. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071024183614/http://mumbaimirror.com/net/mmpaper.aspx?Page=article","url_text":"\"Bomb shelled!\""},{"url":"http://www.mumbaimirror.com/net/mmpaper.aspx?page=article§id=30&contentid=20071208200712080303049064ee9c7d3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Kareena, Ajay Devgan… up the temperatures\". Cast continue to shoot at Filmistan Studios. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 4 March 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080305134622/http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2835824.cms","url_text":"\"Kareena, Ajay Devgan… up the temperatures\""},{"url":"http://movies.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2835824.cms","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Kareena grooves in Bangkok\". GR cast shoot for promotional video in Bangkok. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-saxons | Anglo-Saxons | ["1 Ethnonym","2 Anglo-Saxon origins (4th and 5th centuries)","3 Development of an Anglo-Saxon society (6th century)","4 Conversion to Christianity","5 Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)","5.1 Mercian supremacy (626–821)","5.2 Learning and monasticism (660–793)","5.3 West Saxon hegemony and the Anglo-Scandinavian Wars (793–878)","5.4 King Alfred and the rebuilding (878–899)","6 Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)","6.1 Reform and formation of England (899–978)","6.2 Æthelred and the return of the Scandinavians (978–1016)","6.3 Conquest of England: Danes, Norwegians and Normans (1016–1066)","7 After the Norman Conquest","8 Life and society","8.1 Kingship and kingdoms","8.2 Religion","8.3 Fighting and warfare","8.4 Settlements and working life","8.5 Women, children and slaves","9 Culture","9.1 Architecture","9.2 Art","9.3 Language","9.4 Kinship","9.5 Law","9.6 Literature","9.7 Symbolism","9.8 Food","10 Legacy","11 See also","11.1 Modern concepts","12 Notes","13 Citations","14 Further reading","14.1 General","14.2 Historical","15 External links"] | Early medieval Old-English-speaking cultural group in Britain
This article is about the medieval Anglo-Saxons. For other uses and specific sub-topics, see Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation).
Page with Chi Rho monogram from the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels c. 700, possibly created by Eadfrith of Lindisfarne in memory of Cuthbert
This article is part of the series:Anglo-Saxonsociety and culture
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The Anglo-Saxons, the English or Saxons of Britain, were a cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced their origins to Germanic settlers who became one of the dominant cultural groups in Britain during the 5th century. Although the details of their early settlement and political development are not clear, a single Anglo-Saxon cultural identity which was generally called Englisc, developed out of the interaction of these settlers with the pre-existing Romano-British culture. By 1066, most of the people of what is now England spoke Old English, and were considered English.
Historically, the Anglo-Saxon period in Britain started by about 450 and ends in 1066, with the Norman Conquest. Viking and Norman invasions changed the politics and culture of England significantly, but the overarching Anglo-Saxon identity evolved and remained dominant even after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Late Anglo-Saxon political structures and language are the direct predecessors of the high medieval Kingdom of England and the Middle English language. Although the modern English language owes less than 26% of its words to Old English, this includes the vast majority of everyday words.
The earliest detailed account of Anglo-Saxon origins given by Bede (early 8th century) suggests that they were long divided into smaller regional kingdoms, with differing accounts of their continental origins. The collective term "Anglo-Saxons" is commonly used by modern historians, but they were originally collectively referred to by Latin authors as Saxons. Bede was one of the first writers to prefer "Angles" as the collective term, and the term "English" eventually became dominant. The compound term Anglo-Saxon first appears in the 8th century, but it was probably not widely used until modern times.
Anglo-Saxon material culture can be seen in architecture, dress styles, illuminated texts, metalwork and other art. Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves kings who developed burhs (fortifications and fortified settlements), and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as archaeologist Helena Hamerow has observed, "local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period."
Ethnonym
In modern times the term "Anglo-Saxons" is used by scholars to refer collectively to the Old English speaking groups in Britain, including groups distinguished by Bede in the 8th century as English (Angles), Saxons, or Jutish. The compound term has the advantage of both covering the various English-speaking groups, and also distinguishing them from the continental peoples who still used the same names. It was however also used in some specific situations already between the 8th and 10th centuries.
Before the 8th century the most common collective term for the Old-English speakers was "Saxons", which was a word associated since the 4th century with raiders in North sea coastal areas of Britain and Gaul. During the 8th century Bede and some of his contemporaries including Alcuin, and Saint Boniface, began to refer to the overall group in Britain as the English people (Latin Angli, gens Anglorum or Old English Angelcynn) thus using the same word to refer to both the larger group, and one part of it. In Bede's work the term "Saxon" is also used to refer sometimes to the Old English language, and also to refer to the early pagan Anglo-Saxons before the arrival of Christian missionaries among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent in 597.
A non-Anglo-Saxon contemporary, Paul the Deacon, referred variously to either the English (Angli), or Anglo-Saxons (Latin plural genitives Saxonum Anglorum, or Anglorum Saxonum), which helped him distinguish them from the European Saxons who he also discussed. In England itself this compound term later came to be used in some specific situations, both in Latin and Old English. Alfred the Great, himself a West Saxon, was for example Anglosaxonum Rex in the late 880s, probably indicating that he was literally a king over both English (for example Mercian) and Saxon groups. However, the term "English" continued to be used and became dominant. The increased use of these new collective terms, "English" or "Anglo-Saxon", represents the strengthening of the idea of a single unifying cultural unity among the Anglo-Saxons themselves, who had previously invested in identities which differentiated various regional groups.
In contrast, Irish and Welsh speakers continued to refer to Anglo-Saxons as Saxons. The word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for 'English people'; the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach. Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident "that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders".
Anglo-Saxon origins (4th and 5th centuries)
Main article: Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
The migrations according to Bede, who wrote some 300 years after the event; there is archeological evidence that the settlers in England came from many of these mainland locations
Although it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe, the culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain. In 400, the Roman province of Britannia had long been part of the Roman Empire. Although the empire had been dismembered several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of Magnus Maximus, and Constantine "III" there was an overal continuity and interconnectedness. Already before 400 Roman sources used the term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems especially on the coasts of the North sea. In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the Saxon shore. The homeland of these Saxon raiders was not clearly described in surviving sources but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of the Franks on the Lower Rhine. At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting foederati soldiers from the same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles.
According to the Chronica Gallica of 452 Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This was only a few years after Constantine "III" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. The rebellion was soon quashed, the Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled Constantine's imperial officials during this period, but they never again received new Roman officials or military forces. Writing in the mid-sixth century, Procopius states that after the death of Constantine "III" in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants."
The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the Saxons, but also the Picts and Scoti. A hagiography of Saint Germanus of Auxerre claims that he helped command a defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430 the archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454 Gildas, one of the only writers in this period, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader Aëtius in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named "proud tyrant" subsequently invited Saxons as foederati soldiers to Britain to help defend it from the Picts and Scots. He did not report the year, and later writers developed different estimates of when this occurred. Possibly referring to this same event, the Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: "The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule". Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that this happened in 450-455, and he named the "proud tyrant" as Vortigern. However, the date could have been significantly earlier, and Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned. The Historia Brittonum, written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but the writer apparently believed it happened in 428. Another 9th century source, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is largely based on Bede but says this Saxon arrival happened in 449.
Bede believed that the call was answered by kings from three powerful tribes from Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons came from Old Saxony on the North sea coast of Germany, and settled in Wessex, Sussex and Essex. Jutland, the peninsula containing part of Denmark, was the homeland of the Jutes who settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Angles (or English) were from 'Anglia', a country which Bede understood to have now been emptied, and which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes. Anglia is usually interpreted as the old Schleswig-Holstein Province (straddling the modern Danish-German border), and containing the modern Angeln. Although this represents a turning point the continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were probably quite diverse, and they arrived over a longer period. In another passage, Bede named pagan peoples still living in Germany (Germania) in the eighth century "from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of the Britons": the Frisians, the Rugini, the Danes, the "Huns" (Avars in this period), the "old Saxons" (antiqui Saxones), and the "Boructuarii" who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the Bructeri, near the Lippe river.: 123–124
Gildas recounts how a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population, initially led by Ambrosius Aurelianus. Historian Nick Higham calls it the "War of the Saxon Federates". It ended successfully for the Britons after the siege at 'Mons Badonicus'. The price of peace, Higham argues, was a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain. The archaeological evidence agrees with this earlier timescale. In particular, the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede's date. In the 6th century, when Gildas was writing, he did not treat the defeated Saxons as an important problem, but he noted that the Britons had become divided into many small "tyrannies".
Development of an Anglo-Saxon society (6th century)
Southern Great Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdoms.
In the last half of the 6th century, four structures contributed to the development of society; they were the position and freedoms of the ceorl, the smaller tribal areas coalescing into larger kingdoms, the elite developing from warriors to kings, and Irish monasticism developing under Finnian (who had consulted Gildas) and his pupil Columba.
The Anglo-Saxon farms of this period are often falsely supposed to be "peasant farms". However, a ceorl, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo-Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms-owning male with the support of a kindred, access to law and the wergild; situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one hide of land. The farmer had freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord who provided only slight lordly input. Most of this land was common outfield arable land (of an outfield-infield system) that provided individuals with the means to build a basis of kinship and group cultural ties.
The Tribal Hidage lists thirty-five peoples, or tribes, with assessments in hides, which may have originally been defined as the area of land sufficient to maintain one family. The assessments in the Hidage reflect the relative size of the provinces. Although varying in size, all thirty-five peoples of the Tribal Hidage were of the same status, in that they were areas which were ruled by their own elite family (or royal houses), and so were assessed independently for payment of tribute. By the end of the sixth century, larger kingdoms had become established on the south or east coasts. They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have had as their initial focus a territory based on a former Roman civitas.
By the end of the sixth century, the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, though it should not be assumed that all of them were Germanic in origin. The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence of a number of early Anglo-Saxon elite families. What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda is the ability of leaders to extract tribute, overawe and/or protect the small regions, which may well have been relatively short-lived in any one instance. Ostensibly "Anglo-Saxon" dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites. Importantly, whatever their origin or whenever they flourished, these dynasties established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin, and possibly mythical, ties. As Helen Geake points out, "they all just happened to be related back to Woden".
Conversion to Christianity
Main article: Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England
King Æthelstan presenting a gospel book to (the long-dead) St Cuthbert (934); Corpus Christi College, Cambridge MS 183, fol. 1v
In 565, Columba, a monk from Ireland who studied at the monastic school of Moville under St. Finnian, reached Iona as a self-imposed exile. The influence of the monastery of Iona would grow into what Peter Brown has described as an "unusually extensive spiritual empire," which "stretched from western Scotland deep to the southwest into the heart of Ireland and, to the southeast, it reached down throughout northern Britain, through the influence of its sister monastery Lindisfarne."
In June 597 Columba died. At this time, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to King Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. He had been the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead the Gregorian mission to Britain to Christianise the Kingdom of Kent from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the king of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Æthelberht was converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For the first time following the Anglo-Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign.
In 635 Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, chose the Isle of Lindisfarne to establish a monastery which was close to King Oswald's main fortress of Bamburgh. He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent a mission to Christianise the Kingdom of Northumbria from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south-west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching. Later, Northumberland's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was an abbot of the monastery, and then Bishop of Lindisfarne. An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing, and in his memory a gospel (known as the St Cuthbert Gospel) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather bookbinding is the oldest intact European binding.
In 664, the Synod of Whitby was convened and established Roman practice as opposed to Irish practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus "brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture." The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from Lindisfarne to York. Wilfrid, chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while Colmán and the Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona.
Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)
By 660, the political map of Lowland Britain had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, and from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked back to the original feodus. The traditional name for this period is the Heptarchy, which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the "opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole". Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was a period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the Thames and above the Humber.
Mercian supremacy (626–821)
Main article: Mercian Supremacy
A political map of Britain circa 650 (the names are in modern English)
Middle-lowland Britain was known as the place of the Mierce, the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brittonic speaking peoples and "Anglo-Saxon" pioneers and their early leaders had Brittonic names, such as Penda. Although Penda does not appear in Bede's list of great overlords, it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty duces regii (royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh-century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide-ranging overlordship from their Midland base.
Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded against not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set-piece battles, but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are a number of casual references scattered throughout the Bede's history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as Bamburgh and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement. In 676 Æthelred conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the Rochester diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds. In these accounts there is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo-Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century, other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London, Middlesex and Hertfordshire to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and the East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century. The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king Charlemagne, recognised the Mercian King Offa's power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery.
Learning and monasticism (660–793)
Map of Britain in 802. By this date, historians today rarely distinguish between Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
Michael Drout calls this period the "Golden Age", when learning flourished with a renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo-Saxon monastic life. In 669 Theodore, a Greek-speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain to become the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury. He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin-speaking African by origin and former abbot of a monastery in Campania (near Naples). One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon "attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning". As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day, were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention Aldhelm in this connection; but we know from a letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students.
Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states "Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until John Milton). His work showed that scholars in England, at the very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe." During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life.
Anglo-Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the "double monastery", a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, who became some of the most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning.
While Aldhelm was doing his work in Malmesbury, far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining a reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things).
West Saxon hegemony and the Anglo-Scandinavian Wars (793–878)
Main articles: Viking Age and DanelawThe Oseberg ship prow, Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.
During the 9th century, Wessex rose in power, from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view. On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford, with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, "and the people of Wiltshire had the victory". In 829, Egbert went on, the chronicler reports, to conquer "the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber". It was at this point that the chronicler chooses to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven overlords, adding that "he was the eighth king who was Bretwalda". Simon Keynes suggests Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians. In 860, the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of King Æthelwulf, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler Æthelred, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people.
Anglo-Saxon-Viking coin weight. Material is lead and weighs approx 36 g. Embedded with a sceat dating to 720–750 AD and minted in Kent. It is edged with a dotted triangle pattern. Origin is the northern Danelaw region, and it dates from the late 8th to 9th century.
The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo-Saxon society attracted the attention of people from mainland Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Because of the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name Viking – from the Old Norse víkingr meaning an expedition – which soon became used for the raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe. In 793, Lindisfarne was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. In 794, Jarrow, the monastery where Bede wrote, was attacked; in 795 Iona in Scotland was attacked; and in 804 the nunnery at Lyminge in Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from Portland in Wessex was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders.
Viking raids continued until in 850, then the Chronicle says: "The heathen for the first time remained over the winter". The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as the Danelaw. This was the "Great Army", a term used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms and to appoint puppet kings, such as Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873 and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870. The third phase was an era of settlement; however, the "Great Army" went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the English Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892. By this stage, the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians, they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people.
Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879—80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force. At first, Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, "so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs", and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent.
King Alfred and the rebuilding (878–899)
A royal gift, the Alfred Jewel
More important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Keynes suggests Alfred's work laid the foundations for what really made England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066.
Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, King Alfred wrote:
...So completely had wisdom fallen off in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals in English, or indeed could translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them that I indeed cannot think of a single one south of the Thames when I became king. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care")
Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but the state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people. One book that was particularly valuable to him was Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis (Pastoral Care). This is a priest's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in the preface:
...When I had learned it I translated it into English, just as I had understood it, and as I could most meaningfully render it. And I will send one to each bishopric in my kingdom, and in each will be an æstel worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name that no man may take the æstel from the book nor the book from the church. It is unknown how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks to God, are nearly everywhere. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care")
What is presumed to be one of these "æstel" (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold, rock crystal and enamel Alfred Jewel, discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented.
Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also translate certain books ...and bring it about ...if we have the peace, that all the youth of free men who now are in England, those who have the means that they may apply themselves to it, be set to learning, while they may not be set to any other use, until the time when they can well read English writings. (Preface: "Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care")
This began a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of the tenth century and did much to make the vernacular more important than Latin in Anglo-Saxon culture.
I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works. (Preface: "The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius")
Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)
A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However charters, law-codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and the surviving works of Anglo-Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Keynes suggests "it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods".
Reform and formation of England (899–978)
Silver brooch imitating a coin of Edward the Elder, c. 920, found in Rome, Italy. British Museum.
During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order. This process started with Edward the Elder – who with his sister, Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. David Dumville suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from the Danes and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived. When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England.
Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son Æthelstan, whom Keynes calls the "towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century". His victory over a coalition of his enemies – Constantine, King of the Scots; Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of the Cumbrians; and Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin – at the battle of Brunanburh, celebrated by a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England. Æthelstan's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for the law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be "king of the English" was by no means widely recognised. The situation was complex: the Hiberno-Norse rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the Danish kingdom of York; terms had to be made with the Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However, the major political problem for Edmund and Eadred, who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north. In 959 Edgar is said to have "succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old" (ASC, version 'B', 'C'), and is called "the Peacemaker". By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar's 'peace', it may have seemed that the kingdom of England was indeed made whole. In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses "to be of one mind as regards monastic usage . . . lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute".
Athelstan's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named Dunstan and Æthelwold who were made priests, supposedly at the insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939. Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, 'imperial coronation' at Bath, and from this point England was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and Oswald, the Bishop of Worcester.
Æthelred and the return of the Scandinavians (978–1016)
The reign of King Æthelred the Unready witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought the people to their knees in 1009–12, when a large part of the country was devastated by the army of Thorkell the Tall. It remained for Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013–14, and (after Æthelred's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015–16. The tale of these years incorporated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle must be read in its own right, and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on the conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred's reign. It is this evidence which is the basis for Keynes's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but the ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo-Saxon state, and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret the error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered.
Cnut's 'Quatrefoil' type penny with the legend "CNUT REX ANGLORU" (Cnut, King of the English), struck in London by the moneyer Edwin.
The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both Ælfric's and Wulfstan's works, but most notably in Wulfstan's fierce rhetoric in the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, dated to 1014. Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings as the imminent "expectation of the apocalypse," and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings, which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were taken as signs of God punishing his people; Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a "brother Edward" to try to put an end to a "shameful habit" of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties.
In April 1016, Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor Edmund Ironside to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut's party. After the defeat of the English in the Battle of Assandun in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England.
Conquest of England: Danes, Norwegians and Normans (1016–1066)
In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut on October 18, 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of Battle of Stamford Bridge in September, 1066; and the third was conducted by William of Normandy in October, 1066 at Hastings. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) moved away from the late West Saxon standard that is called "Old English". Yet neither are they "Middle English"; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three-quarters of this period, "there is barely any 'original' writing in English at all". These factors have led to a gap in scholarship, implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.
At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appeared to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo-Saxon kingship. However an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures. Eric John remarks that for Cnut "the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship". The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut's choice of thegnly advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.
Edward became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of Leofric of Mercia and Godwine of Wessex. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by Eustace of Boulogne to quarter his men on them by force. The support of Earl Leofric and Earl Siward enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and his sons; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including Archbishop Robert, whose archbishopric was given to Stigand; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William's cause.
Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux Tapestry
The fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred's incompetence. By the time William of Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo-Saxon England had changed, although much of the culture and society had stayed the same.
Ða com Wyllelm eorl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sancte Michæles mæsseæfen, sona þæs hi fere wæron, worhton castel æt Hæstingaport. Þis wearð þa Harolde cynge gecydd, he gaderade þa mycelne here, com him togenes æt þære haran apuldran, Wyllelm him com ongean on unwær, ær þis folc gefylced wære. Ac se kyng þeah him swiðe heardlice wið feaht mid þam mannum þe him gelæstan woldon, þær wearð micel wæl geslægen on ægðre healfe. Ðær wearð ofslægen Harold kyng, Leofwine eorl his broðor, Gyrð eorl his broðor, fela godra manna, þa Frencyscan ahton wælstowe geweald.
Then came William, the Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey on the evening of St Michael's mass, and soon as his men were ready, they built a fortress at Hasting's port. This was told to King Harold, and he gathered then a great army and came towards them at the Hoary Apple Tree, and William came upon him unawares before his folk were ready. But the king nevertheless withstood him very strongly with fighting with those men who would follow him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. Then Harald the King was slain, and Leofwine the Earl, his brother, and Gyrth, and many good men, and the Frenchmen held the place of slaughter.
After the Norman Conquest
Following the Norman conquest, many of the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or had joined the ranks of the peasantry. It has been estimated that only about 8% of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087. In 1086, only four major Anglo-Saxon landholders still held their lands. However, the survival of Anglo-Saxon heiresses was significantly greater. Many of the next generation of the nobility had English mothers and learnt to speak English at home. Some Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia. The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as it was in need of mercenaries. The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely North Germanic unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century. However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.
The chronicler Orderic Vitalis, who was the product of an Anglo-Norman marriage, writes: "And so the English groaned aloud for their lost liberty and plotted ceaselessly to find some way of shaking off a yoke that was so intolerable and unaccustomed". The inhabitants of the North and Scotland never warmed to the Normans following the Harrying of the North (1069–1070), where William, according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle utterly "ravaged and laid waste that shire".
Many Anglo-Saxon people needed to learn Norman French to communicate with their rulers, but it is clear that among themselves they kept speaking Old English, which meant that England was in an interesting tri-lingual situation: Anglo-Saxon for the common people, Latin for the Church, and Norman French for the administrators, the nobility, and the law courts. In this time, and because of the cultural shock of the Conquest, Anglo-Saxon began to change very rapidly, and by 1200 or so, it was no longer Anglo-Saxon English, but early Middle English. But this language had deep roots in Anglo-Saxon, which was being spoken much later than 1066. Research has shown that a form of Anglo-Saxon was still being spoken, and not merely among uneducated peasants, into the thirteenth century in the West Midlands. This was J.R.R. Tolkien's major scholarly discovery when he studied a group of texts written in early Middle English called the Katherine Group. Tolkien noticed that a subtle distinction preserved in these texts indicated that Old English had continued to be spoken far longer than anyone had supposed.
Old English had been a central mark of the Anglo-Saxon cultural identity. With the passing of time, however, and particularly following the Norman conquest of England, this language changed significantly, and although some people (for example the scribe known as the Tremulous Hand of Worcester) could still read Old English into the thirteenth century, it fell out of use and the texts became useless. The Exeter Book, for example, seems to have been used to press gold leaf and at one point had a pot of fish-based glue sitting on top of it. For Michael Drout this symbolises the end of the Anglo-Saxons.
After 1066, it took more than three centuries for English to replace French as the language of government. The 1362 parliament opened with a speech in English and in the early 15th century, Henry V became the first monarch, since before the 1066 conquest, to use English in his written instructions.
Life and society
The larger narrative, seen in the history of Anglo-Saxon England, is the continued mixing and integration of various disparate elements into one Anglo-Saxon people. The outcome of this mixing and integration was a continuous re-interpretation by the Anglo-Saxons of their society and worldview, which Heinreich Härke calls a "complex and ethnically mixed society".
Kingship and kingdoms
Main article: Government in Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon king with his witan. Biblical scene in the Illustrated Old English Hexateuch (11th century) in the British Library, London
The development of Anglo-Saxon kingship is little understood before the 7th century. Royal dynasties often claimed descent from Woden or another deity to justify their rule, but the true basis of their power was as warleaders. Kings were buried as warriors, and war helmets instead of crowns were used in coronations until the 10th century. A king's relationship with his warband (Latin: comitatus) involved mutual obligations. His warriors fought for the king in return for food, shelter, and gifts such as weapons. The people supported their king and his warriors with food rent. Kings extracted surplus by raiding and collecting food rent and "prestige goods".
The later sixth century saw the end of a 'prestige goods' economy, as evidenced by the decline of accompanied burial, and the appearance of the first 'princely' graves and high-status settlements. The ship burial in mound one at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) is the most widely known example of a 'princely' burial, containing lavish metalwork and feasting equipment, and possibly representing the burial place of King Raedwald of East Anglia. These centres of trade and production reflect the increased socio-political stratification and wider territorial authority which allowed seventh-century elites to extract and redistribute surpluses with far greater effectiveness than their sixth-century predecessors would have found possible. Anglo-Saxon society, in short, looked very different in 600 than it did a hundred years earlier.
By 600, the establishment of the first Anglo-Saxon 'emporia' (alternatively 'wics') appears to have been in process. There are only four major archaeologically attested wics in England – London, Ipswich, York, and Hamwic. These were originally interpreted by Richard Hodges as methods of royal control over the import of prestige goods, rather than centre of actual trade-proper. Despite archaeological evidence of royal involvement, emporia are now widely understood to represent genuine trade and exchange, alongside a return to urbanism.
According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History, England was divided into many petty kingdoms during the 7th century. The Tribal Hidage of the later 7th century lists 35 people groups south of the Humber. The first written law code, the Law of Æthelberht, depicts a king not only as the leader of a warband but also as the maintainer of law and order. His laws concerned all levels of society: the nobility, ceorls (freemen), and slaves. Traders, missionaries, and other foreigners who lacked the protection of a lord or kinship ties (see below) were under the king's protection (Old English: mund).
The most powerful king could be recognised by other rulers as bretwalda (Old English for "ruler of Britain"). Bede's use of the term imperium has been seen as significant in defining the status and powers of the bretwaldas, in fact it is a word Bede used regularly as an alternative to regnum; scholars believe this just meant the collection of tribute. Oswiu's extension of overlordship over the Picts and Scots is expressed in terms of making them tributary. Military overlordship could bring great short-term success and wealth, but the system had its disadvantages. Many of the overlords enjoyed their powers for a relatively short period. Foundations had to be carefully laid to turn a tribute-paying under-kingdom into a permanent acquisition, such as Bernician absorption of Deira.
Only five Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are known to have survived to 800, and several British kingdoms in the west of the country had disappeared as well. The major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities, and the means through which they did it and the character their kingdoms acquired as a result are one of the major themes of the Middle Saxon period. Beowulf, for all its heroic content, clearly makes the point that economic and military success were intimately linked. A 'good' king was a generous king who through his wealth won the support which would ensure his supremacy over other kingdoms. The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
The Witan, also called Witenagemot, was the council of kings; its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and helped him deal with rebels and persons suspected of disaffection.
King Alfred's digressions in his translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, provided these observations about the resources which every king needed:
In the case of the king, the resources and tools with which to rule are that he have his land fully manned: he must have praying men, fighting men and working men. You know also that without these tools no king may make his ability known. Another aspect of his resources is that he must have the means of support for his tools, the three classes of men. These, then, are their means of support: land to live on, gifts, weapons, food, ale, clothing and whatever else is necessary for each of the three classes of men.
This is the first written appearance of the division of society into the 'three orders'; the 'working men' provided the raw materials to support the other two classes. The advent of Christianity brought with it the introduction of new concepts of land tenure. The role of churchmen was analogous with that of the warriors waging heavenly warfare. However what Alfred was alluding to was that in order for a king to fulfil his responsibilities towards his people, particularly those concerned with defence, he had the right to make considerable exactions from the landowners and people of his kingdom. The need to endow the church resulted in the permanent alienation of stocks of land which had previously only been granted on a temporary basis and introduced the concept of a new type of hereditary land which could be freely alienated and was free of any family claims.
The nobility under the influence of Alfred became involved with developing the cultural life of their kingdom. As the kingdom became unified, it brought the monastic and spiritual life of the kingdom under one rule and stricter control. However the Anglo-Saxons believed in 'luck' as a random element in the affairs of man and so would probably have agreed that there is a limit to the extent one can understand why one kingdom failed while another succeeded. They also believed in 'destiny' and interpreted the fate of the kingdom of England with Biblical and Carolingian ideology, with parallels, between the Israelites, the great European empires and the Anglo-Saxons. Danish and Norman conquests were just the manner in which God punished his sinful people and the fate of great empires.
Religion
Main articles: Anglo-Saxon Paganism and Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England
The right half of the front panel of the seventh-century Franks Casket, depicting the pan-Germanic legend of Wayland the Smith, which was apparently also a part of Anglo-Saxon pagan mythology.
Although Christianity dominates the religious history of the Anglo-Saxons, life in the 5th and 6th centuries was dominated by pagan religious beliefs with a Scandinavian-Germanic heritage.
Pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built temples and others that were natural geographical features such as sacred trees, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either hearg or as wēoh. Most poems from before the Norman Conquest are steeped in pagan symbolism, and their integration into the new faith goes beyond the literary sources. Thus, as Lethbridge reminds us, "to say, 'this is a monument erected in Christian times and therefore the symbolism on it must be Christian,' is an unrealistic approach. The rites of the older faith, now regarded as superstition, are practised all over the country today. It did not mean that people were not Christian; but that they could see a lot of sense in the old beliefs also"
Early Anglo-Saxon society attached great significance to the horse; a horse may have been an acquaintance of the god Woden, and/or they may have been (according to Tacitus) confidants of the gods. Horses were closely associated with gods, especially Odin and Freyr. Horses played a central role in funerary practices as well as in other rituals. Horses were prominent symbols of fertility, and there were many horse fertility cults. The rituals associated with these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, and horse sacrifice. Hengist and Horsa, the mythical ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, were associated with horses, and references to horses are found throughout Anglo-Saxon literature. Actual horse burials in England are relatively rare and "may point to influence from the continent". A well-known Anglo-Saxon horse burial (from the sixth/seventh century) is Mound 17 at Sutton Hoo, a few yards from the more famous ship burial in Mound 1. A sixth-century grave near Lakenheath, Suffolk, yielded the body of a man next to that of a complete horse in harness, with a bucket of food by its head.
Bede's story of Cædmon, the cowherd who became the 'Father of English Poetry,' represents the real heart of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons from paganism to Christianity. Bede writes, "here was in the Monastery of this Abbess (Streonæshalch – now known as Whitby Abbey) a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven." The story of Cædmon illustrates the blending of Christian and Germanic, Latin and oral tradition, monasteries and double monasteries, pre-existing customs and new learning, popular and elite, that characterizes the Conversion period of Anglo-Saxon history and culture. Cædmon does not destroy or ignore traditional Anglo-Saxon poetry. Instead, he converts it into something that helps the Church. Anglo-Saxon England finds ways to synthesize the religion of the Church with the existing "northern" customs and practices. Thus the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was not just their switching from one practice to another, but making something new out of their old inheritance and their new belief and learning.
An 8th-century copy of the Rule of St. Benedict
Monasticism, and not just the church, was at the centre of Anglo-Saxon Christian life. Western monasticism, as a whole, had been evolving since the time of the Desert Fathers, but in the seventh century, monasticism in England confronted a dilemma that brought to question the truest representation of the Christian faith. The two monastic traditions were the Celtic and the Roman, and a decision was made to adopt the Roman tradition. Monasteria seem to describe all religious congregations other than those of the bishop.
In the 10th century, Dunstan brought Athelwold to Glastonbury, where the two of them set up a monastery on Benedictine lines. For many years, this was the only monastery in England that strictly followed the Benedictine Rule and observed complete monastic discipline. What Mechthild Gretsch calls an "Aldhelm Seminar" developed at Glastonbury, and the effects of this seminar on the curriculum of learning and study in Anglo-Saxon England were enormous. Royal power was put behind the reforming impulses of Dunstan and Athelwold, helping them to enforce their reform ideas. This happened first at the Old Minster in Winchester, before the reformers built new foundations and refoundations at Thorney, Peterborough, and Ely, among other places. Benedictine monasticism spread throughout England, and these became centers of learning again, run by people trained in Glastonbury, with one rule, the works of Aldhelm at the center of their curricula but also influenced by the vernacular efforts of Alfred. From this mixture sprung a great flowering of literary production.
Fighting and warfare
Soldiers throughout the country were summoned, for both offensive and defensive war; early armies consisted essentially of household bands, while later on men were recruited on a territorial basis. The mustering of an army, annually at times, occupied an important place in Frankish history, both military and constitutional. The English kingdoms appear to have known no institution similar to this. The earliest reference is Bede's account of the overthrow of the Northumbrian Æthelfrith by Rædwald overlord of the southern English. Rædwald raised a large army, presumably from among the kings who accepted his overlordship, and "not giving him time to summon and assemble his whole army, Rædwald met him with a much greater force and slew him on the Mercian border on the east bank of the river Idle." At the Battle of Edington in 878, when the Danes made a surprise attack on Alfred at Chippenham after Twelfth Night, Alfred retreated to Athelney after Easter and then seven weeks after Easter mustered an army at "Egbert's stone". It is not difficult to imagine that Alfred sent out word to the ealdormen to call his men to arms. This may explain the delay, and it is probably no more than coincidence that the army mustered at the beginning of May, a time when there would have been sufficient grass for the horses. There is also information about the mustering of fleets in the eleventh century. From 992 to 1066 fleets were assembled at London, or returned to the city at the end of their service, on several occasions. Where they took up station depended on the quarter from which a threat was expected: Sandwich if invasion was expected from the north, or the Isle of Wight if it was from Normandy.
Replica of the Sutton Hoo helmet
Once they left home, these armies and fleets had to be supplied with food and clothing for the men as well as forage for the horses. Yet if armies of the seventh and eighth centuries were accompanied by servants and a supply train of lesser free men, Alfred found these arrangements insufficient to defeat the Vikings. One of his reforms was to divide his military resources into thirds. One part manned the burhs and found the permanent garrisons which would make it impossible for the Danes to overrun Wessex, although they would also take to the field when extra soldiers were needed. The remaining two would take it in turns to serve. They were allocated a fixed term of service and brought the necessary provisions with them. This arrangement did not always function well. On one occasion a division on service went home in the middle of blockading a Danish army on Thorney Island; its provisions were consumed and its term had expired before the king came to relieve them. This method of division and rotation remained in force up to 1066. In 917, when armies from Wessex and Mercia were in the field from early April until November, one division went home and another took over. Again, in 1052 when Edward's fleet was waiting at Sandwich to intercept Godwine's return, the ships returned to London to take on new earls and crews. The importance of supply, vital to military success, was appreciated even if it was taken for granted and features only incidentally in the sources.
Military training and strategy are two important matters on which the sources are typically silent. There are no references in literature or laws to men training, and so it is necessary to fall back on inference. For the noble warrior, his childhood was of first importance in learning both individual military skills and the teamwork essential for success in battle. Perhaps the games the youthful Cuthbert played ('wrestling, jumping, running, and every other exercise') had some military significance. Turning to strategy, of the period before Alfred the evidence gives the impression that Anglo-Saxon armies fought battles frequently. Battle was risky and best avoided unless all the factors were on your side. But if you were in a position so advantageous that you were willing to take the chance, it is likely that your enemy would be in such a weak position that he would avoid battle and pay tribute. Battles put the princes' lives at risk, as is demonstrated by the Northumbrian and Mercian overlordships brought to an end by a defeat in the field. Gillingham has shown how few pitched battles Charlemagne and Richard I chose to fight.
A defensive strategy becomes more apparent in the later part of Alfred's reign. It was built around the possession of fortified places and the close pursuit of the Danes to harass them and impede their preferred occupation of plundering. Alfred and his lieutenants were able to fight the Danes to a standstill by their repeated ability to pursue and closely besiege them in fortified camps throughout the country. The fortification of sites at Witham, Buckingham, Towcester and Colchester persuaded the Danes of the surrounding regions to submit. The key to this warfare was sieges and the control of fortified places. It is clear that the new fortresses had permanent garrisons, and that they were supported by the inhabitants of the existing burhs when danger threatened. This is brought out most clearly in the description of the campaigns of 917 in the Chronicle, but throughout the conquest of the Danelaw by Edward and Æthelflæd it is clear that a sophisticated and coordinated strategy was being applied.
In 973, a single currency was introduced into England in order to bring about political unification, but by concentrating bullion production at many coastal mints, the new rulers of England created an obvious target which attracted a new wave of Viking invasions, which came close to breaking up the kingdom of the English. From 980 onwards, the Anglo -Saxon Chronicle records renewed raiding against England. At first, the raids were probing ventures by small numbers of ships' crews, but soon grew in size and effect, until the only way of dealing with the Vikings appeared to be to pay protection money to buy them off: "And in that year it was determined that tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they were causing along the coast. The first payment was 10,000 pounds."
The payment of Danegeld had to be underwritten by a huge balance of payments surplus; this could only be achieved by stimulating exports and cutting imports, itself accomplished through currency devaluation. This affected everyone in the kingdom.
Settlements and working life
Reconstructed buildings from West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, Suffolk
Helena Hamerow suggests that the prevailing model of working life and settlement, particularly for the early period, was one of shifting settlement and building tribal kinship. The mid-Saxon period saw diversification, the development of enclosures, the beginning of the toft system, closer management of livestock, the gradual spread of the mould-board plough, 'informally regular plots' and a greater permanence, with further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-Norman Conquest villages. The later periods saw a proliferation of service features including barns, mills and latrines, most markedly on high-status sites. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period as Hamerow suggests, "local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production". This is very noticeable in the early period. However, by the tenth and eleventh centuries, the rise of the manor and its significance in terms of both settlement and the management of land, which becomes very evident in the Domesday Book of 1086.
Reconstructed workshop at West Stow Anglo-Saxon village
The collection of buildings discovered at Yeavering formed part of an Anglo-Saxon royal vill or king's tun. These 'tun' consisted of a series of buildings designed to provide short-term accommodation for the king and his household. It is thought that the king would have travelled throughout his land dispensing justice and authority and collecting rents from his various estates. Such visits would be periodic, and it is likely that he would visit each royal villa only once or twice per year. The Latin term villa regia which Bede uses of the site suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the king's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food-render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around the kingdom. This territorial model, known as a multiple estate or shire, has been developed in a range of studies. Colm O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering, proposes a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope-Taylor excavated. One characteristic that the king's tun shared with some other groups of places is that it was a point of public assembly. People came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging; but they attended upon the king in order to have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard. People also assembled for other reasons, such as to hold fairs and to trade.
Reconstructed Anglo-Saxon house at Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire
The first creations of towns are linked to a system of specialism at individual settlements, which is evidenced in studying place-names. Sutterton, "shoe-makers' tun" (in the area of the Danelaw such places are Sutterby) was so named because local circumstances allowed the growth of a craft recognised by the people of surrounding places. Similarly with Sapperton, the "soap-makers' tun". While Boultham, the "meadow with burdock plants", may well have developed a specialism in the production of burrs for wool-carding, since meadows with burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. From places named for their services or location within a single district, a category of which the most obvious perhaps are the Eastons and Westons, it is possible to move outwards to glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. Names betray some role within a system of seasonal pasture, Winderton in Warwickshire is the winter tun and various Somertons are self-explanatory. Hardwicks are dairy farms and Swinhopes the valleys where pigs were pastured.
Settlement patterns as well as village plans in England fall into two great categories: scattered farms and homesteads in upland and woodland Britain, nucleated villages across a swathe of central England. The chronology of nucleated villages is much debated and not yet clear. Yet there is strong evidence to support the view that nucleation occurred in the tenth century or perhaps the ninth, and was a development parallel to the growth of towns.
Women, children and slaves
An Anglo Saxon woman's attire shown at West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village
Alfred's reference to 'praying men, fighting men and working men' is far from a complete description of his society. Women in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms appear to have enjoyed considerable independence, whether as abbesses of the great 'double monasteries' of monks and nuns founded during the seventh and eighth centuries, as major land-holders recorded in Domesday Book (1086), or as ordinary members of society. They could act as principals in legal transactions, were entitled to the same weregild as men of the same class, and were considered 'oath-worthy', with the right to defend themselves on oath against false accusations or claims. Sexual and other offences against them were penalised heavily. There is evidence that even married women could own property independently, and some surviving wills are in the joint names of husband and wife.
Marriage comprised a contract between the woman's family and the prospective bridegroom, who was required to pay a 'bride-price' in advance of the wedding and a 'morning gift' following its consummation. The latter became the woman's personal property, but the former may have been paid to her relatives, at least during the early period. Widows were in a particularly favourable position, with inheritance rights, custody of their children and authority over dependents. However, a degree of vulnerability may be reflected in laws stating that they should not be forced into nunneries or second marriages against their will. The system of primogeniture (inheritance by the first-born male) was not introduced to England until after the Norman Conquest, so Anglo-Saxon siblings – girls as well as boys – were more equal in terms of status.
The age of majority was usually either ten or twelve, when a child could legally take charge of inherited property, or be held responsible for a crime. It was common for children to be fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps as a means of extending the circle of protection beyond the kin group. Laws also make provision for orphaned children and foundlings.
The traditional distinction in society, amongst free men, was expressed as eorl and ceorl ('earl and churl') though the term 'Earl' took on a more restricted meaning after the Viking period. The noble rank is designated in early centuries as gesiþas ('companions') or þegnas ('thegns'), the latter coming to predominate. After the Norman Conquest the title 'thegn' was equated to the Norman 'baron'. A certain amount of social mobility is implied by regulations detailing the conditions under which a ceorl could become a thegn. Again these would have been subject to local variation, but one text refers to the possession of five hides of land (around 600 acres), a bell and a castle-gate, a seat and a special office in the king's hall. In the context of the control of boroughs, Frank Stenton notes that according to an 11th-century source, "a merchant who had carried out three voyages at his own charge regarded as of thegnly status." Loss of status could also occur, as with penal slavery, which could be imposed not only on the perpetrator of a crime but on his wife and family.
A further division in Anglo-Saxon society was between slave and free. Slavery was not as common as in other societies, but appears to have been present throughout the period. Both the freemen and slaves were hierarchically structured, with several classes of freemen and many types of slaves. These varied at different times and in different areas, but the most prominent ranks within free society were the king, the nobleman or thegn, and the ordinary freeman or ceorl. They were differentiated primarily by the value of their weregild or 'man price', which was not only the amount payable in compensation for homicide, but was also used as the basis for other legal formulations such as the value of the oath that they could swear in a court of law. Slaves had no weregild, as offences against them were taken to be offences against their owners, but the earliest laws set out a detailed scale of penalties depending both on the type of slave and the rank of owner. Some slaves may have been members of the native British population conquered by the Anglo-Saxons when they arrived from the continent; others may have been captured in wars between the early kingdoms, or have sold themselves for food in times of famine. However, slavery was not always permanent, and slaves who had gained their freedom would become part of an underclass of freedmen below the rank of ceorl.
Culture
Architecture
Main article: Anglo-Saxon architecture
Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon hall at Wychurst, Kent, c. 1000 AD
Early Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch roofing. Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities, the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers, or near natural ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.
Only ten of the hundreds of settlement sites that have been excavated in England from this period have revealed masonry domestic structures and confined to a few specific contexts. Timber was the natural building medium of the age: the Anglo-Saxon word for "building" is timbe. Unlike in the Carolingian Empire, late Anglo-Saxon royal halls continued to be of timber in the manner of Yeavering centuries before, even though the king could clearly have mustered the resources to build in stone. Their preference must have been a conscious choice, perhaps an expression of deeply–embedded Germanic identity on the part of the Anglo-Saxon royalty.
Even the elite had simple buildings, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape; the largest homes rarely had more than one floor and one room. Buildings varied widely in size, most were square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors, with a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design has been found in towns, where the "basement" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor. Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.
Distinctive Anglo-Saxon pilaster strips on the tower of All Saints' Church, Earls Barton
Stone was sometimes used to build churches. Bede makes it clear that the masonry construction of churches, including his own at Jarrow, was undertaken morem Romanorum, 'in the manner of the Romans,' in explicit contrast to existing traditions of timber construction. Even at Canterbury, Bede believed that St Augustine's first cathedral had been 'repaired' or 'recovered' (recuperavit) from an existing Roman church, when in fact it had been newly constructed from Roman materials. The belief was "the Christian Church was Roman therefore a masonry church was a Roman building".
The building of churches in Anglo-Saxon England essentially began with Augustine of Canterbury in Kent following 597; for this he probably imported workmen from Frankish Gaul. The cathedral and abbey in Canterbury, together with churches in Kent at Minster in Sheppey (c. 664) and Reculver (669), and in Essex at the Chapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall at Bradwell-on-Sea, define the earliest type in southeast England. A simple nave without aisles provided the setting for the main altar; east of this a chancel arch separated the apse for use by the clergy. Flanking the apse and east end of the nave were side chambers serving as sacristies; further porticus might continue along the nave to provide for burials and other purposes. In Northumbria the early development of Christianity was influenced by the Irish mission, important churches being built in timber. Masonry churches became prominent from the late 7th century with the foundations of Wilfrid at Ripon and Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. These buildings had long naves and small rectangular chancels; porticus sometimes surrounded the naves. Elaborate crypts are a feature of Wilfrid's buildings. The best preserved early Northumbrian church is Escomb Church.
From the mid-8th century to the mid-10th century, several important buildings survive. One group comprises the first known churches utilizing aisles: Brixworth, the most ambitious Anglo-Saxon church to survive largely intact; Wareham St Mary's; Cirencester; and the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral. These buildings may be compared with churches in the Carolingian Empire. Other lesser churches may be dated to the late eighth and early ninth centuries on the basis of their elaborate sculptured decoration and have simple naves with side porticus. The tower of Barnack hearkens to the West Saxon reconquest in the early 10th century, when decorative features that were to be characteristic of Late Anglo-Saxon architecture were already developed, such as narrow raised bands of stone (pilaster strips) to surround archways and to articulate wall surfaces, as at Barton-upon-Humber and Earls Barton. In plan, however, the churches remained essentially conservative.
From the monastic revival of the second half of the tenth century, only a few documented buildings survive or have been excavated. Examples include the abbeys of Glastonbury; Old Minster, Winchester; Romsey; Cholsey; and Peterborough Cathedral. The majority of churches that have been described as Anglo-Saxon fall into the period between the late 10th century and the early 12th century. During this period, many settlements were first provided with stone churches, but timber also continued to be used; the best wood-framed church to survive is Greensted Church in Essex, no earlier than the 9th century, and no doubt typical of many parish churches. On the continent during the eleventh century, a group of interrelated Romanesque styles developed, associated with the rebuilding of many churches on a grand scale, made possible by a general advance in architectural technology and mason-craft.
The first fully Romanesque church in England was Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (c. 1042–60, now entirely lost to later construction), while the main development of the style only followed the Norman Conquest. However, at Stow Minster the crossing piers of the early 1050s are clearly proto-Romanesque. A more decorative interpretation of Romanesque in lesser churches can be dated only somewhere between the mid and late 11th century, e.g. Hadstock (Essex), Clayton and Sompting (Sussex); this style continued towards the end of the century as at Milborne Port (Somerset). At St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury (c. 1048–61) Abbot Wulfric aimed to retain the earlier churches while linking them with an octagonal rotunda, but the concept was still essentially Pre-Romanesque. Anglo-Saxon churches of all periods would have been embellished with a range of arts, including wall-paintings, some stained glass, metalwork and statues.
St Peter-in-the-Wall, Essex: A simple nave church of the early style c. 650
Brixworth, Northants: monastery founded c. 690, one of the largest churches to survive relatively intact
Barnack, Peterborough: Lower tower c. 970 – spire is later
Sompting Church, Sussex, with the only Anglo-Saxon Rhenish helm tower to survive, c. 1050
Art
Main article: Anglo-Saxon art
Early Anglo-Saxon art is seen mostly in decorated jewellery, like brooches, buckles, beads and wrist-clasps, some of outstanding quality. Characteristic of the 5th century is the quoit brooch with motifs based on crouching animals, as seen on the silver quoit brooch from Sarre, Kent. While the origins of this style are disputed, it is either an offshoot of provincial Roman, Frankish, or Jutish art. One style flourished from the late 5th century and continued throughout the 6th and is on many square-headed brooches, it is characterised by chip-carved patterns based on animals and masks. A different style, which gradually superseded it, is dominated by serpentine beasts with interlacing bodies.
Shoulder clasp (closed) from the Sutton Hoo ship-burial 1, England. British Museum.
By the later 6th century, the best works from the south-east are distinguished by greater use of expensive materials, above all gold and garnets, reflecting the growing prosperity of a more organised society which had greater access to imported precious materials, as seen in the buckle from the Taplow burial and the jewellery from Sutton Hoo, c. 600 and c. 625 respectively. The possible symbolism of the decorative elements like interlace and beast forms that were used in these early works remains unclear. These objects were the products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal display, who fostered craftsmen and jewellers of a high standard, and in which the possession of a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable status symbol.
The Staffordshire Hoard is the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork yet found. Discovered in a field near the village of Hammerwich, it consists of over 3,500 items that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses. It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths' work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that the value of such items as currency and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry.
The Christianization of the society revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functions, and whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required images clearly representing subjects. The transition between the Christian and pagan traditions is occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle and the Canterbury pendant. In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and manuscript illumination. In these Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. The Ruthwell Cross, Bewcastle Cross and Easby Cross are leading Northumbrian examples of the Anglo-Saxon version of the Celtic high cross, generally with a slimmer shaft.
The jamb of the doorway at Monkwearmouth, carved with a pair of lacertine beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of St Cuthbert was presumably made before 687; while his wooden inner coffin (incised with Christ and the Evangelists' symbols, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the Codex Amiatinus all date from c. 700. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom. Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria.
Lindisfarne was an important centre of book production, along with Ripon and Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. The Lindisfarne Gospels might be the single most beautiful book produced in the Middle Ages, and the Echternach Gospels and (probably) the Book of Durrow are other products of Lindisfarne. A Latin gospel book, the Lindisfarne Gospels are richly illuminated and decorated in an Insular style that blends Irish and Western Mediterranean elements and incorporates imagery from the Eastern Mediterranean, including Coptic Christianity. The Codex Amiatinus was produced in the north of England at the same time and has been called the finest book in the world. It is certainly one of the largest, weighing 34 kilograms. It is a pandect, which was rare in the Middle Ages, and included all the books of the Bible in one volume. The Codex Amiatinus was produced at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow in 692 under the direction of Abbot Ceolfrith. Bede probably had something to do with it. The production of the Codex shows the riches of the north of England at this time. We have records of the monastery needing a new grant of land to raise 2,000 more cattle to get the calf skins to make the vellum for the manuscript. The Codex Amiatinus was meant to be a gift to the pope, and Ceolfrith was taking it to Rome when he died on the way. The copy ended up in Florence, where it still is today – a ninth-century copy of this book is in the possession of the pope.
Book of Cerne, evangelist portrait of Saint Mark
In the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon Christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with secular works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the Coppergate helmet. The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. The Book of Cerne is an early 9th century Insular or Anglo-Saxon Latin personal prayer book with Old English components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full-page miniatures, major and minor letters, and continuing panels. Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the Trewhiddle hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King Æthelwulf and Queen Æthelswith, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork.
There was demonstrable continuity in the south, even though the Danish settlement represented a watershed in England's artistic tradition. Wars and pillaging removed or destroyed much Anglo-Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo-Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian monument, the 'hogback' tomb, was produced. The decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo Scandinavian styles. The Wessexan hegemony and the monastic reform movement appear to have been the catalysts for the rebirth of art in southern England from the end of the 9th century. Here artists responded primarily to continental art; foliage supplanting interlace as the preferred decorative motif. Key early works are the Alfred Jewel, which has fleshy leaves engraved on the back plate; and the stole and maniples of Bishop Frithestan of Winchester, which are ornamented with acanthus leaves, alongside figures that bear the stamp of Byzantine art. The surviving evidence points to Winchester and Canterbury as the leading centres of manuscript art in the second half of the 10th century: they developed colourful paintings with lavish foliate borders, and coloured line drawings.
By the early 11th century, these two traditions had fused and had spread to other centres. Although manuscripts dominate the corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture, ivory carving and metalwork survives to show that the same styles were current in secular art and became widespread in the south at parochial level. The wealth of England in the later tenth and eleventh century is clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscript art as well as for vessels, textiles and statues (now known only from descriptions). Widely admired, southern English art was highly influential in Normandy, France and Flanders from c. 1000. Indeed, keen to possess it or recover its materials, the Normans appropriated it in large quantities in the wake of the Conquest. The Bayeux Tapestry, probably designed by a Canterbury artist for Bishop Odo of Bayeux, is arguably the apex of Anglo-Saxon art. Surveying nearly 600 years of continuous change, three common strands stand out: lavish colour and rich materials; an interplay between abstract ornament and representational subject matter; and a fusion of art styles reflecting English links to other parts of Europe.
Sutton Hoo purse-lid c. 620
Codex Aureus of Canterbury c. 750
Ruthwell Cross c. 750
Trewhiddle style on silver ring c. 775 – c. 850
St Oswald's Priory Cross c. 890
Language
Main article: Old English
Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe ('Here is manifested the Word to thee'). Unique Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire
Old English (Ænglisċ, Anglisċ, Englisċ) is the earliest form of the English language. It was brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers, and was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southeastern Scotland until the mid-12th century, by which time it had evolved into Middle English. Old English was a West Germanic language, closely related to Old Frisian and Old Saxon (Old Low German). The language was fully inflected, with five grammatical cases, three grammatical numbers and three grammatical genders. Over time, Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the Humber; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, spoken in Kent; and West Saxon, spoken across the south and southwest. All of these dialects have direct descendants in modern England. Standard English developed from the Mercian dialect, as it was predominant in London.
It is generally held that Old English received little influence from the Common Brittonic and British Latin spoken in southern Britain prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, as it took in very few loan words from these languages. Though some scholars have claimed that Brittonic could have exerted an influence on English syntax and grammar, these ideas have not become consensus views, and have been criticized by other historical linguists. Richard Coates has concluded that the strongest candidates for substratal Brittonic features in English are grammatical elements occurring in regional dialects in the north and west of England, such as the Northern Subject Rule.
Old English was more clearly influenced by Old Norse. Scandinavian loan words in English include place names, items of basic vocabulary such as sky, leg and they, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, including the East Midlands and Northumbria south of the Tees). Old Norse was related to Old English, as both originated from Proto-Germanic, and many linguists believe that the loss of inflectional endings in Old English was accelerated by contact with Norse.
Kinship
Local and extended kin groups were a key aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture. Kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom and the relationships to an elite, that allowed the Anglo-Saxons' culture and language to flourish. The ties of loyalty to a lord were to the person of a lord and not to his station; there was no real concept of patriotism or loyalty to a cause. This explains why dynasties waxed and waned so quickly, since a kingdom was only as strong as its leader-king. There was no underlying administration or bureaucracy to maintain any gains beyond the lifetime of a leader. An example of this was the leadership of Rædwald of East Anglia and how the East Anglian primacy did not survive his death. Kings could not make new laws barring exceptional circumstances. Their role instead was to uphold and clarify previous custom and to assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws, and customs. Although the person of the king as a leader could be exalted, the office of kingship was not in any sense as powerful or as invested with authority as it was to become. One of the tools kings used was to tie themselves closely to the new Christian church, through the practice of having a church leader anoint and crown the king; God and king were then joined in peoples' minds.
The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person were obliged to exact vengeance for his or her death. This led to bloody and extensive feuds. As a way out of this deadly and futile custom the system of weregilds was instituted. The weregild set a monetary value on each person's life according to their wealth and social status. This value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended against. Robbing a thane called for a higher penalty than robbing a ceorl. On the other hand, a thane who thieved could pay a higher fine than a ceorl who did likewise. Men were willing to die for the lord and to support their comitatus (their warrior band). Evidence of this behavior (though it may be more a literary ideal than an actual social practice) can be observed in the story, made famous in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 755, of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, in which the followers of a defeated king decided to fight to the death rather than be reconciled after the death of their lord.
This emphasis on social standing affected all parts of the Anglo-Saxon world. The courts, for example, did not attempt to discover the facts in a case; instead, in any dispute it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case, which became known as oath-swearing. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls. It was assumed that any person of good character would be able to find enough people to swear to his innocence that his case would prosper.
Anglo-Saxon society was also decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent, and any personal goods, including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage, her relatives were expected to look after her interests.
Law
Main article: Anglo-Saxon law
The initial page of Rochester Cathedral Library, MS A.3.5, the Textus Roffensis, which contains the only surviving copy of King Æthelberht of Kent's laws.
The most noticeable feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo-Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, one of the earliest of which is attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca.560–616. The Anglo-Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in mainland Europe where other groups of the former Roman Empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.
Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo-Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo-Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable right. Their prevalence in the Anglo-Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo-Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.
The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo-Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule in Anglo-Saxon times. The most important court in the later Anglo-Saxon period was the shire court. Many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo-Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England, they left the shire courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law. The shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the shire court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo-Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood, but over time suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a shire court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially, but this was not its prime function. In the shire court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.
Below the level of the shire, each county was divided into areas known as hundreds (or wapentakes in the north of England). These were originally groups of families rather than geographical areas. The hundred court was a smaller version of the shire court, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. Little is known about hundred court business, which was likely a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period.
The Anglo-Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a shire court, then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision, and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath-helping or the ordeal. Oath-helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The number of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute. If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. As "wager of law," it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.
The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red-hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up, and if on unbinding, it was found to be festering, the case was lost. In the ordeal by water, the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated he was guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons, the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters. They were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any
legal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the shire court's judgment.
Literature
Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature
First page of the fire-damaged epic Beowulf
Old English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified Roman alphabet, but Anglo-Saxon runes or futhorc are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.
This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature in Western Europe was in Latin at this time, but because of Alfred's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon England ended up being converted into writing and preserved. Much of this preservation can be attributed to the monks of the tenth century, who made – at the very least – the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make. First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from another, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. Individual scribes can sometimes be identified from their handwriting, and different styles of hand were used in specific scriptoria (centres of manuscript production), so the location of the manuscript production can often be identified.
There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or Beowulf Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor and The Ruin are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the Dream of the Rood, some of which is also carved on the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo-Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in The Battle of Maldon, recounting an action against the Vikings in 991. This is from a book that was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.
Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo-Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds; any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo-Saxon lines are made up of two half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these are called hemistiches) divided by a breath-pause or caesura. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura.
hreran mid hondum hrimcealde sæ
The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after 'hondum' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half-line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b-verse).
There is very strong evidence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but keeping with the cultural practices seen elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning. Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, three strands can be identified: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or epic poetry, such as Beowulf, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about "smaller" topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), "wisdom" poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo-Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: Cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and "Cynewulfian," named after Cynewulf, one of the only named poets in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.
There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo-Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo-Saxons. Homilies are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo-Saxon prose, Ælfric and Wulfstan, were both homilists. Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are several versions of some prose works, especially the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo-Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote – the sense is unclear.
Symbolism
Symbolism was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon culture. Julian D. Richards suggests that in societies with strong oral traditions, material culture is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo-Saxons used symbolism to communicate as well as to aid their thinking about the world. Anglo-Saxons used symbols to differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.
The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo-Saxon animal art, for example, has been seen as emphasising the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have suggested that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes—from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry—was to make artefacts 'see' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.
Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo-Saxon graves. In Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults and 9% of all juveniles were buried with weapons. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social elite. The usual assumption is that these are 'warrior burials', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c.700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before. Heinrich Härke suggests this change was the result of the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation, implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo-Saxon settlement areas of England towards a common culture.
The word bead comes from the Anglo-Saxon words bidden (to pray) and bede (prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo-Saxon beads, including amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal. These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types. The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo-Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen-Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession. John Hines has suggested that the over 2,000 different types of beads found at Lakenheath show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo-Saxon world.
Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo-Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem Beowulf. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem The Dream of the Rood is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism.
Richard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and "the image of Christ's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree". North suggests that the author of The Dream of the Rood "uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition". Furthermore, the tree's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels.
The most distinctive feature of coinage of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.
Food
The food eaten by Anglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by the University of Cambridge found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarily vegetarian diet based on cereal grains as did peasants. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th Centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.
Legacy
Anglo-Saxon is still used as a term for the original Old English-derived vocabulary within the modern English language, in contrast to vocabulary derived from Old Norse and French.
Throughout the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, different narratives of the people have been used to justify contemporary ideologies. In the early Middle Ages, the views of Geoffrey of Monmouth produced a personally inspired (and largely fictitious) history that was not challenged for some 500 years. In the Reformation, Christians looking to establish an independent English church reinterpreted Anglo-Saxon Christianity. In the 19th century, the term Anglo-Saxon was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present, though the term 'Old English' is more commonly used. During the Victorian era, writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley and Edward A. Freeman used the term Anglo-Saxon to justify colonialistic imperialism, claiming that Anglo-Saxon heritage was superior to those held by colonised peoples, which justified efforts to "civilise" them. Similar racist ideas were advocated in 19th-century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh. The historian Catherine Hills contends that these views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of certain people and are "re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking."
The term Anglo-Saxon is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group, but there is no universal definition for the term. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside Britain, "Anglo-Saxon" may be contrasted with "Celtic" as a socioeconomic identifier, invoking or reinforcing historical prejudices against non-English British and Irish immigrants. "White Anglo-Saxon Protestant" (WASP) is a term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to long-established wealthy families with mostly English ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term but rather a reference to contemporary family-based political, financial and cultural power, e.g. The Boston Brahmin.
The term Anglo-Saxon is becoming increasingly controversial among some scholars, especially those in America, for its modern politicised nature and adoption by the far-right. In 2019, the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists changed their name to the International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England, in recognition of this controversy.
See also
Anglo-Saxon England portal
Anglo-Frisian
Anglo-Saxon dress
Anglo-Saxon military organization
Burial in Anglo-Saxon England
Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England
Frisia
States in Medieval Britain
Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain
Anglo-Celtic
Modern concepts
Anglo-Saxon economy
English people
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
Notes
^ Throughout this article Anglo-Saxon is used for Saxon, Angles, Jute, or Frisian unless specific subgroupings are relevant to a point being made. "Anglo-Saxon" is used when specifically the culture is meant rather than any ethnicity. However, all these terms are interchangeably used by many scholars.
^ There is much evidence for loosely managed and shifting cultivation and no evidence of "top down" structured landscape planning.
^ Confirmation of this interpretation may come from Bede's account of the battle of the river Winwæd of 655, where it is said that Penda of Mercia, overlord of all the southern kingdoms, was able to call upon thirty contingents, each led by duces regii – royal commanders.
^ From its reference to "Aldfrith, who now reigns peacefully" it must date to between 685 and 704.
^ Oswiu of Northumbria (642–70) only won authority over the southern kingdoms after he defeated Penda at the battle of the Winwæd in 655 and must have lost it again soon after Wulfhere regained control in Mercia in 658.
^ Their names mean, literally, "Stallion" and "Horse"
^ York and London both offer examples of this trend.
^ Example from the Wanderer
Citations
^ Higham et al. 2013.
^ Higham & Ryan 2013, pp. 7–19.
^ Williams, Joseph M. (1986). Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-02-934470-5.
^ Higham & Ryan 2013, p. 7.
^ a b Hamerow 2012, p. 166.
^ a b Nicholas Brooks (2003). "English Identity from Bede to the Millenium". The Haskins Society Journal. 14: 35–50.
^ Ellis, Steven G. A View of the Irish Language: Language and History in Ireland from the Middle Ages to the Present.
^ Hills, Catherine. Origins of the English. Duckworth Pub, 2003: 15
^ In the abstract for: Härke, Heinrich. "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 1–28.
^ Drinkwater, John F. (2023), "The 'Saxon Shore' Reconsidered", Britannia, 54: 275–303, doi:10.1017/S0068113X23000193
^ Springer, Matthias (2004), Die Sachsen
^ Halsall 2013, p. 218.
^ Halsall 2013, p. 13.
^ Dewing, H B (1962). Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation (PDF). Harvard University Press. pp. 252–255. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ Halsall 2013, pp. 13–15, 185–186, 246.
^ Halsall 2013, pp. 194, 203.
^ Halsall 2013, p. 169.
^ Giles 1843a:72–73, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk I, Ch 15.
^ Giles 1843b:188–189, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk V, Ch 9.
^ Campbell, James (1986). Essays in Anglo-Saxon history. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 0-907628-32-X. OCLC 458534293.
^ Higham, Nicholas (1995). An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Manchester University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780719044243.
^ Hills, C.; Lucy, S. (2013). Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. ISBN 978-1-902937-62-5.
^ Higham, Nicholas J. An English Empire: Bede, the Britons, and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Vol 2 p.244
^ Oosthuizen, Susan. Tradition and Transformation in Anglo-Saxon England: Archaeology, Common Rights and Landscape. Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.
^ Hodges, R 1982: Dark Age Economics: The Origins of Towns and Trade A.D. 600–1000. London
^ a b Yorke, Barbara. Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002.
^ Campbell, J 1979: Bede's Reges and Principes. Jarrow Lecture (Campbell 1986, 85–98)
^ Yorke, Barbara. "Kings and Kingship," A Companion to the Early Middle Ages (2009): 76.
^ Gerrard, James. The Ruin of Roman Britain: An Archaeological Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
^ Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, II, 5.
^ Britain AD: King Arthur's Britain, Programme 2 – Three part Channel 4 series. 2004
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^ Higham, Nicholas J. The English conquest: Gildas and Britain in the fifth century. Vol. 1. Manchester University Press, 1994.
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^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge, 2002: p103
^ Scharer, Anton. "The writing of history at King Alfred's court." Early Medieval Europe 5.2 (1996): 177–206.
^ Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, 2002. p. 101.
^ Yorke, B A E 1985: 'The kingdom of the East Saxons.' Anglo-Saxon England 14, 1–36
^ RYAN, MARTIN J. "The Mercian Supremacies." The Anglo-Saxon World (2013): 179.
^ Drout, Michael DC. Imitating fathers: tradition, inheritance, and the reproduction of culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Diss. Loyola University of Chicago, 1997.
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^ Lapidge, Michael. "The school of Theodore and Hadrian." Anglo-Saxon England 15.1 (1986): 45–72.
^ Drout, M. Anglo-Saxon World (Audio Lectures) Audible.com
^ Dobney, Keith, et al. Farmers, monks and aristocrats: the environmental archaeology of an Anglo-Saxon Estate Centre at Flixborough, North Lincolnshire, UK. Oxbow Books, 2007.
^ Godfrey, John. "The Double Monastery in Early English History." Ampleforth Journal 79 (1974): 19–32.
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^ Bede, Saint. The Ecclesiastical History of the English People: The Greater Chronicle; Bede's Letter to Egbert. Oxford University Press, 1994.
^ Keynes, Simon. "Mercia and Wessex in the ninth century." Mercia. An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, ed. Michelle P. Brown/Carol Ann Farr (London 2001) (2001): 310–328.
^ Sawyer, Peter Hayes, ed. Illustrated history of the Vikings. Oxford University Press, 2001
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^ a b c d Keynes, Simon, and Michael Lapidge. Alfred the Great. New York: Penguin, 1984.
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^ Yorke, Barbara. Wessex in the Early Middle Ages. London: Pinter Publishers
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^ a b Wilkinson, David John, and Alan McWhirr. Cirencester Anglo-Saxon Church and Medieval Abbey: Excavations Directed by JS Wacher (1964), AD McWhirr (1965) and PDC Brown (1965–6). Cotswold Archaeological Trust, 1998.
^ Whitehead, Matthew Alexander, and J. D. Whitehead. The Saxon Church, Escomb. 1979.
^ Conant, Kenneth John. Carolingian and Romanesque architecture, 800 to 1200. Vol. 13. Yale University Press, 1993.
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^ Leahy & Bland 2009, p. 9.
^ Mills, Allan A. "The Canterbury Pendant: A Saxon Seasonal-Hour Altitude Dial." PI Drinkwater:'Comments upon the Canterbury Pendant', and AJ Turner:'The Canterbury Dial', Bull BSS 95.2 (1995): 95.
^ Leslie Webster, Janet Backhouse, and Marion Archibald. The Making of England: Anglo-Saxon Art and Culture, AD 600–900. Univ of Toronto Pr, 1991.
^ Brown, Katherine L., and Robin JH Clark. "The Lindisfarne Gospels and two other 8th century Anglo-Saxon/Insular manuscripts: pigment identification by Raman microscopy." Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 35.1 (2004): 4–12.
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^ Meyvaert, Paul. "Bede, Cassiodorus, and the Codex Amiatinus." Speculum 71.04 (1996): 827–883.
^ Chazelle, Celia. "Ceolfrid's gift to St Peter: the first quire of the Codex Amiatinus and the evidence of its Roman destination." Early Medieval Europe 12.2 (2003): 129–157.
^ THOMAS, GABOR. "OVERVIEW: CRAFT PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY." The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (2011): 405.
^ Brown 1996, pp. 70, 73.
^ Reynolds, Andrew, and Webster, Leslie. "Early Medieval Art and Archaeology in the Northern World." (2013).
^ O'Sullivan, Deirdre. "Normanising the North: The Evidence of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture." Medieval Archaeology 55.1 (2011): 163–191.
^ Janet Backhouse, Derek Howard Turner, and Leslie Webster, eds. The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon Art, 966–1066. British Museum Publications Limited, 1984.
^ Grape, Wolfgang. The Bayeux tapestry: monument to a Norman triumph. Prestel Pub, 1994.
^ Kemola, Juhani. 2000 "The Origins of the Northern Subject Rule – A Case of Early contact?"
^ The Celtic Roots of English, ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola and Heli Pitkänen, Studies in Languages, 37 (Joensuu: University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities, 2002).
^ Hildegard L. C. Von Tristram (ed.), The Celtic Englishes, Anglistische Forschungen 247, 286, 324, 3 vols (Heidelberg: Winter, 1997–2003).
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^ Minkova, Donka (2009), Reviewed Work(s): A History of the English Language by Elly van Gelderen; A History of the English Language by Richard Hogg and David Denison; The Oxford History of English by Lynda Mugglestone
^ John Insley, "Britons and Anglo-Saxons," in Kulturelle Integration und Personnenamen in Mittelalter, De Gruyter (2018)
^ Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English, Edinburgh University Press (2016)
^ Richard Coates, Reviewed Work: English and Celtic in Contact (2010)
^ Scott Shay (30 January 2008). The history of English: a linguistic introduction. Wardja Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-615-16817-3. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
^ Barber, Charles (2009). The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-521-67001-2.
^ Robert McColl Millar, "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change," in Contact: The Interaction of Closely-Related Linguistic Varieties and the History of English (2016)
^ Schendl, Herbert (2012), Middle English: Language Contact
^ Fisher, Genevieve. "Kingdom and community in early Anglo-Saxon eastern England." Regional approaches to mortuary analysis. Springer US, 1995. 147–166.
^ Lynch, Joseph H. Christianizing kinship: ritual sponsorship in Anglo-Saxon England. Cornell University Press, 1998
^ Hough, C. "Wergild." (1999): 469–470.
^ Harrison, Mark. Anglo-Saxon Thegn AD 449–1066. Vol. 5. Osprey Publishing, 1993
^ Fell, Christine E., Cecily Clark, and Elizabeth Williams. Women in Anglo-Saxon England. Blackwell, 1987
^ Simpson, A.W.B. 'The Laws of Ethelbert' in Arnold et al. (1981) 3.
^ Baker, J.H. An Introduction to English Legal History. (London: Butterworths, 1990) 3rd edition, ISBN 0-406-53101-3, Chapters 1–2.
^ Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition, ISBN 0-406-62503-4 (limp), 1–23.
^ Robertson, Agnes Jane, ed. Anglo-Saxon Charters. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
^ Milsom, S.F.C. Historical Foundations of the Common Law. (London: Butterworths, 1981) 2nd edition, ISBN 0-406-62503-4 (limp), 1–23
^ Pollock, F. and Maitland, F.M. A History of English Law. Two volumes. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898 reprinted 1968) 2nd edition, ISBN 0-521-07061-9 and ISBN 0-521-09515-8, Volume I, Chapter 1.
^ Reynolds, Andrew. "Judicial culture and social complexity: a general model from Anglo-Saxon England." World Archaeology ahead-of-print (2014): 1–15.
^ a b Hyams, P. 'Trial by ordeal: the key to proof in the early common law' in Arnold, M.S. et al.. (eds) On the Laws and Customs of England: Essays in honor of S.E. Thorne. (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1981) ISBN 0-8078-1434-2, p. 90.
^ Leeson, Peter T. "Ordeals." Journal of Law and Economics 55.3 (2012): 691–714.
^ Higham, Nicholas, and Martin J. Ryan. The Anglo-Saxon World. Yale University Press, 2013.
^ Karkov, Catherine E. The Art of Anglo-Saxon England. Vol. 1. Boydell Press, 2011.
^ Fulk, R. D., and Christopher M. Cain. "Making Old English New: Anglo-Saxonism and the Cultural Work of Old English Literature." (2013).
^ Godden, Malcolm, and Michael Lapidge, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press, 1991; there is also the Paris Psalter (not the Paris Psalter), a metrical version of most of the Psalms, described by its most recent specialist as "a pedestrian and unimaginative piece of poetic translation. It is rarely read by students of Old English, and most Anglo-Saxonists make only passing reference to it. There is scarcely any literary criticism written on the text, although some work has been done on its vocabulary and metre", "Poetic language and the Paris Psalter: the decay of the Old English tradition", by M. S. Griffith, Anglo-Saxon England, Volume 20, December 1991, pp 167–186, doi:10.1017/S0263675100001800
^ "Early-Medieval-England.net : The Wanderer". www.anglo-saxons.net.
^ Bradley, S.A.J. Anglo-Saxon Poetry. New York: Everyman Paperbacks, 1995.
^ Alexander, Michael. The Earliest English Poems. 3rd rev. ed. New York:
Penguin Classics, 1992.
^ Anglo Saxon Poetry. Hachette UK, 2012.
^ Sweet, Henry. An Anglo-Saxon reader in prose and verse: with grammar, metre, notes and glossary. At the Clarendon Press, 1908.
^ Nugent, Ruth, and Howard Williams. "Sighted surfaces. Ocular Agency in early Anglo-Saxon cremation burials." Encountering images: materialities, perceptions, relations. Stockholm studies in archaeology 57 (2012): 187–208.
^ Härke, Heinrich. "Grave goods in early medieval burials: messages and meanings." Mortality ahead-of-print (2014): 1–21.
^ Pader, E.J. 1982. Symbolism, social relations and the interpretation of mortuary remains. Oxford. (B.A.R. S 130)
^ Guido and Welch. Indirect evidence for glass bead manufacture in early Anglo-Saxon England. In Price 2000 115–120.
^ Guido, M. & M. Welch 1999. The glass beads of Anglo-Saxon England c. AD 400–700: a preliminary visual classification of the more definitive and diagnostic types. Rochester: Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiqaries of London 56.
^ Brugmann, B. 2004. Glass beads from Anglo-Saxon graves: a study of the provenance and chronology of glass beads from early Anglo-Saxon graves, based on visual examination. Oxford: Oxbow
^ Owen-Crocker, Gale R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press, 2004.
^ John Hines (1998) The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambridgeshire. Council for British Archaeology.
^ a b North, Richard (1997-12-11). Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-55183-0.
^ Gannon, Anna (2003-04-24). The Iconography of Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage: Sixth to Eighth Centuries. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925465-1.
^ "Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
^ Webb, Samuel (2022-04-21). "Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-05-12.
^ Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 by Patrick Brantlinger. Cornell University Press, 1990
^ Race and Empire in British Politics by Paul B. Rich. CUP Archive, 1990
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Further reading
General
Halsall, Guy (2013). Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198700845.
Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. (2011), The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-921214-9
Higham, Nicholas J.; Ryan, Martin J. (2013), The Anglo-Saxon World, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12534-4
Hills, Catherine (2003), Origins of the English, London: Duckworth, ISBN 9780715631911
Koch, John T. (2006), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, ISBN 1-85109-440-7
Oppenheimer, Stephen (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story. London: Constable and Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84529-158-7.
Stenton, Sir Frank M. (1987) , Anglo-Saxon England, The Oxford History of England, vol. II (3rd ed.), OUP, ISBN 0-19-821716-1
Historical
Bazelmans, Jos (2009), "The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians", in Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (eds.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, pp. 321–337, ISBN 978-90-8964-078-9, archived from the original on 2017-08-30, retrieved 2017-05-31
Brown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol A., eds. (2001), Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 0-8264-7765-8
Brown, Michelle, The Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Medieval World (2010)
Campbell, James, ed. (1982). The Anglo-Saxons. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-14395-9.
Charles-Edwards, Thomas, ed. (2003), After Rome, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-924982-4
Clark, David, and Nicholas Perkins, eds. Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination (2010)
Dodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X
Dornier, Ann, ed. (1977), Mercian Studies, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 0-7185-1148-4
Elton, Charles Isaac (1882), "Origins of English History", Nature, 25 (648), London: Bernard Quaritch: 501, Bibcode:1882Natur..25..501T, doi:10.1038/025501a0, S2CID 4097604
Frere, Sheppard Sunderland (1987), Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7102-1215-1
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Härke, Heinrich (2003), "Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain.", Celtic-Englishes, III (Winter), Carl Winter Verlag: 13–28, retrieved 18 January 2014
Haywood, John (1999), Dark Age Naval Power: Frankish & Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (revised ed.), Frithgarth: Anglo-Saxon Books, ISBN 1-898281-43-2
Henson, Donald. The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons, (Anglo-Saxon Books, 2006)
Higham, Nicholas (1992), Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, London: B. A. Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-022-7
Higham, Nicholas (1993), The Kingdom of Northumbria AD 350–1100, Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-86299-730-5
Hough, Carole (2014). "An Ald Reht": Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443859172.
James, Edward. Britain in the First Millennium, (London: Arnold, 2001)
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Karkov, Catherine E., The Art of Anglo-Saxon England, 2011, Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-628-9, ISBN 978-1-84383-628-5
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LindisfarneChiRiho.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chi Rho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_Rho"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels"},{"link_name":"Eadfrith of Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadfrith_of_Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"Cuthbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert"},{"link_name":"cultural group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_identity"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Early Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"their early settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"political development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"link_name":"Romano-British culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano-British_culture"},{"link_name":"Norman Conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan2013-1"},{"link_name":"Viking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan20137%E2%80%9319-2"},{"link_name":"high medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"},{"link_name":"Angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan20137-4"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_architecture"},{"link_name":"dress styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_dress"},{"link_name":"illuminated texts, metalwork and other art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art"},{"link_name":"burhs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burh"},{"link_name":"Helena Hamerow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Hamerow"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamerow2012166-6"}],"text":"Early medieval Old-English-speaking cultural group in BritainThis article is about the medieval Anglo-Saxons. For other uses and specific sub-topics, see Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation).Page with Chi Rho monogram from the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels c. 700, possibly created by Eadfrith of Lindisfarne in memory of CuthbertThe Anglo-Saxons, the English or Saxons of Britain, were a cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced their origins to Germanic settlers who became one of the dominant cultural groups in Britain during the 5th century. Although the details of their early settlement and political development are not clear, a single Anglo-Saxon cultural identity which was generally called Englisc, developed out of the interaction of these settlers with the pre-existing Romano-British culture. By 1066, most of the people of what is now England spoke Old English, and were considered English.Historically, the Anglo-Saxon period in Britain started by about 450 and ends in 1066, with the Norman Conquest.[1] Viking and Norman invasions changed the politics and culture of England significantly, but the overarching Anglo-Saxon identity evolved and remained dominant even after the Norman Conquest of 1066.[2] Late Anglo-Saxon political structures and language are the direct predecessors of the high medieval Kingdom of England and the Middle English language. Although the modern English language owes less than 26% of its words to Old English, this includes the vast majority of everyday words.[3]The earliest detailed account of Anglo-Saxon origins given by Bede (early 8th century) suggests that they were long divided into smaller regional kingdoms, with differing accounts of their continental origins. The collective term \"Anglo-Saxons\" is commonly used by modern historians, but they were originally collectively referred to by Latin authors as Saxons. Bede was one of the first writers to prefer \"Angles\" as the collective term, and the term \"English\" eventually became dominant. The compound term Anglo-Saxon first appears in the 8th century, but it was probably not widely used until modern times.[4][a]Anglo-Saxon material culture can be seen in architecture, dress styles, illuminated texts, metalwork and other art. Behind the symbolic nature of these cultural emblems, there are strong elements of tribal and lordship ties. The elite declared themselves kings who developed burhs (fortifications and fortified settlements), and identified their roles and peoples in Biblical terms. Above all, as archaeologist Helena Hamerow has observed, \"local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production throughout the Anglo-Saxon period.\"[5]","title":"Anglo-Saxons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles_(tribe)"},{"link_name":"Jutish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes"},{"link_name":"North sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_sea"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Alcuin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcuin"},{"link_name":"Saint Boniface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Boniface"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brooks-7"},{"link_name":"Paul the Deacon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon"},{"link_name":"Alfred the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brooks-7"},{"link_name":"Scottish Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"Sasannach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassenach"},{"link_name":"Irish language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"In modern times the term \"Anglo-Saxons\" is used by scholars to refer collectively to the Old English speaking groups in Britain, including groups distinguished by Bede in the 8th century as English (Angles), Saxons, or Jutish. The compound term has the advantage of both covering the various English-speaking groups, and also distinguishing them from the continental peoples who still used the same names. It was however also used in some specific situations already between the 8th and 10th centuries.Before the 8th century the most common collective term for the Old-English speakers was \"Saxons\", which was a word associated since the 4th century with raiders in North sea coastal areas of Britain and Gaul. During the 8th century Bede and some of his contemporaries including Alcuin, and Saint Boniface, began to refer to the overall group in Britain as the English people (Latin Angli, gens Anglorum or Old English Angelcynn) thus using the same word to refer to both the larger group, and one part of it. In Bede's work the term \"Saxon\" is also used to refer sometimes to the Old English language, and also to refer to the early pagan Anglo-Saxons before the arrival of Christian missionaries among the Anglo-Saxons of Kent in 597.[6]A non-Anglo-Saxon contemporary, Paul the Deacon, referred variously to either the English (Angli), or Anglo-Saxons (Latin plural genitives Saxonum Anglorum, or Anglorum Saxonum), which helped him distinguish them from the European Saxons who he also discussed. In England itself this compound term later came to be used in some specific situations, both in Latin and Old English. Alfred the Great, himself a West Saxon, was for example Anglosaxonum Rex in the late 880s, probably indicating that he was literally a king over both English (for example Mercian) and Saxon groups. However, the term \"English\" continued to be used and became dominant. The increased use of these new collective terms, \"English\" or \"Anglo-Saxon\", represents the strengthening of the idea of a single unifying cultural unity among the Anglo-Saxons themselves, who had previously invested in identities which differentiated various regional groups.[6]In contrast, Irish and Welsh speakers continued to refer to Anglo-Saxons as Saxons. The word Saeson is the modern Welsh word for 'English people'; the equivalent word in Scottish Gaelic is Sasannach and in the Irish language, Sasanach.[7] Catherine Hills suggests that it is no accident \"that the English call themselves by the name sanctified by the Church, as that of a people chosen by God, whereas their enemies use the name originally applied to piratical raiders\".[8]","title":"Ethnonym"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Roman province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province"},{"link_name":"Britannia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Magnus Maximus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Maximus"},{"link_name":"Constantine \"III\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)"},{"link_name":"North sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_sea"},{"link_name":"Saxon shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_shore"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks"},{"link_name":"Lower Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Rhine"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"foederati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foederati"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013218-13"},{"link_name":"Chronica Gallica of 452","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronica_Gallica_of_452"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313-14"},{"link_name":"Constantine \"III\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_Emperor)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons"},{"link_name":"Picts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picts"},{"link_name":"Scoti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoti"},{"link_name":"hagiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiography"},{"link_name":"Saint Germanus of Auxerre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Germanus_of_Auxerre"},{"link_name":"Gildas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildas"},{"link_name":"Aëtius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%ABtius"},{"link_name":"Chronica Gallica of 452","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronica_Gallica_of_452"},{"link_name":"Vortigern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortigern"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313%E2%80%9315,_185%E2%80%93186,_246-16"},{"link_name":"Historia Brittonum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Brittonum"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013194,_203-17"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013169-18"},{"link_name":"Old Saxony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxony"},{"link_name":"North sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_sea"},{"link_name":"Wessex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex"},{"link_name":"Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex"},{"link_name":"Essex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex"},{"link_name":"Jutland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutland"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Schleswig-Holstein Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein_Province"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Angeln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angeln"},{"link_name":"Frisians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisians"},{"link_name":"Danes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danes"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"Avars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars"},{"link_name":"Bructeri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bructeri"},{"link_name":"Lippe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lippe"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-21"},{"link_name":"Ambrosius Aurelianus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosius_Aurelianus"},{"link_name":"siege at 'Mons Badonicus'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Badon"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higham,_Nick_1995-22"},{"link_name":"Spong Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spong_Hill"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hills._C,_&_Lucy,_S.-23"}],"text":"The migrations according to Bede, who wrote some 300 years after the event; there is archeological evidence that the settlers in England came from many of these mainland locationsAlthough it involved immigrant communities from northern Europe, the culture of the Anglo-Saxons was not transplanted from there, but rather developed in Britain.[9] In 400, the Roman province of Britannia had long been part of the Roman Empire. Although the empire had been dismembered several times during the previous centuries, often because of usurpations beginning in Britain such as those of Magnus Maximus, and Constantine \"III\" there was an overal continuity and interconnectedness. Already before 400 Roman sources used the term Saxons to refer to coastal raiders who had been causing problems especially on the coasts of the North sea. In what is now south-eastern England the Romans established a military commander who was assigned to oversee a chain of coastal forts which they called the Saxon shore.[10] The homeland of these Saxon raiders was not clearly described in surviving sources but they were apparently the northerly neighbours of the Franks on the Lower Rhine.[11] At the same time, the Roman administration in Britain (and other parts of the empire) was recruiting foederati soldiers from the same general regions in what is now Germany, and these are likely to have become more important after the withdrawal of field armies during internal Roman power struggles.[12]According to the Chronica Gallica of 452 Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. This was only a few years after Constantine \"III\" was declared Roman emperor in Britain, and during the period that he was still leading British Roman forces in rebellion on the continent. The rebellion was soon quashed, the Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled Constantine's imperial officials during this period, but they never again received new Roman officials or military forces.[13] Writing in the mid-sixth century, Procopius states that after the death of Constantine \"III\" in 411, \"the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants.\"[14]The Romano-Britons nevertheless called upon the empire to help them fend off attacks from not only the Saxons, but also the Picts and Scoti. A hagiography of Saint Germanus of Auxerre claims that he helped command a defence against an invasion of Picts and Saxons in 429. By about 430 the archaeological record in Britain begins to indicate a relatively rapid melt-down of Roman material culture, and its replacement by Anglo-Saxon material culture. At some time between 445 and 454 Gildas, one of the only writers in this period, reported that the Britons also wrote to the Roman military leader Aëtius in Gaul, begging for assistance, with no success. In desperation, an un-named \"proud tyrant\" subsequently invited Saxons as foederati soldiers to Britain to help defend it from the Picts and Scots. He did not report the year, and later writers developed different estimates of when this occurred. Possibly referring to this same event, the Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: \"The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule\". Bede, writing centuries later, reasoned that this happened in 450-455, and he named the \"proud tyrant\" as Vortigern. However, the date could have been significantly earlier, and Bede's understanding of these events has been questioned.[15] The Historia Brittonum, written in the 9th century, gives two different years, but the writer apparently believed it happened in 428.[16] Another 9th century source, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is largely based on Bede but says this Saxon arrival happened in 449.[17]Bede believed that the call was answered by kings from three powerful tribes from Germania, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Saxons came from Old Saxony on the North sea coast of Germany, and settled in Wessex, Sussex and Essex. Jutland, the peninsula containing part of Denmark, was the homeland of the Jutes who settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight. The Angles (or English) were from 'Anglia', a country which Bede understood to have now been emptied, and which lay between the homelands of the Saxons and Jutes.[18] Anglia is usually interpreted as the old Schleswig-Holstein Province (straddling the modern Danish-German border), and containing the modern Angeln. Although this represents a turning point the continental ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons were probably quite diverse, and they arrived over a longer period. In another passage, Bede named pagan peoples still living in Germany (Germania) in the eighth century \"from whom the Angles or Saxons, who now inhabit Britain, are known to have derived their origin; for which reason they are still corruptly called Garmans by the neighbouring nation of the Britons\": the Frisians, the Rugini, the Danes, the \"Huns\" (Avars in this period), the \"old Saxons\" (antiqui Saxones), and the \"Boructuarii\" who are presumed to be inhabitants of the old lands of the Bructeri, near the Lippe river.[19][20]: 123–124Gildas recounts how a war broke out between the Saxons and the local population, initially led by Ambrosius Aurelianus. Historian Nick Higham calls it the \"War of the Saxon Federates\". It ended successfully for the Britons after the siege at 'Mons Badonicus'. The price of peace, Higham argues, was a better treaty for the Saxons, giving them the ability to receive tribute from people across the lowlands of Britain.[21] The archaeological evidence agrees with this earlier timescale. In particular, the work of Catherine Hills and Sam Lucy on the evidence of Spong Hill has moved the chronology for the settlement earlier than 450, with a significant number of items now in phases before Bede's date.[22] In the 6th century, when Gildas was writing, he did not treat the defeated Saxons as an important problem, but he noted that the Britons had become divided into many small \"tyrannies\".","title":"Anglo-Saxon origins (4th and 5th centuries)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg"},{"link_name":"petty kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_kingdom"},{"link_name":"Finnian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnian_of_Movilla"},{"link_name":"Columba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba"},{"link_name":"ceorl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churl"},{"link_name":"wergild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wergild"},{"link_name":"hide of land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hide_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Tribal Hidage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribal_Hidage"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yorke,_Barbara_2002-28"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Jutes of Hampshire and Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes#Jutish_settlement_in_Southern_Britain"},{"link_name":"South Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"East Saxons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Essex"},{"link_name":"East Angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"Lindsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lindsey"},{"link_name":"Deira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deira"},{"link_name":"Bernicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernicia"},{"link_name":"civitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitas"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Bretwalda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretwalda"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Southern Great Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdoms.In the last half of the 6th century, four structures contributed to the development of society; they were the position and freedoms of the ceorl, the smaller tribal areas coalescing into larger kingdoms, the elite developing from warriors to kings, and Irish monasticism developing under Finnian (who had consulted Gildas) and his pupil Columba.The Anglo-Saxon farms of this period are often falsely supposed to be \"peasant farms\". However, a ceorl, who was the lowest ranking freeman in early Anglo-Saxon society, was not a peasant but an arms-owning male with the support of a kindred, access to law and the wergild; situated at the apex of an extended household working at least one hide of land.[23] The farmer had freedom and rights over lands, with provision of a rent or duty to an overlord who provided only slight lordly input.[b] Most of this land was common outfield arable land (of an outfield-infield system) that provided individuals with the means to build a basis of kinship and group cultural ties.[24]The Tribal Hidage lists thirty-five peoples, or tribes, with assessments in hides, which may have originally been defined as the area of land sufficient to maintain one family.[25] The assessments in the Hidage reflect the relative size of the provinces.[26] Although varying in size, all thirty-five peoples of the Tribal Hidage were of the same status, in that they were areas which were ruled by their own elite family (or royal houses), and so were assessed independently for payment of tribute.[c] By the end of the sixth century, larger kingdoms had become established on the south or east coasts.[28] They include the provinces of the Jutes of Hampshire and Wight, the South Saxons, Kent, the East Saxons, East Angles, Lindsey and (north of the Humber) Deira and Bernicia. Several of these kingdoms may have had as their initial focus a territory based on a former Roman civitas.[29]By the end of the sixth century, the leaders of these communities were styling themselves kings, though it should not be assumed that all of them were Germanic in origin. The Bretwalda concept is taken as evidence of a number of early Anglo-Saxon elite families. What Bede seems to imply in his Bretwalda is the ability of leaders to extract tribute, overawe and/or protect the small regions, which may well have been relatively short-lived in any one instance. Ostensibly \"Anglo-Saxon\" dynasties variously replaced one another in this role in a discontinuous but influential and potent roll call of warrior elites.[30] Importantly, whatever their origin or whenever they flourished, these dynasties established their claim to lordship through their links to extended kin, and possibly mythical, ties. As Helen Geake points out, \"they all just happened to be related back to Woden\".[31]","title":"Development of an Anglo-Saxon society (6th century)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Athelstan_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Æthelstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelstan"},{"link_name":"gospel book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_book"},{"link_name":"Cuthbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert"},{"link_name":"Corpus Christi College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Christi_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Columba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba"},{"link_name":"Moville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moville"},{"link_name":"Finnian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnian_of_Movilla"},{"link_name":"Iona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iona"},{"link_name":"Peter Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Augustine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Isle of Thanet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanet"},{"link_name":"Æthelberht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury"},{"link_name":"prior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_(ecclesiastical)"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Gregory the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I"},{"link_name":"Gregorian mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_mission"},{"link_name":"Christianise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon paganism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism"},{"link_name":"Bertha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertha_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"Charibert I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charibert_I"},{"link_name":"king of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Frankish_kings"},{"link_name":"Æthelberht's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelberht%27s_law"},{"link_name":"Germanic language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_language"},{"link_name":"Aidan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aidan_of_Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"Iona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iona"},{"link_name":"Isle of Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"Oswald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_of_Northumbria"},{"link_name":"Bamburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamburgh"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Northumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumbria"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland"},{"link_name":"Saint Cuthbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert_of_Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"abbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot"},{"link_name":"Bishop of Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"St Cuthbert Gospel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Cuthbert_Gospel"},{"link_name":"bookbinding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell198280%E2%80%9381-39"},{"link_name":"Synod of Whitby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York"},{"link_name":"Wilfrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid"},{"link_name":"Colmán","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colm%C3%A1n"}],"text":"King Æthelstan presenting a gospel book to (the long-dead) St Cuthbert (934); Corpus Christi College, Cambridge MS 183, fol. 1vIn 565, Columba, a monk from Ireland who studied at the monastic school of Moville under St. Finnian, reached Iona as a self-imposed exile. The influence of the monastery of Iona would grow into what Peter Brown has described as an \"unusually extensive spiritual empire,\" which \"stretched from western Scotland deep to the southwest into the heart of Ireland and, to the southeast, it reached down throughout northern Britain, through the influence of its sister monastery Lindisfarne.\"[32]In June 597 Columba died. At this time, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to King Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. He had been the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead the Gregorian mission to Britain to Christianise the Kingdom of Kent from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was probably chosen because Æthelberht had married a Christian princess, Bertha, daughter of Charibert I the king of Paris, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Æthelberht was converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. Æthelberht's law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. For the first time following the Anglo-Saxon invasion, coins began circulating in Kent during his reign.In 635 Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, chose the Isle of Lindisfarne to establish a monastery which was close to King Oswald's main fortress of Bamburgh. He had been at the monastery in Iona when Oswald asked to be sent a mission to Christianise the Kingdom of Northumbria from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism. Oswald had probably chosen Iona because after his father had been killed he had fled into south-west Scotland and had encountered Christianity, and had returned determined to make Northumbria Christian. Aidan achieved great success in spreading the Christian faith, and since Aidan could not speak English and Oswald had learned Irish during his exile, Oswald acted as Aidan's interpreter when the latter was preaching.[33] Later, Northumberland's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was an abbot of the monastery, and then Bishop of Lindisfarne. An anonymous life of Cuthbert written at Lindisfarne is the oldest extant piece of English historical writing, [d] and in his memory a gospel (known as the St Cuthbert Gospel) was placed in his coffin. The decorated leather bookbinding is the oldest intact European binding.[35]In 664, the Synod of Whitby was convened and established Roman practice as opposed to Irish practice (in style of tonsure and dates of Easter) as the norm in Northumbria, and thus \"brought the Northumbrian church into the mainstream of Roman culture.\"[36] The episcopal seat of Northumbria was transferred from Lindisfarne to York. Wilfrid, chief advocate for the Roman position, later became Bishop of Northumbria, while Colmán and the Ionan supporters, who did not change their practices, withdrew to Iona.","title":"Conversion to Christianity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lowland Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tees%E2%80%93Exe_line"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Heptarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptarchy"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yorke,_Barbara_2002-28"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1995-42"},{"link_name":"Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"Humber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humber"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1995-42"}],"text":"By 660, the political map of Lowland Britain had developed with smaller territories coalescing into kingdoms, and from this time larger kingdoms started dominating the smaller kingdoms. The development of kingdoms, with a particular king being recognised as an overlord, developed out of an early loose structure that, Higham believes, is linked back to the original feodus.[37] The traditional name for this period is the Heptarchy, which has not been used by scholars since the early 20th century[26] as it gives the impression of a single political structure and does not afford the \"opportunity to treat the history of any one kingdom as a whole\".[38] Simon Keynes suggests that the 8th and 9th century was a period of economic and social flourishing which created stability both below the Thames and above the Humber.[38]","title":"Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingdoms_in_England_and_Wales_about_600_AD.svg"},{"link_name":"Penda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penda_of_Mercia"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yorke,_Barbara_p101-43"},{"link_name":"Midland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Midlands"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"},{"link_name":"Bamburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamburgh"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Æthelred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelred_of_Mercia"},{"link_name":"Rochester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_Kent"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Middlesex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"the Mercian King Offa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Mercian supremacy (626–821)","text":"A political map of Britain circa 650 (the names are in modern English)Middle-lowland Britain was known as the place of the Mierce, the border or frontier folk, in Latin Mercia. Mercia was a diverse area of tribal groups, as shown by the Tribal Hidage; the peoples were a mixture of Brittonic speaking peoples and \"Anglo-Saxon\" pioneers and their early leaders had Brittonic names, such as Penda.[39] Although Penda does not appear in Bede's list of great overlords, it would appear from what Bede says elsewhere that he was dominant over the southern kingdoms. At the time of the battle of the river Winwæd, thirty duces regii (royal generals) fought on his behalf. Although there are many gaps in the evidence, it is clear that the seventh-century Mercian kings were formidable rulers who were able to exercise a wide-ranging overlordship from their Midland base.Mercian military success was the basis of their power; it succeeded against not only 106 kings and kingdoms by winning set-piece battles,[40] but by ruthlessly ravaging any area foolish enough to withhold tribute. There are a number of casual references scattered throughout the Bede's history to this aspect of Mercian military policy. Penda is found ravaging Northumbria as far north as Bamburgh and only a miraculous intervention from Aidan prevents the complete destruction of the settlement.[41] In 676 Æthelred conducted a similar ravaging in Kent and caused such damage in the Rochester diocese that two successive bishops gave up their position because of lack of funds.[42] In these accounts there is a rare glimpse of the realities of early Anglo-Saxon overlordship and how a widespread overlordship could be established in a relatively short period. By the middle of the 8th century, other kingdoms of southern Britain were also affected by Mercian expansionism. The East Saxons seem to have lost control of London, Middlesex and Hertfordshire to Æthelbald, although the East Saxon homelands do not seem to have been affected, and the East Saxon dynasty continued into the ninth century.[43] The Mercian influence and reputation reached its peak when, in the late 8th century, the most powerful European ruler of the age, the Frankish king Charlemagne, recognised the Mercian King Offa's power and accordingly treated him with respect, even if this could have been just flattery.[44]","title":"Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Britain_802.jpg"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Theodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_of_Tarsus"},{"link_name":"to become the eighth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archbishops_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Archbishop of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Aldhelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldhelm"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"John Milton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Malmesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malmesbury"}],"sub_title":"Learning and monasticism (660–793)","text":"Map of Britain in 802. By this date, historians today rarely distinguish between Angles, Saxons and Jutes.Michael Drout calls this period the \"Golden Age\", when learning flourished with a renaissance in classical knowledge. The growth and popularity of monasticism was not an entirely internal development, with influence from the continent shaping Anglo-Saxon monastic life.[45] In 669 Theodore, a Greek-speaking monk originally from Tarsus in Asia Minor, arrived in Britain to become the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury. He was joined the following year by his colleague Hadrian, a Latin-speaking African by origin and former abbot of a monastery in Campania (near Naples).[46] One of their first tasks at Canterbury was the establishment of a school; and according to Bede (writing some sixty years later), they soon \"attracted a crowd of students into whose minds they daily poured the streams of wholesome learning\".[47] As evidence of their teaching, Bede reports that some of their students, who survived to his own day, were as fluent in Greek and Latin as in their native language. Bede does not mention Aldhelm in this connection; but we know from a letter addressed by Aldhelm to Hadrian that he too must be numbered among their students.[48]Aldhelm wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent and very difficult Latin, which became the dominant style for centuries. Michael Drout states \"Aldhelm wrote Latin hexameters better than anyone before in England (and possibly better than anyone since, or at least up until John Milton). His work showed that scholars in England, at the very edge of Europe, could be as learned and sophisticated as any writers in Europe.\"[49] During this period, the wealth and power of the monasteries increased as elite families, possibly out of power, turned to monastic life.[50]Anglo-Saxon monasticism developed the unusual institution of the \"double monastery\", a house of monks and a house of nuns, living next to each other, sharing a church but never mixing, and living separate lives of celibacy. These double monasteries were presided over by abbesses, who became some of the most powerful and influential women in Europe. Double monasteries which were built on strategic sites near rivers and coasts, accumulated immense wealth and power over multiple generations (their inheritances were not divided) and became centers of art and learning.[51]While Aldhelm was doing his work in Malmesbury, far from him, up in the North of England, Bede was writing a large quantity of books, gaining a reputation in Europe and showing that the English could write history and theology, and do astronomical computation (for the dates of Easter, among other things).","title":"Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exhibition_in_Viking_Ship_Museum,_Oslo_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oseberg ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseberg_ship"},{"link_name":"Viking Ship Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)"},{"link_name":"Wessex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex"},{"link_name":"King Egbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egbert_of_Wessex"},{"link_name":"King Alfred the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Hwicce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hwicce"},{"link_name":"Kempsford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempsford"},{"link_name":"Wiltshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"},{"link_name":"Bretwalda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretwalda"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Simon Keynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Keynes"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"King Æthelwulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf_of_Wessex"},{"link_name":"Æthelred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelred,_Lord_of_the_Mercians"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg"},{"link_name":"coin weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin_weights"},{"link_name":"sceat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sceat"},{"link_name":"Danelaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danelaw"},{"link_name":"Viking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne"},{"link_name":"Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"},{"link_name":"Iona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iona"},{"link_name":"Lyminge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyminge"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"Danelaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danelaw"},{"link_name":"Great Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"},{"link_name":"English Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"},{"link_name":"longships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longship"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitelock,_Dorothy_1965-58"}],"sub_title":"West Saxon hegemony and the Anglo-Scandinavian Wars (793–878)","text":"The Oseberg ship prow, Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.During the 9th century, Wessex rose in power, from the foundations laid by King Egbert in the first quarter of the century to the achievements of King Alfred the Great in its closing decades. The outlines of the story are told in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, though the annals represent a West Saxon point of view.[52] On the day of Egbert's succession to the kingdom of Wessex, in 802, a Mercian ealdorman from the province of the Hwicce had crossed the border at Kempsford, with the intention of mounting a raid into northern Wiltshire; the Mercian force was met by the local ealdorman, \"and the people of Wiltshire had the victory\".[53] In 829, Egbert went on, the chronicler reports, to conquer \"the kingdom of the Mercians and everything south of the Humber\".[54] It was at this point that the chronicler chooses to attach Egbert's name to Bede's list of seven overlords, adding that \"he was the eighth king who was Bretwalda\".[55] Simon Keynes suggests Egbert's foundation of a 'bipartite' kingdom is crucial as it stretched across southern England, and it created a working alliance between the West Saxon dynasty and the rulers of the Mercians.[56] In 860, the eastern and western parts of the southern kingdom were united by agreement between the surviving sons of King Æthelwulf, though the union was not maintained without some opposition from within the dynasty; and in the late 870s King Alfred gained the submission of the Mercians under their ruler Æthelred, who in other circumstances might have been styled a king, but who under the Alfredian regime was regarded as the 'ealdorman' of his people.Anglo-Saxon-Viking coin weight. Material is lead and weighs approx 36 g. Embedded with a sceat dating to 720–750 AD and minted in Kent. It is edged with a dotted triangle pattern. Origin is the northern Danelaw region, and it dates from the late 8th to 9th century.The wealth of the monasteries and the success of Anglo-Saxon society attracted the attention of people from mainland Europe, mostly Danes and Norwegians. Because of the plundering raids that followed, the raiders attracted the name Viking – from the Old Norse víkingr meaning an expedition – which soon became used for the raiding activity or piracy reported in western Europe.[57] In 793, Lindisfarne was raided and while this was not the first raid of its type it was the most prominent. In 794, Jarrow, the monastery where Bede wrote, was attacked; in 795 Iona in Scotland was attacked; and in 804 the nunnery at Lyminge in Kent was granted refuge inside the walls of Canterbury. Sometime around 800, a Reeve from Portland in Wessex was killed when he mistook some raiders for ordinary traders.Viking raids continued until in 850, then the Chronicle says: \"The heathen for the first time remained over the winter\". The fleet does not appear to have stayed long in England, but it started a trend which others subsequently followed. In particular, the army which arrived in 865 remained over many winters, and part of it later settled what became known as the Danelaw. This was the \"Great Army\", a term used by the Chronicle in England and by Adrevald of Fleury on the Continent. The invaders were able to exploit the feuds between and within the various kingdoms and to appoint puppet kings, such as Ceolwulf in Mercia in 873 and perhaps others in Northumbria in 867 and East Anglia in 870.[54] The third phase was an era of settlement; however, the \"Great Army\" went wherever it could find the richest pickings, crossing the English Channel when faced with resolute opposition, as in England in 878, or with famine, as on the Continent in 892.[54] By this stage, the Vikings were assuming ever increasing importance as catalysts of social and political change. They constituted the common enemy, making the English more conscious of a national identity which overrode deeper distinctions; they could be perceived as an instrument of divine punishment for the people's sins, raising awareness of a collective Christian identity; and by 'conquering' the kingdoms of the East Angles, the Northumbrians and the Mercians, they created a vacuum in the leadership of the English people.[58]Danish settlement continued in Mercia in 877 and East Anglia in 879—80 and 896. The rest of the army meanwhile continued to harry and plunder on both sides of the Channel, with new recruits evidently arriving to swell its ranks, for it clearly continued to be a formidable fighting force.[54] At first, Alfred responded by the offer of repeated tribute payments. However, after a decisive victory at Edington in 878, Alfred offered vigorous opposition. He established a chain of fortresses across the south of England, reorganised the army, \"so that always half its men were at home, and half out on service, except for those men who were to garrison the burhs\",[59][54] and in 896 ordered a new type of craft to be built which could oppose the Viking longships in shallow coastal waters. When the Vikings returned from the Continent in 892, they found they could no longer roam the country at will, for wherever they went they were opposed by a local army. After four years, the Scandinavians therefore split up, some to settle in Northumbria and East Anglia, the remainder to try their luck again on the Continent.[54]","title":"Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfred_Jewel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alfred Jewel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jewel"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1984-65"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Gregory the Great's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1984-65"},{"link_name":"rock crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_crystal"},{"link_name":"Alfred Jewel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jewel"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1984-65"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_1984-65"}],"sub_title":"King Alfred and the rebuilding (878–899)","text":"A royal gift, the Alfred JewelMore important to Alfred than his military and political victories were his religion, his love of learning, and his spread of writing throughout England. Keynes suggests Alfred's work laid the foundations for what really made England unique in all of medieval Europe from around 800 until 1066.[60]Thinking about how learning and culture had fallen since the last century, King Alfred wrote:...So completely had wisdom fallen off in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could understand their rituals in English, or indeed could translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe that there were not many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them that I indeed cannot think of a single one south of the Thames when I became king. (Preface: \"Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care\")[61]Alfred knew that literature and learning, both in English and in Latin, were very important, but the state of learning was not good when Alfred came to the throne. Alfred saw kingship as a priestly office, a shepherd for his people.[62] One book that was particularly valuable to him was Gregory the Great's Cura Pastoralis (Pastoral Care). This is a priest's guide on how to care for people. Alfred took this book as his own guide on how to be a good king to his people; hence, a good king to Alfred increases literacy. Alfred translated this book himself and explains in the preface:...When I had learned it I translated it into English, just as I had understood it, and as I could most meaningfully render it. And I will send one to each bishopric in my kingdom, and in each will be an æstel worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name that no man may take the æstel from the book nor the book from the church. It is unknown how long there may be such learned bishops as, thanks to God, are nearly everywhere. (Preface: \"Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care\")[61]What is presumed to be one of these \"æstel\" (the word only appears in this one text) is the gold, rock crystal and enamel Alfred Jewel, discovered in 1693, which is assumed to have been fitted with a small rod and used as a pointer when reading. Alfred provided functional patronage, linked to a social programme of vernacular literacy in England, which was unprecedented.[63]Therefore it seems better to me, if it seems so to you, that we also translate certain books ...and bring it about ...if we have the peace, that all the youth of free men who now are in England, those who have the means that they may apply themselves to it, be set to learning, while they may not be set to any other use, until the time when they can well read English writings. (Preface: \"Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care\")[61]This began a growth in charters, law, theology and learning. Alfred thus laid the foundation for the great accomplishments of the tenth century and did much to make the vernacular more important than Latin in Anglo-Saxon culture.I desired to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works. (Preface: \"The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius\")[61]","title":"Middle Anglo-Saxon history (660–899)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"text":"A framework for the momentous events of the 10th and 11th centuries is provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However charters, law-codes and coins supply detailed information on various aspects of royal government, and the surviving works of Anglo-Latin and vernacular literature, as well as the numerous manuscripts written in the 10th century, testify in their different ways to the vitality of ecclesiastical culture. Yet as Keynes suggests \"it does not follow that the 10th century is better understood than more sparsely documented periods\".[64]","title":"Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_the_Elder_coin_imitation_silver_brooch_Rome_Italy_c_920.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edward the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_2001-69"},{"link_name":"Edward the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Æthelflæd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelfl%C3%A6d"},{"link_name":"David Dumville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Dumville"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_2001-69"},{"link_name":"Æthelstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelstan"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_II_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Owain ap Dyfnwal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owain_ap_Dyfnwal_(fl._934)"},{"link_name":"Olaf Guthfrithson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaf_Guthfrithson"},{"link_name":"battle of Brunanburh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Hiberno-Norse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels"},{"link_name":"Danish kingdom of York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_York"},{"link_name":"Edmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_I"},{"link_name":"Eadred","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadred"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dumville,_David_N_1992-74"},{"link_name":"Edgar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar,_King_of_England"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dumville,_David_N_1992-74"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Dunstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunstan"},{"link_name":"Æthelwold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelwold_of_Winchester"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gretsch,_Mechthild_2009-76"},{"link_name":"Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset"},{"link_name":"Oswald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_of_Worcester"}],"sub_title":"Reform and formation of England (899–978)","text":"Silver brooch imitating a coin of Edward the Elder, c. 920, found in Rome, Italy. British Museum.During the course of the 10th century, the West Saxon kings extended their power first over Mercia, then into the southern Danelaw, and finally over Northumbria, thereby imposing a semblance of political unity on peoples, who nonetheless would remain conscious of their respective customs and their separate pasts. The prestige, and indeed the pretensions, of the monarchy increased, the institutions of government strengthened, and kings and their agents sought in various ways to establish social order.[65] This process started with Edward the Elder – who with his sister, Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, initially, charters reveal, encouraged people to purchase estates from the Danes, thereby to reassert some degree of English influence in territory which had fallen under Danish control. David Dumville suggests that Edward may have extended this policy by rewarding his supporters with grants of land in the territories newly conquered from the Danes and that any charters issued in respect of such grants have not survived.[66] When Athelflæd died, Mercia was absorbed by Wessex. From that point on there was no contest for the throne, so the house of Wessex became the ruling house of England.[65]Edward the Elder was succeeded by his son Æthelstan, whom Keynes calls the \"towering figure in the landscape of the tenth century\".[67] His victory over a coalition of his enemies – Constantine, King of the Scots; Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of the Cumbrians; and Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin – at the battle of Brunanburh, celebrated by a poem in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, opened the way for him to be hailed as the first king of England.[68] Æthelstan's legislation shows how the king drove his officials to do their respective duties. He was uncompromising in his insistence on respect for the law. However this legislation also reveals the persistent difficulties which confronted the king and his councillors in bringing a troublesome people under some form of control. His claim to be \"king of the English\" was by no means widely recognised.[69] The situation was complex: the Hiberno-Norse rulers of Dublin still coveted their interests in the Danish kingdom of York; terms had to be made with the Scots, who had the capacity not merely to interfere in Northumbrian affairs, but also to block a line of communication between Dublin and York; and the inhabitants of northern Northumbria were considered a law unto themselves. It was only after twenty years of crucial developments following Æthelstan's death in 939 that a unified kingdom of England began to assume its familiar shape. However, the major political problem for Edmund and Eadred, who succeeded Æthelstan, remained the difficulty of subjugating the north.[70] In 959 Edgar is said to have \"succeeded to the kingdom both in Wessex and in Mercia and in Northumbria, and he was then 16 years old\" (ASC, version 'B', 'C'), and is called \"the Peacemaker\".[70] By the early 970s, after a decade of Edgar's 'peace', it may have seemed that the kingdom of England was indeed made whole. In his formal address to the gathering at Winchester the king urged his bishops, abbots and abbesses \"to be of one mind as regards monastic usage . . . lest differing ways of observing the customs of one Rule and one country should bring their holy conversation into disrepute\".[71]Athelstan's court had been an intellectual incubator. In that court were two young men named Dunstan and Æthelwold who were made priests, supposedly at the insistence of Athelstan, right at the end of his reign in 939.[72] Between 970 and 973 a council was held, under the aegis of Edgar, where a set of rules were devised that would be applicable throughout England. This put all the monks and nuns in England under one set of detailed customs for the first time. In 973, Edgar received a special second, 'imperial coronation' at Bath, and from this point England was ruled by Edgar under the strong influence of Dunstan, Athelwold, and Oswald, the Bishop of Worcester.","title":"Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Æthelred the Unready","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready"},{"link_name":"Thorkell the Tall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall"},{"link_name":"Swein Forkbeard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swein_Forkbeard"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Londoncnut.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ælfric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Eynsham"},{"link_name":"Wulfstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulfstan_the_Cantor"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Edmund Ironside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ironside"},{"link_name":"Battle of Assandun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Assandun"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Æthelred and the return of the Scandinavians (978–1016)","text":"The reign of King Æthelred the Unready witnessed the resumption of Viking raids on England, putting the country and its leadership under strains as severe as they were long sustained. Raids began on a relatively small scale in the 980s but became far more serious in the 990s, and brought the people to their knees in 1009–12, when a large part of the country was devastated by the army of Thorkell the Tall. It remained for Swein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, to conquer the kingdom of England in 1013–14, and (after Æthelred's restoration) for his son Cnut to achieve the same in 1015–16. The tale of these years incorporated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle must be read in its own right,[73] and set beside other material which reflects in one way or another on the conduct of government and warfare during Æthelred's reign.[74] It is this evidence which is the basis for Keynes's view that the king lacked the strength, judgement and resolve to give adequate leadership to his people in a time of grave national crisis; who soon found out that he could rely on little but the treachery of his military commanders; and who, throughout his reign, tasted nothing but the ignominy of defeat. The raids exposed tensions and weaknesses which went deep into the fabric of the late Anglo-Saxon state, and it is apparent that events proceeded against a background more complex than the chronicler probably knew. It seems, for example, that the death of Bishop Æthelwold in 984 had precipitated further reaction against certain ecclesiastical interests; that by 993 the king had come to regret the error of his ways, leading to a period when the internal affairs of the kingdom appear to have prospered.[75]Cnut's 'Quatrefoil' type penny with the legend \"CNUT REX ANGLORU[M]\" (Cnut, King of the English), struck in London by the moneyer Edwin.The increasingly difficult times brought on by the Viking attacks are reflected in both Ælfric's and Wulfstan's works, but most notably in Wulfstan's fierce rhetoric in the Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, dated to 1014.[76] Malcolm Godden suggests that ordinary people saw the return of the Vikings as the imminent \"expectation of the apocalypse,\" and this was given voice in Ælfric and Wulfstan writings,[77] which is similar to that of Gildas and Bede. Raids were taken as signs of God punishing his people; Ælfric refers to people adopting the customs of the Danish and exhorts people not to abandon the native customs on behalf of the Danish ones, and then requests a \"brother Edward\" to try to put an end to a \"shameful habit\" of drinking and eating in the outhouse, which some of the countrywomen practised at beer parties.[78]In April 1016, Æthelred died of illness, leaving his son and successor Edmund Ironside to defend the country. The final struggles were complicated by internal dissension, and especially by the treacherous acts of Ealdorman Eadric of Mercia, who opportunistically changed sides to Cnut's party. After the defeat of the English in the Battle of Assandun in October 1016, Edmund and Cnut agreed to divide the kingdom so that Edmund would rule Wessex and Cnut Mercia, but Edmund died soon after his defeat in November 1016, making it possible for Cnut to seize power over all England.[79]","title":"Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Stamford Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge"},{"link_name":"William of Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Conqueror"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"thegnly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thegn"},{"link_name":"Edward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor"},{"link_name":"Leofric of Mercia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leofric,_Earl_of_Mercia"},{"link_name":"Godwine of Wessex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godwin,_Earl_of_Wessex"},{"link_name":"Eustace of Boulogne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustace_II,_Count_of_Boulogne"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maddicott,_J._R._2004-88"},{"link_name":"Earl Siward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Siward"},{"link_name":"his sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Godwin"},{"link_name":"Archbishop Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_of_Jumi%C3%A8ges"},{"link_name":"Stigand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigand"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maddicott,_J._R._2004-88"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Hastings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings"},{"link_name":"Bayeux Tapestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"}],"sub_title":"Conquest of England: Danes, Norwegians and Normans (1016–1066)","text":"In the 11th century, there were three conquests: one by Cnut on October 18, 1016; the second was an unsuccessful attempt of Battle of Stamford Bridge in September, 1066; and the third was conducted by William of Normandy in October, 1066 at Hastings. The consequences of each conquest changed the Anglo-Saxon culture. Politically and chronologically, the texts of this period are not Anglo-Saxon; linguistically, those written in English (as opposed to Latin or French, the other official written languages of the period) moved away from the late West Saxon standard that is called \"Old English\". Yet neither are they \"Middle English\"; moreover, as Treharne explains, for around three-quarters of this period, \"there is barely any 'original' writing in English at all\". These factors have led to a gap in scholarship, implying a discontinuity either side of the Norman Conquest, however this assumption is being challenged.[80]At first sight, there would seem little to debate. Cnut appeared to have adopted wholeheartedly the traditional role of Anglo-Saxon kingship.[81] However an examination of the laws, homilies, wills, and charters dating from this period suggests that as a result of widespread aristocratic death and the fact that Cnut did not systematically introduce a new landholding class, major and permanent alterations occurred in the Saxon social and political structures.[82] Eric John remarks that for Cnut \"the simple difficulty of exercising so wide and so unstable an empire made it necessary to practise a delegation of authority against every tradition of English kingship\".[83] The disappearance of the aristocratic families which had traditionally played an active role in the governance of the realm, coupled with Cnut's choice of thegnly advisors, put an end to the balanced relationship between monarchy and aristocracy so carefully forged by the West Saxon Kings.Edward became king in 1042, and given his upbringing might have been considered a Norman by those who lived across the English Channel. Following Cnut's reforms, excessive power was concentrated in the hands of the rival houses of Leofric of Mercia and Godwine of Wessex. Problems also came for Edward from the resentment caused by the king's introduction of Norman friends. A crisis arose in 1051 when Godwine defied the king's order to punish the men of Dover, who had resisted an attempt by Eustace of Boulogne to quarter his men on them by force.[84] The support of Earl Leofric and Earl Siward enabled Edward to secure the outlawry of Godwine and his sons; and William of Normandy paid Edward a visit during which Edward may have promised William succession to the English throne, although this Norman claim may have been mere propaganda. Godwine and his sons came back the following year with a strong force, and the magnates were not prepared to engage them in civil war but forced the king to make terms. Some unpopular Normans were driven out, including Archbishop Robert, whose archbishopric was given to Stigand; this act supplied an excuse for the Papal support of William's cause.[84]Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux TapestryThe fall of England and the Norman Conquest is a multi-generational, multi-family succession problem caused in great part by Athelred's incompetence. By the time William of Normandy, sensing an opportunity, landed his invading force in 1066, the elite of Anglo-Saxon England had changed, although much of the culture and society had stayed the same.Ða com Wyllelm eorl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sancte Michæles mæsseæfen, sona þæs hi fere wæron, worhton castel æt Hæstingaport. Þis wearð þa Harolde cynge gecydd, he gaderade þa mycelne here, com him togenes æt þære haran apuldran, Wyllelm him com ongean on unwær, ær þis folc gefylced wære. Ac se kyng þeah him swiðe heardlice wið feaht mid þam mannum þe him gelæstan woldon, þær wearð micel wæl geslægen on ægðre healfe. Ðær wearð ofslægen Harold kyng, Leofwine eorl his broðor, Gyrð eorl his broðor, fela godra manna, þa Frencyscan ahton wælstowe geweald.Then came William, the Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey on the evening of St Michael's mass, and soon as his men were ready, they built a fortress at Hasting's port. This was told to King Harold, and he gathered then a great army and came towards them at the Hoary Apple Tree, and William came upon him unawares before his folk were ready. But the king nevertheless withstood him very strongly with fighting with those men who would follow him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. Then Harald the King was slain, and Leofwine the Earl, his brother, and Gyrth, and many good men, and the Frenchmen held the place of slaughter.[85]","title":"Late Anglo-Saxon history (899–1066)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norman conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan2013409%E2%80%93410-92"},{"link_name":"Scandinavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Daniell-93"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Varangian Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangian_Guard"},{"link_name":"North Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Orderic Vitalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orderic_Vitalis"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Harrying of the North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrying_of_the_North"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Norman French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_language"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drout_2006-101"},{"link_name":"J.R.R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Katherine Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Group"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drout_2006-101"},{"link_name":"the Tremulous Hand of Worcester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tremulous_Hand_of_Worcester"},{"link_name":"Exeter Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_Book"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"}],"text":"Following the Norman conquest, many of the Anglo-Saxon nobility were either exiled or had joined the ranks of the peasantry.[86] It has been estimated that only about 8% of the land was under Anglo-Saxon control by 1087.[87] In 1086, only four major Anglo-Saxon landholders still held their lands. However, the survival of Anglo-Saxon heiresses was significantly greater. Many of the next generation of the nobility had English mothers and learnt to speak English at home.[88] Some Anglo-Saxon nobles fled to Scotland, Ireland, and Scandinavia.[89][90] The Byzantine Empire became a popular destination for many Anglo-Saxon soldiers, as it was in need of mercenaries.[91] The Anglo-Saxons became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, hitherto a largely North Germanic unit, from which the emperor's bodyguard was drawn and continued to serve the empire until the early 15th century.[92] However, the population of England at home remained largely Anglo-Saxon; for them, little changed immediately except that their Anglo-Saxon lord was replaced by a Norman lord.[93]The chronicler Orderic Vitalis, who was the product of an Anglo-Norman marriage, writes: \"And so the English groaned aloud for their lost liberty and plotted ceaselessly to find some way of shaking off a yoke that was so intolerable and unaccustomed\".[94] The inhabitants of the North and Scotland never warmed to the Normans following the Harrying of the North (1069–1070), where William, according to the Anglo Saxon Chronicle utterly \"ravaged and laid waste that shire\".[95]Many Anglo-Saxon people needed to learn Norman French to communicate with their rulers, but it is clear that among themselves they kept speaking Old English, which meant that England was in an interesting tri-lingual situation: Anglo-Saxon for the common people, Latin for the Church, and Norman French for the administrators, the nobility, and the law courts. In this time, and because of the cultural shock of the Conquest, Anglo-Saxon began to change very rapidly, and by 1200 or so, it was no longer Anglo-Saxon English, but early Middle English.[96] But this language had deep roots in Anglo-Saxon, which was being spoken much later than 1066. Research has shown that a form of Anglo-Saxon was still being spoken, and not merely among uneducated peasants, into the thirteenth century in the West Midlands.[97] This was J.R.R. Tolkien's major scholarly discovery when he studied a group of texts written in early Middle English called the Katherine Group.[98] Tolkien noticed that a subtle distinction preserved in these texts indicated that Old English had continued to be spoken far longer than anyone had supposed.[97]Old English had been a central mark of the Anglo-Saxon cultural identity. With the passing of time, however, and particularly following the Norman conquest of England, this language changed significantly, and although some people (for example the scribe known as the Tremulous Hand of Worcester) could still read Old English into the thirteenth century, it fell out of use and the texts became useless. The Exeter Book, for example, seems to have been used to press gold leaf and at one point had a pot of fish-based glue sitting on top of it. For Michael Drout this symbolises the end of the Anglo-Saxons.[99]After 1066, it took more than three centuries for English to replace French as the language of government. The 1362 parliament opened with a speech in English and in the early 15th century, Henry V became the first monarch, since before the 1066 conquest, to use English in his written instructions.[100]","title":"After the Norman Conquest"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H%C3%A4rke,_Heinrich_1992-105"}],"text":"The larger narrative, seen in the history of Anglo-Saxon England, is the continued mixing and integration of various disparate elements into one Anglo-Saxon people.[citation needed] The outcome of this mixing and integration was a continuous re-interpretation by the Anglo-Saxons of their society and worldview, which Heinreich Härke calls a \"complex and ethnically mixed society\".[101]","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hexateuch_king.jpg"},{"link_name":"witan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witan"},{"link_name":"Illustrated Old English Hexateuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_Hexateuch"},{"link_name":"British Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Library"},{"link_name":"kingship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingship"},{"link_name":"Woden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woden"},{"link_name":"comitatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comitatus"},{"link_name":"food rent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_render"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199015%E2%80%9317-106"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHough2014117-107"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo"},{"link_name":"Raedwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raedwald"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"wics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-wich_town"},{"link_name":"Richard Hodges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hodges_(archaeologist)"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Bede's Ecclesiastical History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede%27s_Ecclesiastical_History"},{"link_name":"petty kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petty_kingdom"},{"link_name":"Tribal Hidage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribal_Hidage"},{"link_name":"Humber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humber"},{"link_name":"Law of Æthelberht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_%C3%86thelberht"},{"link_name":"ceorls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churl"},{"link_name":"slaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain"},{"link_name":"below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Kinship"},{"link_name":"mund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mund_(law)"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke19909_&_18-112"},{"link_name":"bretwalda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretwalda"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYorke199016-113"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Beowulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Keynes,_Simon_2001-69"}],"sub_title":"Kingship and kingdoms","text":"Anglo-Saxon king with his witan. Biblical scene in the Illustrated Old English Hexateuch (11th century) in the British Library, LondonThe development of Anglo-Saxon kingship is little understood before the 7th century. Royal dynasties often claimed descent from Woden or another deity to justify their rule, but the true basis of their power was as warleaders. Kings were buried as warriors, and war helmets instead of crowns were used in coronations until the 10th century. A king's relationship with his warband (Latin: comitatus) involved mutual obligations. His warriors fought for the king in return for food, shelter, and gifts such as weapons. The people supported their king and his warriors with food rent.[102] Kings extracted surplus by raiding and collecting food rent and \"prestige goods\".[103]The later sixth century saw the end of a 'prestige goods' economy, as evidenced by the decline of accompanied burial, and the appearance of the first 'princely' graves and high-status settlements.[104] The ship burial in mound one at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) is the most widely known example of a 'princely' burial, containing lavish metalwork and feasting equipment, and possibly representing the burial place of King Raedwald of East Anglia. These centres of trade and production reflect the increased socio-political stratification and wider territorial authority which allowed seventh-century elites to extract and redistribute surpluses with far greater effectiveness than their sixth-century predecessors would have found possible.[105] Anglo-Saxon society, in short, looked very different in 600 than it did a hundred years earlier.By 600, the establishment of the first Anglo-Saxon 'emporia' (alternatively 'wics') appears to have been in process. There are only four major archaeologically attested wics in England – London, Ipswich, York, and Hamwic. These were originally interpreted by Richard Hodges as methods of royal control over the import of prestige goods, rather than centre of actual trade-proper.[106] Despite archaeological evidence of royal involvement, emporia are now widely understood to represent genuine trade and exchange, alongside a return to urbanism.[107]According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History, England was divided into many petty kingdoms during the 7th century. The Tribal Hidage of the later 7th century lists 35 people groups south of the Humber. The first written law code, the Law of Æthelberht, depicts a king not only as the leader of a warband but also as the maintainer of law and order. His laws concerned all levels of society: the nobility, ceorls (freemen), and slaves. Traders, missionaries, and other foreigners who lacked the protection of a lord or kinship ties (see below) were under the king's protection (Old English: mund).[108]The most powerful king could be recognised by other rulers as bretwalda (Old English for \"ruler of Britain\").[109] Bede's use of the term imperium has been seen as significant in defining the status and powers of the bretwaldas, in fact it is a word Bede used regularly as an alternative to regnum; scholars believe this just meant the collection of tribute.[110] Oswiu's extension of overlordship over the Picts and Scots is expressed in terms of making them tributary. Military overlordship could bring great short-term success and wealth, but the system had its disadvantages. Many of the overlords enjoyed their powers for a relatively short period.[e] Foundations had to be carefully laid to turn a tribute-paying under-kingdom into a permanent acquisition, such as Bernician absorption of Deira.[111]Only five Anglo-Saxon kingdoms are known to have survived to 800, and several British kingdoms in the west of the country had disappeared as well. The major kingdoms had grown through absorbing smaller principalities, and the means through which they did it and the character their kingdoms acquired as a result are one of the major themes of the Middle Saxon period. Beowulf, for all its heroic content, clearly makes the point that economic and military success were intimately linked. A 'good' king was a generous king who through his wealth won the support which would ensure his supremacy over other kingdoms.[112] The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.[113]The Witan, also called Witenagemot, was the council of kings; its essential duty was to advise the king on all matters on which he chose to ask its opinion. It attested his grants of land to churches or laymen, consented to his issue of new laws or new statements of ancient custom, and helped him deal with rebels and persons suspected of disaffection.King Alfred's digressions in his translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy, provided these observations about the resources which every king needed:In the case of the king, the resources and tools with which to rule are that he have his land fully manned: he must have praying men, fighting men and working men. You know also that without these tools no king may make his ability known. Another aspect of his resources is that he must have the means of support for his tools, the three classes of men. These, then, are their means of support: land to live on, gifts, weapons, food, ale, clothing and whatever else is necessary for each of the three classes of men.[114]This is the first written appearance of the division of society into the 'three orders'; the 'working men' provided the raw materials to support the other two classes. The advent of Christianity brought with it the introduction of new concepts of land tenure. The role of churchmen was analogous with that of the warriors waging heavenly warfare. However what Alfred was alluding to was that in order for a king to fulfil his responsibilities towards his people, particularly those concerned with defence, he had the right to make considerable exactions from the landowners and people of his kingdom.[115] The need to endow the church resulted in the permanent alienation of stocks of land which had previously only been granted on a temporary basis and introduced the concept of a new type of hereditary land which could be freely alienated and was free of any family claims.[116]The nobility under the influence of Alfred became involved with developing the cultural life of their kingdom.[117] As the kingdom became unified, it brought the monastic and spiritual life of the kingdom under one rule and stricter control. However the Anglo-Saxons believed in 'luck' as a random element in the affairs of man and so would probably have agreed that there is a limit to the extent one can understand why one kingdom failed while another succeeded.[118] They also believed in 'destiny' and interpreted the fate of the kingdom of England with Biblical and Carolingian ideology, with parallels, between the Israelites, the great European empires and the Anglo-Saxons. Danish and Norman conquests were just the manner in which God punished his sinful people and the fate of great empires.[65]","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Franks_Casket_vorne_links.jpg"},{"link_name":"Franks Casket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks_Casket"},{"link_name":"Wayland the Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayland_the_Smith"},{"link_name":"pagan religious beliefs with a Scandinavian-Germanic heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_paganism"},{"link_name":"temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathen_hofs"},{"link_name":"sacred trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6r%C3%B0r"},{"link_name":"hearg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B6rgr"},{"link_name":"wēoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9_(shrine)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"Woden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woden"},{"link_name":"Tacitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus"},{"link_name":"Odin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odin"},{"link_name":"Freyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freyr"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Hengist and Horsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hengist_and_Horsa"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Owen-Crocker2000-128"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jupp-129"},{"link_name":"Mound 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo#The_cremations_and_inhumations,_Mounds_17_and_14"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo"},{"link_name":"ship burial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_burial"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carver1998-130"},{"link_name":"Lakenheath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakenheath"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jupp-129"},{"link_name":"Whitby Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitby_Abbey"},{"link_name":"scripture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MS._Hatton_48_fol._6v-7r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Monasticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_monasticism"},{"link_name":"Desert Fathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_Fathers"},{"link_name":"Dunstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunstan"},{"link_name":"Glastonbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Benedictine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictines"},{"link_name":"Benedictine Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gretsch,_Mechthild_2009-76"},{"link_name":"Winchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"The right half of the front panel of the seventh-century Franks Casket, depicting the pan-Germanic legend of Wayland the Smith, which was apparently also a part of Anglo-Saxon pagan mythology.Although Christianity dominates the religious history of the Anglo-Saxons, life in the 5th and 6th centuries was dominated by pagan religious beliefs with a Scandinavian-Germanic heritage.Pagan Anglo-Saxons worshipped at a variety of different sites across their landscape, some of which were apparently specially built temples and others that were natural geographical features such as sacred trees, hilltops or wells. According to place name evidence, these sites of worship were known alternately as either hearg or as wēoh. Most poems from before the Norman Conquest are steeped in pagan symbolism, and their integration into the new faith goes beyond the literary sources.[citation needed] Thus, as Lethbridge reminds us, \"to say, 'this is a monument erected in Christian times and therefore the symbolism on it must be Christian,' is an unrealistic approach. The rites of the older faith, now regarded as superstition, are practised all over the country today. It did not mean that people were not Christian; but that they could see a lot of sense in the old beliefs also\"[119]Early Anglo-Saxon society attached great significance to the horse; a horse may have been an acquaintance of the god Woden, and/or they may have been (according to Tacitus) confidants of the gods. Horses were closely associated with gods, especially Odin and Freyr. Horses played a central role in funerary practices as well as in other rituals.[120] Horses were prominent symbols of fertility, and there were many horse fertility cults. The rituals associated with these include horse fights, burials, consumption of horse meat, and horse sacrifice.[121] Hengist and Horsa, the mythical ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons, were associated with horses,[f] and references to horses are found throughout Anglo-Saxon literature.[122] Actual horse burials in England are relatively rare and \"may point to influence from the continent\".[123] A well-known Anglo-Saxon horse burial (from the sixth/seventh century) is Mound 17 at Sutton Hoo, a few yards from the more famous ship burial in Mound 1.[124] A sixth-century grave near Lakenheath, Suffolk, yielded the body of a man next to that of a complete horse in harness, with a bucket of food by its head.[123]Bede's story of Cædmon, the cowherd who became the 'Father of English Poetry,' represents the real heart of the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons from paganism to Christianity. Bede writes, \"[t]here was in the Monastery of this Abbess (Streonæshalch – now known as Whitby Abbey) a certain brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in Old English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven.\" The story of Cædmon illustrates the blending of Christian and Germanic, Latin and oral tradition, monasteries and double monasteries, pre-existing customs and new learning, popular and elite, that characterizes the Conversion period of Anglo-Saxon history and culture. Cædmon does not destroy or ignore traditional Anglo-Saxon poetry. Instead, he converts it into something that helps the Church. Anglo-Saxon England finds ways to synthesize the religion of the Church with the existing \"northern\" customs and practices. Thus the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was not just their switching from one practice to another, but making something new out of their old inheritance and their new belief and learning.[125]An 8th-century copy of the Rule of St. BenedictMonasticism, and not just the church, was at the centre of Anglo-Saxon Christian life. Western monasticism, as a whole, had been evolving since the time of the Desert Fathers, but in the seventh century, monasticism in England confronted a dilemma that brought to question the truest representation of the Christian faith. The two monastic traditions were the Celtic and the Roman, and a decision was made to adopt the Roman tradition. Monasteria seem to describe all religious congregations other than those of the bishop.In the 10th century, Dunstan brought Athelwold to Glastonbury, where the two of them set up a monastery on Benedictine lines. For many years, this was the only monastery in England that strictly followed the Benedictine Rule and observed complete monastic discipline. What Mechthild Gretsch calls an \"Aldhelm Seminar\" developed at Glastonbury, and the effects of this seminar on the curriculum of learning and study in Anglo-Saxon England were enormous.[72] Royal power was put behind the reforming impulses of Dunstan and Athelwold, helping them to enforce their reform ideas. This happened first at the Old Minster in Winchester, before the reformers built new foundations and refoundations at Thorney, Peterborough, and Ely, among other places. Benedictine monasticism spread throughout England, and these became centers of learning again, run by people trained in Glastonbury, with one rule, the works of Aldhelm at the center of their curricula but also influenced by the vernacular efforts of Alfred. From this mixture sprung a great flowering of literary production.[126]","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Æthelfrith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith"},{"link_name":"Rædwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A6dwald_of_East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"Battle of Edington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Edington"},{"link_name":"Twelfth Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night_(holiday)"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-135"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2004_sutton_hoo_01.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_helmet"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-135"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"Richard I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"}],"sub_title":"Fighting and warfare","text":"Soldiers throughout the country were summoned, for both offensive and defensive war; early armies consisted essentially of household bands, while later on men were recruited on a territorial basis. The mustering of an army, annually at times, occupied an important place in Frankish history, both military and constitutional. The English kingdoms appear to have known no institution similar to this. The earliest reference is Bede's account of the overthrow of the Northumbrian Æthelfrith by Rædwald overlord of the southern English. Rædwald raised a large army, presumably from among the kings who accepted his overlordship, and \"not giving him time to summon and assemble his whole army, Rædwald met him with a much greater force and slew him on the Mercian border on the east bank of the river Idle.\"[127] At the Battle of Edington in 878, when the Danes made a surprise attack on Alfred at Chippenham after Twelfth Night, Alfred retreated to Athelney after Easter and then seven weeks after Easter mustered an army at \"Egbert's stone\".[128] It is not difficult to imagine that Alfred sent out word to the ealdormen to call his men to arms. This may explain the delay, and it is probably no more than coincidence that the army mustered at the beginning of May, a time when there would have been sufficient grass for the horses. There is also information about the mustering of fleets in the eleventh century. From 992 to 1066 fleets were assembled at London, or returned to the city at the end of their service, on several occasions. Where they took up station depended on the quarter from which a threat was expected: Sandwich if invasion was expected from the north, or the Isle of Wight if it was from Normandy.[129]Replica of the Sutton Hoo helmetOnce they left home, these armies and fleets had to be supplied with food and clothing for the men as well as forage for the horses. Yet if armies of the seventh and eighth centuries were accompanied by servants and a supply train of lesser free men, Alfred found these arrangements insufficient to defeat the Vikings. One of his reforms was to divide his military resources into thirds. One part manned the burhs and found the permanent garrisons which would make it impossible for the Danes to overrun Wessex, although they would also take to the field when extra soldiers were needed. The remaining two would take it in turns to serve. They were allocated a fixed term of service and brought the necessary provisions with them. This arrangement did not always function well. On one occasion a division on service went home in the middle of blockading a Danish army on Thorney Island; its provisions were consumed and its term had expired before the king came to relieve them.[130] This method of division and rotation remained in force up to 1066. In 917, when armies from Wessex and Mercia were in the field from early April until November, one division went home and another took over. Again, in 1052 when Edward's fleet was waiting at Sandwich to intercept Godwine's return, the ships returned to London to take on new earls and crews.[129] The importance of supply, vital to military success, was appreciated even if it was taken for granted and features only incidentally in the sources.[131]Military training and strategy are two important matters on which the sources are typically silent. There are no references in literature or laws to men training, and so it is necessary to fall back on inference. For the noble warrior, his childhood was of first importance in learning both individual military skills and the teamwork essential for success in battle. Perhaps the games the youthful Cuthbert played ('wrestling, jumping, running, and every other exercise') had some military significance.[132] Turning to strategy, of the period before Alfred the evidence gives the impression that Anglo-Saxon armies fought battles frequently. Battle was risky and best avoided unless all the factors were on your side. But if you were in a position so advantageous that you were willing to take the chance, it is likely that your enemy would be in such a weak position that he would avoid battle and pay tribute. Battles put the princes' lives at risk, as is demonstrated by the Northumbrian and Mercian overlordships brought to an end by a defeat in the field. Gillingham has shown how few pitched battles Charlemagne and Richard I chose to fight.[133]A defensive strategy becomes more apparent in the later part of Alfred's reign. It was built around the possession of fortified places and the close pursuit of the Danes to harass them and impede their preferred occupation of plundering. Alfred and his lieutenants were able to fight the Danes to a standstill by their repeated ability to pursue and closely besiege them in fortified camps throughout the country. The fortification of sites at Witham, Buckingham, Towcester and Colchester persuaded the Danes of the surrounding regions to submit.[134] The key to this warfare was sieges and the control of fortified places. It is clear that the new fortresses had permanent garrisons, and that they were supported by the inhabitants of the existing burhs when danger threatened. This is brought out most clearly in the description of the campaigns of 917 in the Chronicle, but throughout the conquest of the Danelaw by Edward and Æthelflæd it is clear that a sophisticated and coordinated strategy was being applied.[135]In 973, a single currency was introduced into England in order to bring about political unification, but by concentrating bullion production at many coastal mints, the new rulers of England created an obvious target which attracted a new wave of Viking invasions, which came close to breaking up the kingdom of the English. From 980 onwards, the Anglo -Saxon Chronicle records renewed raiding against England. At first, the raids were probing ventures by small numbers of ships' crews, but soon grew in size and effect, until the only way of dealing with the Vikings appeared to be to pay protection money to buy them off: \"And in that year [991] it was determined that tribute should first be paid to the Danish men because of the great terror they were causing along the coast. The first payment was 10,000 pounds.\"[136]\nThe payment of Danegeld had to be underwritten by a huge balance of payments surplus; this could only be achieved by stimulating exports and cutting imports, itself accomplished through currency devaluation. This affected everyone in the kingdom.","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village_buildings_2.png"},{"link_name":"West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village"},{"link_name":"Suffolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamerow,_Helena_2012-143"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:West_Stow_workshop_interior.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yeavering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeavering"},{"link_name":"royal vill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_vill"},{"link_name":"multiple estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_multiple_estate"},{"link_name":"shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sawyer,_Peter_2013-145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Butser_Ancient_Farm_Saxon_Hall_with_re-enactor_.jpg"},{"link_name":"Butser Ancient Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butser_Ancient_Farm"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"}],"sub_title":"Settlements and working life","text":"Reconstructed buildings from West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, SuffolkHelena Hamerow suggests that the prevailing model of working life and settlement, particularly for the early period, was one of shifting settlement and building tribal kinship. The mid-Saxon period saw diversification, the development of enclosures, the beginning of the toft system, closer management of livestock, the gradual spread of the mould-board plough, 'informally regular plots' and a greater permanence, with further settlement consolidation thereafter foreshadowing post-Norman Conquest villages. The later periods saw a proliferation of service features including barns, mills and latrines, most markedly on high-status sites. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period as Hamerow suggests, \"local and extended kin groups remained...the essential unit of production\". This is very noticeable in the early period. However, by the tenth and eleventh centuries, the rise of the manor and its significance in terms of both settlement and the management of land, which becomes very evident in the Domesday Book of 1086.[137]Reconstructed workshop at West Stow Anglo-Saxon villageThe collection of buildings discovered at Yeavering formed part of an Anglo-Saxon royal vill or king's tun. These 'tun' consisted of a series of buildings designed to provide short-term accommodation for the king and his household. It is thought that the king would have travelled throughout his land dispensing justice and authority and collecting rents from his various estates. Such visits would be periodic, and it is likely that he would visit each royal villa only once or twice per year. The Latin term villa regia which Bede uses of the site suggests an estate centre as the functional heart of a territory held in the king's demesne. The territory is the land whose surplus production is taken into the centre as food-render to support the king and his retinue on their periodic visits as part of a progress around the kingdom. This territorial model, known as a multiple estate or shire, has been developed in a range of studies. Colm O'Brien, in applying this to Yeavering, proposes a geographical definition of the wider shire of Yeavering and also a geographical definition of the principal estate whose structures Hope-Taylor excavated.[138] One characteristic that the king's tun shared with some other groups of places is that it was a point of public assembly. People came together not only to give the king and his entourage board and lodging; but they attended upon the king in order to have disputes settled, cases appealed, lands granted, gifts given, appointments made, laws promulgated, policy debated, and ambassadors heard. People also assembled for other reasons, such as to hold fairs and to trade.[139]Reconstructed Anglo-Saxon house at Butser Ancient Farm, HampshireThe first creations of towns are linked to a system of specialism at individual settlements, which is evidenced in studying place-names. Sutterton, \"shoe-makers' tun\" (in the area of the Danelaw such places are Sutterby) was so named because local circumstances allowed the growth of a craft recognised by the people of surrounding places. Similarly with Sapperton, the \"soap-makers' tun\". While Boultham, the \"meadow with burdock plants\", may well have developed a specialism in the production of burrs for wool-carding, since meadows with burdock merely growing in them must have been relatively numerous. From places named for their services or location within a single district, a category of which the most obvious perhaps are the Eastons and Westons, it is possible to move outwards to glimpse component settlements within larger economic units. Names betray some role within a system of seasonal pasture, Winderton in Warwickshire is the winter tun and various Somertons are self-explanatory. Hardwicks are dairy farms and Swinhopes the valleys where pigs were pastured.[140]Settlement patterns as well as village plans in England fall into two great categories: scattered farms and homesteads in upland and woodland Britain, nucleated villages across a swathe of central England.[141] The chronology of nucleated villages is much debated and not yet clear. Yet there is strong evidence to support the view that nucleation occurred in the tenth century or perhaps the ninth, and was a development parallel to the growth of towns.[142]","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WestStowAngloSaxon-3F7-827647-wiki.jpg"},{"link_name":"West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village"},{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"primogeniture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primogeniture"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"boroughs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_borough"},{"link_name":"Frank Stenton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Stenton"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStenton1987530-153"},{"link_name":"Slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain"},{"link_name":"weregild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weregild"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"}],"sub_title":"Women, children and slaves","text":"An Anglo Saxon woman's attire shown at West Stow Anglo-Saxon VillageAlfred's reference to 'praying men, fighting men and working men' is far from a complete description of his society. Women in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms appear to have enjoyed considerable independence, whether as abbesses of the great 'double monasteries' of monks and nuns founded during the seventh and eighth centuries, as major land-holders recorded in Domesday Book (1086), or as ordinary members of society. They could act as principals in legal transactions, were entitled to the same weregild as men of the same class, and were considered 'oath-worthy', with the right to defend themselves on oath against false accusations or claims. Sexual and other offences against them were penalised heavily. There is evidence that even married women could own property independently, and some surviving wills are in the joint names of husband and wife.[143]Marriage comprised a contract between the woman's family and the prospective bridegroom, who was required to pay a 'bride-price' in advance of the wedding and a 'morning gift' following its consummation. The latter became the woman's personal property, but the former may have been paid to her relatives, at least during the early period. Widows were in a particularly favourable position, with inheritance rights, custody of their children and authority over dependents. However, a degree of vulnerability may be reflected in laws stating that they should not be forced into nunneries or second marriages against their will. The system of primogeniture (inheritance by the first-born male) was not introduced to England until after the Norman Conquest, so Anglo-Saxon siblings – girls as well as boys – were more equal in terms of status.The age of majority was usually either ten or twelve, when a child could legally take charge of inherited property, or be held responsible for a crime.[144] It was common for children to be fostered, either in other households or in monasteries, perhaps as a means of extending the circle of protection beyond the kin group. Laws also make provision for orphaned children and foundlings.[145]The traditional distinction in society, amongst free men, was expressed as eorl and ceorl ('earl and churl') though the term 'Earl' took on a more restricted meaning after the Viking period. The noble rank is designated in early centuries as gesiþas ('companions') or þegnas ('thegns'), the latter coming to predominate. After the Norman Conquest the title 'thegn' was equated to the Norman 'baron'.[146] A certain amount of social mobility is implied by regulations detailing the conditions under which a ceorl could become a thegn. Again these would have been subject to local variation, but one text refers to the possession of five hides of land (around 600 acres), a bell and a castle-gate, a seat and a special office in the king's hall. In the context of the control of boroughs, Frank Stenton notes that according to an 11th-century source, \"a merchant who had carried out three voyages at his own charge [had also been] regarded as of thegnly status.\"[147] Loss of status could also occur, as with penal slavery, which could be imposed not only on the perpetrator of a crime but on his wife and family.A further division in Anglo-Saxon society was between slave and free. Slavery was not as common as in other societies, but appears to have been present throughout the period. Both the freemen and slaves were hierarchically structured, with several classes of freemen and many types of slaves. These varied at different times and in different areas, but the most prominent ranks within free society were the king, the nobleman or thegn, and the ordinary freeman or ceorl. They were differentiated primarily by the value of their weregild or 'man price', which was not only the amount payable in compensation for homicide, but was also used as the basis for other legal formulations such as the value of the oath that they could swear in a court of law. Slaves had no weregild, as offences against them were taken to be offences against their owners, but the earliest laws set out a detailed scale of penalties depending both on the type of slave and the rank of owner.[148] Some slaves may have been members of the native British population conquered by the Anglo-Saxons when they arrived from the continent; others may have been captured in wars between the early kingdoms, or have sold themselves for food in times of famine. However, slavery was not always permanent, and slaves who had gained their freedom would become part of an underclass of freedmen below the rank of ceorl.[149]","title":"Life and society"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png"},{"link_name":"thatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thatch"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"Carolingian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Yeavering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeavering"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EarlsBartonChurch.JPG"},{"link_name":"All Saints' Church, Earls Barton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Earls_Barton"},{"link_name":"Augustine of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Frankish Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francia"},{"link_name":"cathedral and abbey in Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Minster in Sheppey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minster,_Swale"},{"link_name":"Reculver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Church,_Reculver"},{"link_name":"Chapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapel_of_St_Peter-on-the-Wall"},{"link_name":"Bradwell-on-Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradwell-on-Sea"},{"link_name":"porticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porticus"},{"link_name":"Wilfrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid"},{"link_name":"Ripon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripon"},{"link_name":"Hexham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexham"},{"link_name":"Benedict Biscop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_Biscop"},{"link_name":"Escomb Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escomb_Church"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilkinson,_David_John_1964-162"},{"link_name":"Brixworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Brixworth"},{"link_name":"Wareham St Mary's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_St._Mary_Church,_Wareham"},{"link_name":"Canterbury Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Carolingian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"Barnack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John_the_Baptist%27s_Church,_Barnack"},{"link_name":"Barton-upon-Humber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Church,_Barton-upon-Humber"},{"link_name":"Earls Barton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Earls_Barton"},{"link_name":"Glastonbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Old Minster, Winchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Minster,_Winchester"},{"link_name":"Romsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romsey_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Cholsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholsey_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Peterborough Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterborough_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Greensted Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greensted_Church"},{"link_name":"Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilkinson,_David_John_1964-162"},{"link_name":"Stow Minster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stow_Minster"},{"link_name":"Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_architecture"},{"link_name":"Hadstock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadstock"},{"link_name":"Clayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton,_West_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Sompting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Mary_the_Blessed_Virgin,_Sompting"},{"link_name":"Pre-Romanesque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_architecture"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"stained glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Peters_Chapel.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Peter-in-the-Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapel_of_St_Peter-on-the-Wall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brixworth_Church_Northamptonshire.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brixworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Brixworth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barnack_church.JPG"},{"link_name":"Barnack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John_the_Baptist%27s_Church,_Barnack"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sompting_Church_ext_from_west.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sompting Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Mary_the_Blessed_Virgin,_Sompting"},{"link_name":"Rhenish helm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhenish_helm"}],"sub_title":"Architecture","text":"Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon hall at Wychurst, Kent, c. 1000 ADEarly Anglo-Saxon buildings in Britain were generally simple, not using masonry except in foundations but constructed mainly using timber with thatch roofing.[150] Generally preferring not to settle within the old Roman cities,[151] the Anglo-Saxons built small towns near their centres of agriculture, at fords in rivers, or near natural ports. In each town, a main hall was in the centre, provided with a central hearth.[g]Only ten of the hundreds of settlement sites that have been excavated in England from this period have revealed masonry domestic structures and confined to a few specific contexts. Timber was the natural building medium of the age:[152] the Anglo-Saxon word for \"building\" is timbe. Unlike in the Carolingian Empire, late Anglo-Saxon royal halls continued to be of timber in the manner of Yeavering centuries before, even though the king could clearly have mustered the resources to build in stone.[153] Their preference must have been a conscious choice, perhaps an expression of deeply–embedded Germanic identity on the part of the Anglo-Saxon royalty.Even the elite had simple buildings, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape; the largest homes rarely had more than one floor and one room. Buildings varied widely in size, most were square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors, with a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design has been found in towns, where the \"basement\" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor. Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.[154]Distinctive Anglo-Saxon pilaster strips on the tower of All Saints' Church, Earls BartonStone was sometimes used to build churches. Bede makes it clear that the masonry construction of churches, including his own at Jarrow, was undertaken morem Romanorum, 'in the manner of the Romans,' in explicit contrast to existing traditions of timber construction. Even at Canterbury, Bede believed that St Augustine's first cathedral had been 'repaired' or 'recovered' (recuperavit) from an existing Roman church, when in fact it had been newly constructed from Roman materials. The belief was \"the Christian Church was Roman therefore a masonry church was a Roman building\".The building of churches in Anglo-Saxon England essentially began with Augustine of Canterbury in Kent following 597; for this he probably imported workmen from Frankish Gaul. The cathedral and abbey in Canterbury, together with churches in Kent at Minster in Sheppey (c. 664) and Reculver (669), and in Essex at the Chapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall at Bradwell-on-Sea, define the earliest type in southeast England. A simple nave without aisles provided the setting for the main altar; east of this a chancel arch separated the apse for use by the clergy. Flanking the apse and east end of the nave were side chambers serving as sacristies; further porticus might continue along the nave to provide for burials and other purposes. In Northumbria the early development of Christianity was influenced by the Irish mission, important churches being built in timber. Masonry churches became prominent from the late 7th century with the foundations of Wilfrid at Ripon and Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. These buildings had long naves and small rectangular chancels; porticus sometimes surrounded the naves. Elaborate crypts are a feature of Wilfrid's buildings. The best preserved early Northumbrian church is Escomb Church.[155]From the mid-8th century to the mid-10th century, several important buildings survive. One group comprises the first known churches utilizing aisles: Brixworth, the most ambitious Anglo-Saxon church to survive largely intact; Wareham St Mary's; Cirencester; and the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral. These buildings may be compared with churches in the Carolingian Empire. Other lesser churches may be dated to the late eighth and early ninth centuries on the basis of their elaborate sculptured decoration and have simple naves with side porticus.[156] The tower of Barnack hearkens to the West Saxon reconquest in the early 10th century, when decorative features that were to be characteristic of Late Anglo-Saxon architecture were already developed, such as narrow raised bands of stone (pilaster strips) to surround archways and to articulate wall surfaces, as at Barton-upon-Humber and Earls Barton. In plan, however, the churches remained essentially conservative.From the monastic revival of the second half of the tenth century, only a few documented buildings survive or have been excavated. Examples include the abbeys of Glastonbury; Old Minster, Winchester; Romsey; Cholsey; and Peterborough Cathedral. The majority of churches that have been described as Anglo-Saxon fall into the period between the late 10th century and the early 12th century. During this period, many settlements were first provided with stone churches, but timber also continued to be used; the best wood-framed church to survive is Greensted Church in Essex, no earlier than the 9th century, and no doubt typical of many parish churches. On the continent during the eleventh century, a group of interrelated Romanesque styles developed, associated with the rebuilding of many churches on a grand scale, made possible by a general advance in architectural technology and mason-craft.[155]The first fully Romanesque church in England was Edward the Confessor's rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (c. 1042–60, now entirely lost to later construction), while the main development of the style only followed the Norman Conquest. However, at Stow Minster the crossing piers of the early 1050s are clearly proto-Romanesque. A more decorative interpretation of Romanesque in lesser churches can be dated only somewhere between the mid and late 11th century, e.g. Hadstock (Essex), Clayton and Sompting (Sussex); this style continued towards the end of the century as at Milborne Port (Somerset). At St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury (c. 1048–61) Abbot Wulfric aimed to retain the earlier churches while linking them with an octagonal rotunda, but the concept was still essentially Pre-Romanesque. Anglo-Saxon churches of all periods would have been embellished with a range of arts,[157] including wall-paintings, some stained glass, metalwork and statues.St Peter-in-the-Wall, Essex: A simple nave church of the early style c. 650\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBrixworth, Northants: monastery founded c. 690, one of the largest churches to survive relatively intact\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBarnack, Peterborough: Lower tower c. 970 – spire is later\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSompting Church, Sussex, with the only Anglo-Saxon Rhenish helm tower to survive, c. 1050","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quoit brooch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quoit_(brooch)"},{"link_name":"Sarre, Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarre,_Kent"},{"link_name":"Jutish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jutes"},{"link_name":"chip-carved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_carving"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"Taplow burial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taplow_burial"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adams,_No%C3%ABl_2010-166"},{"link_name":"interlace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlace_(art)"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Richards,_Julian_D_1992-167"},{"link_name":"Staffordshire Hoard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staffordshire_Hoard"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anglo-Saxons&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Hammerwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerwich"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-natgeo1111-168"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeahyBland20099-170"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sawyer,_Peter_2013-145"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adams,_No%C3%ABl_2010-166"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"manuscript illumination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Ruthwell Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross"},{"link_name":"Bewcastle Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bewcastle_Cross"},{"link_name":"Easby Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easby_Cross"},{"link_name":"high cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_cross"},{"link_name":"Monkwearmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkwearmouth"},{"link_name":"lacertine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacertine"},{"link_name":"Cuthbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert"},{"link_name":"his wooden inner coffin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Cuthbert%27s_coffin"},{"link_name":"Evangelists' symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelists%27_symbols"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels"},{"link_name":"Codex Amiatinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Amiatinus"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"Ripon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripon"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne_Gospels"},{"link_name":"Echternach Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echternach_Gospels"},{"link_name":"Book of Durrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Durrow"},{"link_name":"gospel book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_book"},{"link_name":"Insular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_art"},{"link_name":"Coptic Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"Codex Amiatinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Amiatinus"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"Ceolfrith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceolfrith"},{"link_name":"vellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BookCerneEvangalist.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Book of Cerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Cerne"},{"link_name":"evangelist portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelist_portrait"},{"link_name":"Saint Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mark"},{"link_name":"Coppergate helmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppergate_helmet"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"Book of Cerne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Cerne"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"Trewhiddle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trewhiddle"},{"link_name":"Æthelwulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf_of_Wessex"},{"link_name":"Æthelswith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelswith"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"Alfred Jewel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jewel"},{"link_name":"Frithestan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frithestan"},{"link_name":"acanthus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthus_(ornament)"},{"link_name":"Byzantine art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"link_name":"ivory carving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_carving"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"Bayeux Tapestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry"},{"link_name":"Odo of Bayeux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odo_of_Bayeux"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sutton.Hoo.PurseLid.RobRoy.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sutton Hoo purse-lid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo_purse-lid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CodexAureusCanterburyFolios9v10r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Codex Aureus of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Aureus_of_Canterbury"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruthwell_Cross_Christ_on_south_side.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ruthwell Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BLW_Silver_Anglo-Saxon_ring.jpg"},{"link_name":"Trewhiddle style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trewhiddle_style"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Oswald%27s_Priory_Anglo-Saxon_cross.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Art","text":"Early Anglo-Saxon art is seen mostly in decorated jewellery, like brooches, buckles, beads and wrist-clasps, some of outstanding quality. Characteristic of the 5th century is the quoit brooch with motifs based on crouching animals, as seen on the silver quoit brooch from Sarre, Kent. While the origins of this style are disputed, it is either an offshoot of provincial Roman, Frankish, or Jutish art. One style flourished from the late 5th century and continued throughout the 6th and is on many square-headed brooches, it is characterised by chip-carved patterns based on animals and masks. A different style, which gradually superseded it, is dominated by serpentine beasts with interlacing bodies.[158]Shoulder clasp (closed) from the Sutton Hoo ship-burial 1, England. British Museum.By the later 6th century, the best works from the south-east are distinguished by greater use of expensive materials, above all gold and garnets, reflecting the growing prosperity of a more organised society which had greater access to imported precious materials, as seen in the buckle from the Taplow burial and the jewellery from Sutton Hoo,[159] c. 600 and c. 625 respectively. The possible symbolism of the decorative elements like interlace and beast forms that were used in these early works remains unclear. These objects were the products of a society that invested its modest surpluses in personal display, who fostered craftsmen and jewellers of a high standard, and in which the possession of a fine brooch or buckle was a valuable status symbol.[160]The Staffordshire Hoard is the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork yet found[update]. Discovered in a field near the village of Hammerwich, it consists of over 3,500 items[161] that are nearly all martial in character and contains no objects specific to female uses.[162][163] It demonstrates that considerable quantities of high-grade goldsmiths' work were in circulation among the elite during the 7th century. It also shows that the value of such items as currency and their potential roles as tribute or the spoils of war could, in a warrior society, outweigh appreciation of their integrity and artistry.[139]The Christianization of the society revolutionised the visual arts, as well as other aspects of society. Art had to fulfil new functions, and whereas pagan art was abstract, Christianity required images clearly representing subjects. The transition between the Christian and pagan traditions is occasionally apparent in 7th century works; examples include the Crundale buckle[159] and the Canterbury pendant.[164] In addition to fostering metalworking skills, Christianity stimulated stone sculpture and manuscript illumination. In these Germanic motifs, such as interlace and animal ornament along with Celtic spiral patterns, are juxtaposed with Christian imagery and Mediterranean decoration, notably vine-scroll. The Ruthwell Cross, Bewcastle Cross and Easby Cross are leading Northumbrian examples of the Anglo-Saxon version of the Celtic high cross, generally with a slimmer shaft.The jamb of the doorway at Monkwearmouth, carved with a pair of lacertine beasts, probably dates from the 680s; the golden, garnet-adorned pectoral cross of St Cuthbert was presumably made before 687; while his wooden inner coffin (incised with Christ and the Evangelists' symbols, the Virgin and Child, archangels and apostles), the Lindisfarne Gospels, and the Codex Amiatinus all date from c. 700. The fact that these works are all from Northumbria might be held to reflect the particular strength of the church in that kingdom.[165] Works from the south were more restrained in their ornamentation than are those from Northumbria.Lindisfarne was an important centre of book production, along with Ripon and Monkwearmouth-Jarrow. The Lindisfarne Gospels might be the single most beautiful book produced in the Middle Ages, and the Echternach Gospels and (probably) the Book of Durrow are other products of Lindisfarne. A Latin gospel book, the Lindisfarne Gospels are richly illuminated and decorated in an Insular style that blends Irish and Western Mediterranean elements and incorporates imagery from the Eastern Mediterranean, including Coptic Christianity.[166] The Codex Amiatinus was produced in the north of England at the same time and has been called the finest book in the world.[167] It is certainly one of the largest, weighing 34 kilograms.[168] It is a pandect, which was rare in the Middle Ages, and included all the books of the Bible in one volume. The Codex Amiatinus was produced at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow in 692 under the direction of Abbot Ceolfrith. Bede probably had something to do with it. The production of the Codex shows the riches of the north of England at this time. We have records of the monastery needing a new grant of land to raise 2,000 more cattle to get the calf skins to make the vellum for the manuscript.[169] The Codex Amiatinus was meant to be a gift to the pope, and Ceolfrith was taking it to Rome when he died on the way. The copy ended up in Florence, where it still is today – a ninth-century copy of this book is in the possession of the pope.[170]Book of Cerne, evangelist portrait of Saint MarkIn the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon Christian art flourished with grand decorated manuscripts and sculptures, along with secular works which bear comparable ornament, like the Witham pins and the Coppergate helmet.[171] The flourishing of sculpture in Mercia occurred slightly later than in Northumbria and is dated to the second half of the 8th century. The Book of Cerne is an early 9th century Insular or Anglo-Saxon Latin personal prayer book with Old English components. This manuscript was decorated and embellished with four painted full-page miniatures, major and minor letters, and continuing panels.[172] Further decorated motifs used in these manuscripts, such as hunched, triangular beasts, also appear on objects from the Trewhiddle hoard (buried in the 870s) and on the rings which bear the names of King Æthelwulf and Queen Æthelswith, which are the centre of a small corpus of fine ninth-century metalwork.There was demonstrable continuity in the south, even though the Danish settlement represented a watershed in England's artistic tradition. Wars and pillaging removed or destroyed much Anglo-Saxon art, while the settlement introduced new Scandinavian craftsmen and patrons. The result was to accentuate the pre-existing distinction between the art of the north and that of the south.[173] In the 10th and 11th centuries, the Viking dominated areas were characterised by stone sculpture in which the Anglo-Saxon tradition of cross shafts took on new forms, and a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian monument, the 'hogback' tomb, was produced.[174] The decorative motifs used on these northern carvings (as on items of personal adornment or everyday use) echo Scandinavian styles. The Wessexan hegemony and the monastic reform movement appear to have been the catalysts for the rebirth of art in southern England from the end of the 9th century. Here artists responded primarily to continental art; foliage supplanting interlace as the preferred decorative motif. Key early works are the Alfred Jewel, which has fleshy leaves engraved on the back plate; and the stole and maniples of Bishop Frithestan of Winchester, which are ornamented with acanthus leaves, alongside figures that bear the stamp of Byzantine art. The surviving evidence points to Winchester and Canterbury as the leading centres of manuscript art in the second half of the 10th century: they developed colourful paintings with lavish foliate borders, and coloured line drawings.By the early 11th century, these two traditions had fused and had spread to other centres. Although manuscripts dominate the corpus, sufficient architectural sculpture, ivory carving and metalwork survives to show that the same styles were current in secular art and became widespread in the south at parochial level. The wealth of England in the later tenth and eleventh century is clearly reflected in the lavish use of gold in manuscript art as well as for vessels, textiles and statues (now known only from descriptions). Widely admired, southern English art was highly influential in Normandy, France and Flanders from c. 1000.[175] Indeed, keen to possess it or recover its materials, the Normans appropriated it in large quantities in the wake of the Conquest. The Bayeux Tapestry, probably designed by a Canterbury artist for Bishop Odo of Bayeux, is arguably the apex of Anglo-Saxon art. Surveying nearly 600 years of continuous change, three common strands stand out: lavish colour and rich materials; an interplay between abstract ornament and representational subject matter; and a fusion of art styles reflecting English links to other parts of Europe.[176]Sutton Hoo purse-lid c. 620\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCodex Aureus of Canterbury c. 750\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRuthwell Cross c. 750\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTrewhiddle style on silver ring c. 775 – c. 850\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSt Oswald's Priory Cross c. 890","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"porticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porticus"},{"link_name":"St Mary's parish church, Breamore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breamore#St_Mary's_church"},{"link_name":"English language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"West Germanic language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"Old Frisian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Frisian"},{"link_name":"Old Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxon"},{"link_name":"inflected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection"},{"link_name":"grammatical cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_case"},{"link_name":"grammatical numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_number"},{"link_name":"grammatical genders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_gender"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"Common Brittonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Brittonic"},{"link_name":"British Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Latin"},{"link_name":"an influence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittonicisms_in_English"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"Richard Coates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Coates"},{"link_name":"Northern Subject Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Subject_Rule"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"Old Norse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse"},{"link_name":"place names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponym"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shay2008-192"},{"link_name":"Danelaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danelaw"},{"link_name":"Tees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Tees"},{"link_name":"Proto-Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"}],"sub_title":"Language","text":"Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe ('Here is manifested the Word to thee'). Unique Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century St Mary's parish church, Breamore, HampshireOld English (Ænglisċ, Anglisċ, Englisċ) is the earliest form of the English language. It was brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers, and was spoken and written in parts of what are now England and southeastern Scotland until the mid-12th century, by which time it had evolved into Middle English. Old English was a West Germanic language, closely related to Old Frisian and Old Saxon (Old Low German). The language was fully inflected, with five grammatical cases, three grammatical numbers and three grammatical genders. Over time, Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, spoken north of the Humber; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, spoken in Kent; and West Saxon, spoken across the south and southwest. All of these dialects have direct descendants in modern England. Standard English developed from the Mercian dialect, as it was predominant in London.[177]It is generally held that Old English received little influence from the Common Brittonic and British Latin spoken in southern Britain prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, as it took in very few loan words from these languages. Though some scholars have claimed that Brittonic could have exerted an influence on English syntax and grammar,[178][179][180] these ideas have not become consensus views,[181] and have been criticized by other historical linguists.[182][183] Richard Coates has concluded that the strongest candidates for substratal Brittonic features in English are grammatical elements occurring in regional dialects in the north and west of England, such as the Northern Subject Rule.[184]Old English was more clearly influenced by Old Norse. Scandinavian loan words in English include place names, items of basic vocabulary such as sky, leg and they,[185] and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, including the East Midlands and Northumbria south of the Tees). Old Norse was related to Old English, as both originated from Proto-Germanic, and many linguists believe that the loss of inflectional endings in Old English was accelerated by contact with Norse.[186][187][188]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamerow2012166-6"},{"link_name":"Rædwald of East Anglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A6dwald_of_East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"weregilds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weregild"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"}],"sub_title":"Kinship","text":"Local and extended kin groups were a key aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture. Kinship fueled societal advantages, freedom and the relationships to an elite, that allowed the Anglo-Saxons' culture and language to flourish.[5] The ties of loyalty to a lord were to the person of a lord and not to his station; there was no real concept of patriotism or loyalty to a cause. This explains why dynasties waxed and waned so quickly, since a kingdom was only as strong as its leader-king. There was no underlying administration or bureaucracy to maintain any gains beyond the lifetime of a leader. An example of this was the leadership of Rædwald of East Anglia and how the East Anglian primacy did not survive his death.[189] Kings could not make new laws barring exceptional circumstances. Their role instead was to uphold and clarify previous custom and to assure his subjects that he would uphold their ancient privileges, laws, and customs. Although the person of the king as a leader could be exalted, the office of kingship was not in any sense as powerful or as invested with authority as it was to become. One of the tools kings used was to tie themselves closely to the new Christian church, through the practice of having a church leader anoint and crown the king; God and king were then joined in peoples' minds.[190]The ties of kinship meant that the relatives of a murdered person were obliged to exact vengeance for his or her death. This led to bloody and extensive feuds. As a way out of this deadly and futile custom the system of weregilds was instituted. The weregild set a monetary value on each person's life according to their wealth and social status. This value could also be used to set the fine payable if a person was injured or offended against. Robbing a thane called for a higher penalty than robbing a ceorl. On the other hand, a thane who thieved could pay a higher fine than a ceorl who did likewise. Men were willing to die for the lord and to support their comitatus (their warrior band). Evidence of this behavior (though it may be more a literary ideal than an actual social practice) can be observed in the story, made famous in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 755, of Cynewulf and Cyneheard, in which the followers of a defeated king decided to fight to the death rather than be reconciled after the death of their lord.[191]This emphasis on social standing affected all parts of the Anglo-Saxon world. The courts, for example, did not attempt to discover the facts in a case; instead, in any dispute it was up to each party to get as many people as possible to swear to the rightness of their case, which became known as oath-swearing. The word of a thane counted for that of six ceorls.[192] It was assumed that any person of good character would be able to find enough people to swear to his innocence that his case would prosper.Anglo-Saxon society was also decidedly patriarchal, but women were in some ways better off than they would be in later times. A woman could own property in her own right. She could and did rule a kingdom if her husband died. She could not be married without her consent, and any personal goods, including lands, that she brought into a marriage remained her own property. If she were injured or abused in her marriage, her relatives were expected to look after her interests.[193]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Law_of_%C3%86thelberht.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rochester Cathedral Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester_Cathedral#Library"},{"link_name":"Textus Roffensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textus_Roffensis"},{"link_name":"Æthelberht of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-204"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-205"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"},{"link_name":"hundreds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred_(county_division)"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyams,_P_1981-208"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyams,_P_1981-208"}],"sub_title":"Law","text":"The initial page of Rochester Cathedral Library, MS A.3.5, the Textus Roffensis, which contains the only surviving copy of King Æthelberht of Kent's laws.The most noticeable feature of the Anglo-Saxon legal system is the apparent prevalence of legislation in the form of law codes. The early Anglo-Saxons were organised in various small kingdoms often corresponding to later shires or counties. The kings of these small kingdoms issued written laws, one of the earliest of which is attributed to Ethelbert, king of Kent, ca.560–616.[194] The Anglo-Saxon law codes follow a pattern found in mainland Europe where other groups of the former Roman Empire encountered government dependent upon written sources of law and hastened to display the claims of their own native traditions by reducing them to writing. These legal systems should not be thought of as operating like modern legislation, rather they are educational and political tools designed to demonstrate standards of good conduct rather than act as criteria for subsequent legal judgment.[195]Although not themselves sources of law, Anglo-Saxon charters are a most valuable historical source for tracing the actual legal practices of the various Anglo-Saxon communities. A charter was a written document from a king or other authority confirming a grant either of land or some other valuable right. Their prevalence in the Anglo-Saxon state is a sign of sophistication. They were frequently appealed to and relied upon in litigation. Making grants and confirming those made by others was a major way in which Anglo-Saxon kings demonstrated their authority.[196]The royal council or witan played a central but limited role in the Anglo-Saxon period. The main feature of the system was its high degree of decentralisation. The interference by the king through his granting of charters and the activity of his witan in litigation are exceptions rather than the rule in Anglo-Saxon times.[197] The most important court in the later Anglo-Saxon period was the shire court. Many shires (such as Kent and Sussex) were in the early days of the Anglo-Saxon settlement the centre of small independent kingdoms. As the kings first of Mercia and then of Wessex slowly extended their authority over the whole of England, they left the shire courts with overall responsibility for the administration of law.[198] The shire met in one or more traditional places, earlier in the open air and then later in a moot or meeting hall. The meeting of the shire court was presided over by an officer, the shire reeve or sheriff, whose appointment came in later Anglo-Saxon times into the hands of the king but had in earlier times been elective. The sheriff was not the judge of the court, merely its president. The judges of the court were all those who had the right and duty of attending the court, the suitors. These were originally all free male inhabitants of the neighbourhood, but over time suit of court became an obligation attached to particular holdings of land. The sessions of a shire court resembled more closely those of a modern local administrative body than a modern court. It could and did act judicially, but this was not its prime function. In the shire court, charters and writs would be read out for all to hear.[199]Below the level of the shire, each county was divided into areas known as hundreds (or wapentakes in the north of England). These were originally groups of families rather than geographical areas. The hundred court was a smaller version of the shire court, presided over by the hundred bailiff, formerly a sheriff's appointment, but over the years many hundreds fell into the private hands of a local large landowner. Little is known about hundred court business, which was likely a mix of the administrative and judicial, but they remained in some areas an important forum for the settlement of local disputes well into the post-Conquest period.[200]The Anglo-Saxon system put an emphasis upon compromise and arbitration: litigating parties were enjoined to settle their differences if possible. If they persisted in bringing a case for decision before a shire court, then it could be determined there. The suitors of the court would pronounce a judgment which fixed how the case would be decided: legal problems were considered to be too complex and difficult for mere human decision, and so proof or demonstration of the right would depend upon some irrational, non-human criterion. The normal methods of proof were oath-helping or the ordeal.[201] Oath-helping involved the party undergoing proof swearing to the truth of his claim or denial and having that oath reinforced by five or more others, chosen either by the party or by the court. The number of helpers required and the form of their oath differed from place to place and upon the nature of the dispute.[202] If either the party or any of the helpers failed in the oath, either refusing to take it or sometimes even making an error in the required formula, the proof failed and the case was adjudged to the other side. As \"wager of law,\" it remained a way of determining cases in the common law until its abolition in the 19th century.[203]The ordeal offered an alternative for those unable or unwilling to swear an oath. The two most common methods were the ordeal by hot iron and by cold water. The former consisted in carrying a red-hot iron for five paces: the wound was immediately bound up, and if on unbinding, it was found to be festering, the case was lost. In the ordeal by water, the victim, usually an accused person, was cast bound into water: if he sunk he was innocent, if he floated he was guilty. Although for perhaps understandable reasons, the ordeals became associated with trials in criminal matters. They were in essence tests of the truth of a claim or denial of a party and appropriate for trying any\nlegal issue. The allocation of a mode of proof and who should bear it was the substance of the shire court's judgment.[201]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Beowulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf"},{"link_name":"epic poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poem"},{"link_name":"hagiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiography"},{"link_name":"sermons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermon"},{"link_name":"Bible translations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_Bible_translations"},{"link_name":"chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle"},{"link_name":"riddles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_riddles"},{"link_name":"manuscripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript"},{"link_name":"Roman alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon runes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"styles of hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleography"},{"link_name":"scriptoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptoria"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"Old English poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_poetry"},{"link_name":"codex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex"},{"link_name":"scroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll"},{"link_name":"Junius Manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junius_Manuscript"},{"link_name":"Vercelli Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vercelli_Book"},{"link_name":"Exeter Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_Book"},{"link_name":"Nowell Codex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowell_Codex"},{"link_name":"The Wanderer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wanderer_(Old_English_poem)"},{"link_name":"The Seafarer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seafarer_(poem)"},{"link_name":"Deor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deor"},{"link_name":"The Ruin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ruin"},{"link_name":"Dream of the Rood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_of_the_Rood"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"Ruthwell Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthwell_Cross"},{"link_name":"Franks Casket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks_Casket"},{"link_name":"The Battle of Maldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_Maldon"},{"link_name":"action against the Vikings in 991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon"},{"link_name":"Cotton Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Library"},{"link_name":"hemistiches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemistich"},{"link_name":"caesura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesura"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"epic poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry"},{"link_name":"Cædmonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A6dmon"},{"link_name":"Cynewulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynewulf"},{"link_name":"Beowulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf"},{"link_name":"national epic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_epic"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218"},{"link_name":"Homilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homily"},{"link_name":"Ælfric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86lfric_of_Eynsham"},{"link_name":"Wulfstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulfstan_the_Cantor"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle"}],"sub_title":"Literature","text":"First page of the fire-damaged epic BeowulfOld English literary works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. The manuscripts use a modified Roman alphabet, but Anglo-Saxon runes or futhorc are used in under 200 inscriptions on objects, sometimes mixed with Roman letters.This literature is remarkable for being in the vernacular (Old English) in the early medieval period: almost all other written literature in Western Europe was in Latin at this time, but because of Alfred's programme of vernacular literacy, the oral traditions of Anglo-Saxon England ended up being converted into writing and preserved. Much of this preservation can be attributed to the monks of the tenth century, who made – at the very least – the copies of most of the literary manuscripts that still exist. Manuscripts were not common items. They were expensive and hard to make.[204] First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens. Every manuscript is slightly different from another, even if they are copies of each other, because every scribe had different handwriting and made different errors. Individual scribes can sometimes be identified from their handwriting, and different styles of hand were used in specific scriptoria (centres of manuscript production), so the location of the manuscript production can often be identified.[205]There are four great poetic codices of Old English poetry (a codex is a book in modern format, as opposed to a scroll): the Junius Manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Nowell Codex or Beowulf Manuscript; most of the well-known lyric poems such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Deor and The Ruin are found in the Exeter Book, while the Vercelli Book has the Dream of the Rood,[206] some of which is also carved on the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket also has carved riddles, a popular form with the Anglo-Saxons. Old English secular poetry is mostly characterized by a somewhat gloomy and introspective cast of mind, and the grim determination found in The Battle of Maldon, recounting an action against the Vikings in 991. This is from a book that was lost in the Cotton Library fire of 1731, but it had been transcribed previously.Rather than being organized around rhyme, the poetic line in Anglo-Saxon is organised around alliteration, the repetition of stressed sounds; any repeated stressed sound, vowel or consonant, could be used. Anglo-Saxon lines are made up of two half-lines (in old-fashioned scholarship, these are called hemistiches) divided by a breath-pause or caesura. There must be at least one of the alliterating sounds on each side of the caesura.hreran mid hondum hrimcealde sæ[h]The line above illustrates the principle: note that there is a natural pause after 'hondum' and that the first stressed syllable after that pause begins with the same sound as a stressed line from the first half-line (the first halfline is called the a-verse and the second is the b-verse).[208]There is very strong evidence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has deep roots in oral tradition, but keeping with the cultural practices seen elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon culture, there was a blending between tradition and new learning.[209] Thus while all Old English poetry has common features, three strands can be identified: religious poetry, which includes poems about specifically Christian topics, such as the cross and the saints; Heroic or epic poetry, such as Beowulf, which is about heroes, warfare, monsters, and the Germanic past; and poetry about \"smaller\" topics, including introspective poems (the so-called elegies), \"wisdom\" poems (which communicate both traditional and Christian wisdom), and riddles. For a long time all Anglo-Saxon poetry was divided into three groups: Cædmonian (the biblical paraphrase poems), heroic, and \"Cynewulfian,\" named after Cynewulf, one of the only named poets in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous works from this period include the epic poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain.[210]There are about 30,000 surviving lines of Old English poetry and about ten times that much prose, and the majority of both is religious. The prose was influential and obviously very important to the Anglo-Saxons and more important than the poetry to those who came after the Anglo-Saxons. Homilies are sermons, lessons to be given on moral and doctrinal matters, and the two most prolific and respected writers of Anglo-Saxon prose, Ælfric and Wulfstan, were both homilists.[211] Almost all surviving poetry is found in only one manuscript copy, but there are several versions of some prose works, especially the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was apparently promulgated to monasteries by the royal court. Anglo-Saxon clergy also continued to write in Latin, the language of Bede's works, monastic chronicles, and theological writing, although Bede's biographer records that he was familiar with Old English poetry and gives a five line lyric which he either wrote or liked to quote – the sense is unclear.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Symbolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology"},{"link_name":"Julian D. Richards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_D._Richards"},{"link_name":"oral traditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_tradition"},{"link_name":"material culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_culture"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Richards,_Julian_D_1992-167"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H%C3%A4rke,_Heinrich_1992-105"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guido2000-223"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Lakenheath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakenheath"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"},{"link_name":"Dream of the Rood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_of_the_Rood"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-228"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-228"},{"link_name":"coinage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"}],"sub_title":"Symbolism","text":"Symbolism was an essential element in Anglo-Saxon culture. Julian D. Richards suggests that in societies with strong oral traditions, material culture is used to store and pass on information and stand instead of literature in those cultures. This symbolism is less logical than literature and more difficult to read. Anglo-Saxons used symbolism to communicate as well as to aid their thinking about the world. Anglo-Saxons used symbols to differentiate between groups and people, status and role in society.[160]The visual riddles and ambiguities of early Anglo-Saxon animal art, for example, has been seen as emphasising the protective roles of animals on dress accessories, weapons, armour and horse equipment, and its evocation of pre-Christian mythological themes. However Howard Williams and Ruth Nugent have suggested that the number of artefact categories that have animals or eyes—from pots to combs, buckets to weaponry—was to make artefacts 'see' by impressing and punching circular and lentoid shapes onto them. This symbolism of making the object seems to be more than decoration.[212]Conventional interpretations of the symbolism of grave goods revolved around religion (equipment for the hereafter), legal concepts (inalienable possessions) and social structure (status display, ostentatious destruction of wealth). There was multiplicity of messages and variability of meanings characterised the deposition of objects in Anglo-Saxon graves. In Early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, 47% of male adults and 9% of all juveniles were buried with weapons. The proportion of adult weapon burials is much too high to suggest that they all represent a social elite.[213] The usual assumption is that these are 'warrior burials', and this term is used throughout the archaeological and historical literature. However, a systematic comparison of burials with and without weapons, using archaeological and skeletal data, suggests that this assumption is much too simplistic and even misleading. Anglo-Saxon weapon burial rite involved a complex ritual symbolism: it was multi-dimensional, displaying ethnic affiliation, descent, wealth, élite status, and age groups. This symbol continued until c.700 when it ceased to have the symbolic power that it had before.[214] Heinrich Härke suggests this change was the result of the changing structure of society and especially in ethnicity and assimilation, implying the lowering of ethnic boundaries in the Anglo-Saxon settlement areas of England towards a common culture.[101]The word bead comes from the Anglo-Saxon words bidden (to pray) and bede (prayer). The vast majority of early Anglo-Saxon female graves contain beads, which are often found in large numbers in the area of the neck and chest. Beads are sometimes found in male burials, with large beads often associated with prestigious weapons. A variety of materials other than glass were available for Anglo-Saxon beads, including amber, rock crystal, amethyst, bone, shells, coral and even metal.[215] These beads are usually considered to have a social or ritual function. Anglo-Saxon glass beads show a wide variety of bead manufacturing techniques, sizes, shapes, colours and decorations. Various studies have been carried out investigating the distribution and chronological change of bead types.[216][217] The crystal beads which appear on bead strings in the pagan Anglo-Saxon period seems to have gone through various changes in meaning in the Christian period, which Gale Owen-Crocker suggests was linked to symbolism of the Virgin Mary, and hence to intercession.[218] John Hines has suggested that the over 2,000 different types of beads found at Lakenheath show that the beads symbolise identity, roles, status and micro cultures within the tribal landscape of the early Anglo-Saxon world.[219]Symbolism continued to have a hold on the minds of Anglo-Saxon people into the Christian eras. The interiors of churches would have glowed with colour, and the walls of the halls were painted with decorative scenes from the imagination telling stories of monsters and heroes like those in the poem Beowulf. Although nothing much is left of the wall paintings, evidence of their pictorial art is found in Bibles and Psalters, in illuminated manuscripts. The poem The Dream of the Rood is an example how symbolism of trees was fused into Christian symbolism.\nRichard North suggests that the sacrifice of the tree was in accordance with pagan virtues and \"the image of Christ's death was constructed in this poem with reference to an Anglian ideology of the world tree\".[220] North suggests that the author of The Dream of the Rood \"uses the language of the myth of Ingui in order to present the Passion to his newly Christianized countrymen as a story from their native tradition\".[220] Furthermore, the tree's triumph over death is celebrated by adorning the cross with gold and jewels.The most distinctive feature of coinage of the first half of the 8th century is its portrayal of animals, to an extent found in no other European coinage of the Early Middle Ages. Some animals, such as lions or peacocks, would have been known in England only through descriptions in texts or through images in manuscripts or on portable objects. The animals were not merely illustrated out of an interest in the natural world. Each was imbued with meanings and acted as a symbol which would have been understood at the time.[221]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"vegetarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianism"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"}],"sub_title":"Food","text":"The food eaten by Anglo-Saxons was long presumed to differ between elites and commoners. However, a 2022 study by the University of Cambridge found that Anglo-Saxon elites and royalty both ate a primarily vegetarian diet based on cereal grains as did peasants. The discovery came after bioarchaeologist Sam Leggett analysed chemical dietary signatures from the bones of 2,023 people buried in England between the 5th to 11th Centuries and cross referenced the analysis with markers of social status. Rather than elites eating regular banquets with huge quantities of meat, the researchers concluded these were occasional grand feasts hosted by the peasants for their rulers rather than regular occurrences.[222][223]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Geoffrey of Monmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"philology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philology"},{"link_name":"Victorian era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era"},{"link_name":"Robert Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Knox"},{"link_name":"James Anthony Froude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Anthony_Froude"},{"link_name":"Charles Kingsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kingsley"},{"link_name":"Edward A. Freeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_A._Freeman"},{"link_name":"colonialistic imperialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism"},{"link_name":"superior to those held by colonised peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_superiority"},{"link_name":"civilise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilising_mission"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"Samuel George Morton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton"},{"link_name":"George Fitzhugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Fitzhugh"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHills200335-235"},{"link_name":"English ethnic group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_(ethnic_group)"},{"link_name":"Anglophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"},{"link_name":"White Anglo-Saxon Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant"},{"link_name":"The Boston Brahmin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Brahmin"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"}],"text":"Anglo-Saxon is still used as a term for the original Old English-derived vocabulary within the modern English language, in contrast to vocabulary derived from Old Norse and French.Throughout the history of Anglo-Saxon studies, different narratives of the people have been used to justify contemporary ideologies. In the early Middle Ages, the views of Geoffrey of Monmouth produced a personally inspired (and largely fictitious) history that was not challenged for some 500 years.[citation needed] In the Reformation, Christians looking to establish an independent English church reinterpreted Anglo-Saxon Christianity.[citation needed] In the 19th century, the term Anglo-Saxon was broadly used in philology, and is sometimes so used at present, though the term 'Old English' is more commonly used. During the Victorian era, writers such as Robert Knox, James Anthony Froude, Charles Kingsley and Edward A. Freeman used the term Anglo-Saxon to justify colonialistic imperialism, claiming that Anglo-Saxon heritage was superior to those held by colonised peoples, which justified efforts to \"civilise\" them.[224][225] Similar racist ideas were advocated in 19th-century United States by Samuel George Morton and George Fitzhugh.[226] The historian Catherine Hills contends that these views have influenced how versions of early English history are embedded in the sub-conscious of certain people and are \"re-emerging in school textbooks and television programmes and still very congenial to some strands of political thinking.\"[227]The term Anglo-Saxon is sometimes used to refer to peoples descended or associated in some way with the English ethnic group, but there is no universal definition for the term. In contemporary Anglophone cultures outside Britain, \"Anglo-Saxon\" may be contrasted with \"Celtic\" as a socioeconomic identifier, invoking or reinforcing historical prejudices against non-English British and Irish immigrants. \"White Anglo-Saxon Protestant\" (WASP) is a term especially popular in the United States that refers chiefly to long-established wealthy families with mostly English ancestors. As such, WASP is not a historical label or a precise ethnological term but rather a reference to contemporary family-based political, financial and cultural power, e.g. The Boston Brahmin.The term Anglo-Saxon is becoming increasingly controversial among some scholars, especially those in America, for its modern politicised nature and adoption by the far-right. In 2019, the International Society of Anglo-Saxonists changed their name to the International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England, in recognition of this controversy.[228]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStenton198788-37"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-115"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-127"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-158"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-215"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"}],"text":"^ Throughout this article Anglo-Saxon is used for Saxon, Angles, Jute, or Frisian unless specific subgroupings are relevant to a point being made. \"Anglo-Saxon\" is used when specifically the culture is meant rather than any ethnicity. However, all these terms are interchangeably used by many scholars.\n\n^ There is much evidence for loosely managed and shifting cultivation and no evidence of \"top down\" structured landscape planning.\n\n^ Confirmation of this interpretation may come from Bede's account of the battle of the river Winwæd of 655, where it is said that Penda of Mercia, overlord of all the southern kingdoms, was able to call upon thirty contingents, each led by duces regii – royal commanders.[27]\n\n^ From its reference to \"Aldfrith, who now reigns peacefully\" it must date to between 685 and 704. [34]\n\n^ Oswiu of Northumbria (642–70) only won authority over the southern kingdoms after he defeated Penda at the battle of the Winwæd in 655 and must have lost it again soon after Wulfhere regained control in Mercia in 658.\n\n^ Their names mean, literally, \"Stallion\" and \"Horse\"\n\n^ York and London both offer examples of this trend.\n\n^ Example from the Wanderer[207]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan2013_1-0"},{"link_name":"Higham et al. 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHighamRyan2013"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan20137%E2%80%9319_2-0"},{"link_name":"Higham & Ryan 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHighamRyan2013"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/originsofenglish0000will"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-02-934470-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-934470-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan20137_4-0"},{"link_name":"Higham & Ryan 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHighamRyan2013"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamerow2012166_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamerow2012166_6-1"},{"link_name":"Hamerow 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHamerow2012"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-brooks_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-brooks_7-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0068113X23000193","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068113X23000193"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall2013218_13-0"},{"link_name":"Halsall 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHalsall2013"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalsall201313_14-0"},{"link_name":"Halsall 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1843b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGiles1843b"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:9_21-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-907628-32-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907628-32-X"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"458534293","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/458534293"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Higham,_Nick_1995_22-0"},{"link_name":"Higham, Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._J._Higham"},{"link_name":"An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jv68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA2"},{"link_name":"Manchester University 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Book III, chapters 3 and 5.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People/Book_3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStenton198788_37-0"},{"link_name":"Stenton 1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStenton1987"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell198280%E2%80%9381_39-0"},{"link_name":"Campbell 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Rochester: Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiqaries of London 56.\n\n^ Brugmann, B. 2004. Glass beads from Anglo-Saxon graves: a study of the provenance and chronology of glass beads from early Anglo-Saxon graves, based on visual examination. Oxford: Oxbow\n\n^ Owen-Crocker, Gale R. Dress in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press, 2004.\n\n^ John Hines (1998) The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambridgeshire. Council for British Archaeology.\n\n^ a b North, Richard (1997-12-11). Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-55183-0.\n\n^ Gannon, Anna (2003-04-24). The Iconography of Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage: Sixth to Eighth Centuries. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925465-1.\n\n^ \"Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian\". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-05-12.\n\n^ Webb, Samuel (2022-04-21). \"Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims\". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-05-12.\n\n^ Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 by Patrick Brantlinger. Cornell University Press, 1990\n\n^ Race and Empire in British Politics by Paul B. Rich. CUP Archive, 1990\n\n^ Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism by Reginald Horsman. Harvard University Press, 1981. (pgs. 126, 173, 273)\n\n^ Hills 2003, p. 35.\n\n^ \"Message from the Advisory Board\". International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England. The Advisory Board of ISSEME. 19 September 2019.","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Halsall, Guy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Halsall"},{"link_name":"Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/worldsofarthurfa0000hals/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780198700845","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198700845"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-921214-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921214-9"},{"link_name":"Higham, Nicholas J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_J._Higham_(history)"},{"link_name":"Yale University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-300-12534-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12534-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780715631911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780715631911"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-85109-440-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-440-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84529-158-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84529-158-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-821716-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821716-1"},{"link_name":"\"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170830194912/http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183"},{"link_name":"Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-90-8964-078-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8964-078-9"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8264-7765-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-7765-8"},{"link_name":"Brown, Michelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_P._Brown"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-140-14395-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-140-14395-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-924982-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924982-4"},{"link_name":"Dodwell, C. 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Britons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/britons00snyd"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-631-22260-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22260-6"},{"link_name":"Webster, Leslie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Webster_(art_historian)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7141-2809-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-2809-2"},{"link_name":"Wickham, Chris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wickham"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-921296-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-921296-5"},{"link_name":"Wickham, Chris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wickham"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-14-311742-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-311742-1"},{"link_name":"Wilson, David M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_M._Wilson"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-906780-93-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906780-93-4"},{"link_name":"Yorke, Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Yorke"},{"link_name":"Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/kingskingdomsofe0000york"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-16639-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16639-X"},{"link_name":"Yorke, Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Yorke"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7185-1856-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7185-1856-X"},{"link_name":"Yorke, Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Yorke"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-582-77292-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-77292-2"},{"link_name":"Mercia: The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Central England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/merciaanglosaxon0000zalu"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-873827-62-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-873827-62-8"}],"text":"General\nHalsall, Guy (2013). Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198700845.\nHamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. (2011), The Oxford Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology., Oxford: OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-921214-9\nHigham, Nicholas J.; Ryan, Martin J. (2013), The Anglo-Saxon World, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-12534-4\nHills, Catherine (2003), Origins of the English, London: Duckworth, ISBN 9780715631911\nKoch, John T. (2006), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO, ISBN 1-85109-440-7\nOppenheimer, Stephen (2006). The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story. London: Constable and Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84529-158-7.\nStenton, Sir Frank M. (1987) [first published 1943], Anglo-Saxon England, The Oxford History of England, vol. II (3rd ed.), OUP, ISBN 0-19-821716-1\nHistorical\nBazelmans, Jos (2009), \"The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians\", in Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico (eds.), Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University, pp. 321–337, ISBN 978-90-8964-078-9, archived from the original on 2017-08-30, retrieved 2017-05-31\nBrown, Michelle P.; Farr, Carol A., eds. (2001), Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 0-8264-7765-8\nBrown, Michelle, The Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Medieval World (2010)\nCampbell, James, ed. (1982). The Anglo-Saxons. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-14395-9.\nCharles-Edwards, Thomas, ed. (2003), After Rome, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-924982-4\nClark, David, and Nicholas Perkins, eds. Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination (2010)\nDodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X\nDornier, Ann, ed. (1977), Mercian Studies, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 0-7185-1148-4\nElton, Charles Isaac (1882), \"Origins of English History\", Nature, 25 (648), London: Bernard Quaritch: 501, Bibcode:1882Natur..25..501T, doi:10.1038/025501a0, S2CID 4097604\nFrere, Sheppard Sunderland (1987), Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7102-1215-1\nGiles, John Allen, ed. (1841), \"The Works of Gildas\", The Works of Gildas and Nennius, London: James Bohn\nGiles, John Allen, ed. (1843a), \"Ecclesiastical History, Books I, II and III\", The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843)\nGiles, John Allen, ed. (1843b), \"Ecclesiastical History, Books IV and V\", The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede, vol. III, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1843)\nHärke, Heinrich (2003), \"Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain.\", Celtic-Englishes, III (Winter), Carl Winter Verlag: 13–28, retrieved 18 January 2014\nHaywood, John (1999), Dark Age Naval Power: Frankish & Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (revised ed.), Frithgarth: Anglo-Saxon Books, ISBN 1-898281-43-2\nHenson, Donald. The Origins of the Anglo-Saxons, (Anglo-Saxon Books, 2006)\nHigham, Nicholas (1992), Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, London: B. A. Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-022-7\nHigham, Nicholas (1993), The Kingdom of Northumbria AD 350–1100, Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing, ISBN 0-86299-730-5\nHough, Carole (2014). \"An Ald Reht\": Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443859172.\nJames, Edward. Britain in the First Millennium, (London: Arnold, 2001)\nJones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990), An Atlas of Roman Britain, Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007), ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0\nJones, Michael E.; Casey, John (1988), \"The Gallic Chronicle Restored: a Chronology for the Anglo-Saxon Invasions and the End of Roman Britain\", Britannia, XIX (November), The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 367–98, doi:10.2307/526206, JSTOR 526206, S2CID 163877146, archived from the original on 13 March 2020, retrieved 6 January 2014\nKarkov, Catherine E., The Art of Anglo-Saxon England, 2011, Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-628-9, ISBN 978-1-84383-628-5\nKirby, D. P. (2000), The Earliest English Kings (Revised ed.), London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24211-8\nLaing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-04767-3\nLapidge, Michael, et al. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)\nLeahy, Kevin; Bland, Roger (2009), The Staffordshire Hoard, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2328-8\nMattingly, David (2006), An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, London: Penguin Books (published 2007), ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0\nMcGrail, Seàn, ed. (1988), Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 1–16, ISBN 0-906780-93-4\nPryor, Francis (2004), Britain AD, London: Harper Perennial (published 2005), ISBN 0-00-718187-6\nRusso, Daniel G. (1998), Town Origins and Development in Early England, c. 400–950 A.D., Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-313-30079-0\nSnyder, Christopher A. (1998), An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 0-271-01780-5\nSnyder, Christopher A. (2003), The Britons, Malden: Blackwell Publishing (published 2005), ISBN 978-0-631-22260-6\nWebster, Leslie, Anglo-Saxon Art, 2012, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-7141-2809-2\nWickham, Chris (2005), Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800, Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2006), ISBN 978-0-19-921296-5\nWickham, Chris (2009), \"Kings Without States: Britain and Ireland, 400–800\", The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages, 400–1000, London: Penguin Books (published 2010), pp. 150–169, ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1\nWilson, David M.; Anglo-Saxon: Art From The Seventh Century To The Norman Conquest, Thames and Hudson (US edn. Overlook Press), 1984.\nWood, Ian (1984), \"The end of Roman Britain: Continental evidence and parallels\", in Lapidge, M. (ed.), Gildas: New Approaches, Woodbridge: Boydell, p. 19\nWood, Ian (1988), \"The Channel from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD\", in McGrail, Seàn (ed.), Maritime Celts, Frisians and Saxons, London: Council for British Archaeology (published 1990), pp. 93–99, ISBN 0-906780-93-4\nYorke, Barbara (1990), Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England, B. A. Seaby, ISBN 0-415-16639-X\nYorke, Barbara (1995), Wessex in the Early Middle Ages, London: Leicester University Press, ISBN 0-7185-1856-X\nYorke, Barbara (2006), Robbins, Keith (ed.), The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c.600–800, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, ISBN 978-0-582-77292-2\nZaluckyj, Sarah, ed. (2001), Mercia: The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Central England, Little Logaston: Logaston, ISBN 1-873827-62-8","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Page with Chi Rho monogram from the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels c. 700, possibly created by Eadfrith of Lindisfarne in memory of Cuthbert","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/LindisfarneChiRiho.jpg/225px-LindisfarneChiRiho.jpg"},{"image_text":"The migrations according to Bede, who wrote some 300 years after the event; there is archeological evidence that the settlers in England came from many of these mainland locations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg/280px-Anglo.Saxon.migration.5th.cen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Southern Great Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple petty kingdoms.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg/200px-Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg.png"},{"image_text":"King Æthelstan presenting a gospel book to (the long-dead) St Cuthbert (934); Corpus Christi College, Cambridge MS 183, fol. 1v","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Athelstan_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-Athelstan_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A political map of Britain circa 650 (the names are in modern English)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Kingdoms_in_England_and_Wales_about_600_AD.svg/280px-Kingdoms_in_England_and_Wales_about_600_AD.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Map of Britain in 802. By this date, historians today rarely distinguish between Angles, Saxons and Jutes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Britain_802.jpg/220px-Britain_802.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Oseberg ship prow, Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Exhibition_in_Viking_Ship_Museum%2C_Oslo_01.jpg/260px-Exhibition_in_Viking_Ship_Museum%2C_Oslo_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anglo-Saxon-Viking coin weight. Material is lead and weighs approx 36 g. Embedded with a sceat dating to 720–750 AD and minted in Kent. It is edged with a dotted triangle pattern. Origin is the northern Danelaw region, and it dates from the late 8th to 9th century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg/260px-Viking_weight_combined_only_reflection.jpg"},{"image_text":"A royal gift, the Alfred Jewel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Alfred_Jewel.jpg/240px-Alfred_Jewel.jpg"},{"image_text":"Silver brooch imitating a coin of Edward the Elder, c. 920, found in Rome, Italy. British Museum.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Edward_the_Elder_coin_imitation_silver_brooch_Rome_Italy_c_920.jpg/240px-Edward_the_Elder_coin_imitation_silver_brooch_Rome_Italy_c_920.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cnut's 'Quatrefoil' type penny with the legend \"CNUT REX ANGLORU[M]\" (Cnut, King of the English), struck in London by the moneyer Edwin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Londoncnut.jpg/240px-Londoncnut.jpg"},{"image_text":"Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux Tapestry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg/280px-Bayeux_Tapestry_WillelmDux.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anglo-Saxon king with his witan. Biblical scene in the Illustrated Old English Hexateuch (11th century) in the British Library, London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hexateuch_king.jpg/330px-Hexateuch_king.jpg"},{"image_text":"The right half of the front panel of the seventh-century Franks Casket, depicting the pan-Germanic legend of Wayland the Smith, which was apparently also a part of Anglo-Saxon pagan mythology.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Franks_Casket_vorne_links.jpg"},{"image_text":"An 8th-century copy of the Rule of St. Benedict","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/MS._Hatton_48_fol._6v-7r.jpg/260px-MS._Hatton_48_fol._6v-7r.jpg"},{"image_text":"Replica of the Sutton Hoo helmet","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/2004_sutton_hoo_01.JPG/260px-2004_sutton_hoo_01.JPG"},{"image_text":"Reconstructed buildings from West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, Suffolk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village_buildings_2.png/278px-West_Stow_Anglo-Saxon_Village_buildings_2.png"},{"image_text":"Reconstructed workshop at West Stow Anglo-Saxon village","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/West_Stow_workshop_interior.jpg/145px-West_Stow_workshop_interior.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reconstructed Anglo-Saxon house at Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Butser_Ancient_Farm_Saxon_Hall_with_re-enactor_.jpg/220px-Butser_Ancient_Farm_Saxon_Hall_with_re-enactor_.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Anglo Saxon woman's attire shown at West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/WestStowAngloSaxon-3F7-827647-wiki.jpg/129px-WestStowAngloSaxon-3F7-827647-wiki.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon hall at Wychurst, Kent, c. 1000 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png/241px-Anglo-Saxon_hall1.png"},{"image_text":"Distinctive Anglo-Saxon pilaster strips on the tower of All Saints' Church, Earls Barton","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/EarlsBartonChurch.JPG/201px-EarlsBartonChurch.JPG"},{"image_text":"Shoulder clasp (closed) from the Sutton Hoo ship-burial 1, England. British Museum.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg/290px-Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg"},{"image_text":"Book of Cerne, evangelist portrait of Saint Mark","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/97/BookCerneEvangalist.jpeg/240px-BookCerneEvangalist.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Her sƿutelað seo gecƿydrædnes ðe ('Here is manifested the Word to thee'). Unique Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg/310px-Her_swutela%C3%B0_seo_gecwydr%C3%A6dnes_%C3%B0e.jpg"},{"image_text":"The initial page of Rochester Cathedral Library, MS A.3.5, the Textus Roffensis, which contains the only surviving copy of King Æthelberht of Kent's laws.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Law_of_%C3%86thelberht.jpg/260px-Law_of_%C3%86thelberht.jpg"},{"image_text":"First page of the fire-damaged epic Beowulf","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg/290px-Beowulf_Cotton_MS_Vitellius_A_XV_f._132r.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Anglo-Saxon England portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"title":"Anglo-Frisian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Frisian"},{"title":"Anglo-Saxon dress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_dress"},{"title":"Anglo-Saxon military organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_military_organization"},{"title":"Burial in Anglo-Saxon England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burial_in_Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"title":"Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coinage_in_Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"title":"Frisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisia"},{"title":"States in Medieval Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_in_Medieval_Britain"},{"title":"Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Anglo-Saxon_settlement_in_Britain"},{"title":"Anglo-Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Celtic"}] | [{"reference":"Williams, Joseph M. (1986). Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-02-934470-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/originsofenglish0000will","url_text":"Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-934470-5","url_text":"978-0-02-934470-5"}]},{"reference":"Nicholas Brooks (2003). \"English Identity from Bede to the Millenium\". The Haskins Society Journal. 14: 35–50.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Drinkwater, John F. (2023), \"The 'Saxon Shore' Reconsidered\", Britannia, 54: 275–303, doi:10.1017/S0068113X23000193","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0068113X23000193","url_text":"10.1017/S0068113X23000193"}]},{"reference":"Springer, Matthias (2004), Die Sachsen","urls":[]},{"reference":"Dewing, H B (1962). Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation (PDF). Harvard University Press. pp. 252–255. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200303224542/https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf","url_text":"Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation"},{"url":"https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Campbell, James (1986). Essays in Anglo-Saxon history. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 0-907628-32-X. OCLC 458534293.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907628-32-X","url_text":"0-907628-32-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/458534293","url_text":"458534293"}]},{"reference":"Higham, Nicholas (1995). An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings. Manchester University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780719044243.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._J._Higham","url_text":"Higham, Nicholas"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jv68AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA2","url_text":"An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_University_Press","url_text":"Manchester University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719044243","url_text":"9780719044243"}]},{"reference":"Hills, C.; Lucy, S. (2013). Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. ISBN 978-1-902937-62-5.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/publications/publication-images/table%20of%20contents/spong-hill-toc","url_text":"Spong Hill IX: Chronology and Synthesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902937-62-5","url_text":"978-1-902937-62-5"}]},{"reference":"Yorke, Barbara. Kings and kingdoms of early Anglo-Saxon England, 2002. p. 101.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts (ed.). England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075–1225. London: OUP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-925101-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925101-8","url_text":"978-0-19-925101-8"}]},{"reference":"Wood, Michael (2005). In Search of the Dark Ages. London: BBC. pp. 248–249. ISBN 978-0-563-52276-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-52276-8","url_text":"978-0-563-52276-8"}]},{"reference":"Daniell, Christopher (2003). From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England, 1066–1215. Psychology Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-415-22215-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=irUdMNNvlakC&pg=PA13","url_text":"From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England, 1066–1215"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22215-0","url_text":"978-0-415-22215-0"}]},{"reference":"Wyatt, David R. (2009). Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland: 800 - 1200. Brill. p. 385. ISBN 978-90-04-17533-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RWJGynaKSkkC&pg=PA385","url_text":"Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland: 800 - 1200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers","url_text":"Brill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17533-4","url_text":"978-90-04-17533-4"}]},{"reference":"Ciggaar, Krijna Nelly (1996). Western Travellers to Constantinople: The West and Byzantium, 962–1204 : Cultural and Political Relations. Brill. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-90-04-10637-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers","url_text":"Brill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10637-6","url_text":"978-90-04-10637-6"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Hugh M. (2008). The Norman Conquest: England After William the Conqueror. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-7425-3840-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield","url_text":"Rowman & Littlefield"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-3840-5","url_text":"978-0-7425-3840-5"}]},{"reference":"\"English: language of government\". British Library. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230326031027/https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126569.html","url_text":"\"English: language of government\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Library","url_text":"British Library"},{"url":"https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item126569.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hodges, Richard (1982). Dark Age Economics: the origins of towns and trade A.D. 600–1000. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hodges_(archaeologist)","url_text":"Hodges, Richard"}]},{"reference":"Richards, Naylor; Holas-Clark. \"Anglo-Saxon Landscape and Economy: using portable antiquities to study Anglo-Saxon and Viking Age England\". Internet Archaeology.","urls":[{"url":"https://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue25/2/toc.html","url_text":"\"Anglo-Saxon Landscape and Economy: using portable antiquities to study Anglo-Saxon and Viking Age England\""}]},{"reference":"Leslie, Kim; Short, Brian (1999). An Historical Atlas of Sussex. Phillimore. ISBN 978-1-86077-112-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86077-112-5","url_text":"978-1-86077-112-5"}]},{"reference":"Abels, Richard P (2013-11-26). Alfred the Great: War, Kingship and Culture in Anglo-Saxon England. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-90041-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-90041-2","url_text":"978-1-317-90041-2"}]},{"reference":"Chaney, William A. (1970). The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Manchester: Manchester University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chaney","url_text":"Chaney, William A."}]},{"reference":"Jennbert, Kristina (2006). The Horse and its role in Icelandic burial practices, mythology, and society. pp. 130–133.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sikora, Maeve. \"Diversity in Viking Age Horse Burial: A Comparative Study of Norway, Iceland, Scotland and Ireland\". The Journal of Irish Archaeology. 13 (2004): 87–109.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (2000). The Four Funerals in Beowulf: And the Structure of the Poem. Manchester UP. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7190-5497-6. Retrieved 25 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2RsNAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA71","url_text":"The Four Funerals in Beowulf: And the Structure of the Poem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5497-6","url_text":"978-0-7190-5497-6"}]},{"reference":"Jupp, Peter C.; Gittings, Clare (1999). Death in England: An Illustrated History. Manchester UP. pp. 67, 72. ISBN 978-0-7190-5811-0. Retrieved 26 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tWhOh31-yUwC&pg=PA72","url_text":"Death in England: An Illustrated History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5811-0","url_text":"978-0-7190-5811-0"}]},{"reference":"Carver, M. O. H. (1998). Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground of Kings?. U of Pennsylvania P. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-8122-3455-8. Retrieved 25 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780812234558","url_text":"Sutton Hoo: Burial Ground of Kings?"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780812234558/page/167","url_text":"167"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3455-8","url_text":"978-0-8122-3455-8"}]},{"reference":"Fell, Christine E.; Clark, Cecily; Williams, Elizabeth (1984). Women in Anglo-Saxon England. British Museum Publications. ISBN 978-0-7141-8057-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-8057-1","url_text":"978-0-7141-8057-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Early Medieval Architecture\". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/architecture/","url_text":"\"Early Medieval Architecture\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201208134423/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval/architecture/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"When did the Anglo-Saxons come to Britain?\". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 26 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zxsbcdm/articles/z23br82","url_text":"\"When did the Anglo-Saxons come to Britain?\""}]},{"reference":"Hamerow, Helena (2012-07-05). Rural Settlements and Society in Anglo-Saxon England. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-920325-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OUP_Oxford","url_text":"OUP Oxford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920325-3","url_text":"978-0-19-920325-3"}]},{"reference":"Alexander, Caroline (November 2011). \"Magical Mystery Treasure\". National Geographic. 220 (5): 44. Archived from the original on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2014-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161225052705/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/gold-hoard/alexander-text","url_text":"\"Magical Mystery Treasure\""},{"url":"http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/gold-hoard/alexander-text","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Find\". Staffordshire Hoard. Archived from the original on 2011-07-03. Retrieved 14 June 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110703040411/http://www.staffordshirehoard.org.uk/about","url_text":"\"The Find\""},{"url":"http://www.staffordshirehoard.org.uk/about","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Minkova, Donka (2009), Reviewed Work(s): A History of the English Language by Elly van Gelderen; A History of the English Language by Richard Hogg and David Denison; The Oxford History of English by Lynda Mugglestone","urls":[]},{"reference":"Scott Shay (30 January 2008). The history of English: a linguistic introduction. Wardja Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-615-16817-3. Retrieved 29 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1vj0-f_U1SQC&pg=PA86","url_text":"The history of English: a linguistic introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-16817-3","url_text":"978-0-615-16817-3"}]},{"reference":"Barber, Charles (2009). The English Language: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-521-67001-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-67001-2","url_text":"978-0-521-67001-2"}]},{"reference":"Schendl, Herbert (2012), Middle English: Language Contact","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Early-Medieval-England.net : The Wanderer\". www.anglo-saxons.net.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=get&type=text&id=Wdr&textOnly=true","url_text":"\"Early-Medieval-England.net : The Wanderer\""}]},{"reference":"North, Richard (1997-12-11). Heathen Gods in Old English Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-55183-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55183-0","url_text":"978-0-521-55183-0"}]},{"reference":"Gannon, Anna (2003-04-24). The Iconography of Early Anglo-Saxon Coinage: Sixth to Eighth Centuries. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925465-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925465-1","url_text":"978-0-19-925465-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian\". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Retrieved 2022-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-61178452","url_text":"\"Cambridge University study finds Anglo-Saxon kings were mostly vegetarian\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"Webb, Samuel (2022-04-21). \"Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims\". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/anglosaxon-vegetarian-diet-b2062513.html","url_text":"\"Anglo-Saxon kings 'were mostly vegetarian', before the Vikings new study claims\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"}]},{"reference":"\"Message from the Advisory Board\". International Society for the Study of Early Medieval England. The Advisory Board of ISSEME. 19 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.isasweb.net/AB091919.html","url_text":"\"Message from the Advisory Board\""}]},{"reference":"Halsall, Guy (2013). Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198700845.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Halsall","url_text":"Halsall, Guy"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/worldsofarthurfa0000hals/mode/2up","url_text":"Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198700845","url_text":"9780198700845"}]},{"reference":"Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A.; Crawford, Sally, eds. 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(published 1843)","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/CompleteWorksOfVenerableBedeV03","url_text":"The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede"}]},{"reference":"Härke, Heinrich (2003), \"Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain.\", Celtic-Englishes, III (Winter), Carl Winter Verlag: 13–28, retrieved 18 January 2014","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/480680","url_text":"\"Population replacement or acculturation? An archaeological perspective on population and migration in post-Roman Britain.\""}]},{"reference":"Haywood, John (1999), Dark Age Naval Power: Frankish & Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (revised ed.), Frithgarth: Anglo-Saxon Books, ISBN 1-898281-43-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898281-43-2","url_text":"1-898281-43-2"}]},{"reference":"Higham, Nicholas (1992), Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, London: B. A. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Police | Pittsburgh Police | ["1 Organization","1.1 Headquarters","1.2 Operations Unit","1.3 Investigations Unit","1.4 Union","1.5 Administration Unit","2 Ranks of the Pittsburgh Police","3 Structure","4 Police Chiefs","5 Modern era","5.1 Controversies","5.2 Uniforms and equipment","5.3 Batons","5.4 Service pistols","5.5 Hat bands","5.6 Pittsburgh Police medals","5.7 2009 shootout","6 Demographics [19]","6.1 Current Demographics (2019)","6.2 Demographics of Recruits (2019)","7 Fallen officers","8 In popular culture","8.1 Television","8.2 Film","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"] | Police department in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US
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Law enforcement agency
Pittsburgh Bureau of PoliceFlag of Pittsburgh, PennsylvaniaCommon namePittsburgh PoliceAbbreviationPBPMottoAccountability, Integrity and RespectAgency overviewFormed1857Preceding agencyPittsburgh Night WatchmenEmployees1,064 (2020)Annual budget$114,841,054 (2020)Jurisdictional structureOperations jurisdictionPittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.Legal jurisdictionMunicipalPrimary governing bodyPittsburgh City CouncilSecondary governing bodyPittsburgh Department of Public SafetyOperational structureHeadquarters1203 Western AvenuePittsburgh, PAOfficers900 (2020) Agency executiveLarry Scirotto, Chief of PoliceParent agencyPublic Safety DepartmentBranches
3
AdministrationInvestigationOperations
FacilitiesZones
6
Zone 1 (Northside)Zone 2 (Downtown, Uptown)Zone 3 (Southside, South Hills)Zone 4 (Oakland-Shadyside-Point Breeze)Zone 5 (East End)Zone 6 (West End)
Fords660Harleys40River Rescue: 30' SeaArk Little Giants6River Rescue: 25' Boston Whaler Guardians6River Rescue: 19' & 15' Husky Airboat & Avon Inflatables7German Shepherds25Belgian Malinois12Horses4WebsitePittsburgh Bureau of PoliceThe Pittsburgh Police (PBP), officially the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police, is the largest law enforcement agency in Western Pennsylvania and the third largest in Pennsylvania. The modern force of salaried and professional officers was founded in 1857 but dates back to the night watchmen beginning in 1794, and the subsequent day patrols in the early 19th century, in the then borough of Pittsburgh. By 1952 the Bureau had a strength of 1,400 sworn officers; in July 1985, 1,200; and by November 1989, 1,040.
Organization
The Pittsburgh Bureau of Police is part of the Pittsburgh Department of Public Safety, along with the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire and Pittsburgh Bureau of Emergency Medical Services (PEMS). It is headed by Chief Larry Scirotto appointed by Mayor Ed Gainey. The Chief of Police is the top law enforcement agent of the city of Pittsburgh. In the Chiefs council are the positions of
Deputy Chief of Police Bureau
Chief of Staff of the Police Bureau
Public Affairs Manager of the Police Bureau
Legal Advisor to the Police Bureau
Reporting directly through the Deputy Chief of Police to the Chief are the three active units of the Police Bureau: Operations, Investigations, and Administration. Each one is headed by an Assistant Chief.
Headquarters
The original headquarters were at Sixth Avenue and William Penn Way in downtown. In 1918 it moved into the Pittsburgh City-County Building, 1925 to Water Street, 1960s Grant Street Public Safety Building, and is now quartered at Western Avenue on the Northside.
Operations Unit
Headed by the Assistant Chief of Operations, this unit is the most visible arm of the Pittsburgh Police Bureau. It consists six zones (the updated form of precincts) with each zone being supervised by the zone commander, as well as all zone patrol and response operations, SWAT team, Traffic Patrol, and Impound. This is also the unit that does community policing.
Zone One: North Side
Zone Two: Downtown, Hill District, Strip District, Lawrenceville, Polish Hill, Uptown
Zone Three: South Side, Beltzhoover, Carrick, St. Clair Village, Arlington Heights
Zone Four: Oakland, Squirrel Hill, Shadyside, Point Breeze
Zone Five: East Liberty, Highland Park, Homewood
Zone Six: West End, Banksville, Brookline, Beechview
In 2010 the average Pittsburgh police zone had 12.8 officers, 2.8 detectives, 1.2 sergeants and .5 lieutenants on duty during any 8-hour shift. Citywide for any 8-hour 2010 shift this translates to 76.8 officers, 16.8 detectives, 7.2 sergeants and 3 lieutenants.
In 1918 the city debuted a mounted squad, having had some mounted officers as early as 1906. Police motorcycles were first used by the bureau starting in 1910.
Investigations Unit
Headed by the Assistant Chief of Investigations, Lavonnie Bickerstaff, this unit overlays the operations staff with the detective and inspector corps of the Police Bureau. Its detective divisions are broken down into the following:
Auto Task Force
Arson Squad
Burglary Squad
Crime Stoppers
Crime Scene Investigation
Dignitary & Witness Security
Financial Crimes Task Force
Forfeiture
Gang Task Force
Homicide Squad
Missing Persons
Narcotics
Night Felony Squad
Nuisance Bar Task Force
Pawn
Robbery Squad
Sex Assault/Domestic Violence Squad
Union
Pittsburgh Police officers are members of the Fraternal Order of Police Lodge (branch) 1.
Administration Unit
Headed by the Assistant Chief of Administration, this is the least visible unit of the bureau but one that is possibly the most essential. It consists of eight major divisions.
Intel (Crime Analysis)
Office of Municipal Investigations (Internal Affairs Bureau)
Police Academy/Training
Personnel & Finance
Property Room
Records
School Patrol
Special Events Logistics
Warrant Office
Ranks of the Pittsburgh Police
Title
Insignia
Chief
Deputy Chief
Assistant Chief
Commander
Lieutenant
Sergeant
Detective/Police Officer
Structure
Larry Scirotto: Chief of Police
Eric Holmes: Chief of Staff, Commander
Thomas Stangrecki: Deputy Chief
Anna Kudrav: Assistant Chief (Operations)
Lavonnie Bickerstaff: Assistant Chief (Investigations)
Linda Rosato-Barone: Assistant Chief (Administration)
Christopher Ragland: Zone 1 Commander (North Side)
Cristyn Zett: Zone 2 Commander (Hill District)
Karen Dixon: Zone 3 Commander (Allentown)
: Zone 4 Commander (Squirrel Hill)
: Zone 5 Commander (Highland Park)
Stephen M. Vinansky: Zone 6 Commander (West End)
Police Chiefs
Main article: Pittsburgh Police Chief
Modern era
Controversies
From 1901 to the early 1990s Pittsburgh Police were unique in having a "trial board" system of discipline.
In 1996, after the deaths of two African American men in Police custody, the ACLU and the NAACP filed a class action lawsuit against the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police, alleging a pattern of civil rights abuses. After an investigation, the U.S. Department of Justice joined the suit in January 1997, stating "that there is a pattern or practice of conduct by law enforcement officers of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police that deprives persons of rights, privileges, and immunities secured and protected by the Constitution and laws of the United States".
After a brief court challenge, the city entered into a consent decree with the federal government in April 1997 that outlined the steps that it would take to improve its conduct. The decree was lifted from the Police Bureau in 2001, and from the Office of Municipal Investigation in 2002. Community activists in Pittsburgh successfully used a referendum to create an independent review board in 1997. A study commissioned by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2001 found that 70% of Pittsburgh's African-American residents believe it either "very common" or "somewhat common" for "police officers in Pittsburgh to use excessive force" and that only 48% feel that the police are doing a "very good" or "somewhat good" "job of fighting crime", while 77% of white residents responded so.
In February 2013, the FBI and IRS seized boxes of documents from police headquarters and the independent police credit union concerning thousands of deposits and withdrawals of taxpayer money from unauthorized accounts. Allegations have been made against former Chief Nate Harper, who was forced to resign on February 20, 2013 due to the FBI and IRS investigations. On March 22, a Federal Grand Jury indicted Harper for stealing over $31,000 in taxpayer money as well as not filing personal income tax returns for years 2008-2011. Harper had various checks deposited into these unauthorized secret accounts that were skimmed off a police fund, and then he used a debit card to withdraw cash as well as use the debit card to spend lavishly on food and alcohol in high-end restaurants, buy a satellite radio, gift cards, perfume, and even an oven upgrade. The full indictment was published by local media.
Two Pittsburgh Police vehicles parked at Market Square. In the foreground, a Ford Taurus Police Interceptor with the fleet's new livery, while in the background is a Chevrolet Impala displaying the Bureau's old livery.
Uniforms and equipment
Officers generally wear a very dark navy blue almost appearing to be black uniform. Officers with the rank of lieutenant and above no longer wear white uniform shirts, as all officers wear a navy blue uniform shirt, and white shirts and dress blouses are reserved for ceremonial occasions. SWAT and Tactical units wear olive drab green uniforms. Name tags are either embroidered or the traditional nameplate. Some officers will wear a very dark navy blue/black tie, but this is not a requirement for normal duties. They will also sometimes wear a traditional service cap, with a unique Sillitoe tartan (explained below). Officers are equipped with O.C. spray (Mace), police radio, duty belt, handcuffs, extra ammunition, service pistol, bulletproof vest, baton, first aid kit, and flashlight. Many officers are now carrying tasers.
The new Chief, Public Safety Director, and Mayor along with a department uniform committee have been making a myriad of changes to uniforms and equipment. One of the most visible changes being a black crew neck undershirt in lieu of the previous V-neck worn with the summer short sleeve shirts. This was a compromise after officers were originally told they would have to wear ties with the short sleeve shirts. A controversial change occurred in 2014 when officers were no longer permitted to wear outer ballistic vests as the administration deemed it looked too 'aggressive'. This was reversed and officers are now permitted to wear external plate carriers. The department is planning to implement the use of body cameras on officers, and are already on some officers in a limited trial basis.
Batons
Some officers carry expandable batons, and some officers carry more traditional wooden straight batons. These batons sometimes are connected to a leather strap.
Service pistols
Service pistols are usually Glocks. An officer must purchase his/her own service pistol. If officers were hired with the bureau in or prior to the year 1992, they have the option to carry a revolver on duty. Officers hired in 1993 and after must carry a semi-automatic pistol on duty. Prior to 1985 all officers could carry was a .38 caliber 5 or 6 shot revolver. In 1985 the bureau phased in the use of 9 mm semi-automatics to Special Operations and Narcotics units. In early 1990 all officers were allowed and encouraged to carry 9 mm semi-automatics, with the training and ammunition changeover costing the city roughly $2 million.
Hat bands
The Pittsburgh police wear hats with checkered bands, which are dark navy blue and gold in color, popularly known as the "Sillitoe tartan" and named after its originator, Percy J. Sillitoe, Chief Constable of Glasgow, Scotland, in the 1930s. While the checkered band is a common police symbol in the United Kingdom, Australia and some European countries, the Chicago Police Department, Cook County Sheriff's Police, the Allegheny County Sheriff's Office, and the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police are the only police forces in the United States that have adopted it as part of their uniforms.
As recently as July 1930, police were required to wear a 13-ounce hat.
Pittsburgh Police medals
The Pittsburgh Police have several honors and medals including:
Medal of Valor
The highest honor of any Pittsburgh Police officer. It is awarded only for acts occurring in the most exceptional of circumstances. Recognizing acts of bravery and heroism in the protection of life, while taking on great personal risk and without compromising any bureau mission.
Valor Ribbon:
Awarded along with the Medal of Valor.
Commendation:
Open to members and non-members of the Pittsburgh Police Bureau who have displayed initiative in performing tasks above and beyond that which is required in a professional manner. In 2007 38 officers received Commendations.
Purple Heart:
To those who in the course of criminal apprehension efforts, sustained serious injury, disability or wounds. In 2007 three officers received this award.
Meritorious Service:
Open to all officers who have distinguished themselves in exhibiting professional excellence in their tasks or duties. As well as those that contribute significantly towards improving the objectives of the bureau. In 2007 sixteen officers received this award.
Bureau of Police Citation:
Open to all officers and non-members who performed a task of bravery or heroism above and beyond the call of duty and in the face of great personal risk in life-saving or life-protecting circumstances. In 2007 nine officers were recognized.
Officer of the Month:
Selected by committee of the Chief, Deputy Chief and three Assistant Chiefs from a single nomination from each zone commander, there can be more than one selected per month.
Officer of the Year:
Selected from all officers of the months and all officers receiving commendations through the year by committee of the Chief, Deputy Chief and all three Assistant Chiefs.
2009 shootout
Main article: 2009 shooting of Pittsburgh police officers
On April 4, 2009, three Pittsburgh police officers were killed in the line of duty while responding to a domestic disturbance in the Stanton Heights area of the city. The officers, all from Zone 5 are Eric Kelly, a 14-year veteran of the Bureau, Stephen Mayhle, and Paul Sciullo II, both two-year veterans. Two other officers were injured. Timothy McManaway was shot in the hand trying to help Officer Kelly, and Brian Jones broke his leg when a fence collapsed. Police Chief Nathan Harper said Officer Mayhle was married and had two children; Officer Kelly was married and had three children; and Officer Sciullo was single.
Demographics
Current Demographics (2019)
Male: 85.46%
Female: 14.54%
American Indian or Alaskan: 0.44%
Asian or Pacific Islander: 0.98%
Black: 12.35%
Hispanic: 1.09%
White: 84.81%
Unknown/Undisclosed: 0.55%
Demographics of Recruits (2019)
Male: 87.64%
Female: 12.36%
American Indian or Alaskan: 0%
Asian or Pacific Islander: 0%
Black: 5.62%
Hispanic: 1.12%
White: 77.53%
Unknown/Undisclosed: 5.62%
Fallen officers
Further information: Pittsburgh Law Enforcement Memorial
In popular culture
The city of Pittsburgh is well known throughout the world as having its official colors not only on everything from the official seal and flag to fire hydrants, fire trucks and police cars, but also shared by all of its pro sports teams, and more recently featured in rap/rally videos. Although the Pittsburgh Steelers are the only team to have these colors throughout their entire history (starting in 1933), the Pittsburgh Pirates (1948-present) and the Pittsburgh Penguins (1967, 1975, 1980–present) have for generations also been associated with "black and gold". However, the very first team in the city's history to associate with its official seal/flag colors were the original NHL franchise Pittsburgh Pirates. The police department of Pittsburgh was instrumental in establishing the "black and gold" tradition for the region's sports teams, in that the team's owner, attorney James Callahan, asked his police officer brother for used and surplus seals and emblems from old police uniforms in 1925. From those donated "logos" the tradition of "black and gold" for the city's franchises was born.
The Pittsburgh Police have been featured in many television and film portrayals. Among them:
Television
Vic Cianca, a traffic cop, was featured in Candid Camera winning an annual prize from the show in 1965 and subsequently featured in Budweiser commercials, on Italian TV and a cameo in Flashdance.
Hill Street Blues: What is now Pittsburgh's Zone 2 "Hill District" (not Street) station was the inspiration for the show.
COPS: seven episodes in the 1990s, several others in the mid first decade of the 21st century
The X Files, the Pittsburgh Police feature as a backdrop to four Pittsburgh- and Western Pennsylvania–based episodes.
Smith: The Pittsburgh police chase Ray Liotta and Amy Smart among others after a heist at the fictional Tanner Museum (actually the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research). The chase passes through the David L. Lawrence Convention Center and past PNC Park onto the Ohio River and is complete with diversionary explosions and human decoys.
The Guardian: Simon Baker, Dabney Coleman and Farrah Fawcett (along with a cameo by Will Ferrell) all work with the police and are the subject of some police investigations in this deep drama about life and redemption.
Sirens: mid-1990s ABC series about female Pittsburgh Police officers.
The Kill Point: 2007 cable mini-series in which the Pittsburgh Police led by Donnie Wahlberg and the FBI attempt to handle a downtown bank robbery led by John Leguizamo that turns into a hostage situation.
Blacks and Blue: 1998 NBC News series with Geraldo Rivera reporting on the bureau's operations.
Top Sniper 2: the Pittsburgh Police S.W.A.T. team was featured as winners of the 2008 competition with it airing on the Military Channel in March 2009.
Stranger Things, at the beginning of episode one, bank robbers are chased by the Pittsburgh Police in 1984.
Film
Flashdance features several Pittsburgh cops during different scenes, most notably candid camera fame Vic Cianca's cameo appearance with star Jennifer Beals.
Desperate Measures: Pittsburgh Police double for San Franciscans as Andy García hunts a demented Michael Keaton within the maze of corridors that form One Mellon Center and the Allegheny County Courthouse portraying a 'hospital'.
Dawn of the Dead: Pittsburgh Police—among others—mount a defense against zombies in this political satire against "mall culture"
Sudden Death: Pittsburgh Police and SWAT respond to the U.S. Vice President being held hostage at the Stanley Cup Finals at Mellon Arena while Jean-Claude Van Damme provides the heroics.
Striking Distance: high drama film about corruption and coverups where Bruce Willis, Sarah Jessica Parker and Dennis Farina play Pittsburgh police officers.
Screwed: a comedy about a shrewd Pittsburgh Police detective and a kidnapping gone crazy with help from Dave Chappelle and Norm Macdonald.
Wonder Boys: a "Boy Scout" hounds Michael Douglas' character in the morning hours at the professor's house.
Hoffa: a motorcycle cop in 1960s urban America pulls over Danny DeVito's character outside of Gateway Center.
Boys on the Side: Pittsburgh Police chase down Drew Barrymore.
Inspector Gadget: Pittsburgh gets recast as "Riverton" as the Police go high tech.
Land of the Dead even though filmed in Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, locations in film are to appear as Pittsburgh.
The Clearing: Robert Redford's character as a 'prominent Pittsburgh businessman' is abducted and held for ransom as the Pittsburgh Police and FBI are portrayed attempting to solve the case.
The Next Three Days: features the Pittsburgh Police prominently as Russell Crowe battles to prove his wife's innocence during a murder trial.
In the Name of the Law: a police superintendent hurls baseballs off the 150+ foot high roof of Pittsburgh City Hall as Pittsburgh Pirates Hall of Famer Honus Wagner comes to the city's rescue with daring catches on the street below.
Dominick and Eugene
Chasing 3000
The Mysteries of Pittsburgh
Jack Reacher
The Perks of Being a Wallflower
The Dark Knight Rises: Heinz Field is used for a fictional Gotham football team when Bane interrupts a game and holds the place hostage.
Acts of Vengeance: Karl Urban plays Pittsburgh Police officer Hank Strode, the Pittsburgh Police Officers in the film all have the authentic uniform but the name "Pittsburgh" on the uniforms has been changed to "Metropolitan".
See also
Allegheny County Sheriff (sister agency)
Allegheny County District Attorney
Allegheny County Police Department (sister agency)
List of law enforcement agencies in Pennsylvania
2009 shooting of Pittsburgh police officers
Vic Cianca
Portal: Pennsylvania
References
^ a b c d "Operating Budget Fiscal Year 2020 The City of Pittsburgh" (PDF). Apps.pittsburghpa.gov. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ Koscinski, Kiley (May 23, 2023). "Larry Scirotto sails through City Council vote to become Pittsburgh's new chief of police". Archived from the original on May 23, 2023. Retrieved May 23, 2023.
^ "The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 4 January 2013.
^ "Archived copy". Google News. Archived from the original on 26 October 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ a b "The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 2016-05-07.
^ a b "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 2016-05-04.
^ "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 2016-05-16.
^ "Pittsburgh Police". Archived from the original on 2008-05-14. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
^ a b "Vera Institute of Justice | Other Programs | Publications". Archived from the original on 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
^ "Citizens Police Review Board Members". Archived from the original on 2008-02-19. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
^ Silver, Jonathan D. (2013-02-13). "FBI seizure of Pittsburgh police files linked to probe into use of funds | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ Navratil, Liz (2013-02-19). "Ravenstahl: Controversial police accounts had hundreds of transactions | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ Silver, Jonathan D. (2013-02-15). "FBI, IRS investigate account connected to Pittsburgh police chief's office | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ "Former Pittsburgh Police Chief Nate Harper indicted | Allegheny County News - WTAE Home". Wtae.com. 2013-03-23. Archived from the original on 2013-12-16. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ "Archived copy". Google News. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search". Archived from the original on 2016-05-06.
^ Chris Togneri, Chris Togneri (April 5, 2009). "Man 'lying in wait' kills 3 police officers in Stanton Heights". Pittsburgh Tribune Review. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
^ Nephin, Dan; Ramit Plushnick-Masti (April 4, 2005). "Gunman 'lying in wait' kills 3 Pittsburgh officers". Archived from the original on April 8, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
^ "2019 Statistical Report City of Pittsburgh Depart of Public Safety Bureau of Police" (PDF). apps.pittsburghpa.gov. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
^ "Pittsburgh Pirates (NHL) 1925-30". Archived from the original on 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2012-02-24.
^ "Pittsburgh Pirates (NHL) Jerseys". Archived from the original on 2012-03-04. Retrieved 2012-02-24.
^ "Geraldo's aim at baring city's 'Blacks and Blue' schism falls short of mark". Post-gazette.com. 1998-10-23. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ Sherman, Jerome L. (2009-03-22). "City SWAT team takes first in one sniper contest event | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
^ "Military Channel Explores International Sniper Competition with "Top Sniper 2"". Tactical-life.com. 2015-04-29. Retrieved 2016-08-11.
External links
Pittsburgh Bureau of Police
Citizens Police Review Board
Pittsburgh Police Historical Association
First African-American to achieve command rank article
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Sports
Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"law enforcement agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency"},{"link_name":"Western Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-news.google.com-5"}],"text":"Law enforcement agencyThe Pittsburgh Police (PBP), officially the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police, is the largest law enforcement agency in Western Pennsylvania and the third largest in Pennsylvania. The modern force of salaried and professional officers was founded in 1857 but dates back to the night watchmen beginning in 1794, and the subsequent day patrols in the early 19th century, in the then borough of Pittsburgh. By 1952 the Bureau had a strength of 1,400 sworn officers;[3] in July 1985, 1,200;[4] and by November 1989, 1,040.[5]","title":"Pittsburgh Police"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Department of Public Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Public_Safety"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Bureau_of_Fire"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Bureau of Emergency Medical Services (PEMS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Bureau_of_Emergency_Medical_Services_(PEMS)"},{"link_name":"Chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_police"},{"link_name":"Ed Gainey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Gainey"}],"text":"The Pittsburgh Bureau of Police is part of the Pittsburgh Department of Public Safety, along with the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire and Pittsburgh Bureau of Emergency Medical Services (PEMS). It is headed by Chief Larry Scirotto appointed by Mayor Ed Gainey. The Chief of Police is the top law enforcement agent of the city of Pittsburgh. In the Chiefs council are the positions ofDeputy Chief of Police Bureau\nChief of Staff of the Police Bureau\nPublic Affairs Manager of the Police Bureau\nLegal Advisor to the Police BureauReporting directly through the Deputy Chief of Police to the Chief are the three active units of the Police Bureau: Operations, Investigations, and Administration. Each one is headed by an Assistant Chief.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pittsburgh City-County Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_City-County_Building"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-6"}],"sub_title":"Headquarters","text":"The original headquarters were at Sixth Avenue and William Penn Way in downtown. In 1918 it moved into the Pittsburgh City-County Building, 1925 to Water Street,[6] 1960s Grant Street Public Safety Building, and is now quartered at Western Avenue on the Northside.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SWAT team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAT"},{"link_name":"North Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Side_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Downtown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"Hill District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_District_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Strip District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strip_District,_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"Lawrenceville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrenceville_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Polish Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Hill_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Uptown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptown_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"South Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Side_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Beltzhoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltzhoover_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Carrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrick_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"St. Clair Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Clair_Village"},{"link_name":"Arlington Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington_Heights_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Squirrel Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel_Hill_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Shadyside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadyside_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Point Breeze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Breeze,_Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"East Liberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Liberty_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Highland Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highland_Park_(Pittsburgh_neighborhood)"},{"link_name":"Homewood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homewood_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Banksville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banksville_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Brookline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookline_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Beechview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechview_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apps.pittsburghpa.gov-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-6"}],"sub_title":"Operations Unit","text":"Headed by the Assistant Chief of Operations, this unit is the most visible arm of the Pittsburgh Police Bureau. It consists six zones (the updated form of precincts) with each zone being supervised by the zone commander, as well as all zone patrol and response operations, SWAT team, Traffic Patrol, and Impound. This is also the unit that does community policing.Zone One: North Side\nZone Two: Downtown, Hill District, Strip District, Lawrenceville, Polish Hill, Uptown\nZone Three: South Side, Beltzhoover, Carrick, St. Clair Village, Arlington Heights\nZone Four: Oakland, Squirrel Hill, Shadyside, Point Breeze\nZone Five: East Liberty, Highland Park, Homewood\nZone Six: West End, Banksville, Brookline, BeechviewIn 2010 the average Pittsburgh police zone had 12.8 officers, 2.8 detectives, 1.2 sergeants and .5 lieutenants on duty during any 8-hour shift.[1] Citywide for any 8-hour 2010 shift this translates to 76.8 officers, 16.8 detectives, 7.2 sergeants and 3 lieutenants.In 1918 the city debuted a mounted squad, having had some mounted officers as early as 1906. Police motorcycles were first used by the bureau starting in 1910.[6]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Investigations Unit","text":"Headed by the Assistant Chief of Investigations, Lavonnie Bickerstaff, this unit overlays the operations staff with the detective and inspector corps of the Police Bureau. Its detective divisions are broken down into the following:Auto Task Force\nArson Squad\nBurglary Squad\nCrime Stoppers\nCrime Scene Investigation\nDignitary & Witness Security\nFinancial Crimes Task Force\nForfeiture\nGang Task Force\nHomicide Squad\nMissing Persons\nNarcotics\nNight Felony Squad\nNuisance Bar Task Force\nPawn\nRobbery Squad\nSex Assault/Domestic Violence Squad","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fraternal Order of Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternal_Order_of_Police"}],"sub_title":"Union","text":"Pittsburgh Police officers are members of the Fraternal Order of Police Lodge (branch) 1.","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Administration Unit","text":"Headed by the Assistant Chief of Administration, this is the least visible unit of the bureau but one that is possibly the most essential. It consists of eight major divisions.Intel (Crime Analysis)\nOffice of Municipal Investigations (Internal Affairs Bureau)\nPolice Academy/Training\nPersonnel & Finance\nProperty Room\nRecords\nSchool Patrol\nSpecial Events Logistics\nWarrant Office","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ranks of the Pittsburgh Police"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Larry Scirotto: Chief of Police\nEric Holmes: Chief of Staff, Commander\nThomas Stangrecki: Deputy Chief\nAnna Kudrav: Assistant Chief (Operations)\nLavonnie Bickerstaff: Assistant Chief (Investigations)\nLinda Rosato-Barone: Assistant Chief (Administration)\nChristopher Ragland: Zone 1 Commander (North Side)\nCristyn Zett: Zone 2 Commander (Hill District)\nKaren Dixon: Zone 3 Commander (Allentown)\n: Zone 4 Commander (Squirrel Hill)\n: Zone 5 Commander (Highland Park)\nStephen M. Vinansky: Zone 6 Commander (West End)","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Police Chiefs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"ACLU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union"},{"link_name":"NAACP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP"},{"link_name":"Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"consent decree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_decree"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-9"},{"link_name":"referendum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referendum"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pittsburgh_Police_Vehicles.JPG"},{"link_name":"Market Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_Square_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Ford Taurus Police Interceptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Taurus_(sixth_generation)"},{"link_name":"Chevrolet Impala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Impala"}],"sub_title":"Controversies","text":"From 1901 to the early 1990s Pittsburgh Police were unique in having a \"trial board\" system of discipline.[7]In 1996, after the deaths of two African American men in Police custody, the ACLU and the NAACP filed a class action lawsuit against the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police, alleging a pattern of civil rights abuses. After an investigation, the U.S. Department of Justice joined the suit in January 1997, stating \"that there is a pattern or practice of conduct by law enforcement officers of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police that deprives persons of rights, privileges, and immunities secured and protected by the Constitution and laws of the United States\".[8]After a brief court challenge, the city entered into a consent decree with the federal government in April 1997 that outlined the steps that it would take to improve its conduct. The decree was lifted from the Police Bureau in 2001, and from the Office of Municipal Investigation in 2002.[9] Community activists in Pittsburgh successfully used a referendum to create an independent review board in 1997.[10] A study commissioned by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2001 found that 70% of Pittsburgh's African-American residents believe it either \"very common\" or \"somewhat common\" for \"police officers in Pittsburgh to use excessive force\" and that only 48% feel that the police are doing a \"very good\" or \"somewhat good\" \"job of fighting crime\", while 77% of white residents responded so.[9]In February 2013, the FBI and IRS seized boxes of documents from police headquarters and the independent police credit union concerning thousands of deposits and withdrawals of taxpayer money from unauthorized accounts.[11][12][13] Allegations have been made against former Chief Nate Harper, who was forced to resign on February 20, 2013 due to the FBI and IRS investigations. On March 22, a Federal Grand Jury indicted Harper for stealing over $31,000 in taxpayer money as well as not filing personal income tax returns for years 2008-2011. Harper had various checks deposited into these unauthorized secret accounts that were skimmed off a police fund, and then he used a debit card to withdraw cash as well as use the debit card to spend lavishly on food and alcohol in high-end restaurants, buy a satellite radio, gift cards, perfume, and even an oven upgrade. The full indictment was published by local media.[14]Two Pittsburgh Police vehicles parked at Market Square. In the foreground, a Ford Taurus Police Interceptor with the fleet's new livery, while in the background is a Chevrolet Impala displaying the Bureau's old livery.","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sillitoe tartan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sillitoe_tartan"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Uniforms and equipment","text":"Officers generally wear a very dark navy blue almost appearing to be black uniform. Officers with the rank of lieutenant and above no longer wear white uniform shirts, as all officers wear a navy blue uniform shirt, and white shirts and dress blouses are reserved for ceremonial occasions. SWAT and Tactical units wear olive drab green uniforms. Name tags are either embroidered or the traditional nameplate. Some officers will wear a very dark navy blue/black tie, but this is not a requirement for normal duties. They will also sometimes wear a traditional service cap, with a unique Sillitoe tartan (explained below). Officers are equipped with O.C. spray (Mace), police radio, duty belt, handcuffs, extra ammunition, service pistol, bulletproof vest, baton, first aid kit, and flashlight. Many officers are now carrying tasers.[15]The new Chief, Public Safety Director, and Mayor along with a department uniform committee have been making a myriad of changes to uniforms and equipment. One of the most visible changes being a black crew neck undershirt in lieu of the previous V-neck worn with the summer short sleeve shirts. This was a compromise after officers were originally told they would have to wear ties with the short sleeve shirts. A controversial change occurred in 2014 when officers were no longer permitted to wear outer ballistic vests as the administration deemed it looked too 'aggressive'. This was reversed and officers are now permitted to wear external plate carriers. The department is planning to implement the use of body cameras on officers, and are already on some officers in a limited trial basis.","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Batons","text":"Some officers carry expandable batons, and some officers carry more traditional wooden straight batons. These batons sometimes are connected to a leather strap.","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Service pistols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_pistol"},{"link_name":"Glocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glock"},{"link_name":"revolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver"},{"link_name":"semi-automatic pistol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol"},{"link_name":".38 caliber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.38_Special"},{"link_name":"9 mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_Parabellum"},{"link_name":"Narcotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcotic"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-news.google.com-5"}],"sub_title":"Service pistols","text":"Service pistols are usually Glocks. An officer must purchase his/her own service pistol. If officers were hired with the bureau in or prior to the year 1992, they have the option to carry a revolver on duty. Officers hired in 1993 and after must carry a semi-automatic pistol on duty. Prior to 1985 all officers could carry was a .38 caliber 5 or 6 shot revolver. In 1985 the bureau phased in the use of 9 mm semi-automatics to Special Operations and Narcotics units. In early 1990 all officers were allowed and encouraged to carry 9 mm semi-automatics, with the training and ammunition changeover costing the city roughly $2 million.[5]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sillitoe tartan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sillitoe_tartan"},{"link_name":"Percy J. Sillitoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Sillitoe"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Chicago Police Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Police_Department"},{"link_name":"Cook County Sheriff's Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_County_Sheriff%27s_Office"},{"link_name":"Allegheny County Sheriff's Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_County_Sheriff"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Hat bands","text":"The Pittsburgh police wear hats with checkered bands, which are dark navy blue and gold in color, popularly known as the \"Sillitoe tartan\" and named after its originator, Percy J. Sillitoe, Chief Constable of Glasgow, Scotland, in the 1930s. While the checkered band is a common police symbol in the United Kingdom, Australia and some European countries, the Chicago Police Department, Cook County Sheriff's Police, the Allegheny County Sheriff's Office, and the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police are the only police forces in the United States that have adopted it as part of their uniforms.As recently as July 1930, police were required to wear a 13-ounce hat.[16]","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Pittsburgh Police medals","text":"The Pittsburgh Police have several honors and medals including:Medal of ValorThe highest honor of any Pittsburgh Police officer. It is awarded only for acts occurring in the most exceptional of circumstances. Recognizing acts of bravery and heroism in the protection of life, while taking on great personal risk and without compromising any bureau mission.Valor Ribbon:Awarded along with the Medal of Valor.Commendation:Open to members and non-members of the Pittsburgh Police Bureau who have displayed initiative in performing tasks above and beyond that which is required in a professional manner. In 2007 38 officers received Commendations.Purple Heart:To those who in the course of criminal apprehension efforts, sustained serious injury, disability or wounds. In 2007 three officers received this award.Meritorious Service:Open to all officers who have distinguished themselves in exhibiting professional excellence in their tasks or duties. As well as those that contribute significantly towards improving the objectives of the bureau. In 2007 sixteen officers received this award.Bureau of Police Citation:Open to all officers and non-members who performed a task of bravery or heroism above and beyond the call of duty and in the face of great personal risk in life-saving or life-protecting circumstances. In 2007 nine officers were recognized.Officer of the Month:Selected by committee of the Chief, Deputy Chief and three Assistant Chiefs from a single nomination from each zone commander, there can be more than one selected per month.Officer of the Year:Selected from all officers of the months and all officers receiving commendations through the year by committee of the Chief, Deputy Chief and all three Assistant Chiefs.","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trib-2009-shootings-1-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-Google-1-18"}],"sub_title":"2009 shootout","text":"On April 4, 2009, three Pittsburgh police officers were killed in the line of duty while responding to a domestic disturbance in the Stanton Heights area of the city. The officers, all from Zone 5 are Eric Kelly, a 14-year veteran of the Bureau, Stephen Mayhle, and Paul Sciullo II, both two-year veterans.[17] Two other officers were injured. Timothy McManaway was shot in the hand trying to help Officer Kelly, and Brian Jones broke his leg when a fence collapsed.[18] Police Chief Nathan Harper said Officer Mayhle was married and had two children; Officer Kelly was married and had three children; and Officer Sciullo was single.","title":"Modern era"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Demographics "},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Current Demographics (2019)","text":"Male: 85.46%\nFemale: 14.54%American Indian or Alaskan: 0.44%\nAsian or Pacific Islander: 0.98%\nBlack: 12.35%\nHispanic: 1.09%\nWhite: 84.81%\nUnknown/Undisclosed: 0.55%","title":"Demographics "},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Demographics of Recruits (2019)","text":"Male: 87.64%\nFemale: 12.36%American Indian or Alaskan: 0%\nAsian or Pacific Islander: 0%\nBlack: 5.62%\nHispanic: 1.12%\nWhite: 77.53%\nUnknown/Undisclosed: 5.62%","title":"Demographics "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Law Enforcement Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Law_Enforcement_Memorial"}],"text":"Further information: Pittsburgh Law Enforcement Memorial","title":"Fallen officers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Steelers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Penguins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Penguins"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates_(NHL)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The city of Pittsburgh is well known throughout the world as having its official colors not only on everything from the official seal and flag to fire hydrants, fire trucks and police cars, but also shared by all of its pro sports teams, and more recently featured in rap/rally videos. Although the Pittsburgh Steelers are the only team to have these colors throughout their entire history (starting in 1933), the Pittsburgh Pirates (1948-present) and the Pittsburgh Penguins (1967, 1975, 1980–present) have for generations also been associated with \"black and gold\". However, the very first team in the city's history to associate with its official seal/flag colors were the original NHL franchise Pittsburgh Pirates. The police department of Pittsburgh was instrumental in establishing the \"black and gold\" tradition for the region's sports teams, in that the team's owner, attorney James Callahan, asked his police officer brother for used and surplus seals and emblems from old police uniforms in 1925. From those donated \"logos\" the tradition of \"black and gold\" for the city's franchises was born.[20][21]The Pittsburgh Police have been featured in many television and film portrayals. Among them:","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vic Cianca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vic_Cianca"},{"link_name":"Candid Camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candid_Camera"},{"link_name":"Budweiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budweiser"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Flashdance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashdance"},{"link_name":"Hill Street Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_Street_Blues"},{"link_name":"COPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cops_(TV_program)"},{"link_name":"The X Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files"},{"link_name":"Western Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Ray Liotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Liotta"},{"link_name":"Amy Smart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Smart"},{"link_name":"Mellon Institute of Industrial Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellon_Institute_of_Industrial_Research"},{"link_name":"David L. Lawrence Convention Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Lawrence_Convention_Center"},{"link_name":"PNC Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNC_Park"},{"link_name":"Ohio River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_River"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Simon Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Baker"},{"link_name":"Dabney Coleman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabney_Coleman"},{"link_name":"Farrah Fawcett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrah_Fawcett"},{"link_name":"Will Ferrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Ferrell"},{"link_name":"Sirens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirens_(1993_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Kill Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kill_Point"},{"link_name":"Donnie Wahlberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donnie_Wahlberg"},{"link_name":"John Leguizamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Leguizamo"},{"link_name":"Geraldo Rivera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldo_Rivera"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Top Sniper 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heroes_Channel"},{"link_name":"Military Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heroes_Channel"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Stranger Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranger_Things"}],"sub_title":"Television","text":"Vic Cianca, a traffic cop, was featured in Candid Camera winning an annual prize from the show in 1965 and subsequently featured in Budweiser commercials, on Italian TV and a cameo in Flashdance.\nHill Street Blues: What is now Pittsburgh's Zone 2 \"Hill District\" (not Street) station was the inspiration for the show.\nCOPS: seven episodes in the 1990s, several others in the mid first decade of the 21st century\nThe X Files, the Pittsburgh Police feature as a backdrop to four Pittsburgh- and Western Pennsylvania–based episodes.\nSmith: The Pittsburgh police chase Ray Liotta and Amy Smart among others after a heist at the fictional Tanner Museum (actually the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research). The chase passes through the David L. Lawrence Convention Center and past PNC Park onto the Ohio River and is complete with diversionary explosions and human decoys.\nThe Guardian: Simon Baker, Dabney Coleman and Farrah Fawcett (along with a cameo by Will Ferrell) all work with the police and are the subject of some police investigations in this deep drama about life and redemption.\nSirens: mid-1990s ABC series about female Pittsburgh Police officers.\nThe Kill Point: 2007 cable mini-series in which the Pittsburgh Police led by Donnie Wahlberg and the FBI attempt to handle a downtown bank robbery led by John Leguizamo that turns into a hostage situation.\nBlacks and Blue: 1998 NBC News series with Geraldo Rivera reporting on the bureau's operations.[22]\nTop Sniper 2: the Pittsburgh Police S.W.A.T. team was featured as winners of the 2008 competition with it airing on the Military Channel in March 2009.[23][24]\nStranger Things, at the beginning of episode one, bank robbers are chased by the Pittsburgh Police in 1984.","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Flashdance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashdance"},{"link_name":"candid camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candid_Camera"},{"link_name":"Vic Cianca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vic_Cianca"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Beals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Beals"},{"link_name":"Desperate Measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desperate_Measures_(film)"},{"link_name":"Andy García","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Garc%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Michael Keaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Keaton"},{"link_name":"One Mellon Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BNY_Mellon_Center_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Allegheny County Courthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegheny_County_Courthouse"},{"link_name":"Dawn of the Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_of_the_Dead_(1978_film)"},{"link_name":"Sudden Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_Death_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"U.S. Vice President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cup Finals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cup_Finals"},{"link_name":"Mellon Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_Arena_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Jean-Claude Van Damme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Van_Damme"},{"link_name":"Striking Distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striking_Distance"},{"link_name":"Bruce Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Willis"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jessica Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jessica_Parker"},{"link_name":"Dennis Farina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Farina"},{"link_name":"Screwed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screwed_(2000_film)"},{"link_name":"Dave Chappelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Chappelle"},{"link_name":"Norm Macdonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_Macdonald"},{"link_name":"Wonder Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_Boys_(film)"},{"link_name":"Michael Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Douglas"},{"link_name":"Hoffa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoffa_(film)"},{"link_name":"Danny DeVito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_DeVito"},{"link_name":"Gateway Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_Center_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Boys on the Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boys_on_the_Side"},{"link_name":"Drew Barrymore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drew_Barrymore"},{"link_name":"Inspector Gadget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspector_Gadget_(film)"},{"link_name":"Land of the Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_the_Dead"},{"link_name":"The Clearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clearing_(film)"},{"link_name":"Robert 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Reacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Reacher_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Perks of Being a Wallflower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Perks_of_Being_a_Wallflower"},{"link_name":"The Dark Knight Rises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_Rises"},{"link_name":"Heinz Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Field"},{"link_name":"Bane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bane_(DC_Comics)"},{"link_name":"Acts of Vengeance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Vengeance"},{"link_name":"Karl Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Urban"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"Flashdance features several Pittsburgh cops during different scenes, most notably candid camera fame Vic Cianca's cameo appearance with star Jennifer Beals.\nDesperate Measures: Pittsburgh Police double for San Franciscans as Andy García hunts a demented Michael Keaton within the maze of corridors that form One Mellon Center and the Allegheny County Courthouse portraying a 'hospital'.\nDawn of the Dead: Pittsburgh Police—among others—mount a defense against zombies in this political satire against \"mall culture\"\nSudden Death: Pittsburgh Police and SWAT respond to the U.S. Vice President being held hostage at the Stanley Cup Finals at Mellon Arena while Jean-Claude Van Damme provides the heroics.\nStriking Distance: high drama film about corruption and coverups where Bruce Willis, Sarah Jessica Parker and Dennis Farina play Pittsburgh police officers.\nScrewed: a comedy about a shrewd Pittsburgh Police detective and a kidnapping gone crazy with help from Dave Chappelle and Norm Macdonald.\nWonder Boys: a \"Boy Scout\" hounds Michael Douglas' character in the morning hours at the professor's house.\nHoffa: a motorcycle cop in 1960s urban America pulls over Danny DeVito's character outside of Gateway Center.\nBoys on the Side: Pittsburgh Police chase down Drew Barrymore.\nInspector Gadget: Pittsburgh gets recast as \"Riverton\" as the Police go high tech.\nLand of the Dead even though filmed in Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, locations in film are to appear as Pittsburgh.\nThe Clearing: Robert Redford's character as a 'prominent Pittsburgh businessman' is abducted and held for ransom as the Pittsburgh Police and FBI are portrayed attempting to solve the case.\nThe Next Three Days: features the Pittsburgh Police prominently as Russell Crowe battles to prove his wife's innocence during a murder trial.\nIn the Name of the Law: a police superintendent hurls baseballs off the 150+ foot high roof of Pittsburgh City Hall as Pittsburgh Pirates Hall of Famer Honus Wagner comes to the city's rescue with daring catches on the street below.\nDominick and Eugene\nChasing 3000\nThe Mysteries of Pittsburgh\nJack Reacher\nThe Perks of Being a Wallflower\nThe Dark Knight Rises: Heinz Field is used for a fictional Gotham football team when Bane interrupts a game and holds the place hostage.\nActs of Vengeance: Karl Urban plays Pittsburgh Police officer Hank Strode, the Pittsburgh Police Officers in the film all have the authentic uniform but the name \"Pittsburgh\" on the uniforms has been changed to \"Metropolitan\".","title":"In popular culture"}] | 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Apps.pittsburghpa.gov. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.pittsburghpa.gov/redtail/images/7653_2020_Mayor's_Operating_Budget.pdf","url_text":"\"Operating Budget Fiscal Year 2020 The City of Pittsburgh\""}]},{"reference":"Koscinski, Kiley (May 23, 2023). \"Larry Scirotto sails through City Council vote to become Pittsburgh's new chief of police\". Archived from the original on May 23, 2023. Retrieved May 23, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230523224349/https://www.wesa.fm/politics-government/2023-05-23/larry-scirotto-sails-through-city-council-vote-to-become-pittsburghs-new-chief-of-police","url_text":"\"Larry Scirotto sails through City Council vote to become Pittsburgh's new chief of police\""},{"url":"https://www.wesa.fm/politics-government/2023-05-23/larry-scirotto-sails-through-city-council-vote-to-become-pittsburghs-new-chief-of-police","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search\". Archived from the original on 4 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130104004652/http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RT0dAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lU0EAAAAIBAJ&dq=pieper&pg=1665,4604992","url_text":"\"The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search\""},{"url":"http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RT0dAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lU0EAAAAIBAJ&dq=pieper&pg=1665,4604992","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Google News. Archived from the original on 26 October 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151026105747/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HZIcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TGIEAAAAIBAJ&dq=safety%20director%20pittsburgh&pg=4315%2C399661","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_News","url_text":"Google News"},{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=HZIcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TGIEAAAAIBAJ&dq=safety%20director%20pittsburgh&pg=4315%2C399661","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search\". Archived from the original on 2016-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160507003020/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jYMcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mmMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2209,8832687","url_text":"\"The Pittsburgh Press - Google News Archive Search\""},{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jYMcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mmMEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2209,8832687","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search\". 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Retrieved 2008-07-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080514213445/http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/split/documents/pittssa.htm","url_text":"\"Pittsburgh Police\""},{"url":"https://www.usdoj.gov/crt/split/documents/pittssa.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vera Institute of Justice | Other Programs | Publications\". Archived from the original on 2007-11-06. Retrieved 2008-07-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071106050410/http://www.vera.org/section1/section1_4b.asp?section_id=1&project_id=0&sub_section_id=4&publication_id=277&publication_content_id=546","url_text":"\"Vera Institute of Justice | Other Programs | Publications\""},{"url":"http://www.vera.org/section1/section1_4b.asp?section_id%3D1%26project_id%3D0%26sub_section_id%3D4%26publication_id%3D277%26publication_content_id%3D546","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Citizens Police Review Board Members\". Archived from the original on 2008-02-19. Retrieved 2008-07-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080219112551/http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/cprb/html/board_members.html","url_text":"\"Citizens Police Review Board Members\""},{"url":"http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us/cprb/html/board_members.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Silver, Jonathan D. (2013-02-13). \"FBI seizure of Pittsburgh police files linked to probe into use of funds | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/local/neighborhoods-city/fbi-seizes-pittsburgh-police-files-675125/","url_text":"\"FBI seizure of Pittsburgh police files linked to probe into use of funds | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"Navratil, Liz (2013-02-19). \"Ravenstahl: Controversial police accounts had hundreds of transactions | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/local/neighborhoods-city/ravenstahl-controversial-police-accounts-had-hundreds-of-transactions-676002/","url_text":"\"Ravenstahl: Controversial police accounts had hundreds of transactions | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"Silver, Jonathan D. (2013-02-15). \"FBI, IRS investigate account connected to Pittsburgh police chief's office | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/local/neighborhoods-city/fbi-irs-investigate-account-connected-to-pittsburgh-police-chiefs-office-675523/","url_text":"\"FBI, IRS investigate account connected to Pittsburgh police chief's office | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"\"Former Pittsburgh Police Chief Nate Harper indicted | Allegheny County News - WTAE Home\". Wtae.com. 2013-03-23. Archived from the original on 2013-12-16. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131216192008/http://www.wtae.com/news/local/allegheny/Former-Pittsburgh-Police-Chief-Nate-Harper-indicted/-/10927008/19425286/-/5hx0ie/-/index.html","url_text":"\"Former Pittsburgh Police Chief Nate Harper indicted | Allegheny County News - WTAE Home\""},{"url":"http://www.wtae.com/news/local/allegheny/Former-Pittsburgh-Police-Chief-Nate-Harper-indicted/-/10927008/19425286/-/5hx0ie/-/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Google News. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160316164027/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JrRRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Rm4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6786%2C8067541","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_News","url_text":"Google News"},{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JrRRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Rm4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6786%2C8067541","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search\". Archived from the original on 2016-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160506041402/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xYFRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mWgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3881,2535932","url_text":"\"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Google News Archive Search\""},{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xYFRAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mWgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3881,2535932","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chris Togneri, Chris Togneri (April 5, 2009). \"Man 'lying in wait' kills 3 police officers in Stanton Heights\". 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Retrieved 2009-04-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090408010033/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gxAP_ul1xtDvN-3H8XQ5EaI6_7cAD97BUCB81","url_text":"\"Gunman 'lying in wait' kills 3 Pittsburgh officers\""},{"url":"https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gxAP_ul1xtDvN-3H8XQ5EaI6_7cAD97BUCB81","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"2019 Statistical Report City of Pittsburgh Depart of Public Safety Bureau of Police\" (PDF). apps.pittsburghpa.gov. Retrieved 17 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.pittsburghpa.gov/redtail/images/9640_2019_Annual_Report_Final.pdf","url_text":"\"2019 Statistical Report City of Pittsburgh Depart of Public Safety Bureau of Police\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pittsburgh Pirates (NHL) 1925-30\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-04. 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Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.post-gazette.com/columnists/19981023tony.asp","url_text":"\"Geraldo's aim at baring city's 'Blacks and Blue' schism falls short of mark\""}]},{"reference":"Sherman, Jerome L. (2009-03-22). \"City SWAT team takes first in one sniper contest event | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/local/neighborhoods-city/city-swat-team-takes-first-in-one-sniper-contest-event-334787/","url_text":"\"City SWAT team takes first in one sniper contest event | Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"\"Military Channel Explores International Sniper Competition with \"Top Sniper 2\"\". Tactical-life.com. 2015-04-29. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Japan_Project:_Made_in_Japan | The Japan Project: Made in Japan | ["1 External links"] | Documentary film by Terry Sanders
This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "The Japan Project: Made in Japan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The Japan Project: Made in JapanDirected byTerry SandersRunning time52 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglish
The Japan Project: Made in Japan is a 52-minute documentary film by Terry Sanders that covers the story of the entry of Sony, Honda, Benihana, and Sega into the American market.
External links
Description at the American Film Foundation
This article about an American documentary film is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"documentary film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_film"},{"link_name":"Terry Sanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Sanders"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"Benihana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benihana_(restaurant)"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"}],"text":"The Japan Project: Made in Japan is a 52-minute documentary film by Terry Sanders that covers the story of the entry of Sony, Honda, Benihana, and Sega into the American market.","title":"The Japan Project: Made in Japan"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22","external_links_name":"\"The Japan Project: Made in Japan\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22The+Japan+Project%3A+Made+in+Japan%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.americanfilmfoundation.com/order/japan_made_in_japan.shtml","external_links_name":"Description at the American Film Foundation"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Japan_Project:_Made_in_Japan&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institution_of_Liverpool | Liverpool Royal Institution | ["1 Slave trade","2 References","3 External links"] | Coordinates: 53°24′05″N 2°58′40″W / 53.40125°N 2.97774°W / 53.40125; -2.97774Learned society
53°24′05″N 2°58′40″W / 53.40125°N 2.97774°W / 53.40125; -2.97774
Liverpool Royal Institution on Colquitt Street
The Liverpool Royal Institution was a learned society set up in 1814 for "the Promotion of Literature, Science and the Arts". William Corrie, William Rathbone IV, Thomas Stewart Traill and William Roscoe were among the founders. It was sometimes called the Royal Society of Liverpool.
A royal charter was granted in 1821. The institute purchased a building on Colquitt Street where a lecture program was started. It also included an art gallery which hosted John James Audubon's first European exhibition, in 1826. A new building to host the gallery was built in 1841 and its director was William John Swainson. A grammar school for boys, the Royal Institution School, ran until 1892.
After the construction of the William Brown Library and Museum, and Walker Art Gallery the institute fell into decline, its collections were moved to the gallery and its archives moved to University College Liverpool. The institute was dissolved in 1948.
Slave trade
The house was built for the slave trader Thomas Parr. Parr sold his house to the institution and was one of its founder members. Many of the people who set up the institution were former slave traders.
References
^ "Thomas Parr - Liverpool Black History Research Group". 26 May 2021.
^ "No. 57, PARR STREET, Non Civil Parish - 1292976 | Historic England". historicengland.org.uk.
^ "Liverpool & the North West - Slave Traders & Plantation Wealth | Historic England".
External links
"History of the institution". Archived from the original on 21 December 2010.
A guide to the permanent gallery of art, and to the saloon of casts, at the Royal Institution, Liverpool, Liverpool: Whitty, 1844, OL 25083261M
This article about an organisation in England is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about an education organization is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"53°24′05″N 2°58′40″W / 53.40125°N 2.97774°W / 53.40125; -2.97774","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Liverpool_Royal_Institution¶ms=53.40125_N_2.97774_W_"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Institution,_Colquitt_Street,_Liverpool.jpg"},{"link_name":"learned society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society"},{"link_name":"William Rathbone IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rathbone_IV"},{"link_name":"Thomas Stewart Traill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Stewart_Traill"},{"link_name":"William Roscoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Roscoe"},{"link_name":"royal charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_charter"},{"link_name":"John James Audubon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Audubon"},{"link_name":"William John Swainson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_John_Swainson"},{"link_name":"William Brown Library and Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Brown_Library_and_Museum"},{"link_name":"Walker Art Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker_Art_Gallery"},{"link_name":"University College Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Liverpool"}],"text":"Learned society53°24′05″N 2°58′40″W / 53.40125°N 2.97774°W / 53.40125; -2.97774Liverpool Royal Institution on Colquitt StreetThe Liverpool Royal Institution was a learned society set up in 1814 for \"the Promotion of Literature, Science and the Arts\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_responder | First responder | ["1 Etymology","2 Specific jurisdictions","2.1 United States","3 Issues","3.1 Trauma","4 See also","5 References"] | Trained emergency personnel
For the emergency medical level of training, see Certified first responder. For the TV episode, see First Responders (The Unit).
First responders at the scene of a traffic accident in Hong Kong
A Scottish Ambulance Service nontransporting EMS vehicle, referred to by markings on the vehicle as a "first responder" vehicle
A first responder is a person with specialized training who is among the first to arrive and provide assistance or incident resolution at the scene of an emergency. First responders typically include law enforcement officers (commonly known as police officers), emergency medical services members (such as EMTs or paramedics), fire service members (such as firefighters, search and rescue members, technical/heavy rescue members, etc) and Public Works employees such as Heavy Equipment Operators as well as Public Works Tree Department personnel. In some jurisdictions, emergency department personnel, such as doctors and nurses, are also required to respond to disasters and critical situations, designating them first responders; in other jurisdictions, military and security forces may also be authorized to act as first responders.
In a medical context, certified first responder is an individual who has received certification to provide pre-hospital care in a certain jurisdiction. A community first responder is a person dispatched to attend medical emergencies until an ambulance arrives. A wilderness first responder is trained to provide pre-hospital care in remote settings who has skills relevant to ad hoc patient care and transport by non-motorized means. Public Works departments are also recognized as First Responders as they are generally called to clean up natural disasters, plow snow and maintain roads as well as provide rescue support in extreme weather scenarios.
Etymology
This section possibly contains original research. It lacks a citation in support of the proposition that this was the etymology. These citations only show examples of usage, but don't seem to describe the origin of the term as claimed. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
The use of the term "first responder" in the current sense first emerged in the United States in the 1970s. Perhaps the earliest uses in print occurred in two articles in The Boston Globe in August 1973, about proposed ambulance regulations in Massachusetts.
"…any police or fireman who staff a 'dual-purpose' vehicle would have to be trained to offer 'first-responder' care — that is, to stabilize a patient until more sophisticated help arrived."
"The chances are even better that your emergency call will be answered by a police or fire vehicle doing double duty instead of an adequately equipped ambulance and a paramedic trained in 'first responder' care."
There were some earlier uses of "first response", though not "first responder", in this sense. They included an article in the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel in March 1972, and another about the formation of a "First Response Group" composed of volunteers in The Burlington Free Press in April 1973.
A few months after its use in the Globe, the term "first-responders" appeared in a Boston Herald article about a master plan for emergency care from the Health Planning Council of Greater Boston. One of the recommendations in the plan, reported the Herald, was that "All ambulance personnel and first-responders (who are general police and firemen) should be adequately trained in emergency care such as cardopulmonary resuscitation."
"First-responder" was also used in a July 1974 classified advertisement for a deputy chief of EMT training—"to assist in developing and implementing statewide training programs for EMT's and first-responders"—from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health.
The term began appearing in newspaper articles from other parts of the United States in the second half of 1974, and was in widespread use by 1975. At some point, the dash between "first" and "responder" disappeared.
Specific jurisdictions
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Some jurisdictions have special laws defining and establishing the rights and duties of first responders.
United States
First responders at the site of a train collision in the United States
The term first responder is defined in U.S. Homeland Security Presidential Directive, HSPD-8 and reads:
The term "first responder" refers to those individuals who in the early stages of an incident are responsible for the protection and preservation of life, property, evidence, and the environment, including emergency response providers as defined in section 2 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (6 U.S.C. § 101), as well as emergency management, public health, clinical care, public works, and other skilled support personnel (such as equipment operators) that provide immediate support services during prevention, response, and recovery operations.
Emergency response providers are defined by 6 U.S.C. § 101 as follows:
(6) The term "emergency response providers" includes Federal, State, and local governmental and nongovernmental emergency public safety, fire, law enforcement, public safety telecommunicators/dispatcher, emergency response, emergency medical services providers (including hospital emergency facilities), and related personnel, agencies, and authorities.
Issues
A training exercise for first responders in Thailand
First responders must be trained to deal with a wide array of potential emergencies. Due to the high level of stress and uncertainty associated with the position, first responders must maintain physical and mental health. Even with such preparation, first responders face unique risks of being the first people to aid those with unknown contagions. For example, in 2003 first responders were among the earliest cases of the previously unknown SARS virus, when they cared for patients affected with the virus.
Infectious disease has continued to be a major occupational health concern among first responders with the COVID-19 pandemic. The CDC and other agencies and organizations have issued guidance regarding workplace hazard controls for COVID-19. Specific precautions for first responders include modified call queries, symptom screening, universal PPE use, hand hygiene, physical distancing, and stringent disinfection protocols.
Trauma
Main article: Trauma and first responders
See also
Look up first responder in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
First aid
Emergency medical responder levels by U.S. state
References
^ Knox, Richard A. (12 August 1973). "Western Mass. foes threaten proposed ambulance regulation". Boston Globe. p. 37.
^ Knox, Richard A. (20 August 1973). "Emergency ambulance service found wanting in Mass". Boston Globe. p. 3.
^ Wright, Alice (18 March 1972). "Emergency medical care community responsibility". The Daily Sentinel. p. 8.
^ "Volunteers form response group". Burlington Free Press. 16 April 1973. p. 4.
^ Langone, John (11 May 1974). "Emergency aid reform told". Boston Herald. p. 1.
^ "Office of emergency medical services". Classified Advertising. Chicago Tribune. 7 July 1974. p. 6.
^ "HSPD-8, Homeland Security Presidential Directive" (PDF). Office of the Press Secretary, The White House. Retrieved 2016-12-11.
^ Gina Hagler, Careers as a First Responder (2012), p. 59.
^ Gregory R. Ciottone, Disaster Medicine (2006), p. 141.
^ CDC (2020-04-30). "First Responders, Law Enforcement & Public Services". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2020-07-23.
vteEmergency medicineEmergency medicine
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Drugs
Adenosine
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Organisations
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Courses / Life support
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NACA score
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Category
Outline | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Certified first responder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_first_responder"},{"link_name":"First Responders (The Unit)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Responders_(The_Unit)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Car_accident_at_Tung_Chung_Eastern_Exchange.JPG"},{"link_name":"traffic accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_collision"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scottish_Ambulance_Service_First_Responder_vehicle.jpg"},{"link_name":"Scottish Ambulance Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Ambulance_Service"},{"link_name":"nontransporting EMS vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontransporting_EMS_vehicle"},{"link_name":"emergency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency"},{"link_name":"law enforcement officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement"},{"link_name":"police officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_officer"},{"link_name":"emergency medical services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_services"},{"link_name":"EMTs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_technician"},{"link_name":"paramedics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramedic"},{"link_name":"fire service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_department"},{"link_name":"firefighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefighter"},{"link_name":"search and rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_rescue"},{"link_name":"technical/heavy rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_rescue"},{"link_name":"emergency department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_department"},{"link_name":"doctors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician"},{"link_name":"nurses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military"},{"link_name":"security forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_forces"},{"link_name":"certified first responder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_first_responder"},{"link_name":"community first responder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_first_responder"},{"link_name":"wilderness first responder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_first_responder"},{"link_name":"ad hoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc"}],"text":"For the emergency medical level of training, see Certified first responder. For the TV episode, see First Responders (The Unit).First responders at the scene of a traffic accident in Hong KongA Scottish Ambulance Service nontransporting EMS vehicle, referred to by markings on the vehicle as a \"first responder\" vehicleA first responder is a person with specialized training who is among the first to arrive and provide assistance or incident resolution at the scene of an emergency. First responders typically include law enforcement officers (commonly known as police officers), emergency medical services members (such as EMTs or paramedics), fire service members (such as firefighters, search and rescue members, technical/heavy rescue members, etc) and Public Works employees such as Heavy Equipment Operators as well as Public Works Tree Department personnel. In some jurisdictions, emergency department personnel, such as doctors and nurses, are also required to respond to disasters and critical situations, designating them first responders; in other jurisdictions, military and security forces may also be authorized to act as first responders.In a medical context, certified first responder is an individual who has received certification to provide pre-hospital care in a certain jurisdiction. A community first responder is a person dispatched to attend medical emergencies until an ambulance arrives. A wilderness first responder is trained to provide pre-hospital care in remote settings who has skills relevant to ad hoc patient care and transport by non-motorized means. Public Works departments are also recognized as First Responders as they are generally called to clean up natural disasters, plow snow and maintain roads as well as provide rescue support in extreme weather scenarios.","title":"First responder"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"The Boston Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globe"},{"link_name":"ambulance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambulance"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Grand Junction Daily Sentinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Junction_Daily_Sentinel"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The Burlington Free Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Burlington_Free_Press"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Boston Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Herald"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Department of Public Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Department_of_Public_Health"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"dash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash"}],"text":"The use of the term \"first responder\" in the current sense first emerged in the United States in the 1970s. Perhaps the earliest uses in print occurred in two articles in The Boston Globe in August 1973, about proposed ambulance regulations in Massachusetts.\"…any police or fireman who staff a 'dual-purpose' vehicle would have to be trained to offer 'first-responder' care — that is, to stabilize a patient until more sophisticated help arrived.\"[1]\n\"The chances are even better that your emergency call will be answered by a police or fire vehicle doing double duty instead of an adequately equipped ambulance and a paramedic trained in 'first responder' care.\"[2]There were some earlier uses of \"first response\", though not \"first responder\", in this sense. They included an article in the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel in March 1972,[3] and another about the formation of a \"First Response Group\" composed of volunteers in The Burlington Free Press in April 1973.[4]A few months after its use in the Globe, the term \"first-responders\" appeared in a Boston Herald article about a master plan for emergency care from the Health Planning Council of Greater Boston. One of the recommendations in the plan, reported the Herald, was that \"All ambulance personnel and first-responders (who are general police and firemen) should be adequately trained in emergency care such as cardopulmonary [sic] resuscitation.\"[5]\"First-responder\" was also used in a July 1974 classified advertisement for a deputy chief of EMT training—\"to assist in developing and implementing statewide training programs for EMT's and first-responders\"—from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health.[6]The term began appearing in newspaper articles from other parts of the United States in the second half of 1974, and was in widespread use by 1975. At some point, the dash between \"first\" and \"responder\" disappeared.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Some jurisdictions have special laws defining and establishing the rights and duties of first responders.","title":"Specific jurisdictions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amfleet_cars_and_first_responders_after_July_2011_grade_crossing_accident.jpg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"6 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_6_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/6/101"},{"link_name":"6 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_6_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/6/101"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"First responders at the site of a train collision in the United StatesThe term first responder is defined in U.S. Homeland Security Presidential Directive, HSPD-8[7] and reads:The term \"first responder\" refers to those individuals who in the early stages of an incident are responsible for the protection and preservation of life, property, evidence, and the environment, including emergency response providers as defined in section 2 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (6 U.S.C. § 101), as well as emergency management, public health, clinical care, public works, and other skilled support personnel (such as equipment operators) that provide immediate support services during prevention, response, and recovery operations.Emergency response providers are defined by 6 U.S.C. § 101 as follows:(6) The term \"emergency response providers\" includes Federal, State, and local governmental and nongovernmental emergency public safety, fire, law enforcement, public safety telecommunicators/dispatcher, emergency response, emergency medical services providers (including hospital emergency facilities), and related personnel, agencies, and authorities.","title":"Specific jurisdictions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Washington_Guard_works_with_Thai_first_responders_DVIDS173002.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"SARS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"workplace hazard controls for COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"A training exercise for first responders in ThailandFirst responders must be trained to deal with a wide array of potential emergencies. Due to the high level of stress and uncertainty associated with the position, first responders must maintain physical and mental health.[8] Even with such preparation, first responders face unique risks of being the first people to aid those with unknown contagions. For example, in 2003 first responders were among the earliest cases of the previously unknown SARS virus, when they cared for patients affected with the virus.[9]Infectious disease has continued to be a major occupational health concern among first responders with the COVID-19 pandemic. The CDC and other agencies and organizations have issued guidance regarding workplace hazard controls for COVID-19. Specific precautions for first responders include modified call queries, symptom screening, universal PPE use, hand hygiene, physical distancing, and stringent disinfection protocols.[10]","title":"Issues"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Trauma","title":"Issues"}] | [{"image_text":"First responders at the scene of a traffic accident in Hong Kong","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Car_accident_at_Tung_Chung_Eastern_Exchange.JPG/249px-Car_accident_at_Tung_Chung_Eastern_Exchange.JPG"},{"image_text":"A Scottish Ambulance Service nontransporting EMS vehicle, referred to by markings on the vehicle as a \"first responder\" vehicle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Scottish_Ambulance_Service_First_Responder_vehicle.jpg/220px-Scottish_Ambulance_Service_First_Responder_vehicle.jpg"},{"image_text":"First responders at the site of a train collision in the United States","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Amfleet_cars_and_first_responders_after_July_2011_grade_crossing_accident.jpg/220px-Amfleet_cars_and_first_responders_after_July_2011_grade_crossing_accident.jpg"},{"image_text":"A training exercise for first responders in Thailand","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Washington_Guard_works_with_Thai_first_responders_DVIDS173002.jpg/220px-Washington_Guard_works_with_Thai_first_responders_DVIDS173002.jpg"}] | [{"title":"first responder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/first_responder"},{"title":"First aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aid"},{"title":"Emergency medical responder levels by U.S. state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_responder_levels_by_U.S._state"}] | [{"reference":"Knox, Richard A. (12 August 1973). \"Western Mass. foes threaten proposed ambulance regulation\". Boston Globe. p. 37.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Knox, Richard A. (20 August 1973). \"Emergency ambulance service found wanting in Mass\". Boston Globe. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wright, Alice (18 March 1972). \"Emergency medical care community responsibility\". The Daily Sentinel. p. 8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Volunteers form response group\". Burlington Free Press. 16 April 1973. p. 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Langone, John (11 May 1974). \"Emergency aid reform told\". Boston Herald. p. 1.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Office of emergency medical services\". Classified Advertising. Chicago Tribune. 7 July 1974. p. 6.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"HSPD-8, Homeland Security Presidential Directive\" (PDF). Office of the Press Secretary, The White House. Retrieved 2016-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://biometrics.gov/Documents/Homeland%20Security%20Presidential%20Directive%20_%20HSPD-8.pdf","url_text":"\"HSPD-8, Homeland Security Presidential Directive\""}]},{"reference":"CDC (2020-04-30). \"First Responders, Law Enforcement & Public Services\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2020-07-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/first-responders.html","url_text":"\"First Responders, Law Enforcement & Public Services\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_responder&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_responder&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/6/101","external_links_name":"§ 101"},{"Link":"https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/6/101","external_links_name":"§ 101"},{"Link":"https://biometrics.gov/Documents/Homeland%20Security%20Presidential%20Directive%20_%20HSPD-8.pdf","external_links_name":"\"HSPD-8, Homeland Security Presidential Directive\""},{"Link":"https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/first-responders.html","external_links_name":"\"First Responders, Law Enforcement & Public Services\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Tirpak | Steve Tirpak | ["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Discography","3.1 Musician credits","3.2 Soundtracks","4 References","5 External links"] | Steve TirpakTirpak at Platinum Sound, NYCBackground informationBorn1981 (age 42–43)Edgewater Park, New Jersey, United StatesOccupation(s)Music producer, composer, arrangerYears active2004–presentWebsitewww.pakmanmusik.comMusical artist
Steve Tirpak (born 1981) is an American musician from Edgewater Park, New Jersey, United States. He plays piano, trumpet, trombone and has produced, toured and arranged for a number of contemporary musicians including Jay-Z, Erykah Badu, Lana Del Rey, Kirk Franklin, P. Diddy, The Roots, LL Cool J, Will Smith, Kanye West, Kid Cudi, Estelle, Luther Vandross, R. Kelly, Boyz II Men, Vivian Green, Notorious B.I.G., Gerald Levert, Mindi Abair, Kindred, Young Gunz, and many others.
Tirpak toured with John Legend playing trumpet and trombone from 2007 to 2010.
Early life
Tirpak's' parents are also professional musicians and music teachers. With their encouragement, he spent his early years studying violin and drums. He attended the High School for Creative and Performing Arts and then studied music composition at the University of the Arts Tirpak studied jazz and classical composition with Evan Solot through whom he met Larry Gold and worked at The Studio as a copyist and session musician, playing horns on many Pop, Hip-Hop and R&B records.
Career
Honing his arranging skills while working with Larry Gold, in 2007 Tirpak was hired to the John Legend Evolver World Tour as horn arranger and trombonist. Following the tour's end, Tirpak continued his arranging while simultaneously delving into orchestral work. He wrote for George Michael's Symphonica Tour in 2012, and composed for full orchestra for Jay-Z's benefit performance at Carnegie Hall later that year. Tirpak has appeared on the television shows Jimmy Kimmel Live, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and The Late Show with David Letterman.
Tirpak served as the Assistant Director of the Creative Music Program at the Kimmel Center. Many of his students went on to receive full scholarships at the most respected music schools in the United States including Berklee, Manhattan School of Music and The Juilliard School.
In 2020 Steve produced a Holiday EP with America's Got Talent winner Bianca Ryan titled . The album was recorded completely virtually during the Corona Pandemic.
Discography
Musician credits
Love in the Future – John Legend (2013)
"Unconditional" – Ne–Yo (2012)
84th Academy Awards (2012)
Laughing Down Crying – Daryl Hall (2011)
The Beginning (The Black Eyed Peas album) – The Black Eyed Peas (2010)
Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager – Kid Cudi (2010)
Evolver – John Legend (2008)
New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) – Erykah Badu (2008)
Double Up (R. Kelly album) – R. Kelly (2007)
Once Again (2006)
2005 MTV Video Music Awards (2005)
Lost and Found – Will Smith (2005)
So Amazing: An All–Star Tribute to Luther Vandross – Various Artists (2005)
Happy People/U Saved Me – R. Kelly (2004)
Throwback, Vol. 1 – Boyz II Men (2004)
Get Lifted (2004) – John Legend (2004)
Soundtracks
Bessie Motion Picture Soundtrack (2018)
Robots Motion Picture Soundtrack (2005)
References
^ "Steve Tirpak | Credits". AllMusic. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
^ "John-Legend.Net". John-Legend.Net. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
^ Archived January 26, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Jay-Z shines at Carnegie Hall – USATODAY.com". Usatoday30.usatoday.com. 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
^ "Jazz Camp of Philadelphia". Kimmel Center. Retrieved 2014-08-10.
External links
Official website | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edgewater Park, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgewater_Park,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Jay-Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay-Z"},{"link_name":"Erykah Badu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erykah_Badu"},{"link_name":"Lana Del Rey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lana_Del_Rey"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"P. Diddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._Diddy"},{"link_name":"The Roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Roots"},{"link_name":"LL Cool J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_Cool_J"},{"link_name":"Will Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Smith"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Kid Cudi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kid_Cudi"},{"link_name":"Estelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estelle_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Luther Vandross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Vandross"},{"link_name":"R. Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._Kelly"},{"link_name":"Boyz II Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyz_II_Men"},{"link_name":"Vivian Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivian_Green"},{"link_name":"Notorious B.I.G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notorious_B.I.G."},{"link_name":"Gerald Levert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Levert"},{"link_name":"Mindi Abair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindi_Abair"},{"link_name":"Young Gunz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Gunz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"John Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Legend"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Musical artistSteve Tirpak (born 1981) is an American musician from Edgewater Park, New Jersey, United States. He plays piano, trumpet, trombone and has produced, toured and arranged for a number of contemporary musicians including Jay-Z, Erykah Badu, Lana Del Rey, Kirk Franklin, P. Diddy, The Roots, LL Cool J, Will Smith, Kanye West, Kid Cudi, Estelle, Luther Vandross, R. Kelly, Boyz II Men, Vivian Green, Notorious B.I.G., Gerald Levert, Mindi Abair, Kindred, Young Gunz, and many others.[1]\nTirpak toured with John Legend playing trumpet and trombone from 2007 to 2010.[2]","title":"Steve Tirpak"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of the Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Arts_(Philadelphia)"}],"text":"Tirpak's' parents are also professional musicians and music teachers. With their encouragement, he spent his early years studying violin and drums. He attended the High School for Creative and Performing Arts and then studied music composition at the University of the Arts Tirpak studied jazz and classical composition with Evan Solot through whom he met Larry Gold and worked at The Studio as a copyist and session musician, playing horns on many Pop, Hip-Hop and R&B records.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"George Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Michael"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Honing his arranging skills while working with Larry Gold, in 2007 Tirpak was hired to the John Legend Evolver World Tour as horn arranger and trombonist.[3] Following the tour's end, Tirpak continued his arranging while simultaneously delving into orchestral work. He wrote for George Michael's Symphonica Tour in 2012, and composed for full orchestra for Jay-Z's benefit performance at Carnegie Hall later that year.[4] Tirpak has appeared on the television shows Jimmy Kimmel Live, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and The Late Show with David Letterman.Tirpak served as the Assistant Director of the Creative Music Program at the Kimmel Center.[5] Many of his students went on to receive full scholarships at the most respected music schools in the United States including Berklee, Manhattan School of Music and The Juilliard School.In 2020 Steve produced a Holiday EP with America's Got Talent winner Bianca Ryan titled [What The World Needs Now Is Love]. The album was recorded completely virtually during the Corona Pandemic.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Love in the Future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_in_the_Future"},{"link_name":"Unconditional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unconditional_(Ne%E2%80%93Yo_song)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"84th Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/84th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Laughing Down Crying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laughing_Down_Crying"},{"link_name":"The Beginning (The Black Eyed Peas album)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beginning_(The_Black_Eyed_Peas_album)"},{"link_name":"Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_on_the_Moon_II:_The_Legend_of_Mr._Rager"},{"link_name":"Evolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolver_(John_Legend_album)"},{"link_name":"New Amerykah Part One (4th World War)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Amerykah_Part_One_(4th_World_War)"},{"link_name":"Double Up (R. Kelly album)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Up_(R._Kelly_album)"},{"link_name":"Once Again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Once_Again_(John_Legend_album)"},{"link_name":"2005 MTV Video Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_MTV_Video_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"Lost and Found","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_and_Found_(Will_Smith_album)"},{"link_name":"So Amazing: An All–Star Tribute to Luther Vandross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=So_Amazing:_An_All%E2%80%93Star_Tribute_to_Luther_Vandross&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Happy People/U Saved Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_People/U_Saved_Me"},{"link_name":"Throwback, Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throwback,_Vol._1"},{"link_name":"Get Lifted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Lifted"}],"sub_title":"Musician credits","text":"Love in the Future – John Legend (2013)\n\"Unconditional\" – Ne–Yo (2012)\n84th Academy Awards (2012)\nLaughing Down Crying – Daryl Hall (2011)\nThe Beginning (The Black Eyed Peas album) – The Black Eyed Peas (2010)\nMan on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager – Kid Cudi (2010)\nEvolver – John Legend (2008)\nNew Amerykah Part One (4th World War) – Erykah Badu (2008)\nDouble Up (R. Kelly album) – R. Kelly (2007)\nOnce Again (2006)\n2005 MTV Video Music Awards (2005)\nLost and Found – Will Smith (2005)\nSo Amazing: An All–Star Tribute to Luther Vandross – Various Artists (2005)\nHappy People/U Saved Me – R. Kelly (2004)\nThrowback, Vol. 1 – Boyz II Men (2004)\nGet Lifted (2004) – John Legend (2004)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bessie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bessie_(2018_film)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robots_(2005_film)"}],"sub_title":"Soundtracks","text":"Bessie Motion Picture Soundtrack (2018)\nRobots Motion Picture Soundtrack (2005)","title":"Discography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Steve Tirpak | Credits\". AllMusic. Retrieved 2014-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/artist/steve-tirpak-mn0001988161","url_text":"\"Steve Tirpak | Credits\""}]},{"reference":"\"John-Legend.Net\". John-Legend.Net. Retrieved 2014-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.john-legend.net/band/stephen.htm","url_text":"\"John-Legend.Net\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jay-Z shines at Carnegie Hall – USATODAY.com\". Usatoday30.usatoday.com. 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2014-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/music/news/story/2012-02-06/Jay-Z-at-Carnegie-Hall/52994942/1","url_text":"\"Jay-Z shines at Carnegie Hall – USATODAY.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jazz Camp of Philadelphia\". Kimmel Center. Retrieved 2014-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kimmelcenter.org/education/jazzcamp-faculty.php","url_text":"\"Jazz Camp of Philadelphia\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.pakmanmusik.com/","external_links_name":"www.pakmanmusik.com"},{"Link":"http://www.allmusic.com/artist/steve-tirpak-mn0001988161","external_links_name":"\"Steve Tirpak | Credits\""},{"Link":"http://www.john-legend.net/band/stephen.htm","external_links_name":"\"John-Legend.Net\""},{"Link":"http://www.johnlegend.com/us/tour","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090126074742/http://www.johnlegend.com/us/tour","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/music/news/story/2012-02-06/Jay-Z-at-Carnegie-Hall/52994942/1","external_links_name":"\"Jay-Z shines at Carnegie Hall – USATODAY.com\""},{"Link":"http://www.kimmelcenter.org/education/jazzcamp-faculty.php","external_links_name":"\"Jazz Camp of Philadelphia\""},{"Link":"http://www.pakmanmusik.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidents%27_Trophy_(U_Sports) | Presidents' Trophy (U Sports) | ["1 List of Presidents' Trophy winners","2 See also","3 References"] | The Presidents' Trophy is an annual Canadian sports award presented to the most outstanding defensive player in U Sports football. The trophy was first presented in 1980 after having been championed by two past presidents of Canadian university sports bodies. The name indirectly honours Ed Zemrau, past president of U Sports (then known as the Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union); and Robert Doty, past president of Canada's university football championship game, then known as the College Bowl and now as the Vanier Cup.
List of Presidents' Trophy winners
Year
Winner
School
1980
Rich Payne
Wilfrid Laurier
1981
Mike Emery
UBC
1982
Mike Emery
UBC
1983
Tom Timlin
Carleton
1984
Larry Oglesby
Mount Allison
1985
Darcy Kopp
Calgary
1986
Mark Norman
UBC
1987
Brent Lewis
Western
1988
Leroy Blugh
Bishop's
1989
Mark Singer
Alberta
1990
Randy Power
Mount Allison
1991
Ray Bernard
Bishop's
1992
Alex Eliopoulos
Saint Mary's
1993
Lou Tiro
Toronto
1994
Cory Delaney
Waterloo
1995
Paul Frlan
StFX
1996
Derek Krete
Western
1997
Jason Van Geel
Waterloo
1998
Warren Muzika
Saskatchewan
1999
Mike Letendre
Saskatchewan
2000
Joey Mikawoz
Manitoba
2001
David Stipe
Bishop's
2002
Adam MacDonald
StFX
2003
Neil McKinlay
Simon Fraser
2004
Mickey Donovan
Concordia
2005
Patrick Donovan
Concordia
2006
Patrick Donovan
Concordia
2007
Mat Nesbitt
Regina
2008
Thaine Carter
Queen's
2009
Cory Greenwood
Concordia
2010
Henoc Muamba
StFX
2011
Max Caron
Concordia
2012
Frédéric Plesius
Laval
2013
Pawel Kruba
Western
2014
Jonathan Langa
Saint Mary's
2015
John Rush
Guelph
2016
D. J. Lalama
Manitoba
2017
Adam Auclair
Laval
2018
Fraser Sopik
Western
2019
Nelson Lokombo
Saskatchewan
2021
Josiah Schakel
Alberta
2022
Nicky Farinaccio
Montreal
2023
Harold Miessan
Montreal
See also
Hec Crighton Trophy
J. P. Metras Trophy
Peter Gorman Trophy
Russ Jackson Award
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar "Past CIS Award Winners". Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Archived from the original on 2016-07-14.
vteU Sports footballAUS
Acadia Axemen
Bishop's Gaiters
Mount Allison Mounties
Saint Mary's Huskies
St. Francis Xavier X-Men
Canada West
Alberta Golden Bears
Calgary Dinos
Manitoba Bisons
Regina Rams
Saskatchewan Huskies
UBC Thunderbirds
OUA
Carleton Ravens
Guelph Gryphons
McMaster Marauders
Ottawa Gee-Gees
Queen's Gaels
Toronto Varsity Blues
Waterloo Warriors
Western Mustangs
Wilfrid Laurier Golden Hawks
Windsor Lancers
York Lions
RSEQ
Concordia Stingers
Laval Rouge et Or
McGill Redbirds
Montreal Carabins
Sherbrooke Vert et Or
ChampionshipsNational
Vanier Cup
Mitchell Bowl
Uteck Bowl
Atlantic Bowl (historical)
Churchill Bowl (historical)
Conference
Hardy Trophy
Yates Cup
Dunsmore Cup
Jewett Trophy
Awards
Hec Crighton Trophy
J. P. Metras Trophy
Presidents' Trophy
Peter Gorman Trophy
Russ Jackson Award
Frank Tindall Trophy
Lois and Doug Mitchell Awards
All-Canadian teams
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Seasons
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
Other
East–West Bowl
Panda Game
Shrum Bowl
Northern 8
CFL Combine
This Canadian football-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Presidents' Trophy (U Sports)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of Presidents' Trophy winners"}] | [] | [{"title":"Hec Crighton Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hec_Crighton_Trophy"},{"title":"J. P. Metras Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._P._Metras_Trophy"},{"title":"Peter Gorman Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gorman_Trophy"},{"title":"Russ Jackson Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Jackson_Award"}] | [{"reference":"\"Past CIS Award Winners\". Canadian Interuniversity Sport. Archived from the original on 2016-07-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160714144124/http://english.cis-sic.ca/championships/fball/history/past_awards","url_text":"\"Past CIS Award Winners\""},{"url":"http://english.cis-sic.ca/championships/fball/history/past_awards","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160714144124/http://english.cis-sic.ca/championships/fball/history/past_awards","external_links_name":"\"Past CIS Award Winners\""},{"Link":"http://english.cis-sic.ca/championships/fball/history/past_awards","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidents%27_Trophy_(U_Sports)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiophysical_Research_Institute | Radiophysical Research Institute | ["1 Projects NIRFI","2 Further reading","3 References"] | Coordinates: 56°19′31″N 44°01′16″E / 56.32521°N 44.02117°E / 56.32521; 44.02117Engineering research institute
Established1956AddressMiusskaya pl., 4, 125047, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia56°19′31″N 44°01′16″E / 56.32521°N 44.02117°E / 56.32521; 44.02117AffiliationsRussian Academy of SciencesWebsitewww.keldysh.ru
Radio telescope RT-15-2 of radio-astronomical station «Zimenki»
The Radiophysical Research Institute (NIRFI), based in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, is a research institute that conducts basic and applied research in the field of radiophysics, radio astronomy, cosmology and radio engineering. It is also known for its work in solar physics, sun-earth physics as well as the related geophysics. It also does outreach for the Russian education system. It was formed in 1956 as the Radiophysical Research Institute of the (Soviet) Ministry of Education and Science.
Projects NIRFI
Radiotelescope RT-15-1 astronomical station «Zimenki» NIRFI (May, 2006). Now it is dismantled (it is most likely handed over on scrap metal)
Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility
Zimenkovsky radio-astronomical observatory
Radio telescope - RT-14 laboratories NIRFI Staraya Pustin + two RT-7
Further reading
Braude, S.Y.; et al., eds. (2012). A Brief History of Radio Astronomy in the USSR. Collection of Scientific Essays Series. Vol. 382. Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-94-007-2833-2. 254 pages.
References
^
Snegirev, S. D.; Fridman, V. M.; Sheiner, O. A.; Pertzborn, R.; Limaye, S. & Crosby, N. (June 2005). "Role of the Radiophysical Research Institute (NIRFI) for promoting and teaching science in Russia" (PDF). Advances in Geosciences. 3. European Geosciences Union: 41–46. Bibcode:2005AdG.....3...41S. doi:10.5194/adgeo-3-41-2005. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
^
P. James; E. Peebles; et al. (April 2009). Finding the Big Bang. Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–300. ISBN 978-0-521-51982-3.
^ Nechaeva, M. B.; Antipenko, A. A.; Dement’Ev, A. F.; Dugin, N. A.; Snegirev, S. D.; Tikhomirov, Yu. V. (2007). "VLBI studies at the Radiophysical Research Institute". Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics. 50 (7): 527. Bibcode:2007R&QE...50..527N. doi:10.1007/s11141-007-0047-3. S2CID 121575588. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Authority control databases
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It is also known for its work in solar physics, sun-earth physics as well as the related geophysics. It also does outreach for the Russian education system. It was formed in 1956 as the Radiophysical Research Institute of the (Soviet) Ministry of Education and Science.[1][2][3]","title":"Radiophysical Research Institute"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zimenki-NIRFI-1420.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility"}],"text":"Radiotelescope RT-15-1 astronomical station «Zimenki» NIRFI (May, 2006). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toum_language | Phong language | ["1 References"] | Vietic dialect cluster spoken in Vietnam
Not to be confused with Kniang language.
"Hung language" redirects here. For other uses, see Hung (disambiguation).
PhongTày PoọngNative toVietnamLanguage familyAustroasiatic
VieticPhong–LihaPhongLanguage codesISO 639-3hnuGlottologphon1243ELPHung
Phong or Tày Poọng is a Vietic dialect cluster spoken in north-central Vietnam. Varieties include Đan Lai, Toum, and Liha.
References
^ Đặng Nghiêm Vạn and Nguyễn Anh Ngọc. 1975. 'Vài nét về ba nhóm Đan Lai, Ly Hà va Tày Poọng' . In Vê vân dê xác dịnh thánh phân các dân tôc thiêu só o miên băc Viêt Nam, 456-471. Hà Nôi: Nhà xuât ban khoa học xã hôi.
^ Sidwell, Paul (2021). "Classification of MSEA Austroasiatic languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 179–206. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-011. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 242599355.
vteAustroasiatic languagesBahnaricNorth
Jeh
Halang
Kayong
Kaco’
Takua
Monom
Todrah
Sedang
Bahnar
Rengao
Hrê
Duan
Katua
West
Lavi
Jru'
Laven
Su'
Juk
Nyaheun
Sapuan
Oi
Brao
Central
Alak
Tariang
Tampuan
South
Chrau
Koho
Stieng
Ra’ong
Mnong
Mel-Khaonh
Thmon
East
Cua
KatuicWest Katuic
Kuy
Bru
Ta'oihic
Ta'Oi
Pacoh
Pacoh
Katu
Katu
Phuong
VieticViet-Muong
Vietnamese
Northern, Thanh Hóa, Huế, Southern
in China
in US
Mường
Nguồn
Cuoi
Cuoi
Chứt
Arem
May
Ruc
Sach
Kri
Maleng
Kri
Thavưng
Phong–Liha
Phong
Tuom
Liha
KhmuicKhmu
Khmu
Mlabri
Mlabri
Phay-Pram
Prai
Mal
Ksingmul
O’du
Phong-Kniang
PearicPear
Pear
Western Pearic(Chong)Central
Central Chong
Samre
Kasong
Western
Western Chong
Northern
Somray (Northern Chong)
Southern
Suoi
Sa'och
Khasi–PalaungicKhasicKhasi-Pnar-Lyngngam
Khasi
Pnar
Lyngngam
Maharam
War
War
PalaungicDanau
Danau
West Palaungic
Palaung
Riang
East PalaungicAngkuic
Hu
U
Man Met
Mok
Muak Sa-aak
Va
Waic
Blang
Lawa
Wa
Meung Yum
Savaiq
Bit-Khang
Bit
Quang Lam
Kháng
Bumang
Lamet
Lamet
Kiorr
Others
Kuan
Tai Loi
MundaNorthKorku
Korku
KherwarianMundaric
Korwa
Asur
Birjia
Birhor
Ho
Mundari
Koda
Majhwar
Turi
Agariya
Santalic
Santali
Kol
SouthKharia
Kharia
Juang
Juang
Sora-Gorum
Gorum
Sora
Juray
Lodhi
Gutob-Remo
Bonda
Gutob
Gta’
Gta’
NicobareseChaura-Teresa
Chaura
Teressa
Central
Nancowry
Camorta
Katchal
Southern
Car
Southern Nicobarese
Shompen
AslianJahaic (Northern)
Batek
Cheq Wong
Jahai
Jedek
Kensiu
Kintaq
Minriq
Mintil
Ten'edn
Wila'
Senoic (Central)
Lanoh
Sabüm
Semai
Semnam
Temiar
Jah Hut
Jah Hut
Semelaic (Southern)
Mah Meri
Semaq Beri
Semelai
Temoq
unclassified
Kenaboi
OthersMonic
Mon
Nyah Kur
Pakanic
Bolyu
Bugan (Pakan)
Others
Khmer
Northern Khmer (Surin Khmer)
Western Khmer (Chanthaburi Khmer)
Khmer Khe
Mang
Proto-languages
Proto-Austroasiatic
Proto-Palaungic
Proto-Khmeric
Proto-Aslian
Proto-Munda
Italics indicate extinct languagesLanguages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.
This Austroasiatic language-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kniang language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kniang_language"},{"link_name":"Hung (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Vietic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietic_languages"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Toum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toum_language"},{"link_name":"Liha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liha_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WOL-MSEA-11-2"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Kniang language.\"Hung language\" redirects here. For other uses, see Hung (disambiguation).Phong or Tày Poọng is a Vietic dialect cluster spoken in north-central Vietnam.[1] Varieties include Đan Lai, Toum, and Liha.[2]","title":"Phong language"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Sidwell, Paul (2021). \"Classification of MSEA Austroasiatic languages\". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 179–206. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-011. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 242599355.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-011","url_text":"10.1515/9783110558142-011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110558142","url_text":"9783110558142"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242599355","url_text":"242599355"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/phon1243","external_links_name":"phon1243"},{"Link":"http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1213","external_links_name":"Hung"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142-011","external_links_name":"10.1515/9783110558142-011"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242599355","external_links_name":"242599355"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phong_language&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Wrestling_Championship_(Original_version) | World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship (original version) | ["1 History","2 Reigns","3 List of combined reigns (excluding unrecognised)","4 List of combined reigns (including unrecognised)","5 Belt designs","6 Legacy","6.1 NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship","6.2 AWA World Heavyweight Championship","6.3 WWE Championship","6.4 WCW World Heavyweight Championship","6.5 ECW World Heavyweight Championship","6.6 Total Nonstop Action Wrestling","6.7 WWE's World Heavyweight Championship","7 See also","8 References"] | First professional wrestling world heavyweight championship (1905)
World Heavyweight Wrestling ChampionshipOne of the title belts used to represent the original World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship in the early 20th centuryDetailsDate establishedMay 4, 1905Date retiredJuly 24, 1957StatisticsFirst champion(s)George HackenschmidtFinal champion(s)Lou TheszMost reignsEd Lewis (4 reigns)Longest reignJim Londos (2,628 days)Shortest reignStanislaus Zbyszko (45 days)Oldest championStanislaus Zbyszko (46 years, 15 days)Youngest championJoe Stecher (22 years, 103 days)
The World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship was the first recognized professional wrestling world heavyweight championship created in 1905 to identify the best catch as catch can wrestler in the world.
The subsequent legacy of the championship is not linear, with the champion being disputed among various promotions until the formation of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) in 1948. The last several reigns are recognized by the NWA under the NWA World Heavyweight Championship's lineage.
The first recognized World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion was George Hackenschmidt, who officially won the championship on May 4, 1905, by defeating Tom Jenkins in New York City. The championship remained active for the next 51 years, with the last recognized reign being disputed between Lou Thesz and Édouard Carpentier after a match between the two ended in a legitimate disqualification.
History
See also: George Hackenschmidt § Rivalry with Frank Gotch
Frank Gotch and George Hackenschmidt were the first two champions
Hackenschmidt and Jenkins on the front page of the Daily Mirror, July 2, 1904
George Hackenschmidt won a world championship tournament to become the first champion. Hackenschmidt won several other tournaments in Paris, France; Hamburg, Germany; Saint Petersburg, Russia; Elberfeld, Germany; and Berlin, Germany in the same year. He also won the European Greco-Roman Heavyweight Championship title from Tom Cannon on September 4, 1902, in Liverpool, England. He won the recognition of being the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion on January 30, 1904, in London, England by defeating Ahmed Madrali. Hackenschmidt defeated American Heavyweight Champion Tom Jenkins on May 4, 1905, in New York City to become the recognized world champion in North America.
Frank Gotch won the title from Hackenschmidt on April 3, 1908, and he held the title for five years until his retirement on April 1, 1913. He was the sixth longest reigning world heavyweight champion in history behind Bruno Sammartino, Jim Londos, Lou Thesz, Verne Gagne (who all held their world titles for over seven years) and Bob Backlund (who held his for nearly six years).
Joe Stecher defeated American Heavyweight Champion Charlie Cutler to become the first widely recognized world heavyweight champion after the retirement of Frank Gotch.
After Joe Stecher lost the title to Johan Olin by countout, Olin started his own line, with both iterations of the title being defended. Ed Lewis defeated Olin while Earl Caddock defeated Stecher. Lewis and Wladek Zbyszko traded the title on multiple occasions between 1917 and 1919, making Zbyszko a three-time unofficial champion and Lewis a two-time unofficial champion, while Caddock debatably held the title for a period of 23 days - 1,027 days, depending on which iteration of the title is deemed official. Joe Stecher was able to defeat both Wladek Zbyszko and Ed Lewis to unify both titles in 1920.
On April 15, 1925, Stanislaus Zbyszko defeated previous champion Wayne Munn to win the championship. However, Munn continued to be recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion in Michigan and in Illinois. Ed Lewis defeated Wayne Munn on February 2, 1928, in Michigan City, Indiana for the Michigan/Illinois World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship version. Joe Stetcher then defeated Zbyszko to become widely recognized champion. The dispute ended when Lewis defeated Stetcher on February 21, 1928.
Gus Sonnenburg won the title from Lewis on January 4, 1929, but the recognition of being the world champion by the wrestling section of the National Boxing Association was withdrawn from Sonnenberg for failing to meet real title contenders.
Lewis won the title again on April 13, 1931. Lewis was also AWA World Heavyweight Champion in Boston at the time, but lost that title by disqualification to Henri Deglane on May 4, 1931, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. However, Lewis was still recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion in Illinois. Lewis then defeated Wladek Zbyszko (who was widely considered the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion) on November 2, 1931, in Chicago, Illinois, ending the dispute. Lewis then continued by winning the New York State Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Jack Sherry on October 10, 1932, for the vacant title. but lost it to Jim Browning.
Danno O'Mahony won the title from Lewis on July 30, 1935. O'Mahony defeated Londos to win the New York State Athletic Commission world title. O'Mahony also won the AWA world title by defeating Ed Don George on July 30, 1935, in Boston, Massachusetts to become the undisputed World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion. On March 2, 1936, Dick Shikat beat O'Mahony in New York, but the AWA continued to recognize O'Mahony as champion, splintering the "undisputed" nature of the title once again.
Ali Baba won the title on April 25, 1936. Four days later it was announced by The New York Times that Baba would not be recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion in New York State by the New York Athletic Commission. However, it was announced that Baba and Shikat would face each other on May 5, 1936, at the Madison Square Garden for the world title. Baba went on to win the bout and thus be recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion.
Bronko Nagurski won the title on June 29, 1937. Nagurski was recognized as the undisputed World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion by The Ring magazine.
Londos won the title again on November 18, 1938, and retired as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion on January 28, 1946. Londos wrestled his last match on this date by defeating Lord Albert Mills.
Lou Thesz was the final champion
Lou Thesz won the title on May 21, 1952. Thesz unified three championships to become the undisputed world heavyweight champion in wrestling: the National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship (which he won on July 20, 1948, by defeating Bill Longson), the National Wrestling Alliance World Championship (which was awarded to him on November 27, 1949) and the Los Angeles version of the world title, Los Angeles Olympic Auditorium World Heavyweight Championship, which he won on May 21, 1952, by defeating Baron Michele Leone).
Whipper Billy Watson won the title on March 15, 1956, by defeating Thesz by countout.
Thesz won the title back from Watson on November 9, 1956. Édouard Carpentier defeated Lou Thesz by disqualification on June 14, 1957, in Chicago, Illinois once Thesz could not continue the match due to a back injury. The NWA rules stated that a title could not change on a disqualification and Carpentier awarded the NWA world title back to Thesz. Carpentier was still recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion in Omaha, Nebraska and in Boston, Massachusetts. He was then later recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion by Worldwide Wrestling Associates in Los Angeles, California. This ended the last time the World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship was unified and to date has never been fully unified again. The Omaha version of the World Heavyweight Championship was later unified with the AWA World Heavyweight Championship. Thesz defeated Carpentier in a rematch by disqualification on July 24, 1957, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada for the title.
The title was unofficially retired on July 24, 1957 and its lineage continued over to the National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship.
Reigns
There were a total of 28 reigns and 3 vacancies. The first recognized World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion was George Hackenschmidt, who officially won the championship on May 4, 1905, by defeating Tom Jenkins in New York City, New York, the championship remained active for the next 51 years with the last recognized reign beginning on November 9, 1956.
Ed Lewis holds the record for most reigns as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion with four. Lewis also holds the record for most combined days as champion with 3,073 days, while Jim Londos holds the record for longest reign at 2,628 days. Stanislaus Zbyszko holds the record for shortest reign at 45 days and is also the oldest champion, winning at the age of 46 years, 15 days, while Joe Stecher is the youngest champion, winning at the age of 22 years, 103 days.
The final reign was disputed between Lou Thesz and Edouard Carpentier. All matches were held at house shows.
Key
No.
Overall reign number
Reign
Reign number for the specific champion
Days
Number of days held
No.
Champion
Championship change
Reign statistics
Notes
Ref.
Date
Event
Location
Reign
Days
1
George Hackenschmidt
May 4, 1905
House show
New York, New York
1
1,065
Hackenschmidt won a world championship tournament to become the first champion, as well as several other tournaments in Paris, Saint Petersburg, Hamburg, Elberfeld, Germany and Berlin in the same year. He also won the European Greco-Roman Heavyweight Championship title from Tom Cannon on September 4, 1902 in Liverpool, England. He won the recognition of being the World Heavyweight Champion on January 30, 1904 in London by defeating Ahmed Madrali. Hackenschmidt defeated American Heavyweight Champion, Tom Jenkins, on May 4, 1905 in New York City to become the recognized World Heavyweight Champion in North America.
2
Frank Gotch
April 3, 1908
House show
Chicago, Illinois
1
1,824
Gotch held the title for five years until April 1, 1913. He was the sixth longest reigning world heavyweight champion in history behind Bruno Sammartino, Jim Londos, Lou Thesz, Verne Gagne (who all held their world titles for over seven years) and Bob Backlund (who held his for nearly six years).
—
Vacated
April 1, 1913
House show
Kansas City, Missouri
—
—
Vacated due to Gotch's retirement.
3
Americus
March 13, 1914
House show
Kansas City, Missouri
1
55
Upon his retirement and vacancy, Frank Gotch recommended Gus Schoenlein/Americus and Fred Beell compete for the vacant title. Schonelein won.
4
Stanislaus Zbyszko
May 7, 1914
House show
Kansas City, Missouri
1
147-176
—
Vacated
October 1914
—
—
—
—
Vacated the title to enlist in the Austro-Hungarian Army in October 1914
5
Charlie Cutler
January 8, 1915
House show
N/A
1
178
After defeating American Heavyweight Champion Dr. Benjamin Roller, Cutler claimed the title. He was recognised in Omaha, Des Moines, Chicago and New York.
6
Joe Stecher
July 5, 1915
House show
Omaha, Nebraska
1
644
Stecher defeated Charlie Cutler to become the first widely recognized World Heavyweight Champion after the retirement of Frank Gotch.
†
Johan Olin
December 11, 1916
House show
Springfield, Massachusetts
1
142
Defeated Stecher by count-out, was awarded championship by referee.
7
Earl Caddock
April 9, 1917
House show
Omaha, Nebraska
1
1,026
Defeated Stecher for the title in spite of John Olin already claiming ownership.
†
Ed Lewis
May 2, 1917
House show
Chicago, Illinois
1
34
Defeated Olin for the title in spite of Caddock's claim to Stecher's line.
†
Wladek Zbyszko
June 5, 1917
House show
San Francisco, California
1
29
Defeated Ed Lewis for title.
†
Ed Lewis
July 4, 1917
House show
Chicago, Illinois
2
625
Won title from Zbyszko.
†
Wladek Zbyszko
December 22, 1917
House show
New York, New York
2
148
Zybszko defeats Lewis for the title, but Lewis continues to claim the title. Caddock defeats Zbyszko on February 8, 1918 in Des Moines, Iowa to unify Zybyszko's part of the Olin line, but Zybyszko still claims ownership. Lewis defeats Zybszko on May 19, 1918 in New York, New York to make him the undisputed champion of the Johan Olin line, but not the Joe Stecher line. Champion of the Stecher line, Earl Caddock defeats Lewis on June 21, 1918 in Des Moines, Iowa, but Lewis still claims the title.
†
Wladek Zbyszko
March 21, 1919
House show
New York, New York
3
59
Defeated Lewis for the title.
†
Joe Stecher
May 19, 1919
House show
Louisville, Kentucky
2
256
Won title from Zbyszko.
8
Joe Stecher
January 30, 1920
House show
New York, New York
2(3)
318
Defeated Earl Caddock to unify both the Olin and the Stecher lines. The lineage of the Stecher line was carried forward, so Stecher's title win is recognised as starting on January 30, 1920 as opposed to May 19, 1919.
9
Ed Lewis
December 13, 1920
House show
New York, New York
1(3)
144
10
Stanislaus Zbyszko
May 6, 1921
House show
New York, New York
2
301
11
Ed Lewis
March 3, 1922
House show
Wichita, Kansas
2(4)
1,042
12
Wayne Munn
January 8, 1925
House show
Wichita, Kansas
1
97
13
Stanislaus Zbyszko
April 15, 1925
House show
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
3
45
Though Zbyszko defeated Munn to win the championship, Munn continued to be recognized as World Heavyweight Champion in Michigan and in Illinois.
14
Joe Stecher
May 30, 1925
House show
St. Louis, Missouri
3(4)
997
15
Ed Lewis
February 21, 1928
House show
St. Louis, Missouri
3(5)
318
Lewis defeated Wayne Munn on February 2, 1928 in Michigan City, Indiana for the Michigan/Illinois World Heavyweight Championship version. Lewis defeated Stecher on February 21, 1928 to end the dispute.
16
Gus Sonnenberg
January 4, 1929
House show
Boston, Massachusetts
1
705
The recognition of being the World Heavyweight Champion was withdrawn from Gus Sonnenberg by the wrestling section of the National Boxing Association in 1929 for failing to meet real title contenders.
17
Ed Don George
December 10, 1930
House show
Los Angeles, California
1
124
18
Ed Lewis
April 13, 1931
House show
Los Angeles, California
4(6)
1,569
Lewis lost the AWA World Heavyweight Championship by disqualification to Henri Deglane on May 4, 1931 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, but still recognized as World Heavyweight Champion in Illinois. Lewis also defeated the title claimer, Wladek Zbyszko, on November 2, 1931 in Chicago, Illinois for the title. Lewis continued to win the New York State Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Jack Sherry on October 10, 1932.
19
Danno O'Mahoney
July 30, 1935
House show
Boston, Massachusetts
1
216
O'Mahoney defeated Jim Londos to win the New York State Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship. Mahoney continues to win the AWA World Heavyweight Championship (Boston version) by defeating Ed Don George (who had beat Deglane on February 9, 1933) on July 30, 1935 in Boston, Massachusetts to become the undisputed World Heavyweight Champion.
20
Dick Shikat
March 2, 1936
House show
New York, New York
1
54
21
Ali Baba
April 25, 1936
House show
Detroit, Michigan
1
48
On April 29, 1936 it was announced by the New York Times that Ali Baba would not be recognized as World Heavyweight Champion in the New York State by The New York Athletic Commission; however, it was announced that Ali Baba and Dick Shikat would face each other on May 5, 1936 at Madison Square Garden for the World Heavyweight Championship. Baba went on to win the professional wrestling bout and thus be recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion.
22
Dave Levin
June 12, 1936
House show
Newark, New Jersey
1
109
Wins by disqualification. Recognized by The Ring magazine as the true world champion. Baba continues to claim the title but loses to Everett Marshall on June 26, 1936 in Columbus, OH. Levin also wins Los Angeles version, defeating Vincent Lopez on August 19, 1936 in Los Angeles, CA.
23
Dean Detton
September 29, 1936
House show
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
1
273
Recognized by The Ring magazine as the true world champion. Has also defeated Ed Strangler Lewis in a title tournament final earlier in the year in Philadelphia, PA.
24
Bronko Nagurski
June 29, 1937
House show
Minneapolis, Minnesota
1
507
Nagurski was recognized as the undisputed World Heavyweight Champion by The Ring magazine.
25
Jim Londos
November 18, 1938
House show
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
1
2,628
Londos retired as World Heavyweight Champion in 1946.
—
Vacated
January 28, 1946
House show
Denver, Colorado
—
—
Londos wrestled his last match on this date, defeating Lord Albert Mills.
26
Lou Thesz
May 21, 1952
House show
Los Angeles, California
1
1,394
Thesz unified three championships to become the undisputed world heavyweight champion, the National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship which he won on July 20, 1948 by defeating Bill Longson, the National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship which was awarded to him on November 27, 1949 and the Los Angeles Olympic Auditorium World Heavyweight Championship which he won on May 21, 1952, by defeating Baron Michele Leone.
27
Whipper Billy Watson
March 15, 1956
House show
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
1
239
Watson defeated Lou Thesz by countout to win the world title.
28
Lou Thesz
November 9, 1956
House show
St. Louis, Missouri
2
257
Édouard Carpentier defeated Lou Thesz by disqualification on June 14, 1957 in Chicago, Illinois when Thesz could not continue the match due to a back injury. The NWA rules stated that a title could not change on a disqualification, and Carpentier gave the title back to Thesz. Carpentier was then recognized as World Heavyweight Champion in Omaha, Nebraska and in Boston, Massachusetts. He was then later recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion by the World Wrestling Association in Los Angeles, California. This was the last time the World Heavyweight Championship has been unified and to date has never been fully unified again. The Omaha version of the World Heavyweight Championship was later unified with the AWA World Heavyweight Championship. Thesz defeated Carpentier in a rematch by disqualification on July 24, 1957 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada for the title.
—
Deactivated
July 24, 1957
House show
Montreal, Quebec
—
—
Lineage continued over to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship.
Ed Lewis had most reigns and the longest combined reign
Jim Londos had the longest individual reign
List of combined reigns (excluding unrecognised)
Rank
Wrestler
No. of reigns
Combined days
1
Ed Lewis
4
3,073
2
Jim Londos
1
2,628
4
Joe Stecher
3
1,959
4
Frank Gotch
1
1,824
5
Lou Thesz
2
1,651
6
George Hackenschmidt
1
1,065
7
Earl Caddock
1
1,026
8
Gus Sonnenberg
1
705
9
Bronko Nagurski
1
507
10
Stanislaus Zbyszko
3
493
11
Dean Detton
1
273
12
Whipper Billy Watson
1
239
13
Danno O'Mahoney
1
216
14
Charlie Cutler
1
178
15
Ed Don George
1
124
16
Dave Levin
1
109
17
Wayne Munn
1
97
18
Americus
1
55
19
Dick Shikat
1
54
20
Ali Baba
1
48
List of combined reigns (including unrecognised)
Rank
Wrestler
No. of reigns
Combined days
1
Ed Lewis
6
3,682
2
Jim Londos
1
2,628
3
Joe Stecher
4
2,118
4
Frank Gotch
1
1,824
5
Lou Thesz
2
1,651
6
George Hackenschmidt
1
1,065
7
Earl Caddock
1
1,026
8
Gus Sonnenberg
1
705
9
Bronko Nagurski
1
507
10
Stanislaus Zbyszko
3
493
11
Dean Detton
1
273
12
Whipper Billy Watson
1
239
13
Wladek Zbyszko
3
236
14
Danno O'Mahoney
1
216
15
Charlie Cutler
1
178
16
John Olin
1
142
17
Ed Don George
1
124
18
Dave Levin
1
109
19
Wayne Munn
1
97
20
Americus
1
55
21
Dick Shikat
1
54
22
Ali Baba
1
48
Belt designs
The standard Championship belt has three plates on a black leather strap.
Legacy
A diagram showing the evolution of various world heavyweight championships.
Various promotions have been home to world heavyweight championships with origins that can also be traced back to the World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship.
NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship
Main article: NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship
The National Wrestling Alliance Worlds Heavyweight Championship assumed the original world championship's position as the preeminent wrestling championship, and claimed its lineage. Most of the following championships, all based in North America, arose out of the NWA championship. "World" heavyweight championships in Japan, Mexico, and the US Independent circuit were created ex novo after promotions started.
AWA World Heavyweight Championship
Main article: AWA World Heavyweight Championship
The AWA World Heavyweight Championship was established in May 1960, after the NWA's Minnesota member territory withdrew from the NWA and established the American Wrestling Association. The first champion was Pat O'Connor, who was recognized upon the AWA's secession from the NWA as O'Connor held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship as well, which he won on January 9, 1959. The creation of the AWA World Heavyweight Championship along with the NWA World Heavyweight Championship would pave the way for the creation of many other world championships in other wrestling promotions. The American Wrestling Association and the title became inactive in 1990 and the organization officially closed down in 1991 with the title also being decommissioned.
WWE Championship
Main article: WWE Championship
The WWE Championship's origin can be traced back to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship after an incident in which the Capitol Wrestling Corporation at the time left the NWA to become the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). This was after the WWWF refused to recognize Lou Thesz as the NWA World Heavyweight Champion after he beat Buddy Rogers in a one fall match – the NWA World Heavyweight Championship title matches usually followed a best-of-three fall format – Vincent J. McMahon, the WWWF's owner created the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship and awarded Rogers the championship belt proclaiming he won it in a (apocryphal) tournament in Brazil in April 1963. He lost the championship to Bruno Sammartino a month later on May 17, 1963, after suffering a heart attack shortly before the match. To accommodate Rogers' condition, the match was booked to last under a minute. Sammartino would retain the title for seven years, eight months and one day (2,803 days), until losing it to Ivan Koloff, making Sammartino's reign the longest continuous world championship reign in men's wrestling history.
WCW World Heavyweight Championship
Main article: WCW World Heavyweight Championship
The WCW World Heavyweight Championship's origin is traced back to a match which took place on January 11, 1991, where Ric Flair defeated Sting for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. When WCW pulled out of the NWA in early 1991, Flair was recognized as the first WCW World Heavyweight Champion. The WCW International World Heavyweight Championship can be traced back to an incident in WCW's final split with the NWA in 1993, when Flair's NWA World Heavyweight Championship reign continued to be recognized as the WCW International World Heavyweight Championship. The two titles were unified in June 1994. The title was briefly defended in WWF following WWF's purchase of WCW in 2001 before being unified into the WWF Championship and retired. Chris Jericho unified the WCW World Heavyweight Championship with the WWF Championship at WWF Vengeance 2001.
ECW World Heavyweight Championship
Main article: ECW World Heavyweight Championship
The ECW World Heavyweight Championship's origin is attributed to a tournament which was held to crown a new NWA World Heavyweight Champion in 1994 in NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling. On August 27, 1994, Shane Douglas participated and won the tournament and discarded the NWA World Heavyweight Championship proclaiming himself the new Extreme Championship Wrestling World Heavyweight Champion. After this event ECW withdrew from the NWA and renamed itself Extreme Championship Wrestling. The title was decommissioned after ECW's bankruptcy in 2001 and subsequent purchase by WWE, then reactivated and competed for on the ECW brand of WWE from 2006 to 2010 when it was retired for the final time, with Ezekiel Jackson being the final holder of the title.
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA formed in May 2002 and established a partnership with the NWA, allowing TNA control of the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and NWA World Tag Team Championship. On June 19, 2002, TNA crowned the first NWA World Heavyweight Champion under their banner after Ken Shamrock won a Gauntlet for the Gold match at TNA's first weekly pay-per-view. On May 13, 2007, the NWA severed ties with TNA after the then-current NWA World Heavyweight Champion, Christian Cage, refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from other NWA territories. A brand new TNA World Heavyweight Championship was first won by Kurt Angle who won it at the 2007 edition of Sacrifice by defeating Cage and Sting. This title however neither claimed lineage to nor was linked to the Original World Heavyweight Championship.
WWE's World Heavyweight Championship
Main article: World Heavyweight Championship (WWE, 2002–2013)
WWE created a new World Heavyweight Championship following its first brand split, when then-WWE "Undisputed" Champion Brock Lesnar became exclusive to the SmackDown brand, refusing to face designated number one contender Triple H, who was a member of the Raw brand. Triple H was awarded the newly established title. This championship was a successor to the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, split via the WWE Championship. It was represented by the same Big Gold Belt once used for the WCW and NWA championships, and was awarded by Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff, the former President of WCW. WWE asserts its legacy extends back to the title created in 1905. Like the original World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship, the title was not prefixed with the name of a promotion, though the physical belt had the WWE logo on it. It would be reunified with the WWE Championship by Randy Orton on December 15, 2013.
In 2023 Seth Rollins was crowned as the winner of a new World Heavyweight Championship World Heavyweight Championship (WWE) which however neither claimed lineage to nor was linked to the original World Heavyweight Championship.
See also
American Heavyweight Championship
Atlantic Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship
Early wrestling championships
MWA World Heavyweight Championship (Kansas City version)
MWA World Heavyweight Championship (Ohio version)
Women's World Championship
References
^ "NWA World Heavyweight Championship". National Wrestling Alliance. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Champion Wrestler Quits, Exhausted" (PDF). The New York Times. April 4, 1908. Retrieved May 24, 2009.
^ a b "Hackenschmidt Is Wrestling Champion" (PDF). The New York Times. May 5, 1905. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ a b c "Champion Wrestler Quits, Exhausted" (PDF). The New York Times. April 4, 1908. Retrieved May 24, 2009.
^ a b "Stecher beats Cutler in Teo Straight Falls". The Chicago Tribune. July 5, 1915. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
^ a b "S. Zbyszko Defeats Munn For Mat Title". The New York Times. May 16, 1925. Retrieved June 12, 2006.
^ a b "Lewis Wins Crown, Gets 2 Of 3 Falls". Associated Press. February 21, 1928. Retrieved June 11, 2009.
^ a b "Gus Sonnenberg Captures World Wrestling Championship From Strangler Lewis". The Hartford Courant. May 1, 1929. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ a b "Wrestling Bulletin". Los Angeles Times. April 14, 1931. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ "Jim Londos stripped on 32/09/30 of Ed Lewis vs. Dick Shikat match, Ed "Strangler" Lewis defeats Jack Sherry". wrestling-titles.com.
^ a b "O'Mahoney Wins Over Jim Londos". The Hartford Courant. June 27, 1935. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ a b "Ali Baba Pins Shikat to Win Claim on Title". Chicago Daily Tribune. April 25, 1936. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
^ a b "Shikat Recognized As Champion Here". The New York Times. April 29, 1936. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ a b Nichols, Joseph C. (May 6, 1936). "Triumph Over Shikat Gains World Mat Championship for Ali Baba". The New York Times. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ a b "SLAM! Wrestling Canadian Hall of Fame: Bronko Nagurski profile". SLAM! Sports. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ a b "Londos Pins Nagurski; Captures Wrestling Title From Chicago Rival Before 10,000". The New York Times. November 19, 1938. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ a b Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt. "National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship". Solie.org. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ a b c Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt; Oliver, Earl; Westcott, Brian; Sullivan, Richard; Zadarnowski, Andrew; Dean, Joe; Fitzgerald, Jason; Gonzalez, Manual. "National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship History". Solie.org. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ a b Geyer, Jack (May 12, 1952). "Thesz Defeats Leone for World Mat Crown". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ a b Oliver, Greg (February 4, 2000). "Remembering Whipper Billy Watson". SLAM! Wrestling. Archived from the original on July 9, 2000. Retrieved June 12, 2009. Thesz lost the title to Watson on March 15, 1956 in Toronto via a count out
^ "World title history". NWA Wrestling. April 28, 2019. Retrieved November 26, 2020.
^ "ON THIS DAY IN PRO WRESTLING TITLE CHANGE HISTORY: GOTCH VS. HACKENSCHMIDT, INOKI VS. HANSEN, GUERRERO VS. JERICHO". Wrestling Observer Figure Four Online. April 3, 2015. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
^ "Stecher Tells "Inside Facts."". Los Angeles Times. April 10, 1917. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ "Caddock Defeated In Fast Mat Bout" (PDF). The New York Times. January 31, 1920. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ "Lewis Captures Wrestling Title" (PDF). The New York Times. December 14, 1920. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ ""Strangler" Lewis Regains His Title". Hartford Courant. December 14, 1920. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ "Zbyszko Wrests Title From Lewis" (PDF). The New York Times. May 6, 1921. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
^ "On this day in pro wrestling history (May 6): Verne Gagne Vs. Danny Hodge, 1st Annual Von Erich Parade of Champions show". Wrestling Observer Figure Four Online. May 6, 2015. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
^ "Lewis Regains His Wrestling Title" (PDF). The New York Times. April 22, 1922. Retrieved May 25, 2009.
^ Hoops, Brian (March 3, 2019). "Daily pro wrestling history (03/03): Sting wins TNA World Title". Figure Four Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
^ ""Strangler" Lewis Loses Mat Crown". Los Angeles Times. January 9, 1925. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ "Wrestling Title Is Won By Joe Stecher; Lewis Defeats Munn". The Victoria Advocate. Prescott, Arizona: Victoria Advocate Publishing Co. June 1, 1925. p. 1. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
^ Hoops, Brian (May 30, 2015). "ON THIS DAY IN PRO WRESTLING HISTORY (MAY 30): INOKI BEATS ANDRE TO WIN MSG LEAGUE, GAREA & CALHOUN WIN WWWF TAG TITLES, GAGNE VS. FUNK JR., UFC BOOKER WINS TITLE". Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Retrieved March 21, 2020.
^ "Dick Shikat Beats Danno O'Mahoney In First American Defeat For Irish Matman". Hartford Courant. March 3, 1936. Retrieved June 10, 2009.
^ "Ali Baba Loses, Kicks Opponent". The Evening Independent. St Petersburg, Florida: St. Petersburg Times. June 13, 1936. p. 8. Retrieved June 14, 2009.
^ "Dean Dutton Wins Title From Levin". Prescott Evening Courier. Prescott, Arizona: Prescott Courier, Inc. September 29, 1936. p. 5. OCLC 15262241. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ Will, Gary; Benaka, Matt; Oliver, Earl; Zadarnowski, Andrew; Fitzgerald, Jason; Dean, Joe. "WWWF/WWF/WWE Heavyweight Title History". Solie.org. Retrieved June 23, 2016.
^ Binks, Elliott (May 23, 2015). "10 Most Notorious WWE Squash Matches". WhatCulture.com. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
^ "WWE: Inside WWE > Title History > WWE Championship > 19710118 - Ivan Koloff". World Wrestling Entertainment. Archived from the original on July 15, 2005.
^ "Ric Flair's first WCW title reign". World Wrestling Entertainment. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt; Oliver, Earl; Zadarnowski, Andrew; Fitzgerald, Jason; Solo, John; Dean, Joe. "WCW World Heavyweight Championship". Solie.org. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "International World Heavyweight Championship". Solie.org. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "WWE PPV Wrestling Results". Online World of Wrestling. December 9, 2001. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
^ a b Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt; Westcott, Brian; Roelfsema, Eric; Dean, Joe; Fitzgerald, Jason. "ECW - Eastern Championship Wrestling/Extreme Championship Wrestling Title History". Solie.org. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Shane Douglas' first ECW Championship reign". World Wrestling Entertainment. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
^ "Ezekiel Jackson's first ECW Championship reign". WWE. February 16, 2010. Retrieved February 17, 2010. the last ECW Champion
^ Bishop, Matt (February 16, 2010). "ECW: Extreme ending for Christian, what's NXT". Slam! Sports. Canadian Online Explorer. Archived from the original on July 18, 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ "NWA/Trobich strips TNA/Cage/Team 3D of NWA branded Championships". National Wrestling Alliance. Retrieved June 26, 2009.
^ Sokol, Chris (May 14, 2007). "World title picture muddied after good Sacrifice". Canadian Online Explorer. Retrieved July 23, 2009.
^ "World Heavyweight Championship turns five years old". World Wrestling Entertainment. Retrieved April 13, 2009.
^ "Triple H's first World Heavyweight Championship Reign". World Wrestling Entertainment. Retrieved June 11, 2009.
^ Nemer, Paul (February 9, 2002). "Full WWE RAW Results - 9/2/02". Wrestle View. Retrieved June 12, 2009.
^ Cohen, Eric. "Review of The History of the World Heavyweight Championship". Prowrestling.about.com. Archived from the original on August 16, 2016.
^ Johnson, Mike (December 15, 2013). "Complete WWE TLC Coverage: The Unified WWE World Champion Is Crowned And Much More". PWInsider.com. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
^ Lambert, Jeremy (May 27, 2023). "Seth Rollins Becomes Inaugural WWE World Heavyweight Champion At WWE Night Of Champions". Fightful. Retrieved May 28, 2023. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"professional wrestling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_wrestling"},{"link_name":"world heavyweight championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_heavyweight_wrestling_championship"},{"link_name":"catch as catch can wrestler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_wrestling"},{"link_name":"National Wrestling Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance"},{"link_name":"NWA World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"link_name":"lineage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NWA_World_Heavyweight_Champions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-officialnwa-1"},{"link_name":"George Hackenschmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Hackenschmidt"},{"link_name":"Tom Jenkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Jenkins_(wrestler)"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lou Thesz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou_Thesz"},{"link_name":"Édouard Carpentier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Carpentier"},{"link_name":"disqualification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disqualification_(professional_wrestling)"}],"text":"The World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship was the first recognized professional wrestling world heavyweight championship created in 1905 to identify the best catch as catch can wrestler in the world.The subsequent legacy of the championship is not linear, with the champion being disputed among various promotions until the formation of the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) in 1948. 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championsHackenschmidt and Jenkins on the front page of the Daily Mirror, July 2, 1904George Hackenschmidt won a world championship tournament to become the first champion. Hackenschmidt won several other tournaments in Paris, France; Hamburg, Germany; Saint Petersburg, Russia; Elberfeld, Germany; and Berlin, Germany in the same year. He also won the European Greco-Roman Heavyweight Championship title from Tom Cannon on September 4, 1902, in Liverpool, England. He won the recognition of being the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion on January 30, 1904, in London, England by defeating Ahmed Madrali. Hackenschmidt defeated American Heavyweight Champion Tom Jenkins on May 4, 1905, in New York City to become the recognized world champion in North America.[3]Frank Gotch won the title from Hackenschmidt on April 3, 1908, and he held the title for five years until his retirement on April 1, 1913. He was the sixth longest reigning world heavyweight champion in history behind Bruno Sammartino, Jim Londos, Lou Thesz, Verne Gagne (who all held their world titles for over seven years) and Bob Backlund (who held his for nearly six years).[4]Joe Stecher defeated American Heavyweight Champion Charlie Cutler to become the first widely recognized world heavyweight champion after the retirement of Frank Gotch.[5]After Joe Stecher lost the title to Johan Olin by countout, Olin started his own line, with both iterations of the title being defended. Ed Lewis defeated Olin while Earl Caddock defeated Stecher. Lewis and Wladek Zbyszko traded the title on multiple occasions between 1917 and 1919, making Zbyszko a three-time unofficial champion and Lewis a two-time unofficial champion, while Caddock debatably held the title for a period of 23 days - 1,027 days, depending on which iteration of the title is deemed official. Joe Stecher was able to defeat both Wladek Zbyszko and Ed Lewis to unify both titles in 1920.On April 15, 1925, Stanislaus Zbyszko defeated previous champion Wayne Munn to win the championship. However, Munn continued to be recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion in Michigan and in Illinois.[6] Ed Lewis defeated Wayne Munn on February 2, 1928, in Michigan City, Indiana for the Michigan/Illinois World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship version. Joe Stetcher then defeated Zbyszko to become widely recognized champion. The dispute ended when Lewis defeated Stetcher on February 21, 1928.[7]Gus Sonnenburg won the title from Lewis on January 4, 1929, but the recognition of being the world champion by the wrestling section of the National Boxing Association was withdrawn from Sonnenberg for failing to meet real title contenders.[8]Lewis won the title again on April 13, 1931. Lewis was also AWA World Heavyweight Champion in Boston at the time, but lost that title by disqualification to Henri Deglane on May 4, 1931, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. However, Lewis was still recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion in Illinois. Lewis then defeated Wladek Zbyszko (who was widely considered the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion) on November 2, 1931, in Chicago, Illinois, ending the dispute. Lewis then continued by winning the New York State Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Jack Sherry on October 10, 1932, for the vacant title.[9] but lost it to Jim Browning.[10]Danno O'Mahony won the title from Lewis on July 30, 1935. O'Mahony defeated Londos to win the New York State Athletic Commission world title. O'Mahony also won the AWA world title by defeating Ed Don George on July 30, 1935, in Boston, Massachusetts to become the undisputed World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion.[11] On March 2, 1936, Dick Shikat beat O'Mahony in New York, but the AWA continued to recognize O'Mahony as champion, splintering the \"undisputed\" nature of the title once again.Ali Baba won the title on April 25, 1936. Four days later it was announced by The New York Times that Baba would not be recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion in New York State by the New York Athletic Commission. However, it was announced that Baba and Shikat would face each other on May 5, 1936, at the Madison Square Garden for the world title. Baba went on to win the bout and thus be recognized as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion.[12][13][14]Bronko Nagurski won the title on June 29, 1937. Nagurski was recognized as the undisputed World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion by The Ring magazine.[15]Londos won the title again on November 18, 1938, and retired as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion on January 28, 1946.[16] Londos wrestled his last match on this date by defeating Lord Albert Mills.Lou Thesz was the final championLou Thesz won the title on May 21, 1952. Thesz unified three championships to become the undisputed world heavyweight champion in wrestling: the National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship (which he won on July 20, 1948, by defeating Bill Longson),[17] the National Wrestling Alliance World Championship (which was awarded to him on November 27, 1949)[18] and the Los Angeles version of the world title, Los Angeles Olympic Auditorium World Heavyweight Championship, which he won on May 21, 1952, by defeating Baron Michele Leone).[19]Whipper Billy Watson won the title on March 15, 1956, by defeating Thesz by countout.[20]Thesz won the title back from Watson on November 9, 1956. Édouard Carpentier defeated Lou Thesz by disqualification on June 14, 1957, in Chicago, Illinois once Thesz could not continue the match due to a back injury. The NWA rules stated that a title could not change on a disqualification and Carpentier awarded the NWA world title back to Thesz. Carpentier was still recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion in Omaha, Nebraska and in Boston, Massachusetts. He was then later recognized as the World Heavyweight Champion by Worldwide Wrestling Associates in Los Angeles, California. This ended the last time the World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship was unified and to date has never been fully unified again. The Omaha version of the World Heavyweight Championship was later unified with the AWA World Heavyweight Championship. Thesz defeated Carpentier in a rematch by disqualification on July 24, 1957, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada for the title.The title was unofficially retired on July 24, 1957[21] and its lineage continued over to the National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes08-4"},{"link_name":"house shows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_show"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ed_Strangler_Lewis_-_6_Jan_1942_Municipal_Auditorium_Wrestling_Program.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ed Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Lewis_(wrestler)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JimLondos.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jim Londos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Londos"}],"text":"There were a total of 28 reigns and 3 vacancies. The first recognized World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion was George Hackenschmidt, who officially won the championship on May 4, 1905, by defeating Tom Jenkins in New York City, New York,[4] the championship remained active for the next 51 years with the last recognized reign beginning on November 9, 1956.Ed Lewis holds the record for most reigns as the World Heavyweight Wrestling Champion with four. Lewis also holds the record for most combined days as champion with 3,073 days, while Jim Londos holds the record for longest reign at 2,628 days. Stanislaus Zbyszko holds the record for shortest reign at 45 days and is also the oldest champion, winning at the age of 46 years, 15 days, while Joe Stecher is the youngest champion, winning at the age of 22 years, 103 days.The final reign was disputed between Lou Thesz and Edouard Carpentier. All matches were held at house shows.Ed Lewis had most reigns and the longest combined reignJim Londos had the longest individual reign","title":"Reigns"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of combined reigns (excluding unrecognised)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of combined reigns (including unrecognised)"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The standard Championship belt has three plates on a black leather strap.","title":"Belt designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pro_wrestling_world_title_diagram.png"}],"text":"A diagram showing the evolution of various world heavyweight championships.Various promotions have been home to world heavyweight championships with origins that can also be traced back to the World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puroresu"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucha_libre"},{"link_name":"Independent circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_circuit"}],"sub_title":"NWA Worlds Heavyweight Championship","text":"The National Wrestling Alliance Worlds Heavyweight Championship assumed the original world championship's position as the preeminent wrestling championship, and claimed its lineage. Most of the following championships, all based in North America, arose out of the NWA championship. \"World\" heavyweight championships in Japan, Mexico, and the US Independent circuit were created ex novo after promotions started.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pat O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_O%27Connor_(wrestler)"}],"sub_title":"AWA World Heavyweight Championship","text":"The AWA World Heavyweight Championship was established in May 1960, after the NWA's Minnesota member territory withdrew from the NWA and established the American Wrestling Association. The first champion was Pat O'Connor, who was recognized upon the AWA's secession from the NWA as O'Connor held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship as well, which he won on January 9, 1959. The creation of the AWA World Heavyweight Championship along with the NWA World Heavyweight Championship would pave the way for the creation of many other world championships in other wrestling promotions. The American Wrestling Association and the title became inactive in 1990 and the organization officially closed down in 1991 with the title also being decommissioned.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Capitol Wrestling Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Wrestling_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Buddy Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_Rogers_(wrestler)"},{"link_name":"Vincent J. McMahon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_J._McMahon"},{"link_name":"apocryphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrypha"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soliewwetitle-37"},{"link_name":"Bruno Sammartino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Sammartino"},{"link_name":"booked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms#Book"},{"link_name":"Ivan Koloff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Koloff"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"WWE Championship","text":"The WWE Championship's origin can be traced back to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship after an incident in which the Capitol Wrestling Corporation at the time left the NWA to become the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). This was after the WWWF refused to recognize Lou Thesz as the NWA World Heavyweight Champion after he beat Buddy Rogers in a one fall match – the NWA World Heavyweight Championship title matches usually followed a best-of-three fall format – Vincent J. McMahon, the WWWF's owner created the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship and awarded Rogers the championship belt proclaiming he won it in a (apocryphal) tournament in Brazil in April 1963.[37] He lost the championship to Bruno Sammartino a month later on May 17, 1963, after suffering a heart attack shortly before the match. To accommodate Rogers' condition, the match was booked to last under a minute. Sammartino would retain the title for seven years, eight months and one day (2,803 days), until losing it to Ivan Koloff, making Sammartino's reign the longest continuous world championship reign in men's wrestling history.[38][39]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"WCW World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WCW_World_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"link_name":"Ric Flair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ric_Flair"},{"link_name":"Sting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_(wrestler)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-flairwcw1-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wcwheavyweightsolie-41"},{"link_name":"WCW International World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WCW_International_World_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wcwinternational-42"},{"link_name":"WWF Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWE_Championship"},{"link_name":"Chris Jericho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Jericho"},{"link_name":"WWF Vengeance 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengeance_(2001)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"WCW World Heavyweight Championship","text":"The WCW World Heavyweight Championship's origin is traced back to a match which took place on January 11, 1991, where Ric Flair defeated Sting for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. When WCW pulled out of the NWA in early 1991, Flair was recognized as the first WCW World Heavyweight Champion.[40][41] The WCW International World Heavyweight Championship can be traced back to an incident in WCW's final split with the NWA in 1993, when Flair's NWA World Heavyweight Championship reign continued to be recognized as the WCW International World Heavyweight Championship.[42] The two titles were unified in June 1994. The title was briefly defended in WWF following WWF's purchase of WCW in 2001 before being unified into the WWF Championship and retired. Chris Jericho unified the WCW World Heavyweight Championship with the WWF Championship at WWF Vengeance 2001.[43]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ECW World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_World_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"link_name":"a tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NWA_World_Title_Tournament"},{"link_name":"NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_Championship_Wrestling"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecwworldtitlesolie-44"},{"link_name":"Shane Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Douglas"},{"link_name":"ECW brand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_(WWE)"},{"link_name":"Ezekiel Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezekiel_Jackson"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecwworldtitlesolie-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-douglasecw-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ECWtitle-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"ECW World Heavyweight Championship","text":"The ECW World Heavyweight Championship's origin is attributed to a tournament which was held to crown a new NWA World Heavyweight Champion in 1994 in NWA Eastern Championship Wrestling.[44] On August 27, 1994, Shane Douglas participated and won the tournament and discarded the NWA World Heavyweight Championship proclaiming himself the new Extreme Championship Wrestling World Heavyweight Champion. After this event ECW withdrew from the NWA and renamed itself Extreme Championship Wrestling. The title was decommissioned after ECW's bankruptcy in 2001 and subsequent purchase by WWE, then reactivated and competed for on the ECW brand of WWE from 2006 to 2010 when it was retired for the final time, with Ezekiel Jackson being the final holder of the title.[44][45][46][47]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NWA World Tag Team Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship"},{"link_name":"Ken Shamrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Shamrock"},{"link_name":"Gauntlet for the Gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauntlet_for_the_Gold"},{"link_name":"pay-per-view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay-per-view"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nwahistory-18"},{"link_name":"Christian Cage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Cage"},{"link_name":"territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Wrestling_Alliance_territories"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Kurt Angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Angle"},{"link_name":"2007 edition of Sacrifice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNA_Sacrifice#2007"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling","text":"TNA formed in May 2002 and established a partnership with the NWA, allowing TNA control of the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and NWA World Tag Team Championship. On June 19, 2002, TNA crowned the first NWA World Heavyweight Champion under their banner after Ken Shamrock won a Gauntlet for the Gold match at TNA's first weekly pay-per-view.[18] On May 13, 2007, the NWA severed ties with TNA after the then-current NWA World Heavyweight Champion, Christian Cage, refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from other NWA territories.[48] A brand new TNA World Heavyweight Championship was first won by Kurt Angle who won it at the 2007 edition of Sacrifice by defeating Cage and Sting. This title however neither claimed lineage to nor was linked to the Original World Heavyweight Championship.[49]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_(WWE,_2002%E2%80%932013)"},{"link_name":"brand split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWE_Brand_extension"},{"link_name":"Brock Lesnar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brock_Lesnar"},{"link_name":"SmackDown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SmackDown_(WWE_brand)"},{"link_name":"Triple H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_H"},{"link_name":"Raw brand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_(WWE_brand)"},{"link_name":"Big Gold Belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Gold_Belt"},{"link_name":"Eric Bischoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Bischoff"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wwewhc154-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wrestleview20020209-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Randy Orton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Orton"},{"link_name":"December 15, 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TLC:_Tables,_Ladders_%26_Chairs_(2013)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Seth Rollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Rollins"},{"link_name":"World Heavyweight Championship (WWE)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_(WWE,_2023%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"WWE's World Heavyweight Championship","text":"WWE created a new World Heavyweight Championship following its first brand split, when then-WWE \"Undisputed\" Champion Brock Lesnar became exclusive to the SmackDown brand, refusing to face designated number one contender Triple H, who was a member of the Raw brand. Triple H was awarded the newly established title. This championship was a successor to the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, split via the WWE Championship. It was represented by the same Big Gold Belt once used for the WCW and NWA championships, and was awarded by Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff, the former President of WCW.[50][51][52] WWE asserts its legacy extends back to the title created in 1905.[53] Like the original World Heavyweight Wrestling Championship, the title was not prefixed with the name of a promotion, though the physical belt had the WWE logo on it. It would be reunified with the WWE Championship by Randy Orton on December 15, 2013.[54]In 2023 Seth Rollins was crowned as the winner of a new World Heavyweight Championship World Heavyweight Championship (WWE) which however neither claimed lineage to nor was linked to the original World Heavyweight Championship.[55]","title":"Legacy"}] | [{"image_text":"Frank Gotch and George Hackenschmidt were the first two champions","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Frank_Gotch_vs_Georg_Hackenschmidt_1908.jpg/200px-Frank_Gotch_vs_Georg_Hackenschmidt_1908.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hackenschmidt and Jenkins on the front page of the Daily Mirror, July 2, 1904","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Daily_mirror_2july1904.jpg/214px-Daily_mirror_2july1904.jpg"},{"image_text":"Lou Thesz was the final champion","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/LouThesz.jpg/220px-LouThesz.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ed Lewis had most reigns and the longest combined reign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Ed_Strangler_Lewis_-_6_Jan_1942_Municipal_Auditorium_Wrestling_Program.jpg/220px-Ed_Strangler_Lewis_-_6_Jan_1942_Municipal_Auditorium_Wrestling_Program.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jim Londos had the longest individual reign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/JimLondos.jpg/220px-JimLondos.jpg"},{"image_text":"A diagram showing the evolution of various world heavyweight championships.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pro_wrestling_world_title_diagram.png/400px-Pro_wrestling_world_title_diagram.png"}] | [{"title":"American Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"title":"Atlantic Athletic Commission World Heavyweight Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Athletic_Commission_World_Heavyweight_Championship"},{"title":"Early wrestling championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_wrestling_championships"},{"title":"MWA World Heavyweight Championship (Kansas City version)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship_(Kansas_City_version)"},{"title":"MWA World Heavyweight Championship (Ohio version)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MWA_World_Heavyweight_Championship_(Ohio_version)"},{"title":"Women's World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_World_Championship"}] | [{"reference":"\"NWA World Heavyweight Championship\". National Wrestling Alliance. Retrieved June 15, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://natwrestlingalliance.wordpress.com/world-title-history/","url_text":"\"NWA World Heavyweight Championship\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wrestling_Alliance","url_text":"National Wrestling Alliance"}]},{"reference":"\"Hackenschmidt Is Wrestling Champion\" (PDF). The New York Times. May 5, 1905. Retrieved May 26, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1905/05/05/100485496.pdf","url_text":"\"Hackenschmidt Is Wrestling Champion\""}]},{"reference":"\"Champion Wrestler Quits, Exhausted\" (PDF). The New York Times. April 4, 1908. Retrieved May 24, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1908/04/04/104722019.pdf","url_text":"\"Champion Wrestler Quits, Exhausted\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stecher beats Cutler in Teo Straight Falls\". The Chicago Tribune. July 5, 1915. Retrieved June 14, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/382586091.html?dids=382586091:382586091&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"Stecher beats Cutler in Teo Straight Falls\""}]},{"reference":"\"S. Zbyszko Defeats Munn For Mat Title\". The New York Times. May 16, 1925. Retrieved June 12, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1925/04/16/archives/s-zbyszko-defeats-munn-for-mat-title-veteran-pole-regains-worlds.html","url_text":"\"S. Zbyszko Defeats Munn For Mat Title\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lewis Wins Crown, Gets 2 Of 3 Falls\". Associated Press. February 21, 1928. Retrieved June 11, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1928/02/21/archives/lewis-wins-crown-gets-2-of-3-falls-applies-scissors-on-arm-to-throw.html","url_text":"\"Lewis Wins Crown, Gets 2 Of 3 Falls\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gus Sonnenberg Captures World Wrestling Championship From Strangler Lewis\". The Hartford Courant. May 1, 1929. Retrieved June 12, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/821218122.html?dids=821218122:821218122&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"Gus Sonnenberg Captures World Wrestling Championship From Strangler Lewis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hartford_Courant","url_text":"The Hartford Courant"}]},{"reference":"\"Wrestling Bulletin\". Los Angeles Times. April 14, 1931. Retrieved June 12, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/386476511.html?dids=386476511:386476511&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"Wrestling Bulletin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Jim Londos stripped on 32/09/30 of Ed Lewis vs. Dick Shikat match, Ed \"Strangler\" Lewis defeats Jack Sherry\". wrestling-titles.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wrestling-titles.com/us/ny/nysac-h.html","url_text":"\"Jim Londos stripped on 32/09/30 of Ed Lewis vs. Dick Shikat match, Ed \"Strangler\" Lewis defeats Jack Sherry\""}]},{"reference":"\"O'Mahoney Wins Over Jim Londos\". The Hartford Courant. June 27, 1935. Retrieved June 12, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/832261872.html?dids=832261872:832261872&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"O'Mahoney Wins Over Jim Londos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hartford_Courant","url_text":"The Hartford Courant"}]},{"reference":"\"Ali Baba Pins Shikat to Win Claim on Title\". Chicago Daily Tribune. April 25, 1936. Retrieved June 14, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/459965872.html?dids=459965872:459965872&FMT=CITE&FMTS=CITE:AI","url_text":"\"Ali Baba Pins Shikat to Win Claim on Title\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Daily_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Daily Tribune"}]},{"reference":"\"Shikat Recognized As Champion Here\". The New York Times. April 29, 1936. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0E16FA3E54147B93CBAB178FD85F428385F9","url_text":"\"Shikat Recognized As Champion Here\""}]},{"reference":"Nichols, Joseph C. (May 6, 1936). \"Triumph Over Shikat Gains World Mat Championship for Ali Baba\". The New York Times. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1936/05/06/archives/triumph-over-shikat-gains-world-mat-championship-for-ali-baba-ali.html","url_text":"\"Triumph Over Shikat Gains World Mat Championship for Ali Baba\""}]},{"reference":"\"SLAM! Wrestling Canadian Hall of Fame: Bronko Nagurski profile\". SLAM! Sports. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130120201449/http://www.canoe.ca/SlamWrestling/nagurski.html","url_text":"\"SLAM! Wrestling Canadian Hall of Fame: Bronko Nagurski profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"Londos Pins Nagurski; Captures Wrestling Title From Chicago Rival Before 10,000\". The New York Times. November 19, 1938. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1938/11/19/archives/londos-pins-nagurski-captures-wrestling-title-from-chicago-rival.html","url_text":"\"Londos Pins Nagurski; Captures Wrestling Title From Chicago Rival Before 10,000\""}]},{"reference":"Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt. \"National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship\". Solie.org. Retrieved June 12, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/nwawht.html","url_text":"\"National Wrestling Association World Heavyweight Championship\""}]},{"reference":"Will, Gary; Duncan, Royal; Benaka, Matt; Oliver, Earl; Westcott, Brian; Sullivan, Richard; Zadarnowski, Andrew; Dean, Joe; Fitzgerald, Jason; Gonzalez, Manual. \"National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship History\". Solie.org. Retrieved June 12, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.solie.org/titlehistories/whtnwa.html","url_text":"\"National Wrestling Alliance World Heavyweight Championship History\""}]},{"reference":"Geyer, Jack (May 12, 1952). \"Thesz Defeats Leone for World Mat Crown\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/448469002.html?dids=448469002:448469002&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"Thesz Defeats Leone for World Mat Crown\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Oliver, Greg (February 4, 2000). \"Remembering Whipper Billy Watson\". SLAM! Wrestling. Archived from the original on July 9, 2000. Retrieved June 12, 2009. Thesz lost the title to Watson on March 15, 1956 in Toronto via a count out","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000709104221/http://www.canoe.com/SlamWrestling/whipper_feature.html","url_text":"\"Remembering Whipper Billy Watson\""},{"url":"http://www.canoe.com/SlamWrestling/whipper_feature.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"World title history\". NWA Wrestling. April 28, 2019. 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Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/334741122.htmldids=334741122:334741122&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"Stecher Tells \"Inside Facts.\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Caddock Defeated In Fast Mat Bout\" (PDF). The New York Times. January 31, 1920. Retrieved May 26, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1920/01/31/109798195.pdf","url_text":"\"Caddock Defeated In Fast Mat Bout\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lewis Captures Wrestling Title\" (PDF). The New York Times. December 14, 1920. Retrieved May 26, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1920/12/14/103509573.pdf","url_text":"\"Lewis Captures Wrestling Title\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"Strangler\" Lewis Regains His Title\". Hartford Courant. December 14, 1920. Retrieved June 10, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/739267182.html?dids=739267182:739267182&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI","url_text":"\"\"Strangler\" Lewis Regains His Title\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartford_Courant","url_text":"Hartford Courant"}]},{"reference":"\"Zbyszko Wrests Title From Lewis\" (PDF). The New York Times. May 6, 1921. Retrieved May 26, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/05/07/98683664.pdf","url_text":"\"Zbyszko Wrests Title From Lewis\""}]},{"reference":"\"On this day in pro wrestling history (May 6): Verne Gagne Vs. Danny Hodge, 1st Annual Von Erich Parade of Champions show\". Wrestling Observer Figure Four Online. May 6, 2015. Retrieved February 10, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.f4wonline.com/other-wrestling/day-pro-wrestling-history-may-6-verne-gagne-vs-danny-hodge-1st-annual-von-erich","url_text":"\"On this day in pro wrestling history (May 6): Verne Gagne Vs. Danny Hodge, 1st Annual Von Erich Parade of Champions show\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lewis Regains His Wrestling Title\" (PDF). The New York Times. April 22, 1922. Retrieved May 25, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/03/04/98993964.pdf","url_text":"\"Lewis Regains His Wrestling Title\""}]},{"reference":"Hoops, Brian (March 3, 2019). \"Daily pro wrestling history (03/03): Sting wins TNA World Title\". Figure Four Wrestling Observer Newsletter. Retrieved March 3, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.f4wonline.com/other-wrestling/daily-pro-wrestling-history-0303-sting-wins-tna-world-title-278366","url_text":"\"Daily pro wrestling history (03/03): Sting wins TNA World Title\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_Observer_Newsletter","url_text":"Figure Four Wrestling Observer Newsletter"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Strangler\" Lewis Loses Mat Crown\". Los Angeles Times. January 9, 1925. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Tonino | Don Tonino | ["1 Cast","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"] | This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
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Italian TV series or program
Don ToninoGenre
Comedy
Mystery
Directed byFosco GasperiStarring
Andrea Roncato
Gigi Sammarchi
Manuel De Peppe
Nicola De Buono
Lara Motta
Vanessa Gravina
Paolo Lizza
Marco Milano
Marisa Rampin
Claudia Lawrence
Carlo Sacchetti
Georgia Cavazzano
ComposersFranco GodiPinuccio PirazzoliCountry of originItalyOriginal languageItalianNo. of seasons2No. of episodes14Original releaseNetworkItalia 1ReleaseApril 8, 1988 (1988-04-08) –November 8, 1990 (1990-11-08)
Don Tonino is an Italian comedy-mystery television series.
Cast
Andrea Roncato as Don Tonino
Gigi Sammarchi as Commissioner Sangiorgi
Manuel De Peppe as Gabriele
Nicola De Buono as Don Oreste
Lara Motta as Maddalena
Vanessa Gravina as Sara
Paolo Lizza as Angelo
Marco Milano as Marco
See also
List of Italian television series
References
External links
Don Tonino at IMDb
This Italian television programme–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy"},{"link_name":"mystery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_fiction"}],"text":"Italian TV series or programDon Tonino is an Italian comedy-mystery television series.","title":"Don Tonino"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andrea Roncato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Roncato"},{"link_name":"Gigi Sammarchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigi_Sammarchi"},{"link_name":"Manuel De Peppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_De_Peppe"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Gravina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Gravina"}],"text":"Andrea Roncato as Don Tonino\nGigi Sammarchi as Commissioner Sangiorgi\nManuel De Peppe as Gabriele\nNicola De Buono as Don Oreste\nLara Motta as Maddalena\nVanessa Gravina as Sara\nPaolo Lizza as Angelo\nMarco Milano as Marco","title":"Cast"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of Italian television series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_television_series"}] | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Don+Tonino%22","external_links_name":"\"Don Tonino\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Don+Tonino%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Don+Tonino%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Don+Tonino%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Don+Tonino%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Don+Tonino%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Fit.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDon_Tonino&sl=it&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en","external_links_name":"View"},{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0168329/","external_links_name":"Don Tonino"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Don_Tonino&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:PamD | User talk:PamD | ["1 New Page Patrol newsletter October 2022","2 New Pages Patrol newsletter January 2023","3 New Pages Patrol newsletter June 2023","4 The Blackpool article...","5 Welcome to the drive!","6 Women in Red June 2024","7 Orphaned non-free image File:Ballet Black logo 2020.png","8 The Signpost: 8 June 2024","9 Awards article","10 Concern regarding Draft:Sonder (band)","11 Grantley Hall Page"] | If you leave a new message on this page, I will reply on this page. If you want me to reply elsewhere, tell me why.
21:47 Wednesday 19 June 2024 - - - - WELCOME TO MY TALK PAGE Please click "New section" or "Add" above to leave any new message, and please sign your message (just type ~~~~).
If you leave a message here, I will reply here, to make discussions easier to read. If you really want me to reply elsewhere, tell me a very good reason why I should do so.
If you reply to a message here, please indent (start the line with ":") and sign your message.
If you are discussing any particular page, please provide a link to it - it makes life easier for me and anyone else seeing this page.
Thanks. PamD
Archives
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New Page Patrol newsletter October 2022
Hello PamD,
Much has happened since the last newsletter over two months ago. The open letter finished with 444 signatures. The letter was sent to several dozen people at the WMF, and we have heard that it is being discussed but there has been no official reply. A related article appears in the current issue of The Signpost. If you haven't seen it, you should, including the readers' comment section.
Awards: Barnstars were given for the past several years (thanks to MPGuy2824), and we are now all caught up. The 2021 cup went to John B123 for leading with 26,525 article reviews during 2021. To encourage moderate activity, a new "Iron" level barnstar is awarded annually for reviewing 360 articles ("one-a-day"), and 100 reviews earns the "Standard" NPP barnstar. About 90 reviewers received barnstars for each of the years 2018 to 2021 (including the new awards that were given retroactively). All awards issued for every year are listed on the Awards page. Check out the new Hall of Fame also.
Software news: Novem Linguae and MPGuy2824 have connected with WMF developers who can review and approve patches, so they have been able to fix some bugs, and make other improvements to the Page Curation software. You can see everything that has been fixed recently here. The reviewer report has also been improved.
NPP backlog May – October 15, 2022
Suggestions:
There is much enthusiasm over the low backlog, but remember that the "quality and depth of patrolling are more important than speed".
Reminder: an article should not be tagged for any kind of deletion for a minimum of 15 minutes after creation and it is often appropriate to wait an hour or more. (from the NPP tutorial)
Reviewers should focus their effort where it can do the most good, reviewing articles. Other clean-up tasks that don't require advanced permissions can be left to other editors that routinely improve articles in these ways (creating Talk Pages, specifying projects and ratings, adding categories, etc.) Let's rely on others when it makes the most sense. On the other hand, if you enjoy doing these tasks while reviewing and it keeps you engaged with NPP (or are guiding a newcomer), then by all means continue.
This user script puts a link to the feed in your top toolbar.
Backlog: Saving the best for last: From a July low of 8,500, the backlog climbed back to 11,000 in August and then reversed in September dropping to below 6,000 and continued falling with the October backlog drive to under 1,000, a level not seen in over four years. Keep in mind that there are 2,000 new articles every week, so the number of reviews is far higher than the backlog reduction. To keep the backlog under a thousand, we have to keep reviewing at about half the recent rate!
Reminders
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New Pages Patrol newsletter January 2023
Hello PamD,
New Page Review queue December 2022
Backlog
The October drive reduced the backlog from 9,700 to an amazing 0! Congratulations to WaddlesJP13 who led with 2084 points. See this page for further details. The queue is steadily rising again and is approaching 2,000. It would be great if <2,000 were the “new normal”. Please continue to help out even if it's only for a few or even one patrol a day.
2022 Awards
Onel5969 won the 2022 cup for 28,302 article reviews last year - that's an average of nearly 80/day. There was one Gold Award (5000+ reviews), 11 Silver (2000+), 28 Iron (360+) and 39 more for the 100+ barnstar. Rosguill led again for the 4th year by clearing 49,294 redirects. For the full details see the Awards page and the Hall of Fame. Congratulations everyone!
Minimum deletion time: The previous WP:NPP guideline was to wait 15 minutes before tagging for deletion (including draftification and WP:BLAR). Due to complaints, a consensus decided to raise the time to 1 hour. To illustrate this, very new pages in the feed are now highlighted in red. (As always, this is not applicable to attack pages, copyvios, vandalism, etc.)
New draftify script: In response to feedback from AFC, the The Move to Draft script now provides a choice of set messages that also link the creator to a new, friendly explanation page. The script also warns reviewers if the creator is probably still developing the article. The former script is no longer maintained. Please edit your edit your common.js or vector.js file from User:Evad37/MoveToDraft.js to User:MPGuy2824/MoveToDraft.js
Redirects: Some of our redirect reviewers have reduced their activity and the backlog is up to 9,000+ (two months deep). If you are interested in this distinctly different task and need any help, see this guide, this checklist, and spend some time at WP:RFD.
Discussions with the WMF The PageTriage open letter signed by 444 users is bearing fruit. The Growth Team has assigned some software engineers to work on PageTriage, the software that powers the NewPagesFeed and the Page Curation toolbar. WMF has submitted dozens of patches in the last few weeks to modernize PageTriage's code, which will make it easier to write patches in the future. This work is helpful but is not very visible to the end user. For patches visible to the end user, volunteers such as Novem Linguae and MPGuy2824 have been writing patches for bug reports and feature requests. The Growth Team also had a video conference with the NPP coordinators to discuss revamping the landing pages that new users see.
Reminders
Newsletter feedback - please take this short poll about the newsletter.
There is live chat with patrollers on the New Page Patrol Discord.
Please add the project discussion page to your watchlist.
If you no longer wish to be a reviewer, please ask any admin to remove you from the group. If you want the tools back again, just ask at PERM.
To opt out of future mailings, please remove yourself here.
New Pages Patrol newsletter June 2023
Hello PamD,
New Page Review queue April to June 2023
Backlog
Redirect drive: In response to an unusually high redirect backlog, we held a redirect backlog drive in May. The drive completed with 23851 reviews done in total, bringing the redirect backlog to 0 (momentarily). Congratulations to Hey man im josh who led with a staggering 4316 points, followed by Meena and Greyzxq with 2868 and 2546 points respectively. See this page for more details. The redirect queue is steadily rising again and is steadily approaching 4,000. Please continue to help out, even if it's only for a few or even one review a day.
Redirect autopatrol: All administrators without autopatrol have now been added to the redirect autopatrol list. If you see any users who consistently create significant amounts of good quality redirects, consider requesting redirect autopatrol for them here.
WMF work on PageTriage: The WMF Moderator Tools team, consisting of Sam, Jason and Susana, and also some patches from Jon, has been hard at work updating PageTriage. They are focusing their efforts on modernising the extension's code rather than on bug fixes or new features, though some user-facing work will be prioritised. This will help make sure that this extension is not deprecated, and is easier to work on in the future. In the next month or so, we will have an opt-in beta test where new page patrollers can help test the rewrite of Special:NewPagesFeed, to help find bugs. We will post more details at WT:NPPR when we are ready for beta testers.
Articles for Creation (AFC): All new page reviewers are now automatically approved for Articles for Creation draft reviewing (you do not need to apply at WT:AFCP like was required previously). To install the AFC helper script, visit Special:Preferences, visit the Gadgets tab, tick "Yet Another AFC Helper Script", then click "Save". To find drafts to review, visit Special:NewPagesFeed, and at the top left, tick "Articles for Creation". To review a draft, visit a submitted draft, click on the "More" menu, then click "Review (AFCH)". You can also comment on and submit drafts that are unsubmitted using the script.
You can review the AFC workflow at WP:AFCR. It is up to you if you also want to mark your AFC accepts as NPP reviewed (this is allowed but optional, depends if you would like a second set of eyes on your accept). Don't forget that draftspace is optional, so moves of drafts to mainspace (even if they are not ready) should not be reverted, except possibly if there is conflict of interest.
Pro tip: Did you know that visual artists such as painters have their own SNG? The most common part of this "creative professionals" criteria that applies to artists is WP:ARTIST 4b (solo exhibition, not group exhibition, at a major museum) or 4d (being represented within the permanent collections of two museums).
Reminders
Newsletter feedback - please take this short poll about the newsletter.
There is live chat with patrollers on the New Page Patrol Discord and #wikimedia-npp connect on IRC.
Please add the project discussion page to your watchlist.
To opt out of future mailings, please remove yourself here.
The Blackpool article...
Welcome to the drive!
Welcome, welcome, welcome PamD! I'm glad that you are joining the
drive! Please, have a cup of WikiTea, and go cite some articles.
Fix a random page lacking sourcesCactiStaccingCrane (talk)15:39, 2 February 2024 UTC via JWB and Geardona (talk to me?)
Women in Red June 2024
Women in Red | June 2024, Volume 10, Issue 6, Numbers 293, 294, 308, 309, 310
Online events:
New: LGBTQ+ women | Wiki Loves Pride | Women in Music | Alphabet run X, Y & Z
Continuing: #1day1woman | Education (year-long initiative)
Announcements from other communities
Women in Green Good Article Edit-a-thon June 2024 - Going Back in Time
The Wikipedia Library: #1Lib1Ref - May 15th to June 5th
Tip of the month:
Find a Grave is NOT a reliable source (as it is user-generated content). It can be used to look for biographical clues.
Other ways to participate:
Become a member. You can always opt-out of notifications.
Join the conversations on our talkpage.
Help us plan future events and add any general ideas on developing the project.
Follow us on social media:
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--Lajmmoore (talk 07:06, 23 May 2024 (UTC) via MassMessaging
Orphaned non-free image File:Ballet Black logo 2020.png
⚠ Thanks for uploading File:Ballet Black logo 2020.png. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable for use on Wikipedia (see our policy for non-free media).
Note that any non-free images not used in any articles will be deleted after seven days, as described in section F5 of the criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. --B-bot (talk) 17:04, 5 June 2024 (UTC)
The Signpost: 8 June 2024
News and notes: Wikimedia Foundation publishes its Form 990 for fiscal year 2022-2023
Technology report: New Page Patrol receives a much-needed software upgrade
Deletion report: The lore of Kalloor
In the media: National cable networks get in on the action arguing about what the first sentence of a Wikipedia article ought to say
News from the WMF: Progress on the plan — how the Wikimedia Foundation advanced on its Annual Plan goals during the first half of fiscal year 2023-2024
Opinion: Public response to the editors of Settler Colonial Studies
Recent research: ChatGPT did not kill Wikipedia, but might have reduced its growth
Featured content: We didn't start the wiki
Essay: No queerphobia
Special report: RetractionBot is back to life!
Traffic report: Chimps, Eurovision, and the return of the Baby Reindeer
Comix: The Wikipediholic Family
Humour: Wikipedia rattled by sophisticated cyberattack of schoolboy typing "balls" in infobox
Concept: Palimpsestuous * Read this Signpost in full * Single-page * Unsubscribe * MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:27, 8 June 2024 (UTC)
Awards article
Do you know how many minimum awards must won to have a separate awards article for an actor? 103.154.37.177 (talk) 12:54, 9 June 2024 (UTC)
No, I just didn't think it seemed appropriate in that case. PamD 15:54, 9 June 2024 (UTC)
For talk page watchers: see Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of awards and nominations received by Rashmika Mandanna. PamD 15:55, 9 June 2024 (UTC)
I just want to know the number for my knowledge. If you know please tell. Thanks. 103.166.245.97 (talk) 13:05, 10 June 2024 (UTC)
There is no specific number, as far as I know. Please discuss this at Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/List of awards and nominations received by Rashmika Mandanna. I have no interest in actresses' awards lists in general, was only alerted to that AfD when I saw it on Wikipedia:WikiProject Women/Article alerts.
You could discuss it at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Awards, where there are people interested in awards who may have views. PamD 13:19, 10 June 2024 (UTC)
Concern regarding Draft:Sonder (band)
Hello, PamD. This is a bot-delivered message letting you know that Draft:Sonder (band), a page you created, has not been edited in at least 5 months. Drafts that have not been edited for six months may be deleted, so if you wish to retain the page, please edit it again or request that it be moved to your userspace.
If the page has already been deleted, you can request it be undeleted so you can continue working on it.
Thank you for your submission to Wikipedia. FireflyBot (talk) 17:07, 15 June 2024 (UTC)
The unsourced content which I draftified was created by two IP editors. The redirect I created remains. PamD 17:45, 15 June 2024 (UTC)
Grantley Hall Page
Hello Pam,
Grantley Hall page: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantley_Hall
The image of Grantley Hall should be dated or replaced with a current image. As this is a very old image it can be missleading as it does not currently look like that.
This is an image that is avaibale to use if you do not wish to date the first image: https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/j969lgv37o82y5z23l8w8/Tom-Sykes-image.jpg?rlkey=5np32k1oqmic27hqcdsiufz35&st=fv021fg8&dl=0
Thank you
Jade 82.31.227.237 (talk) 20:59, 18 June 2024 (UTC)
Hallo Jade, I guess that you might work at the hotel, in which case please read WP:COI and WP:PAID. You may or may not be the same anonymous editor who added text which was not present in the reference immediately following, creating a misleading impression that the addition was sourced.
I have dated the existing image as you requested, and added a little more, properly sourced, content about the hotel. Please note that nothing should be added to a Wikipedia article unless it can be supported by reliable independent published sources - in fact using the hotel's own website for its history is shading things somewhat but OK for plain facts like the date it opened.
No we cannot include an image provided via dropbox. If anyone who owns the copyright of an image wants to upload it they should use the "Upload file" option available on the edit menu, PamD 22:54, 18 June 2024 (UTC) | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"User talk:PamD"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/New_page_reviewer_of_the_year_cup.svg/120px-New_page_reviewer_of_the_year_cup.svg.png"},{"image_text":"NPP backlog May – October 15, 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/2022-10-16_NPP_backlog_chart.jpg/450px-2022-10-16_NPP_backlog_chart.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Everlasting_Fireworks_looped.gif/80px-Everlasting_Fireworks_looped.gif"},{"image_text":"New Page Review queue December 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Npp_backlog_2022-Dec.jpg/400px-Npp_backlog_2022-Dec.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/New_page_reviewer_of_the_year_cup.svg/74px-New_page_reviewer_of_the_year_cup.svg.png"},{"image_text":"New Page Review queue April to June 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/81/NPP_April-June_2023_backlog.svg/400px-NPP_April-June_2023_backlog.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/WiR_Music_2024.png/125px-WiR_Music_2024.png"},{"image_text":"⚠","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ambox_warning_blue.svg/35px-Ambox_warning_blue.svg.png"}] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:MPGuy2824","external_links_name":"MPGuy2824"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:John_B123","external_links_name":"John B123"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Novem_Linguae","external_links_name":"Novem Linguae"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:MPGuy2824","external_links_name":"MPGuy2824"},{"Link":"https://discordapp.com/invite/heF3xPu","external_links_name":"New Page Patrol Discord"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:WaddlesJP13","external_links_name":"WaddlesJP13"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Onel5969","external_links_name":"Onel5969"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rosguill","external_links_name":"Rosguill"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Novem_Linguae","external_links_name":"Novem Linguae"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:MPGuy2824","external_links_name":"MPGuy2824"},{"Link":"https://discordapp.com/invite/heF3xPu","external_links_name":"New Page Patrol Discord"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Hey_man_im_josh","external_links_name":"Hey man im josh"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Meena","external_links_name":"Meena"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Greyzxq","external_links_name":"Greyzxq"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Samwalton9_(WMF)","external_links_name":"Sam"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:JSherman_(WMF)","external_links_name":"Jason"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:SCardenas_(WMF)","external_links_name":"Susana"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Jon_(WMF)","external_links_name":"Jon"},{"Link":"https://discordapp.com/invite/heF3xPu","external_links_name":"New Page Patrol Discord"},{"Link":"https://web.libera.chat/?channel=#wikimedia-npp","external_links_name":"connect"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:PamD&action=purge","external_links_name":"refresh"},{"Link":"https://instagram.com/wikiwomeninred","external_links_name":"Instagram"},{"Link":"https://www.pinterest.com/wikiwomeninred/boards/","external_links_name":"Pinterest"},{"Link":"https://twitter.com/WikiWomenInRed","external_links_name":"Twitter/X"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantley_Hall","external_links_name":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantley_Hall"},{"Link":"https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/j969lgv37o82y5z23l8w8/Tom-Sykes-image.jpg?rlkey=5np32k1oqmic27hqcdsiufz35&st=fv021fg8&dl=0","external_links_name":"https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/j969lgv37o82y5z23l8w8/Tom-Sykes-image.jpg?rlkey=5np32k1oqmic27hqcdsiufz35&st=fv021fg8&dl=0"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welteislehre | Welteislehre | ["1 History","2 Premise","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Pseudoscientific cosmological theory by Hanns Hörbiger
Welteislehre (WEL; "World Ice Theory" or "World Ice Doctrine"), also known as Glazial-Kosmogonie (Glacial Cosmogony), is a discredited cosmological concept proposed by Hanns Hörbiger, an Austrian engineer and inventor. According to his ideas, ice was the basic substance of all cosmic processes, and ice moons, ice planets, and the "global ether" (also made of ice) had determined the entire development of the universe. Hörbiger did not arrive at his ideas through research, but said that he had received it in a "vision" in 1894. He published a book about the theory in 1912 and heavily promoted it in subsequent years, through lectures, magazines and associations.
History
By his own account, Hörbiger was observing the Moon when he was struck by the notion that the brightness and roughness of its surface were due to ice. Shortly after, he experienced a dream in which he was floating in space watching the swinging of a pendulum which grew longer and longer until it broke. "I knew that Newton had been wrong and that the sun's gravitational pull ceases to exist at three times the distance of Neptune," he concluded. He worked out his concepts in collaboration with amateur astronomer and schoolteacher Philipp Fauth whom he met in 1898, and published it as Glazial-Kosmogonie in 1912. Fauth had previously produced a large (if somewhat inaccurate) lunar map and had a considerable following, which lent Hörbiger's ideas some respectability.
It did not receive a great deal of attention at the time, but following World War I Hörbiger decided to change his strategy by promoting the new "cosmic truth" not only to people at universities and academies, but also to the general public. Hörbiger thought that if "the masses" accepted his ideas, then they might put enough pressure on the academic establishment to force his ideas into the mainstream. No effort was spared in popularising the ideas: "cosmotechnical" societies were founded, which offered public lectures that attracted large audiences, there were cosmic ice movies and radio programs, and even cosmic ice journals and novels.
During this period, the name was changed from the Graeco-Latin Glazial-Kosmogonie to the Germanic Welteislehre ("World ice theory"). The followers of WEL exerted a great deal of public pressure on behalf of the ideas. The movement published posters, pamphlets, books, and even a newspaper The Key to World Events. Companies owned by adherents would only hire people who declared themselves convinced of the WEL's truth. Some followers even attended astronomical meetings to heckle, shouting, "Out with astronomical orthodoxy! Give us Hörbiger!"
Supporters of the idea were Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the leading theorist behind the early development of the National Socialist Party in Germany in 1923, and later both Hitler and Himmler. Esoteric and pseudo-scientific views were quite popular among the Nazi elite at the time, and WEL appealed to them because it represented a "Germanic" all-encompassing alternative to a natural science viewed as Jewish and soulless.
Despite Hitler's claim that the WEL constituted an "Aryan" theory, a number of Jewish intellectuals supported the theory: for example, Viennese author Egon Friedell, who explained the World Ice Theory in his 1930 Cultural History of the Modern Age. Hans Schindler Bellamy, a Jewish member of the Austrian Social Democratic Party, was also a proponent. He continued to advocate the viewpoint after he had fled Vienna following the Anschluss. On the left wing Raoul Hausmann also supported the theory, and corresponded with Hörbiger.
Two organizations were set up in Vienna concerned with the idea: the Kosmotechnische Gesellschaft and the Hörbiger Institute. The first was formed in 1921 by a group of enthusiastic adherents of the idea, which included engineers, physicians, civil servants, and businessmen. Most had been personally acquainted with Hörbiger and had attended his many lectures.
Premise
According to the idea, the solar system had its origin in a gigantic star into which a smaller, dead, waterlogged star fell. This impact caused a huge explosion that flung fragments of the smaller star out into interstellar space where the water condensed and froze into giant blocks of ice. A ring of such blocks formed, that we now call the Milky Way, as well as a number of solar systems among which was our own, but with many more planets than currently exist.
Interplanetary space is filled with traces of hydrogen gas, which cause the planets to slowly spiral inwards, along with ice blocks. The outer planets are large mainly because they have swallowed a large number of ice blocks, but the inner planets have not swallowed nearly as many. One can see ice blocks on the move in the form of meteors, and when one collides with Earth, it produces hailstorms over an area of many square kilometers, while when one falls into the Sun, it produces a sunspot and gets vaporized, making "fine ice," that covers the innermost planets.
It was also claimed that Earth had had several satellites before it acquired the Moon; they began as planets in orbits of their own, but over long spans of time were captured one by one and slowly spiralled in towards Earth until they disintegrated and their debris became part of Earth's structure. One can supposedly identify the rock strata of several geological eras with the impacts of these satellites. It was believed that the destruction of earlier ice-moons were responsible for The Flood.
The last such impact, of the "Tertiary" or "Cenozoic Moon" and the capture of our present Moon, is supposedly remembered through myths and legends. This was worked out in detail by Hörbiger's English follower Hans Schindler Bellamy; Bellamy recounted how as a child he would often dream about a large moon that would spiral closer and closer in until it burst, making the ground beneath roll and pitch, awakening him and giving him a very sick feeling. When he looked at the Moon's surface through a telescope, he found its surface looking troublingly familiar. When he learned of Hörbiger's idea in 1921, he found it a description of his dream. He explained the mythological support he found in such books as Moons, Myths, and Man, In the Beginning God, and The Book of Revelation is History. It was believed that our current Moon was the sixth since Earth began and that a new collision was inevitable. Believers argued that the great flood described in the Bible and the destruction of Atlantis were caused by the fall of previous moons.
Hörbiger had various responses to the criticism that he received. If it was pointed out to him that his assertions did not work mathematically, he responded: "Calculation can only lead you astray." If it was pointed out that there existed photographic evidence that the Milky Way was composed of millions of stars, he responded that the pictures had been faked by "reactionary" astronomers. He responded in a similar way when it was pointed out that the surface temperature of the Moon had been measured in excess of 100 °C in the daytime, writing to rocket expert Willy Ley: "Either you believe in me and learn, or you will be treated as the enemy."
Astronomers generally dismissed his views and the following they acquired as a "carnival". As Martin Gardner argued in Chapter Three of his Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, Hörbiger's ideas have much in common with those of Immanuel Velikovsky.
See also
Interstellar ice
Snowball Earth
Lunar water
Nazi mysticism
References
^ a b "Why Hitler and other Nazis thought the world was really made of ice". Big Think. 20 February 2018.
^ Willy, Ley (1966). Watchers of the Skies: An Informal History of Astronomy from Babylon to the Space Age. Viking Press. p. 515.
^ Moore, Patrick (1999). The Wandering Astronomer. CRC Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-7503-0693-9.
^ Wessely, Christina. "Cosmic Ice Theory – science, fiction and the public, 1894–1945". Max Planck Society.
^ 'Pseudoscience in naziland', article by Willy Ley. 1947.
^ Sedley, David (21 August 2019). "World Ice Theory (Parshat Ekev)". blogs.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ a b c Kurlander, Eric (26 July 2017). "A Song of Ice and Fire". Lapham’s Quarterly. Retrieved 2022-07-12.
^ a b Hamann, Brigitte; Thomas Thornton (2000). Hitler's Vienna. Oxford University Press. p. 226. ISBN 0-19-514053-2.
^ Sack, Harald (16 March 2018). "Egon Friedell's Fascinating Cutural Histories". SciHi Blog. yovisto GmbH. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Bellamy, H. S. (1936). "Moons, Myths And Man". Internet Archive. Faber & Faber. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Hörbiger, Hanns. "Brief von Hanns Hörbiger an Raoul Hausmann. Mauer bei Wien". sammlung-online.berlinischegalerie.de. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
^ Gardner, Martin (1957). "ch. 3, Monsters of Doom". Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, 2nd ed. New York: Dover. p. 21.
External links
Media related to Welteislehre at Wikimedia Commons
Essay on Cosmic Ice Theory Archived 2009-07-14 at the Wayback Machine (Christina Wessely at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science)
Authority control databases: National
Germany | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cosmogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmogony"},{"link_name":"discredited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"},{"link_name":"Hanns Hörbiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanns_H%C3%B6rbiger"},{"link_name":"Austrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice"},{"link_name":"ether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-big-1"}],"text":"Welteislehre (WEL; \"World Ice Theory\" or \"World Ice Doctrine\"), also known as Glazial-Kosmogonie (Glacial Cosmogony), is a discredited cosmological concept proposed by Hanns Hörbiger, an Austrian engineer and inventor. According to his ideas, ice was the basic substance of all cosmic processes, and ice moons, ice planets, and the \"global ether\" (also made of ice) had determined the entire development of the universe.[1] Hörbiger did not arrive at his ideas through research, but said that he had received it in a \"vision\" in 1894. He published a book about the theory in 1912 and heavily promoted it in subsequent years, through lectures, magazines and associations.","title":"Welteislehre"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Neptune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ley-2"},{"link_name":"Philipp Fauth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Fauth"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moore-3"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Houston Stewart Chamberlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain"},{"link_name":"National Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Socialist_German_Workers_Party"},{"link_name":"Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler"},{"link_name":"Himmler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"Egon Friedell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egon_Friedell"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hamann-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sack-9"},{"link_name":"Hans Schindler Bellamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Schindler_Bellamy"},{"link_name":"Austrian Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MMM-10"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"Anschluss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anschluss"},{"link_name":"Raoul Hausmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Hausmann"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-'Brief_von_Hanns_H%C3%B6rbiger'-11"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hamann-8"}],"text":"By his own account, Hörbiger was observing the Moon when he was struck by the notion that the brightness and roughness of its surface were due to ice. Shortly after, he experienced a dream in which he was floating in space watching the swinging of a pendulum which grew longer and longer until it broke. \"I knew that Newton had been wrong and that the sun's gravitational pull ceases to exist at three times the distance of Neptune,\" he concluded.[2] He worked out his concepts in collaboration with amateur astronomer and schoolteacher Philipp Fauth whom he met in 1898, and published it as Glazial-Kosmogonie in 1912. Fauth had previously produced a large (if somewhat inaccurate) lunar map and had a considerable following, which lent Hörbiger's ideas some respectability.[3]It did not receive a great deal of attention at the time, but following World War I Hörbiger decided to change his strategy by promoting the new \"cosmic truth\" not only to people at universities and academies, but also to the general public. Hörbiger thought that if \"the masses\" accepted his ideas, then they might put enough pressure on the academic establishment to force his ideas into the mainstream. No effort was spared in popularising the ideas: \"cosmotechnical\" societies were founded, which offered public lectures that attracted large audiences, there were cosmic ice movies and radio programs, and even cosmic ice journals and novels.[4]During this period, the name was changed from the Graeco-Latin Glazial-Kosmogonie to the Germanic Welteislehre [WEL] (\"World ice theory\"). The followers of WEL exerted a great deal of public pressure on behalf of the ideas.[citation needed] The movement published posters, pamphlets, books, and even a newspaper The Key to World Events. Companies owned by adherents would only hire people who declared themselves convinced of the WEL's truth.[citation needed] Some followers even attended astronomical meetings to heckle, shouting, \"Out with astronomical orthodoxy! Give us Hörbiger!\"[5]Supporters of the idea were Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the leading theorist behind the early development of the National Socialist Party in Germany in 1923, and later both Hitler and Himmler.[6][7] Esoteric and pseudo-scientific views were quite popular among the Nazi elite at the time, and WEL appealed to them because it represented a \"Germanic\" all-encompassing alternative to a natural science viewed as Jewish and soulless.[7]Despite Hitler's claim that the WEL constituted an \"Aryan\" theory, a number of Jewish intellectuals supported the theory: for example, Viennese author Egon Friedell, who explained the World Ice Theory in his 1930 Cultural History of the Modern Age.[8][9] Hans Schindler Bellamy, a Jewish member of the Austrian Social Democratic Party, was also a proponent.[10] He continued to advocate the viewpoint after he had fled Vienna following the Anschluss. On the left wing Raoul Hausmann also supported the theory, and corresponded with Hörbiger.[11]Two organizations were set up in Vienna concerned with the idea: the Kosmotechnische Gesellschaft and the Hörbiger Institute.[7] The first was formed in 1921 by a group of enthusiastic adherents of the idea, which included engineers, physicians, civil servants, and businessmen. Most had been personally acquainted with Hörbiger and had attended his many lectures.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"The Flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-big-1"},{"link_name":"Cenozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic"},{"link_name":"Hans Schindler Bellamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Schindler_Bellamy"},{"link_name":"great flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative"},{"link_name":"Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis"},{"link_name":"Willy Ley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Ley"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Martin Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Gardner"},{"link_name":"Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Velikovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Velikovsky"}],"text":"According to the idea, the solar system had its origin in a gigantic star into which a smaller, dead, waterlogged star fell. This impact caused a huge explosion that flung fragments of the smaller star out into interstellar space where the water condensed and froze into giant blocks of ice. A ring of such blocks formed, that we now call the Milky Way, as well as a number of solar systems among which was our own, but with many more planets than currently exist.Interplanetary space is filled with traces of hydrogen gas, which cause the planets to slowly spiral inwards, along with ice blocks. The outer planets are large mainly because they have swallowed a large number of ice blocks, but the inner planets have not swallowed nearly as many. One can see ice blocks on the move in the form of meteors, and when one collides with Earth, it produces hailstorms over an area of many square kilometers, while when one falls into the Sun, it produces a sunspot and gets vaporized, making \"fine ice,\" that covers the innermost planets.It was also claimed that Earth had had several satellites before it acquired the Moon; they began as planets in orbits of their own, but over long spans of time were captured one by one and slowly spiralled in towards Earth until they disintegrated and their debris became part of Earth's structure. One can supposedly identify the rock strata of several geological eras with the impacts of these satellites. It was believed that the destruction of earlier ice-moons were responsible for The Flood.[1]The last such impact, of the \"Tertiary\" or \"Cenozoic Moon\" and the capture of our present Moon, is supposedly remembered through myths and legends. This was worked out in detail by Hörbiger's English follower Hans Schindler Bellamy; Bellamy recounted how as a child he would often dream about a large moon that would spiral closer and closer in until it burst, making the ground beneath roll and pitch, awakening him and giving him a very sick feeling. When he looked at the Moon's surface through a telescope, he found its surface looking troublingly familiar. When he learned of Hörbiger's idea in 1921, he found it a description of his dream. He explained the mythological support he found in such books as Moons, Myths, and Man, In the Beginning God, and The Book of Revelation is History. It was believed that our current Moon was the sixth since Earth began and that a new collision was inevitable. Believers argued that the great flood described in the Bible and the destruction of Atlantis were caused by the fall of previous moons.Hörbiger had various responses to the criticism that he received. If it was pointed out to him that his assertions did not work mathematically, he responded: \"Calculation can only lead you astray.\" If it was pointed out that there existed photographic evidence that the Milky Way was composed of millions of stars, he responded that the pictures had been faked by \"reactionary\" astronomers. He responded in a similar way when it was pointed out that the surface temperature of the Moon had been measured in excess of 100 °C in the daytime, writing to rocket expert Willy Ley: \"Either you believe in me and learn, or you will be treated as the enemy.\"[12]Astronomers generally dismissed his views and the following they acquired as a \"carnival\".[citation needed] As Martin Gardner argued in Chapter Three of his Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, Hörbiger's ideas have much in common with those of Immanuel Velikovsky.","title":"Premise"}] | [] | [{"title":"Interstellar ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_ice"},{"title":"Snowball Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_Earth"},{"title":"Lunar water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water"},{"title":"Nazi mysticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_mysticism"}] | [{"reference":"\"Why Hitler and other Nazis thought the world was really made of ice\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Naugle | David Naugle | ["1 Education","2 Career","3 Books","4 Personal life","5 Footnotes","6 External links"] | American writer and academic (1952–2021)
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David Keith Naugle (1952–2021) was an American author and professor. He was considered an expert on the Christian worldview.
Education
Systematic Theology, Th.D. (Dallas Theological Seminary)
Humanities, Ph.D. (University of Texas at Arlington)
Career
Naugle was an associate pastor at Fort Worth Bible Church, Fort Worth, Texas.
He then worked at the University of Texas at Arlington from 1980-88 as an adjunct professor of religion at the University of Texas at Arlington from 1980-1988. He continued his pastoral work in Arlington during this time.
Naugle then joined Dallas Baptist University as professor and later head of the philosophy department. He was a supporter of Amyraldism and Neo-Calvinism.
During his time at DBU, he began a weekly lecture series called the “Friday Symposium”. It featured presentations by DBU's faculty, students, and off-campus lecturers on a broad range of topics. He also began the annual “Summer Institute for Christian Scholarship”, a ten-week faculty enrichment program for Dallas Baptist University's professors.
He was the director of the Paideia College Society (formerly the Pew College Society) at DBU. PCS worked with students in the area of Christian humanism and classical liberal education.
Books
He authored Worldview: The History of a Concept in 2003 which was selected by Christianity Today as the "Book of the Year" in its theology and ethics category. The Peking University Press has since translated it into Chinese.
Naugle also wrote Reordered Loves, Reordered Lives: Learning the Deep Meaning of Happiness and Philosophy: A Student's Guide.
He co-wrote An Introduction to Christian Worldview: Pursuing God's Perspective In A Pluralistic World with Tawa J. Anderson and W. Michael Clark.
Personal life
Naugle was married to Deemie and they had one daughter.
Naugle died on Friday, June 11, 2021.
Footnotes
^ DBU, PCS page
^ "Christianity Today Book Awards 2003". Archived from the original on 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
^ 'David K. Naugle Worldview: The History of a Concept Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4761-7
^ Dallas Baptist University website
^ GoodReads website
^ Dallas Baptist University
^ "A Distinguished Life: Dr. David K. Naugle, 1952-2021". Dallas Baptist University. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
External links
Curriculum Vita
Extended bio
Online academic papers by David Naugle
Naugle's speaking schedule
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
United States
Czech Republic
Korea
Netherlands | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christian worldview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_worldview"}],"text":"David Keith Naugle (1952–2021) was an American author and professor. He was considered an expert on the Christian worldview.","title":"David Naugle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dallas Theological Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Theological_Seminary"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Arlington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Arlington"}],"text":"Systematic Theology, Th.D. (Dallas Theological Seminary)\nHumanities, Ph.D. (University of Texas at Arlington)","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dallas Baptist University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Baptist_University"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Amyraldism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyraldism"},{"link_name":"Neo-Calvinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Calvinism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Naugle was an associate pastor at Fort Worth Bible Church, Fort Worth, Texas.He then worked at the University of Texas at Arlington from 1980-88 as an adjunct professor of religion at the University of Texas at Arlington from 1980-1988. He continued his pastoral work in Arlington during this time.Naugle then joined Dallas Baptist University as professor and later head of the philosophy department. He was a supporter of Amyraldism and Neo-Calvinism.During his time at DBU, he began a weekly lecture series called the “Friday Symposium”. It featured presentations by DBU's faculty, students, and off-campus lecturers on a broad range of topics. He also began the annual “Summer Institute for Christian Scholarship”, a ten-week faculty enrichment program for Dallas Baptist University's professors.He was the director of the Paideia College Society (formerly the Pew College Society) at DBU. PCS worked with students in the area of Christian humanism and classical liberal education.[1]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christianity Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_Today"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"He authored Worldview: The History of a Concept in 2003 which was selected by Christianity Today as the \"Book of the Year\" in its theology and ethics category.[2][3] The Peking University Press has since translated it into Chinese.[4]Naugle also wrote Reordered Loves, Reordered Lives: Learning the Deep Meaning of Happiness and Philosophy: A Student's Guide.He co-wrote An Introduction to Christian Worldview: Pursuing God's Perspective In A Pluralistic World with Tawa J. Anderson and W. Michael Clark.[5]","title":"Books"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Naugle was married to Deemie and they had one daughter.[6]Naugle died on Friday, June 11, 2021.[7]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"DBU, PCS page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www3.dbu.edu/naugle/paideia.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Christianity Today Book Awards 2003\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060831103019/http://www.ctlibrary.com/10683"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ctlibrary.com/10683"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8028-4761-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4761-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Dallas Baptist University website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dbu.edu/naugle/#books"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"GoodReads website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.goodreads.com/author/show/892854.David_K_Naugle"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Dallas Baptist University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dbu.edu/News/2021/06/davey-naugle.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"A Distinguished Life: Dr. David K. Naugle, 1952-2021\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dbu.edu/news/2021/06/davey-naugle.html"}],"text":"^ DBU, PCS page\n\n^ \"Christianity Today Book Awards 2003\". Archived from the original on 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2006-09-08.\n\n^ 'David K. Naugle Worldview: The History of a Concept Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4761-7\n\n^ Dallas Baptist University website\n\n^ GoodReads website\n\n^ Dallas Baptist University\n\n^ \"A Distinguished Life: Dr. David K. Naugle, 1952-2021\". Dallas Baptist University. Retrieved 2021-08-08.","title":"Footnotes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Christianity Today Book Awards 2003\". Archived from the original on 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2006-09-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060831103019/http://www.ctlibrary.com/10683","url_text":"\"Christianity Today Book Awards 2003\""},{"url":"http://ctlibrary.com/10683","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"A Distinguished Life: Dr. David K. 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Naugle, 1952-2021\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22David+Naugle%22","external_links_name":"\"David Naugle\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22David+Naugle%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22David+Naugle%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22David+Naugle%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22David+Naugle%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22David+Naugle%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www3.dbu.edu/naugle/paideia.htm","external_links_name":"DBU, PCS page"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060831103019/http://www.ctlibrary.com/10683","external_links_name":"\"Christianity Today Book Awards 2003\""},{"Link":"http://ctlibrary.com/10683","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.dbu.edu/naugle/#books","external_links_name":"Dallas Baptist University website"},{"Link":"https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/892854.David_K_Naugle","external_links_name":"GoodReads website"},{"Link":"https://www.dbu.edu/News/2021/06/davey-naugle.html","external_links_name":"Dallas Baptist University"},{"Link":"https://www.dbu.edu/news/2021/06/davey-naugle.html","external_links_name":"\"A Distinguished Life: Dr. David K. Naugle, 1952-2021\""},{"Link":"http://www.dbu.edu/naugle/pdf/CurriculumVita-DrNaugle.pdf","external_links_name":"Curriculum Vita"},{"Link":"http://www.dbu.edu/naugle/personal_info.htm","external_links_name":"Extended bio"},{"Link":"http://www.dbu.edu/naugle/papers.htm","external_links_name":"Online academic papers by David Naugle"},{"Link":"http://www.dbu.edu/naugle/speaking_schedule.htm","external_links_name":"Naugle's speaking schedule"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000046736110","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/48591064","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJkXxQKB9mD7GMGC7vxxDq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2002094943","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=uk20191052142&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200714544","external_links_name":"Korea"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p074071769","external_links_name":"Netherlands"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire | List of local nature reserves in Hampshire | [] | Coordinates: 51°03′28″N 1°18′29″W / 51.0577°N 1.3081°W / 51.0577; -1.3081
Fleet Pond
Local nature reserves (LNRs) in England are designated by local authorities under Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. LNRs are sites which have a special local interest either biologically or geologically. Local authorities have a duty to care for them, and must control the sites by owning or leasing them, or by having an agreement with the owners. The local authorities can apply local byelaws to manage and protect LNRs.
As of April 2020, there are 65 LNRs in Hampshire, of which 28 are Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 15 are Ramsar sites, 15 are Special Areas of Conservation, 16 are Special Protection Areas and one is a national nature reserve and one is a Nature Conservation Review site. Two sites are managed by the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust.
Key
Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap
Download coordinates as:
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GPX (all coordinates)
GPX (primary coordinates)
GPX (secondary coordinates)
Other designations and wildlife trust management
HIWWT = Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust
NCR = Nature Conservation Review site
NNR = National nature reserve
Ramsar = Ramsar site, an internationally important wetland site
SAC = Special Area of Conservation
SM = Scheduled monument
SPA = Special Protection Area
SSSI = Site of Special Scientific Interest
Sites
Contents:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z
Site
Photograph
Area
Location
Borough
Other
Map and details
Description
Anton Lakes
33.1 hectares(82 acres)
Andover51°13′12″N 1°29′10″W / 51.220°N 1.486°W / 51.220; -1.486 (Anton Lakes) SU 360 469
Test Valley
Map
Details
The River Anton rises in the site and flows through former watercress beds into the lakes, which were created by gravel extraction. Another habitat is chalk grassland, which has butterflies such as marbled white and gatekeeper. There is also an area of wet meadow, and mammals include otters and water voles.
Berry Coppice
3.0 hectares(7.4 acres)
Winchester50°52′16″N 1°13′52″W / 50.871°N 1.231°W / 50.871; -1.231 (Berry Coppice) SU 542 082
Winchester
Map
Details
Bishops Waltham Branch
1.6 hectares(4.0 acres)
Bishop's Waltham50°57′00″N 1°13′23″W / 50.950°N 1.223°W / 50.950; -1.223 (Bishops Waltham Branch) SU 547 170
Winchester
Map
Details
This site is a 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) footpath along the former railway line from Bishop's Waltham to Botley. The path is lined by trees such as oaks and field maples, and flowering plants including wood avens and herb robert.
Boldre Foreshore
193.3 hectares(478 acres)
Boldre50°45′07″N 1°29′49″W / 50.752°N 1.497°W / 50.752; -1.497 (Boldre Foreshore) SZ 356 948
New Forest
HIWWT, Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This large site has a vartiety of habitats, including saltmarsh, shingle, grassland, fresh and brackish pools and mudflats. It has breeding populations of gulls, terns and waders, together with many wintering waders and wildfowl.
Brook Meadow (Emsworth)
3.9 hectares(9.6 acres)
Emsworth50°50′56″N 0°56′10″W / 50.849°N 0.936°W / 50.849; -0.936 (Brook Meadow (Emsworth)) SU 750 060
Havant
Map
Details
Most of this site is grassland, which is surrounded by woodland and flanked by two streams. The diverse wildlife includes water voles.
Broxhead Common, Bordon
41.8 hectares(103 acres)
Bordon51°07′55″N 0°50′56″W / 51.132°N 0.849°W / 51.132; -0.849 (Broxhead Common, Bordon) SU 806 376
East Hampshire
SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
The common has dry heath and birch and oak woodland. Woodlarks and nightjars, which are rare and protected birds, breed on the site, and there is also a population of the nationally rare sand lizard.
Buriton Chalk Pit
5.7 hectares(14 acres)
Buriton50°58′23″N 0°57′18″W / 50.973°N 0.955°W / 50.973; -0.955 (Buriton Chalk Pit) SU 735 198
East Hampshire
Map
Details
This former chalk quarry was worked up to the end of World War II and it still has large heaps of spoil. It has gradually developed into a rich habitat with chalk loving plants. Many paths follow the routes of narrow gauge railway lines which were used to move chalk and lime.
Calshot Marshes
51.1 hectares(126 acres)
Southampton50°49′05″N 1°18′58″W / 50.818°N 1.316°W / 50.818; -1.316 (Calshot Marshes) SU 483 023
Southampton
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This saltmarsh site is internationally important for dark-bellied brent geese and nationally important for wigeon, teal, ringed plover, grey plover, black-tailed godwit, redshank and dunlin.
Catherington Down
12.8 hectares(32 acres)
Horndean50°55′26″N 1°01′05″W / 50.924°N 1.018°W / 50.924; -1.018 (Catherington Down, Horndean) SU 691 143
East Hampshire
SSSI
Map
Details
This western sloping site is chalk grassland with prominent lynchet strips dating to the Middle Ages. It is managed by grazing and has a variety of chalk herbs, such as pyramidal orchid, round-headed rampion and autumn lady's-tresses. There is also a narrow belt of woodland.
Catherington Lith, Horndean
9.2 hectares(23 acres)
Horndean50°55′19″N 1°00′14″W / 50.922°N 1.004°W / 50.922; -1.004 (Catherington Lith, Horndean) SU 701 141
East Hampshire
Map
Details
Chessel Bay
12.9 hectares(32 acres)
Southampton50°54′47″N 1°22′34″W / 50.913°N 1.376°W / 50.913; -1.376 (Chessel Bay) SU 440 128
Southampton
Ramsar, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This is the last remaining stretch of undeveloped shoreline along the lower River Itchen. Most of it is mudflats, which provide feeding grounds for birds at low tide. There are also areas of saltmarsh, woodland and shingle.
Chineham Woods
9.2 hectares(23 acres)
Basingstoke51°17′31″N 1°03′32″W / 51.292°N 1.059°W / 51.292; -1.059 (Chineham Woods) SU 657 552
Basingstoke and Deane
Map
Details
Claylands
5.8 hectares(14 acres)
Bishop's Waltham50°57′32″N 1°13′23″W / 50.959°N 1.223°W / 50.959; -1.223 (Claylands) SU 547 180
Winchester
Map
Details
This former clay working has woodland, ponds, meadows and scrub. The ponds have populations of great crested newts. There are butterflies such as marbled white, common blue and green hairstreak.
Crab Wood
37.8 hectares(93 acres)
Winchester51°03′54″N 1°22′41″W / 51.065°N 1.378°W / 51.065; -1.378 (Crab Wood) SU 437 297
Winchester
SSSI
Map
Details
This site has been wooded at least since the sixteenth century. It has a hazel layer which has been coppiced, large oaks and some beech, ash and birch trees. There is a rich butterfly fauna, including purple emperors.
Danebury Hillfort
39.0 hectares(96 acres)
Nether Wallop51°08′13″N 1°32′06″W / 51.137°N 1.535°W / 51.137; -1.535 (Danebury Hillfort) SU 326 376
Test Valley
SSSI
Map
Details
This Iron Age hillfort has been the subject of extensive research and excavation. It was occupied from the seventh to the first centuries BC, with many phases of development. There are large beech around the perimeter.
Daneshill Park Woods
4.4 hectares(11 acres)
Basingstoke51°16′48″N 1°03′32″W / 51.280°N 1.059°W / 51.280; -1.059 (Daneshill Park Woods) SU 657 538
Basingstoke and Deane
Map
Details
These woods have hazel coppice, an old orchard, scrub and a sunken lane. Ground flora include wood anemone, celandine and bluebells.
Deadwater Valley
35.9 hectares(89 acres)
Bordon51°06′25″N 0°51′25″W / 51.107°N 0.857°W / 51.107; -0.857 (Deadwater Valley) SU 801 348
East Hampshire
SM
Map
Details
This site along the west bank of the River Deadwater has a pond, a meadow, wet and dry heath, alder carr and broadleaved and coniferous woodland. There are Civil War earthworks in the south of the reserve.
Dell Piece West
4.1 hectares(10 acres)
Horndean50°54′32″N 1°00′22″W / 50.909°N 1.006°W / 50.909; -1.006 (Dell Piece West) SU 700 126
East Hampshire
Map
Details
Dundridge Meadows
7.5 hectares(19 acres)
Bishop's Waltham50°57′36″N 1°12′00″W / 50.960°N 1.200°W / 50.960; -1.200 (Dundridge Meadows) SU 563 181
Winchester
Map
Details
These meadows are chalk grassland managed for hay. There are also two ponds, ancient woodlands and species-rich hedges. Flowering plants include cowslips and hayrattle.
Elvetham Heath
20.0 hectares(49 acres)
Fleet51°17′42″N 0°50′49″W / 51.295°N 0.847°W / 51.295; -0.847 (Elvetham Heath) SU 805 557
Hart
Map
Details
Typical heathland plants such as heather and gorse are regenerating naturally on the heath, and there are other habitats such as reedbeds and wet woodland, which has the rare plant bog myrtle.
Farlington Marshes
119.7 hectares(296 acres)
Portsmouth50°50′02″N 1°01′44″W / 50.834°N 1.029°W / 50.834; -1.029 (Farlington Marshes) SU 685 043
Portsmouth
HIWWT NCR, Ramsar SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This area of flower-rich grazing marsh is internationally important for its bird population. Wintering wildfowl include dark bellied brent geese, wigeons, avocets, redshanks and dunlins. There are also spring and summer visitors such as Cetti's, reed and sedge warblers, skylarks and lapwings.
Fleet Pond
48.3 hectares(119 acres)
Fleet51°17′17″N 0°49′26″W / 51.288°N 0.824°W / 51.288; -0.824 (Fleet Pond) SU 821 550
Hart
SSSI
Map
Details
This large and shallow lake is surrounded by reed beds, alder carr and oak and birch woodland. The lake has a rich aquatic flora and fauna, including large populations of reed warblers and other wetland birds.
Gull Coppice
12.7 hectares(31 acres)
Fareham50°52′52″N 1°15′18″W / 50.881°N 1.255°W / 50.881; -1.255 (Gull Coppice) SU 525 093
Fareham
Map
Details
Gutner Point
69.0 hectares(171 acres)
Hayling Island50°48′32″N 0°57′14″W / 50.809°N 0.954°W / 50.809; -0.954 (Gutner Point) SU 738 016
Basingstoke and Deane
Ramsar SAC SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This site in Chichester Harbour has inter-tidal muds, grassland and saltmarsh. Flora includes sea-lavender. Many birds feed on invertebrates in the mud at low tide and rest on foreshore at high tide.
Hackett's Marsh
20.4 hectares(50 acres)
Fareham50°52′41″N 1°18′29″W / 50.878°N 1.308°W / 50.878; -1.308 (Hackett's Marsh) SU 488 089
Fareham
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This site has saltmarshes and species-rich grassland. Its diverse insects, which include some species which are nationally rare, provide an important source of food for waders, such as golden plovers, black-tailed godwits and curlews.
Hayling Billy
42.0 hectares(104 acres)
Hayling Island50°48′43″N 0°59′13″W / 50.812°N 0.987°W / 50.812; -0.987 (Hayling Billy) SU 715 019
Havant
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This is a footpath along the former Hayling Island branch railway line along the eastern shore of Langstone Harbour between Havant and South Hayling.
Hazleton Common, Horndean
17.5 hectares(43 acres)
Horndean50°54′07″N 1°00′04″W / 50.902°N 1.001°W / 50.902; -1.001 (Hazleton Common, Horndean) SU 703 119
East Hampshire
Map
Details
The common is mainly lowland heath, together with ponds and areas of woodland. Fauna include common lizards, adders, grass snake, slow worms, broad-bodied chaser dragonflies, green woodpeckers and partridges.
Herbert Plantation
25.6 hectares(63 acres)
Newtown51°21′25″N 1°19′05″W / 51.357°N 1.318°W / 51.357; -1.318 (Herbert Plantation) SU 476 622
Basingstoke and Deane
Map
Details
The reserve is named after its former owner, Herbert Fox, who died in World War II. It has oak, birch, alder and pine, and ground flora includes some species typical of ancient woodland, such as common solomon's-seal and wood sorrel. Invertebrates include 22 species of butterfly, such as silver-washed fritillary and white admiral.
Hocombe Mead
8.3 hectares(21 acres)
Chandler's Ford51°00′04″N 1°23′20″W / 51.001°N 1.389°W / 51.001; -1.389 (Hocombe Mead) SU 430 226
Eastleigh
Map
Details
The site has two species-rich meadows. The north one, which is grazed by cattle, has a large colony of ringlet butterflies, while the south one is maintained by cutting. There are also woods, with some parts more than 400 years old. There are small areas of bog and heath.
Holly Hill Woodland Park
28.1 hectares(69 acres)
Fareham50°51′58″N 1°17′49″W / 50.866°N 1.297°W / 50.866; -1.297 SU 496 076
Fareham
Map
Details
The park has landscaped areas with lakes, waterfalls, islands and woods with exotic trees and flowers, as well as native trees such as oaks. There is also a less formal area of ancient semi-natural woodland.
Hook with Warsash
251.6 hectares(622 acres)
Fareham50°50′35″N 1°18′00″W / 50.843°N 1.300°W / 50.843; -1.300 (Hook with Warsash) SU 494 051
Fareham
Ramsar, SAC SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This nature reserve on the banks of the River Hamble and Southampton Water has diverse habitats, intertidal mud, saltmarsh, grazing marsh, reedbed, scrapes, shingle and woodland. Flora include sea kale, yellow horned poppy, slender hare's ear, marsh marigold, English stonecrop and wild carrot.
The Kench, Hayling Island
6.0 hectares(15 acres)
Hayling Island50°47′35″N 1°01′12″W / 50.793°N 1.020°W / 50.793; -1.020 (The Kench, Hayling Island) SZ 692 997
Havant
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This site on the south shore of Langstone Harbour is an area of saltmarsh and intertidal mud. Birds use the mud as a feeding area at low tide and roost on a shingle ridge during high tide.
Kites Croft
17.0 hectares(42 acres)
Fareham50°51′22″N 1°15′04″W / 50.856°N 1.251°W / 50.856; -1.251 (Kites Croft) SU 528 065
Fareham
Map
Details
Lepe Point
4.5 hectares(11 acres)
Exbury50°47′10″N 1°21′25″W / 50.786°N 1.357°W / 50.786; -1.357 (Lepe Point) SZ 454 987
New Forest
SSSI
Map
Details
Liss Riverside Railway Walk North
6.9 hectares(17 acres)
Liss51°03′04″N 0°53′24″W / 51.051°N 0.890°W / 51.051; -0.890 (Liss Riverside Railway Walk North) SU 779 285
East Hampshire
Map
Details
This footpath follows part of the route of the former Longmoor Military Railway from Liss to Liss Forest. The path goes through willow and alder woodland.
Liss Riverside Railway Walk South
1.6 hectares(4.0 acres)
Liss51°02′42″N 0°53′35″W / 51.045°N 0.893°W / 51.045; -0.893 (Liss Riverside Railway Walk South) SU 777 279
East Hampshire
Map
Details
This footpath through woodland is the southern continuation of Liss Riverside Railway Walk North, following the route of the former Longmoor Military Railway.
Lymington-Keyhaven Marshes
167.9 hectares(415 acres)
Lymington50°44′10″N 1°32′31″W / 50.736°N 1.542°W / 50.736; -1.542 (Lymington-Keyhaven Marshes) SZ 324 930
New Forest
HIWWT, Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This coastal site has saltmarshes and intertidal muds. Birds of prey include peregrine falcons, marsh harriers and merlins, while black-headed gulls and sandwich terns feed on fish in the marshes. Yellow-horned poppies, sea campions and sea aster grow in the salty mud.
Manor Farm
144.1 hectares(356 acres)
Botley50°54′00″N 1°17′20″W / 50.900°N 1.289°W / 50.900; -1.289 (Manor Farm) SU 501 114
Eastleigh
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This large country park on the north bank of the River Hamble has woodland with roe deer and meadows with wild flowers and skylarks.
Mercury Marshes
6.4 hectares(16 acres)
Hamble-le-Rice50°51′58″N 1°18′40″W / 50.866°N 1.311°W / 50.866; -1.311 (Mercury Marshes) SU 486 076
Eastleigh
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This site on the west bank of the River Hamble has intertidal mud, reedbeds, islands, saltmarsh, creeks and woodland. The saltmarsh and islands are dominated by sea purslane, cordgrass, sea aster and glasswort. The reserve is important for invertebrates and waders.
Milford on Sea LNR
20.6 hectares(51 acres)
Milford on Sea50°43′41″N 1°36′22″W / 50.728°N 1.606°W / 50.728; -1.606 (Milford on Sea LNR) SZ 279 921
New Forest
Map
Details
The Danes Stream runs through this nature reserve, which has ancient woodland, grassland and winding paths.
The Mill Field
11.7 hectares(29 acres)
Basingstoke51°16′34″N 1°03′04″W / 51.276°N 1.051°W / 51.276; -1.051 (The Mill Field) SU 663 534
Basingstoke and Deane
Map
Details
The field has a large area of grassland together with scrub and hedgerows. There are water voles and dormice, while insects include waved black, lunar yellow underwing and water carpet moths and marbled white butterflies.
Miller's Pond
8.1 hectares(20 acres)
Southampton50°53′46″N 1°21′36″W / 50.896°N 1.360°W / 50.896; -1.360 (Miller's Pond) SU 451 109
Southampton
Map
Details
he pond is managed for both angling and wildlife. There are also areas of acid grassland and semi-natural woodland.
The Moors, Bishop's Waltham
14.5 hectares(36 acres)
Bishop's Waltham50°57′00″N 1°12′14″W / 50.950°N 1.204°W / 50.950; -1.204 (The Moors, Bishops Waltham) SU 560 170
Winchester
SSSI
Map
Details
These unimproved wet meadows and alder carr drain into Mill Pond at the centre of the site. The meadows have a rich and diverse flora, dominated by greater pond sedge in wetter areas, while there are plants such as purple moor-grass and meadow foxtail in drier parts.
Netley Common
12.8 hectares(32 acres)
Southampton50°54′11″N 1°19′26″W / 50.903°N 1.324°W / 50.903; -1.324 (Netley Common) SU 476 117
Southampton
Map
Details
This lowland heath site also has areas of grassland, woods, scrub and gorse. Reptiles include common lizards and adders. A Roman road crosses the site, and there is also a Bronze Age barrow.
Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield
84.8 hectares(210 acres)
Buriton50°57′58″N 0°59′10″W / 50.966°N 0.986°W / 50.966; -0.986 (Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield) SU 713 190
East Hampshire
SAC, SSSI
Map
Details
This is part of Queen Elizabeth Country Park. It has unimproved grassland on low fertility soils, which is controlled by grazing. There are also areas of ancient semi-natural woodland.
Pamber Forest
190.1 hectares(470 acres)
Tadley51°20′31″N 1°07′05″W / 51.342°N 1.118°W / 51.342; -1.118 (Pamber Forest) SU 615 607
Basingstoke and Deane
HIWWT, SSSI
Map
Details
Pamber Forest has hazel coppice dominated by oak standards. At the southern end are plants associated with ancient woodland, such as orpine, wood horsetail, lily of the valley, wild daffodil and the rare mountain fern. The woodland has over forty nationally rare or uncommon species.
Popley Ponds
1.4 hectares(3.5 acres)
Basingstoke51°17′10″N 1°05′13″W / 51.286°N 1.087°W / 51.286; -1.087 (Popley Ponds) SU 638 545
Basingstoke and Deane
Map
Details
This former quarry is now a pond which has a diverse range of amphibians, including great crested newts. There is also an area of woodland.
Rotherlands
7.6 hectares(19 acres)
Petersfield51°00′29″N 0°54′40″W / 51.008°N 0.911°W / 51.008; -0.911 (Rotherlands) SU 765 237
East Hampshire
Map
Details
The River Rother and its tributary, Tilmore Brook, runs through this reserve, and it also has unmanaged grassland, wetland, woodland and scrub. Fauna include badgers, otters and crayfish.
Round Coppice
6.4 hectares(16 acres)
Winchester50°52′52″N 1°14′53″W / 50.881°N 1.248°W / 50.881; -1.248 (Round Coppice) SU 530 093
Winchester
Map
Details
Sandy Point
18.3 hectares(45 acres)
Hayling Island50°46′44″N 0°56′24″W / 50.779°N 0.940°W / 50.779; -0.940 (Sandy Point) SZ 748 982
Havant
Ramsar SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
Shawford Down
19.7 hectares(49 acres)
Winchester51°01′16″N 1°19′52″W / 51.021°N 1.331°W / 51.021; -1.331 (Shawford Down) SU 470 248
Winchester
Map
Details
The down has strip lynchets, dating to the period in the Middle Ages when the area was cultivated as common land. The site has a range of chalk grassland habitats, with flora including wild parsnip, red bartsia, cowslip and common rock-rose. There are also areas of woodland and scrub.
Shortheath Common
57.8 hectares(143 acres)
Whitehill51°07′26″N 0°53′38″W / 51.124°N 0.894°W / 51.124; -0.894 (Shortheath Common) SU 775 367
East Hampshire
SAC, SSSI
Map
Details
The common has areas of bracken, woodland, heath and a pond, but its main ecological interest is a large valley mire. Much of it is covered by Sphagnum mosses, but there are also many vascular plants, such as velvet bent and the insectivorous round-leaved sundew. The invertebrates are also of particular interest, including 23 breeding species of dragonfly.
Sturt Pond
10.9 hectares(27 acres)
Milford on Sea50°43′16″N 1°35′06″W / 50.721°N 1.585°W / 50.721; -1.585 (Sturt Pond) SZ 294 913
New Forest
Ramsar, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
Sturt Pond itself is tidal, and the reserve also includes Dane Stream, reedbeds, lagoons and saltmarsh. These habitats attract many birds, and there is also an area of grassland which is grazed by New Forest ponies.
Tadburn Meadows
5.1 hectares(13 acres)
Romsey50°59′31″N 1°28′34″W / 50.992°N 1.476°W / 50.992; -1.476 (Tadburn Meadows) SU 369 215
Test Valley
Map
Details
The Tadburn Stream runs through this valley site, which has wet willow and alder woodland lower down and dry habitats higher up. Fauna include green woodpeckers, kingfishers and water voles. There is grassland south of the stream.
Titchfield Haven
93.0 hectares(230 acres)
Fareham50°49′23″N 1°14′24″W / 50.823°N 1.240°W / 50.823; -1.240 (Titchfield Haven) SU 536 029
Fareham
NNR, Ramsar, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This was formerly a tidal estuary, but one way valves block salt water and it is now freshwater river and marshes, wet meadows bisected by ditches, and fen. It is important for wetland breeding birds, such as bearded reedlings, sedge warblers and reed warblers.
Up Nately LNR
2.8 hectares(6.9 acres)
Up Nately51°15′50″N 0°59′49″W / 51.264°N 0.997°W / 51.264; -0.997 (Up Nately) SU 701 521
Basingstoke and Deane
SSSI
Map
Details
This is a section of the Basingstoke Canal between Up Nately and the Greywell Tunnel. There is water in the canal and the towpath is a public footpath.
Valley Park Woodlands
24.8 hectares(61 acres)
Chandler's Ford50°58′52″N 1°24′22″W / 50.981°N 1.406°W / 50.981; -1.406 (Valley Park Woodlands) SU 418 204
Eastleigh
Map
Details
This site has ancient woods, coppice, glades, woodland rides, rough grassland and ponds.
Warsash Common
23.4 hectares(58 acres)
Warsash50°51′00″N 1°17′17″W / 50.850°N 1.288°W / 50.850; -1.288 (Warsash Common) SU 502 058
Fareham
Map
Details
Wealden Edge Hangers
48.0 hectares(119 acres)
Hawkley51°03′00″N 0°57′32″W / 51.050°N 0.959°W / 51.050; -0.959 (Wealden Edge Hangers) SU 731 284
East Hampshire
SAC SSSI
Map
Details
Natural England describes this site as "arguably,... one of the ecologically most interesting and diverse series of chalk woodlands in Britain". The rich ground flora includes many rare species, and 289 species of vascular plants have been recorded. There are more than 111 species of bryophytes and the lichen flora is the second richest in the country with 74 species.
West Hayling
76.2 hectares(188 acres)
Bedhampton50°49′34″N 0°59′20″W / 50.826°N 0.989°W / 50.826; -0.989 (West Hayling) SU 713 034
Havant
Ramsar, RSPB, SAC, SPA, SSSI
Map
Details
This site has large areas of intertidal mudflats and lagoons with vast numbers of marine invertebrates, which provide food for tens of thousands of wintering and breeding birds.
West of the River Alver
11.6 hectares(29 acres)
Gosport50°47′53″N 1°10′41″W / 50.798°N 1.178°W / 50.798; -1.178 (West of the River Alver) SU 580 001
Gosport
Map
Details
This site on the west bank of the River Alver has a reedbed which is one of the largest in England, and which is maintained by annual cutting. There are also three ponds and areas of grassland, some of which are kept short by rabbit grazing. Seventeen species of butterfly have been recorded.
Westwood Woodland Park
49.5 hectares(122 acres)
Southampton50°52′59″N 1°21′22″W / 50.883°N 1.356°W / 50.883; -1.356 (Westwood Woodland Park) SU 454 095
Southampton
Map
Details
In the Middle Ages this park was part of the estate of Netley Abbey. Its habitats include ancient woodland, with haze coppice and oaks, streams, ponds, marshes and grassland. There are several rare beetles, and birds include barn owls, skylarks, linnets and meadow pipits.
The Wild Grounds
28.4 hectares(70 acres)
Gosport50°48′18″N 1°10′41″W / 50.805°N 1.178°W / 50.805; -1.178 (The Wild Grounds) SU 580 009
Gosport
SSSI
Map
Details
This site was probably common land until around 1600, after which it developed into woodland dominated by oak trees. It is not rich in flora, but is of great interest ecologically and historically for its natural origin and its structure, being composed of old trees of uneven age which will be allowed to live their natural life span.
Yoell's Copse
5.5 hectares(14 acres)
Horndean50°54′40″N 1°01′16″W / 50.911°N 1.021°W / 50.911; -1.021 (Yoell's Copse) SU 689 129
East Hampshire
Map
Details
This ancient wood has coppiced mature oak trees and wild service trees. There are uncommon plants such as butcher's-broom and common cow-wheat.
Zebon Copse
7.8 hectares(19 acres)
Fleet51°15′36″N 0°51′18″W / 51.260°N 0.855°W / 51.260; -0.855 (Zebon Copse) SU 800 518
Hart
Map
Details
See also
List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Hampshire
Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust
Notes
^ The area is taken from the Natural England map of each site. (Click on the identify icon (i) in the "Feature Tools" and then click on the site.)
^ The location is taken from the Natural England details page for the site.
^ The maps are on the Natural England database of local nature reserves.
^ Details are on the pages on each site in the Natural England database of local nature reserves.
References
^ "Local Nature Reserve". Peak District National Park Authority. 15 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
^ "Local nature reserves: setting up and management". Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs and Natural England. 2 October 2014. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
^ a b "Designated Sites View: Hampshire". Natural England. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
^ "Anton Lakes". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
^ "Bishop's Waltham Railway Line". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ a b c "Lymington and Keyhaven Marshes". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
^ a b c d e f g h i j "Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water". Ramsar Site. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Designated Sites View: Solent Maritime". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
^ a b c d e f g h i j "Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
^ a b c "Designated Sites View: Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Boldre Foreshore". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Brook Meadow (Emsworth)". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Wealden Heaths Phase II". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
^ "Designated Sites View: Broxhead and Kingsley Commons". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Broxhead Common, Bordon". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
^ "Broxhead and Kingsley Commons citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
^ "Buriton Chalk Pit". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Buriton Chalk Pits". Buriton Community Website. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Hythe to Calshot Marshes". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Calshot Marshes". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Catherington Down". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Catherington Down citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
^ a b c "Designated Sites View: Lee-on-The Solent to Itchen Estuary". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Chessel Bay". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Claylands". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Claylands". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Crab Wood". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Crab Wood citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 9 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Danebury Hill". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Danebury". Pastscape. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Danebury Hillfort". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Daneshill Park Woods". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ a b "Walldown enclosures". Historic England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Deadwater Valley". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Dundridge Meadows". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Elvetham Heath". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ a b "Farlington Marshes". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
^ Ratcliffe, p. 3-4
^ a b c d e f "Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours". Ramsar Site. Natural England. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
^ a b c d e f "Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
^ a b c d "Designated Sites View: Langstone Harbour". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Farlington Marshes". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Fleet Pond". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Fleet Pond citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
^ a b "Designated Sites View: Chichester Harbour". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
^ "Gutner Point". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Lincegrove and Hackett's Marshes". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Hackett's Marsh". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Hayling Billy". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Conservation Areas". Horndean Parish Council. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ "Herbert Plantation Local Nature Reserve". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "About Hocombe Mead". Friends of Hocombe Mead. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Holly Hill Woodland Park". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Hook with Warsash". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "The Kench, Hayling Island". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: North Solent". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Liss Riverside Railway Walk North". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Liss Riverside Railway Walk South". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Map of Liss Riverside Railway Walk South". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Upper Hamble Estuary and Woods". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Manor Farm". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Mercury Marshes". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Milford on Sea". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "The Mill Field". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Miller's Pond". Southampton City Council. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Miller's Pond". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: The Moors, Bishop's Waltham". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "The Moors, Bishop's Waltham citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
^ "Netley Common". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Butser Hill". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Butser Hill". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Pamber Forest and Upper Inhams Copse". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Pamber Forest and Silchester Common". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Pamber Forest and Silchester Common citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
^ "Popley Ponds". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
^ "Rotherlands". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Shawford Down". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Shortheath Common citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
^ "Sturt Pond". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Tadburn Meadows". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven". National Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Titchfield Haven citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Butter Wood". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Up Nately". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Valley Park Woodlands". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: East Hampshire Hangers". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: Wealden Edge Hangers". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "Wealden Edge Hangers citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
^ a b "Langstone Harbour". Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "West Hayling". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "West of the River Alver". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Westwood Woodland Park Local Nature Reserve". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
^ "Designated Sites View: The Wild Grounds". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
^ "The Wild Grounds citation" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 21 May 2020.
^ "Yoell's Copse". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.
Sources
Ratcliffe, Derek, ed. (1977). A Nature Conservation Review. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21403-2.
51°03′28″N 1°18′29″W / 51.0577°N 1.3081°W / 51.0577; -1.3081
vteLocal nature reserves in HampshireBasingstoke and Deane
Chineham Woods
Daneshill Park Woods
Gutner Point
Herbert Plantation
The Mill Field
Pamber Forest
Popley Ponds
Up Nately LNR
East Hampshire
Broxhead Common, Bordon
Buriton Chalk Pit
Catherington Down
Catherington Lith, Horndean
Deadwater Valley
Dell Piece West
Hazleton Common, Horndean
Liss Riverside Railway Walk North
Liss Riverside Railway Walk South
Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield
Rotherlands
Shortheath Common
Wealden Edge Hangers
Yoell's Copse
Eastleigh
Hocombe Mead
River Hamble Country Park
Mercury Marshes
Valley Park Woodlands
Fareham
Gull Coppice
Hackett's Marsh
Holly Hill Woodland Park
Hook with Warsash
Kites Croft
Titchfield Haven
Warsash Common
Gosport
West of the River Alver
The Wild Grounds
Hart
Elvetham Heath
Fleet Pond
Zebon Copse
Havant
Brook Meadow (Emsworth)
Hayling Billy
The Kench, Hayling Island
Sandy Point
West Hayling
New Forest
Boldre Foreshore
Lepe Country Park
Lymington-Keyhaven Marshes
Milford on Sea LNR
Sturt Pond
Testwood Lakes
Portsmouth
Farlington Marshes
Southampton
Calshot Marshes
Chessel Bay
Miller's Pond
Netley Common
Westwood Woodland Park
Test Valley
Anton Lakes
Danebury Hillfort
Tadburn Meadows
Winchester
Berry Coppice
Bishops Waltham Branch
Claylands
Crab Wood
Dundridge Meadows
The Moors, Bishop's Waltham
Round Coppice
Shawford Down
vteLocal nature reserves in the United Kingdom
England
Scotland
Wales
England
Avon
Bedfordshire
Berkshire
Buckinghamshire
Cambridgeshire
Cheshire
Cleveland
Cornwall
Cumbria
Derbyshire
Devon
Dorset
Durham
East Riding of Yorkshire
East Sussex
Essex
Gloucestershire
Greater London
Greater Manchester
Hampshire
Herefordshire
Hertfordshire
Isle of Wight
Kent
Lancashire
Leicestershire
Lincolnshire
Merseyside
Norfolk
North Yorkshire
Northamptonshire
Northumberland
Nottinghamshire
Oxfordshire
Shropshire
Somerset
South Yorkshire
Staffordshire
Suffolk
Surrey
Tyne and Wear
Warwickshire
West Midlands
West Sussex
West Yorkshire
Wiltshire
Worcestershire | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:F08_Hemelite_Aug.JPG"},{"link_name":"Fleet Pond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Pond"},{"link_name":"Local nature reserves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_nature_reserve"},{"link_name":"local authorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_England"},{"link_name":"National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Parks_and_Access_to_the_Countryside_Act_1949"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"byelaws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelaws_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dp-3"},{"link_name":"Sites of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"},{"link_name":"Ramsar sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_site"},{"link_name":"Special Areas of Conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Areas_of_Conservation"},{"link_name":"Special Protection Areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Protection_Area"},{"link_name":"national nature reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_nature_reserve_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Nature Conservation Review site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Conservation_Review"},{"link_name":"Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_and_Isle_of_Wight_Wildlife_Trust"}],"text":"Fleet PondLocal nature reserves (LNRs) in England are designated by local authorities under Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949.[1] LNRs are sites which have a special local interest either biologically or geologically. Local authorities have a duty to care for them, and must control the sites by owning or leasing them, or by having an agreement with the owners. The local authorities can apply local byelaws to manage and protect LNRs.[2]As of April 2020, there are 65 LNRs in Hampshire,[3] of which 28 are Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 15 are Ramsar sites, 15 are Special Areas of Conservation, 16 are Special Protection Areas and one is a national nature reserve and one is a Nature Conservation Review site. Two sites are managed by the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust.","title":"List of local nature reserves in Hampshire"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenStreetMap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.wmflabs.org/osm4wiki/cgi-bin/wiki/wiki-osm.pl?project=en&article=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"KML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//tools.wmflabs.org/kmlexport?article=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"GPX (all coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=all&titles=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"GPX (primary coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=primary&titles=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"GPX (secondary coordinates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geoexport.toolforge.org/gpx?coprimary=secondary&titles=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire"}],"text":"Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap\n\nDownload coordinates as:\n\n\nKML\nGPX (all coordinates)\nGPX (primary coordinates)\nGPX (secondary coordinates)","title":"Key"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_and_Isle_of_Wight_Wildlife_Trust"},{"link_name":"Nature Conservation Review site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Conservation_Review"},{"link_name":"National nature reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_nature_reserve_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Ramsar site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_site"},{"link_name":"Special Area of Conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation"},{"link_name":"Scheduled monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_monument"},{"link_name":"Special Protection Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Protection_Area"},{"link_name":"Site of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"}],"sub_title":"Other designations and wildlife trust management","text":"HIWWT = Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust\nNCR = Nature Conservation Review site\nNNR = National nature reserve\nRamsar = Ramsar site, an internationally important wetland site\nSAC = Special Area of Conservation\nSM = Scheduled monument\nSPA = Special Protection Area\nSSSI = Site of Special Scientific Interest","title":"Key"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#A"},{"link_name":"B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#B"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#C"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#D"},{"link_name":"E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#E"},{"link_name":"F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#F"},{"link_name":"G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#G"},{"link_name":"H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#H"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#K"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#L"},{"link_name":"M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#M"},{"link_name":"N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#N"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#O"},{"link_name":"P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#P"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#R"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#S"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#T"},{"link_name":"U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#U"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#V"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#W"},{"link_name":"Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Y"},{"link_name":"Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Z"}],"text":"Contents: \n \nA\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nK\nL\nM\nN\nO\nP\nR\nS\nT\nU\nV\nW\nY\nZ","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dp-3"}],"text":"^ The area is taken from the Natural England map of each site. (Click on the identify icon (i) in the \"Feature Tools\" and then click on the site.)\n\n^ The location is taken from the Natural England details page for the site.\n\n^ The maps are on the Natural England database of local nature reserves.\n\n^ Details are on the pages on each site in the Natural England database of local nature reserves.[3]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-21403-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21403-2"},{"link_name":"51°03′28″N 1°18′29″W / 51.0577°N 1.3081°W / 51.0577; -1.3081","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hampshire¶ms=51.0577_N_1.3081_W_"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Local_Nature_Reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Local_Nature_Reserves_in_Hampshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Local_Nature_Reserves_in_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Local nature reserves in Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Basingstoke and Deane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basingstoke_and_Deane"},{"link_name":"Chineham Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chineham_Woods&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Daneshill Park Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daneshill_Park_Woods"},{"link_name":"Gutner Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutner_Point"},{"link_name":"Herbert Plantation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Plantation"},{"link_name":"The Mill Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mill_Field,_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Pamber Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamber_Forest_and_Silchester_Common"},{"link_name":"Popley Ponds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popley_Ponds"},{"link_name":"Up Nately LNR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_Nately_LNR"},{"link_name":"East Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Broxhead Common, Bordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broxhead_and_Kingsley_Commons"},{"link_name":"Buriton Chalk Pit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buriton_Chalk_Pit"},{"link_name":"Catherington Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherington_Down"},{"link_name":"Catherington Lith, Horndean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catherington_Lith,_Horndean&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deadwater Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadwater_Valley"},{"link_name":"Dell Piece West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dell_Piece_West&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hazleton Common, Horndean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazleton_Common,_Horndean"},{"link_name":"Liss Riverside Railway Walk North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liss_Riverside_Railway_Walk_North"},{"link_name":"Liss Riverside Railway Walk South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liss_Riverside_Railway_Walk_South"},{"link_name":"Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxenbourne_Down,_Clanfield"},{"link_name":"Rotherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherlands"},{"link_name":"Shortheath Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortheath_Common"},{"link_name":"Wealden Edge Hangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealden_Edge_Hangers"},{"link_name":"Yoell's Copse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoell%27s_Copse"},{"link_name":"Eastleigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borough_of_Eastleigh"},{"link_name":"Hocombe Mead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hocombe_Mead"},{"link_name":"River Hamble Country Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Hamble_Country_Park"},{"link_name":"Mercury Marshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Marshes"},{"link_name":"Valley Park Woodlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_Park_Woodlands"},{"link_name":"Fareham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borough_of_Fareham"},{"link_name":"Gull Coppice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gull_Coppice&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hackett's Marsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackett%27s_Marsh"},{"link_name":"Holly Hill Woodland Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly_Hill_Woodland_Park"},{"link_name":"Hook with Warsash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_with_Warsash"},{"link_name":"Kites Croft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kites_Croft&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Titchfield Haven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titchfield_Haven"},{"link_name":"Warsash Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warsash_Common&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gosport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosport"},{"link_name":"West of the River Alver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_of_the_River_Alver"},{"link_name":"The Wild Grounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wild_Grounds"},{"link_name":"Hart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_District"},{"link_name":"Elvetham Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvetham_Heath_LNR"},{"link_name":"Fleet Pond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_Pond"},{"link_name":"Zebon Copse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zebon_Copse&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Havant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borough_of_Havant"},{"link_name":"Brook Meadow (Emsworth)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brook_Meadow_(Emsworth)"},{"link_name":"Hayling Billy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayling_Billy"},{"link_name":"The Kench, Hayling Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kench,_Hayling_Island"},{"link_name":"Sandy Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandy_Point,_Hampshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"West Hayling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Hayling"},{"link_name":"New Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Forest_District"},{"link_name":"Boldre Foreshore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boldre_Foreshore"},{"link_name":"Lepe Country Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepe_Country_Park"},{"link_name":"Lymington-Keyhaven Marshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymington_and_Keyhaven_Marshes"},{"link_name":"Milford on Sea LNR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milford_on_Sea_LNR"},{"link_name":"Sturt Pond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturt_Pond"},{"link_name":"Testwood Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testwood_Lakes"},{"link_name":"Portsmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portsmouth"},{"link_name":"Farlington Marshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farlington_Marshes"},{"link_name":"Southampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton"},{"link_name":"Calshot Marshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calshot_Marshes"},{"link_name":"Chessel Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chessel_Bay"},{"link_name":"Miller's Pond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%27s_Pond"},{"link_name":"Netley Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netley_Common"},{"link_name":"Westwood Woodland Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwood_Woodland_Park"},{"link_name":"Test Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Valley"},{"link_name":"Anton Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Lakes"},{"link_name":"Danebury Hillfort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danebury"},{"link_name":"Tadburn Meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadburn_Meadows"},{"link_name":"Winchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Winchester"},{"link_name":"Berry Coppice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Berry_Coppice&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bishops Waltham Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishops_Waltham_Branch_LNR"},{"link_name":"Claylands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claylands"},{"link_name":"Crab Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab_Wood"},{"link_name":"Dundridge Meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundridge_Meadows"},{"link_name":"The Moors, Bishop's Waltham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moors,_Bishop%27s_Waltham"},{"link_name":"Round Coppice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Round_Coppice&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shawford Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawford_Down"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:LNR_lists"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:LNR_lists"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:LNR_lists"},{"link_name":"Local nature reserves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_nature_reserve"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_England"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Wales"},{"link_name":"Avon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Avon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bedfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Bedfordshire"},{"link_name":"Berkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Berkshire"},{"link_name":"Buckinghamshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"Cambridgeshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Cambridgeshire"},{"link_name":"Cheshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Cheshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Cleveland&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Cornwall&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Cumbria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Derbyshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Derbyshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Devon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Devon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dorset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Dorset&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Durham&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"East Riding of Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_the_East_Riding_of_Yorkshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Essex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Essex"},{"link_name":"Gloucestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Gloucestershire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Greater London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Greater_London"},{"link_name":"Greater Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Greater_Manchester&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Herefordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Herefordshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_on_the_Isle_of_Wight&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Kent"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Lancashire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Leicestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Leicestershire"},{"link_name":"Lincolnshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Lincolnshire"},{"link_name":"Merseyside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Merseyside&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"North Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_North_Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"Northamptonshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Northamptonshire"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Northumberland&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nottinghamshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Nottinghamshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Oxfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Oxfordshire"},{"link_name":"Shropshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Shropshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Somerset"},{"link_name":"South Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_South_Yorkshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Staffordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Staffordshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Suffolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Surrey"},{"link_name":"Tyne and Wear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Tyne_and_Wear&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Warwickshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Warwickshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_the_West_Midlands&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"West Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_West_Sussex"},{"link_name":"West Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_West_Yorkshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wiltshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Wiltshire&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Worcestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_local_nature_reserves_in_Worcestershire&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Ratcliffe, Derek, ed. (1977). A Nature Conservation Review. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21403-2.51°03′28″N 1°18′29″W / 51.0577°N 1.3081°W / 51.0577; -1.3081vteLocal nature reserves in HampshireBasingstoke and Deane\nChineham Woods\nDaneshill Park Woods\nGutner Point\nHerbert Plantation\nThe Mill Field\nPamber Forest\nPopley Ponds\nUp Nately LNR\nEast Hampshire\nBroxhead Common, Bordon\nBuriton Chalk Pit\nCatherington Down\nCatherington Lith, Horndean\nDeadwater Valley\nDell Piece West\nHazleton Common, Horndean\nLiss Riverside Railway Walk North\nLiss Riverside Railway Walk South\nOxenbourne Down, Clanfield\nRotherlands\nShortheath Common\nWealden Edge Hangers\nYoell's Copse\nEastleigh\nHocombe Mead\nRiver Hamble Country Park\nMercury Marshes\nValley Park Woodlands\nFareham\nGull Coppice\nHackett's Marsh\nHolly Hill Woodland Park\nHook with Warsash\nKites Croft\nTitchfield Haven\nWarsash Common\nGosport\nWest of the River Alver\nThe Wild Grounds\nHart\nElvetham Heath\nFleet Pond\nZebon Copse\nHavant\nBrook Meadow (Emsworth)\nHayling Billy\nThe Kench, Hayling Island\nSandy Point\nWest Hayling\nNew Forest\nBoldre Foreshore\nLepe Country Park\nLymington-Keyhaven Marshes\nMilford on Sea LNR\nSturt Pond\nTestwood Lakes\nPortsmouth\nFarlington Marshes\nSouthampton\nCalshot Marshes\nChessel Bay\nMiller's Pond\nNetley Common\nWestwood Woodland Park\nTest Valley\nAnton Lakes\nDanebury Hillfort\nTadburn Meadows\nWinchester\nBerry Coppice\nBishops Waltham Branch\nClaylands\nCrab Wood\nDundridge Meadows\nThe Moors, Bishop's Waltham\nRound Coppice\nShawford DownvteLocal nature reserves in the United Kingdom\nEngland\nScotland\nWales\nEngland\nAvon\nBedfordshire\nBerkshire\nBuckinghamshire\nCambridgeshire\nCheshire\nCleveland\nCornwall\nCumbria\nDerbyshire\nDevon\nDorset\nDurham\nEast Riding of Yorkshire\nEast Sussex\nEssex\nGloucestershire\nGreater London\nGreater Manchester\nHampshire\nHerefordshire\nHertfordshire\nIsle of Wight\nKent\nLancashire\nLeicestershire\nLincolnshire\nMerseyside\nNorfolk\nNorth Yorkshire\nNorthamptonshire\nNorthumberland\nNottinghamshire\nOxfordshire\nShropshire\nSomerset\nSouth Yorkshire\nStaffordshire\nSuffolk\nSurrey\nTyne and Wear\nWarwickshire\nWest Midlands\nWest Sussex\nWest Yorkshire\nWiltshire\nWorcestershire","title":"Sources"}] | [{"image_text":"Fleet Pond","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/F08_Hemelite_Aug.JPG/220px-F08_Hemelite_Aug.JPG"}] | [{"title":"List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sites_of_Special_Scientific_Interest_in_Hampshire"},{"title":"Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampshire_and_Isle_of_Wight_Wildlife_Trust"}] | [{"reference":"\"Local Nature Reserve\". Peak District National Park Authority. 15 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.gov.uk/dataset/90e76059-e3c0-4311-a873-af94a8593a48/local-nature-reserve","url_text":"\"Local Nature Reserve\""}]},{"reference":"\"Local nature reserves: setting up and management\". Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs and Natural England. 2 October 2014. Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/create-and-manage-local-nature-reserves","url_text":"\"Local nature reserves: setting up and management\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150704111109/https://www.gov.uk/create-and-manage-local-nature-reserves","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Hampshire\". Natural England. Retrieved 26 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteList.aspx?siteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&DesignationType=LNR","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Hampshire\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anton Lakes\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 22 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009284&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Anton Lakes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bishop's Waltham Railway Line\". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hants.gov.uk/thingstodo/countryside/finder/bishopswalthamrailway","url_text":"\"Bishop's Waltham Railway Line\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lymington and Keyhaven Marshes\". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hiwwt.org.uk/nature-reserves/lymington-and-keyhaven-marshes-nature-reserve","url_text":"\"Lymington and Keyhaven Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water\". Ramsar Site. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK11063&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent Maritime\". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK0030059&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent Maritime\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water\". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Retrieved 23 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK9011061&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Solent and Southampton Water\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1001019&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Hurst Castle and Lymington River Estuary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Boldre Foreshore\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008793&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Boldre Foreshore\""}]},{"reference":"\"Brook Meadow (Emsworth)\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1457113&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Brook Meadow (Emsworth)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Wealden Heaths Phase II\". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Retrieved 6 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK9012132&SiteName=&countyCode=46&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Wealden Heaths Phase II\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Broxhead and Kingsley Commons\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1002611&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Broxhead and Kingsley Commons\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Broxhead Common, Bordon\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 21 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008813&SiteName=Broxhead&countyCode=&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Broxhead Common, Bordon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Broxhead and Kingsley Commons citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 7 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1002611.pdf","url_text":"\"Broxhead and Kingsley Commons citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Buriton Chalk Pit\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009452&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Buriton Chalk Pit\""}]},{"reference":"\"Buriton Chalk Pits\". Buriton Community Website. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.buriton.info/buriton-chalk-pits","url_text":"\"Buriton Chalk Pits\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Hythe to Calshot Marshes\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1001035&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Hythe to Calshot Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Calshot Marshes\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008822&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Calshot Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Catherington Down\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1002648&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Catherington Down\""}]},{"reference":"\"Catherington Down citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 9 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1002648.pdf","url_text":"\"Catherington Down citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Lee-on-The Solent to Itchen Estuary\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1005846&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Lee-on-The Solent to Itchen Estuary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chessel Bay\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008836&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Chessel Bay\""}]},{"reference":"\"Claylands\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009882&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Claylands\""}]},{"reference":"\"Claylands\". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 23 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hants.gov.uk/thingstodo/countryside/finder/claylands","url_text":"\"Claylands\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Crab Wood\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1005673&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Crab Wood\""}]},{"reference":"\"Crab Wood citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 9 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1005673.pdf","url_text":"\"Crab Wood citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Danebury Hill\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1000087&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Danebury Hill\""}]},{"reference":"\"Danebury\". Pastscape. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=227448","url_text":"\"Danebury\""}]},{"reference":"\"Danebury Hillfort\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481380&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Danebury Hillfort\""}]},{"reference":"\"Daneshill Park Woods\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009883&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Daneshill Park Woods\""}]},{"reference":"\"Walldown enclosures\". Historic England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1017368","url_text":"\"Walldown enclosures\""}]},{"reference":"\"Deadwater Valley\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009884&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Deadwater Valley\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dundridge Meadows\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481382&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Dundridge Meadows\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elvetham Heath\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009886&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Elvetham Heath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Farlington Marshes\". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 24 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hiwwt.org.uk/nature-reserves/farlington-marshes-nature-reserve","url_text":"\"Farlington Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours\". Ramsar Site. Natural England. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK11013&SiteName=&countyCode=46&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190401162727/https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK11013&SiteName=&countyCode=46&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours\". Special Protection Areas. Natural England. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK9011011&SiteName=&countyCode=46&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester and Langstone Harbours\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190401162824/https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK9011011&SiteName=&countyCode=46&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Langstone Harbour\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1001182&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Langstone Harbour\""}]},{"reference":"\"Farlington Marshes\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 1 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008890&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Farlington Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Fleet Pond\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1002712&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Fleet Pond\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fleet Pond citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 10 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1002712.pdf","url_text":"\"Fleet Pond citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester Harbour\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 27 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003245&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Chichester Harbour\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gutner Point\". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hants.gov.uk/thingstodo/countryside/finder/gutnerpoint","url_text":"\"Gutner Point\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Lincegrove and Hackett's Marshes\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1001217&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Lincegrove and Hackett's Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hackett's Marsh\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009285&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Hackett's Marsh\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hayling Billy\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481385&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Hayling Billy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Conservation Areas\". Horndean Parish Council. Retrieved 24 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.horndeanpc-hants.gov.uk/Conservation_Areas_4185.aspx","url_text":"\"Conservation Areas\""}]},{"reference":"\"Herbert Plantation Local Nature Reserve\". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hants.gov.uk/thingstodo/countryside/finder/herbertplantation","url_text":"\"Herbert Plantation Local Nature Reserve\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Hocombe Mead\". Friends of Hocombe Mead. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hocombe-mead.org/","url_text":"\"About Hocombe Mead\""}]},{"reference":"\"Holly Hill Woodland Park\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1467447&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Holly Hill Woodland Park\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hook with Warsash\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1008963&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Hook with Warsash\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Kench, Hayling Island\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009192&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"The Kench, Hayling Island\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: North Solent\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1001355&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: North Solent\""}]},{"reference":"\"Liss Riverside Railway Walk North\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009451&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Liss Riverside Railway Walk North\""}]},{"reference":"\"Liss Riverside Railway Walk South\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009450&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Liss Riverside Railway Walk South\""}]},{"reference":"\"Map of Liss Riverside Railway Walk South\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 25 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://magic.defra.gov.uk/MagicMap.aspx?startTopic=Designations&activelayer=lnrIndex&query=Ref_CODE%3D%271009450%27","url_text":"\"Map of Liss Riverside Railway Walk South\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Upper Hamble Estuary and Woods\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1004525&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Upper Hamble Estuary and Woods\""}]},{"reference":"\"Manor Farm\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1475820&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Manor Farm\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mercury Marshes\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009030&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Mercury Marshes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Milford on Sea\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1452089&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Milford on Sea\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Mill Field\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1134134&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"The Mill Field\""}]},{"reference":"\"Miller's Pond\". Southampton City Council. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.southampton.gov.uk/people-places/parks-open-spaces/parks/find-a-park/millers-pond.aspx","url_text":"\"Miller's Pond\""}]},{"reference":"\"Miller's Pond\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481331&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Miller's Pond\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: The Moors, Bishop's Waltham\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003020&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: The Moors, Bishop's Waltham\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Moors, Bishop's Waltham citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 15 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1003020.pdf","url_text":"\"The Moors, Bishop's Waltham citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Netley Common\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1460441&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Netley Common\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Butser Hill\". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK0030103&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Butser Hill\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Butser Hill\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1004498&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Butser Hill\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009059&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Oxenbourne Down, Clanfield\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pamber Forest and Upper Inhams Copse\". Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hiwwt.org.uk/nature-reserves/pamber-forest-and-upper-inhams-copse-nature-reserve","url_text":"\"Pamber Forest and Upper Inhams Copse\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Pamber Forest and Silchester Common\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1002748&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Pamber Forest and Silchester Common\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pamber Forest and Silchester Common citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 16 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1002748.pdf","url_text":"\"Pamber Forest and Silchester Common citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Popley Ponds\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 26 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1134135&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Popley Ponds\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rotherlands\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009891&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Rotherlands\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shawford Down\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481381&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Shawford Down\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common\". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK0030275&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003329&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Shortheath Common\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shortheath Common citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 18 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1003329.pdf","url_text":"\"Shortheath Common citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sturt Pond\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009893&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Sturt Pond\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tadburn Meadows\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009567&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Tadburn Meadows\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven\". National Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 24 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=1006149&SiteName=titchf&countyCode=&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1004072&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Titchfield Haven\""}]},{"reference":"\"Titchfield Haven citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 19 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1004072.pdf","url_text":"\"Titchfield Haven citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Butter Wood\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003529&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Butter Wood\""}]},{"reference":"\"Up Nately\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1481379&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Up Nately\""}]},{"reference":"\"Valley Park Woodlands\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1082451&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Valley Park Woodlands\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: East Hampshire Hangers\". Special Areas of Conservation. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteGeneralDetail.aspx?SiteCode=UK0012723&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: East Hampshire Hangers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: Wealden Edge Hangers\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1004122&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: Wealden Edge Hangers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wealden Edge Hangers citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 20 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1004122.pdf","url_text":"\"Wealden Edge Hangers citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Langstone Harbour\". Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves-and-events/reserves-a-z/langstone-harbour/","url_text":"\"Langstone Harbour\""}]},{"reference":"\"West Hayling\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009570&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"West Hayling\""}]},{"reference":"\"West of the River Alver\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009571&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"West of the River Alver\""}]},{"reference":"\"Westwood Woodland Park Local Nature Reserve\". Hampshire County Council. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hants.gov.uk/thingstodo/countryside/finder/westwood","url_text":"\"Westwood Woodland Park Local Nature Reserve\""}]},{"reference":"\"Designated Sites View: The Wild Grounds\". Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 28 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003440&SiteName=&countyCode=19&responsiblePerson=&unitId=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Designated Sites View: The Wild Grounds\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Wild Grounds citation\" (PDF). Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Natural England. Retrieved 21 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/PDFsForWeb/Citation/1003440.pdf","url_text":"\"The Wild Grounds citation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yoell's Copse\". Local Nature Reserves. Natural England. Retrieved 27 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteLNRDetail.aspx?SiteCode=L1009572&SiteName=yoell&countyCode=&responsiblePerson=&SeaArea=&IFCAArea=","url_text":"\"Yoell's Copse\""}]},{"reference":"Ratcliffe, Derek, ed. (1977). A Nature Conservation Review. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontibacillus | Pontibacillus | ["1 References","2 Further reading"] | Genus of bacteria
Pontibacillus
Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Bacillota
Class:
Bacilli
Order:
Bacillales
Family:
Bacillaceae
Genus:
PontibacillusLim et al. 2005
Type species
Pontibacillus chungwhensis
Species
P. chungwhensis
P. halophilus
P. litoralis
P. marinus
P. salicampi
P. salipaludis
P. yanchengensis
Pontibacillus is a Gram-positive, spore-forming and strictly aerobic genus of bacteria from the family of Bacillaceae.
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j Parte, A.C. "Pontibacillus". LPSN.
^ "Pontibacillus". www.uniprot.org.
^ Parker, Charles Thomas; Wigley, Sarah; Garrity, George M; Taylor, Dorothea (2009). Parker, Charles Thomas; Garrity, George M. (eds.). "Nomenclature Abstract for Pontibacillus Lim et al. 2005 emend. Chen et al. 2010". The NamesforLife Abstracts. doi:10.1601/nm.8784 (inactive 2024-04-17).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (link)
^ Vos, Paul De (2015). "Pontibacillus". Pontibacillus. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm00541. ISBN 9781118960608. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
Further reading
Lim, JM; Jeon, CO; Song, SM; Kim, CJ (January 2005). "Pontibacillus chungwhensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a moderately halophilic Gram-positive bacterium from a solar saltern in Korea". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 55 (Pt 1): 165–70. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63315-0. PMID 15653871.
Yang, Y; Zou, Z; He, M; Wang, G (August 2011). "Pontibacillus yanchengensis sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium isolated from salt field soil". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 61 (Pt 8): 1906–11. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.023911-0. PMID 20833883.
Lee, JC; Kim, YS; Yun, BS; Whang, KS (February 2015). "Pontibacillus salicampi sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium isolated from saltern soil". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 65 (Pt 2): 375–80. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.066423-0. PMID 25368138.
Lim, JM; Jeon, CO; Park, DJ; Kim, HR; Yoon, BJ; Kim, CJ (May 2005). "Pontibacillus marinus sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium from a solar saltern, and emended description of the genus Pontibacillus". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 55 (Pt 3): 1027–31. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63489-0. PMID 15879229.
Taxon identifiersPontibacillus
Wikidata: Q26271250
Wikispecies: Pontibacillus
CoL: 64277
GBIF: 3227789
IRMNG: 1006455
ITIS: 957866
LPSN: pontibacillus.html
NCBI: 289201
Open Tree of Life: 443914
WoRMS: 564469
This Bacillota-related article is a stub. 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International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 55 (Pt 1): 165–70. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.63315-0. PMID 15653871.\nYang, Y; Zou, Z; He, M; Wang, G (August 2011). \"Pontibacillus yanchengensis sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium isolated from salt field soil\". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 61 (Pt 8): 1906–11. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.023911-0. PMID 20833883.\nLee, JC; Kim, YS; Yun, BS; Whang, KS (February 2015). \"Pontibacillus salicampi sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium isolated from saltern soil\". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 65 (Pt 2): 375–80. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.066423-0. PMID 25368138.\nLim, JM; Jeon, CO; Park, DJ; Kim, HR; Yoon, BJ; Kim, CJ (May 2005). \"Pontibacillus marinus sp. nov., a moderately halophilic bacterium from a solar saltern, and emended description of the genus Pontibacillus\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Dryburgh | Roy Dryburgh | ["1 Playing career","1.1 Test history","2 See also","3 References"] | South African rugby union footballer
Rugby playerRoy DryburghDryburgh in New Zealand in 1956Birth nameRoyden Gladstone DryburghDate of birth1 November 1929Place of birthCape Town, South AfricaDate of death10 May 2000(2000-05-10) (aged 70)Place of deathDurban, South AfricaHeight1.83 m (6 ft 0 in)Weight83 kg (183 lb)SchoolGrey High School, Port ElizabethRugby union careerPosition(s)
Fullback, WingAmateur team(s)Years
Team
Apps
(Points)
Hamiltons RFC
()
College Rovers
()Provincial / State sidesYears
Team
Apps
(Points)1949–1955
Western Province
()1956–1960
Natal
()International careerYears
Team
Apps
(Points)1955–1960
South Africa
8
(28)
Royden Gladstone Dryburgh (1 November 1929 – 10 May 2000) was a South African rugby union player, who captained the Springboks in two test matches.
Playing career
Dryburgh played provincial for Western Province from 1949 to 1955 and for Natal from 1956 to 1960.
Dryburgh made his test debut for the Springboks in 1955 against the touring British Lions team captained by Robin Thompson. His first test match was the second test played at his home ground, Newlands in Cape Town and he scored a try and two conversions in the test. In 1960 he was captained the Springboks in the first two tests against the touring All Blacks. Dryburg scored 28 points in test matches, including three tries. He also played in twelve tour matches, scoring eighty-eight points.
Test history
No.
Opponents
Results(SA 1st)
Position
Points
Dates
Venue
1.
British Lions
25–9
Fullback
7 (1 try, 2 conv)
20 Aug 1955
Newlands, Cape Town
2.
British Lions
6–9
Full back
6 (2 pen)
3 Sep 1955
Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria
3.
British Lions
22–8
Fullback
4 (2 conv)
24 Sep 1955
Crusaders Ground, Port Elizabeth
4.
Australia
9–0
Right-wing
3 (1 try)
2 Jun 1956
Brisbane Exhibition Ground, Brisbane
5.
New Zealand
6–10
Fullback
3 (1 pen)
14 Jul 1956
Carisbrook, Dunedin
6.
New Zealand
5–11
Right-wing
3 (1 try)
1 Sep 1956
Eden Park, Auckland
7.
New Zealand
13–0
Fullback (c)
2 (1 conv)
25 Jun 1960
Ellis Park, Johannesburg
8.
New Zealand
3–11
Fullback (c)
23 Jul 1960
Newlands, Cape Town
Legend: try (3 pts); pen = penalty (3 pts.); conv = conversion (2 pts.), drop = drop kick (3 pts.).
See also
List of South Africa national rugby union players – Springbok no. 321
References
^ "Roy Dryburgh". ESPN scrum. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
^ Parker, A. C. (1983). W.P. Rugby : centenary, 1883-1983. Western Province Rugby Football Union (South Africa) (1st ed.). Newlands, Cape Town, South Africa: WPRFU. p. 303. ISBN 0-620-06555-9. OCLC 54188953.
^ Herbert, Alfred (1980). The Natal rugby story (1st ed.). Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: Shuter & Shooter in conjunction with the Natal Rugby Union. p. 434. ISBN 0-86985-489-5. OCLC 14768537.
^ Jooste, Graham K. (1995). South African rugby test players 1949-1995. Johannesburg: Penguin. pp. 15–28. ISBN 0140250174. OCLC 36916860.
^ Colquhoun, Andy (1999). The South African Rugby Annual 1999. Cape Town: MWP Media Sport. p. 144. ISBN 0958423148.
Sporting positions
Preceded byDes van Jaarsveldt
Springbok Captain 1960
Succeeded byAvril Malan | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rugby union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"Springboks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springboks"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Rugby playerRoyden Gladstone Dryburgh (1 November 1929 – 10 May 2000) was a South African rugby union player, who captained the Springboks in two test matches.[1]","title":"Roy Dryburgh"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Western Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Province_(rugby_team)"},{"link_name":"Natal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharks_(Currie_Cup)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"British Lions team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_British_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Robin Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Newlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newlands_Stadium"},{"link_name":"touring All Blacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960_New_Zealand_rugby_union_tour_of_Australia_and_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Dryburgh played provincial for Western Province from 1949 to 1955 and for Natal from 1956 to 1960.[2][3]Dryburgh made his test debut for the Springboks in 1955 against the touring British Lions team captained by Robin Thompson. His first test match was the second test played at his home ground, Newlands in Cape Town and he scored a try and two conversions in the test. In 1960 he was captained the Springboks in the first two tests against the touring All Blacks.[4] Dryburg scored 28 points in test matches, including three tries. He also played in twelve tour matches, scoring eighty-eight points.[5]","title":"Playing career"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Test history","text":"Legend: try (3 pts); pen = penalty (3 pts.); conv = conversion (2 pts.), drop = drop kick (3 pts.).","title":"Playing career"}] | [] | [{"title":"List of South Africa national rugby union players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_South_Africa_national_rugby_union_players#List"}] | [{"reference":"\"Roy Dryburgh\". ESPN scrum. Retrieved 19 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.espnscrum.com/southafrica/rugby/player/5966.html","url_text":"\"Roy Dryburgh\""}]},{"reference":"Parker, A. C. (1983). W.P. Rugby : centenary, 1883-1983. Western Province Rugby Football Union (South Africa) (1st ed.). Newlands, Cape Town, South Africa: WPRFU. p. 303. ISBN 0-620-06555-9. OCLC 54188953.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-620-06555-9","url_text":"0-620-06555-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54188953","url_text":"54188953"}]},{"reference":"Herbert, Alfred (1980). The Natal rugby story (1st ed.). Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: Shuter & Shooter in conjunction with the Natal Rugby Union. p. 434. ISBN 0-86985-489-5. OCLC 14768537.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86985-489-5","url_text":"0-86985-489-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14768537","url_text":"14768537"}]},{"reference":"Jooste, Graham K. (1995). South African rugby test players 1949-1995. Johannesburg: Penguin. pp. 15–28. ISBN 0140250174. OCLC 36916860.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140250174","url_text":"0140250174"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36916860","url_text":"36916860"}]},{"reference":"Colquhoun, Andy (1999). The South African Rugby Annual 1999. Cape Town: MWP Media Sport. p. 144. ISBN 0958423148.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0958423148","url_text":"0958423148"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.espnscrum.com/southafrica/rugby/player/5966.html","external_links_name":"\"Roy Dryburgh\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54188953","external_links_name":"54188953"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/14768537","external_links_name":"14768537"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36916860","external_links_name":"36916860"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_play | Nativity play | ["1 Liturgical","2 Popular","3 In schools","4 Literary","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Christmas-based theatrical genre
A children's nativity play in Sanok, Poland 2013.
A Nativity play or Christmas pageant is a play which recounts the story of the Nativity of Jesus. It is usually performed at Christmas, the feast of the Nativity.
Liturgical
The term "Nativity Drama" is used by Wellesz in his discussion of the troparion hymns in the Christmas liturgy of Byzantine Rite Churches, from Sophronius in the seventh century. Goldstein argues that the label "drama" is misleading, that the troparia are more akin to an oratorio than a play, and that the form is not a precursor of later more decidedly dramatic forms.
Saint Francis of Assisi performed Midnight Mass in the Italian town of Greccio on Christmas Eve 1223 in front of a life-size nativity scene (crib or creche) built by Giovanni Velita, with live animals. This is the first Nativity play. However, more formal Nativity plays have featured in Christian worship since medieval mystery plays.
The 12th to 19th pageants of the 48-play York Mystery Cycle showcase the Nativity stories. However, the most famous Nativity play is from the medieval Wakefield Cycle The Second Shepherds' Play.
In modern Germany, the Weihnachten services on Christmas Eve include a children's mass called Weihnachtsgeschichte, which features a Krippenspiel ('crib play').
The German tradition also includes the Erlau Playbook and the plays from Oberufer.
Popular
In Latin America pastorelas ('shepherd's plays') are performed in many local communities. These were imported during Spanish colonization of the Americas but are no longer common in Spain. They recount the story of the shepherds travelling to worship the newborn Christ , augmenting the Biblical text with apocryphal events, indigenous beliefs, regional features, anachronisms, satire and buffoonery. Each community's play evolves into a distinctive tradition.
In Belgium, puppet theatres often put on variations on the Nativity play in the weeks before Christmas, with parents and their children in the audience. The play often depicts the Massacre of the Innocents which occurred after the birth of Jesus. Joan Gross traces this augmentation back to cryptic protests in the late nineteenth century against the abuse of native peoples by colonists in the King Leopold II's Congo Free State.
In Townsville, Queensland Australia, the Stable on the Strand is an annual nativity play held at the city's oceanfront park.
Nativity plays are also popular in the United States. Many larger congregations have an annual play which is popular in the community: one example is the Gift of Christmas, produced annually by Prestonwood Baptist Church at its main campus in Plano, Texas.
It is also very popular in Eastern Europe, notably in Poland and Hungary.
In schools
A children's nativity play in Oklahoma.
Many, especially Christian-oriented, primary schools and Sunday Schools put on a Nativity play before the Christmas break begins. Children in costume act as the human and angel characters, and often as the animals and props. The infant Jesus is sometimes represented by a doll, but sometimes played by a real baby. Parents, grandparents and siblings, schoolteachers and sometimes the church community in general form the audience. The tradition of Nativity plays in British state primary schools is declining in favour of secular plays because of the need to include pupils of other faiths. However, a survey in 2012 found that 20% of schools were planning a traditional Nativity play and a further 50% were intending to stage an updated version of the Christmas story, sometimes with new music and extra characters.
Literary
Main article: Nativity of Jesus in later culture
Modern writers to have written Nativity plays include Laurence Housman (Bethlehem, 1902; musical accompaniment by Joseph Moorat c. 1919); Lucjan Rydel (Polish Bethlehem, 1904); Cicely Hamilton (The Child in Flanders: A Nativity Play, 1922); Dorothy L. Sayers (He That Should Come, 1938) and Antony Brown (David and the Donkey, (1966).
Jean-Paul Sartre's first play was Bariona, ou le Fils du tonnerre , a nativity play performed on Christmas Eve 1940 while a prisoner of war in a German stalag. Sartre saw Christ as part of the Jewish Resistance to the Roman Empire's occupation, mirroring the French Resistance of Nazi Germany's occupation.
See also
Passion Play - a play about the Passion (death of Jesus) performed at Easter
Nativity scene - a visual depiction of the Nativity, also known as a crib or creche
Madrigal dinner — American Christmas musical dinner theater
References
^
Wellesz, Egon (1947). "The Nativity Drama of the Byzantine Church". Journal of Roman Studies. 37. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 145–151. doi:10.2307/298465. JSTOR 298465. S2CID 162243412.
^
Goldstein, Leonard (2004). The Origin of Medieval Drama. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 54–60. ISBN 0-8386-4004-4.
^ Collins, Ace (2010). Stories Behind the Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan. pp. 139–141. ISBN 978-0-310-87388-4.
^
Harris, Cathlyn A. (December 2001). "Los Pastores/Las Pastorelas: Public Theatre, Popular Devotion". Hemispheric Institute, NYU. Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
^ a b
Gross, Joan (September 2003). Benton Jay Komins (ed.). "Symbolism, Popular Drama, and Politics and Art in Belgium, 1886-1910". Comparative Literature and Culture. 5 (5.3 Comparative Cultural Studies and Popular Culture). Purdue University Press. doi:10.7771/1481-4374.1191. ISSN 1481-4374. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
^ Fernbach, Nathalie (23 December 2010). "Journey into Bethlehem". ABC (Australia). Retrieved 3 April 2013.
^ Fernbach, Nathalie; Calderwood, Kathleen (22 December 2015). "Very first Stable on The Strand baby still supports Townsville event 17 years on". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
^ The Daily Telegraph - 17 December 2012 - School nativity plays under threat
^
Hunt, J. (March 1975). "Moorat". The Musical Times. 116 (1585). Musical Times Publications Ltd.: 228. doi:10.2307/959098. JSTOR 959098.
^ https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_bks&q=antony+brown+%27%27David+and+the+Donkey%27%27&fq=dt%3Abks .
^
Quinn, Bernard J. (Spring 1972). "The Politics of Despair versus the Politics of Hope: A Look at Bariona, Sartre's First pièce engagée". The French Review (Special Issue, No. 4, Studies on the French Theater): 95–105.
External links
Media related to Nativity plays at Wikimedia Commons
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Latvia | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:07_Sternsinger,_das_katholische_Fest_der_Heiligen_drei_K%C3%B6nige_2013_in_Sanok.JPG"},{"link_name":"Sanok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanok"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(theatre)"},{"link_name":"Nativity of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas"},{"link_name":"feast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_saints"}],"text":"A children's nativity play in Sanok, Poland 2013.A Nativity play or Christmas pageant is a play which recounts the story of the Nativity of Jesus. It is usually performed at Christmas, the feast of the Nativity.","title":"Nativity play"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"troparion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troparion"},{"link_name":"hymns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn"},{"link_name":"liturgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Rite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Rite"},{"link_name":"Sophronius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophronius_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"oratorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oratorio"},{"link_name":"Francis of Assisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi"},{"link_name":"Midnight Mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_Mass"},{"link_name":"Greccio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greccio"},{"link_name":"nativity scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity_scene"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Christian worship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_worship"},{"link_name":"mystery plays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_play"},{"link_name":"York Mystery Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York_Mystery_Cycle"},{"link_name":"The Second Shepherds' Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_Shepherds%27_Play"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Weihnachten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weihnachten"},{"link_name":"Christmas Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)"}],"text":"The term \"Nativity Drama\" is used by Wellesz[1] in his discussion of the troparion hymns in the Christmas liturgy of Byzantine Rite Churches, from Sophronius in the seventh century. Goldstein argues[2] that the label \"drama\" is misleading, that the troparia are more akin to an oratorio than a play, and that the form is not a precursor of later more decidedly dramatic forms.Saint Francis of Assisi performed Midnight Mass in the Italian town of Greccio on Christmas Eve 1223 in front of a life-size nativity scene (crib or creche) built by Giovanni Velita, with live animals. This is the first Nativity play.[3] However, more formal Nativity plays have featured in Christian worship since medieval mystery plays.The 12th to 19th pageants of the 48-play York Mystery Cycle showcase the Nativity stories. However, the most famous Nativity play is from the medieval Wakefield Cycle The Second Shepherds' Play.In modern Germany, the Weihnachten services on Christmas Eve include a children's mass called Weihnachtsgeschichte, which features a Krippenspiel ('crib play').The German tradition also includes the Erlau Playbook and the plays from Oberufer.","title":"Liturgical"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Spanish colonization of the Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"shepherds travelling to worship the newborn Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration_of_the_shepherds"},{"link_name":"apocryphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrypha"},{"link_name":"indigenous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"anachronisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anachronism"},{"link_name":"satire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire"},{"link_name":"buffoonery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffoonery"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"puppet theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet_theatre"},{"link_name":"Massacre of the Innocents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Innocents"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-belg-5"},{"link_name":"King Leopold II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"Congo Free State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_Free_State"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-belg-5"},{"link_name":"Townsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsville"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Stable on the Strand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_on_the_Strand"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Gift of Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_of_Christmas"},{"link_name":"Prestonwood Baptist Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestonwood_Baptist_Church"},{"link_name":"Plano, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plano,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"}],"text":"In Latin America pastorelas ('shepherd's plays') are performed in many local communities. These were imported during Spanish colonization of the Americas but are no longer common in Spain. They recount the story of the shepherds travelling to worship the newborn Christ , augmenting the Biblical text with apocryphal events, indigenous beliefs, regional features, anachronisms, satire and buffoonery. Each community's play evolves into a distinctive tradition.[4]In Belgium, puppet theatres often put on variations on the Nativity play in the weeks before Christmas, with parents and their children in the audience. The play often depicts the Massacre of the Innocents which occurred after the birth of Jesus.[5] Joan Gross traces this augmentation back to cryptic protests in the late nineteenth century against the abuse of native peoples by colonists in the King Leopold II's Congo Free State.[5]In Townsville, Queensland Australia, the Stable on the Strand is an annual nativity play held at the city's oceanfront park.[6][7]Nativity plays are also popular in the United States. Many larger congregations have an annual play which is popular in the community: one example is the Gift of Christmas, produced annually by Prestonwood Baptist Church at its main campus in Plano, Texas.It is also very popular in Eastern Europe, notably in Poland and Hungary.","title":"Popular"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Childrens_Nativity_Play_2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"Christian-oriented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_school"},{"link_name":"primary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_school"},{"link_name":"Sunday Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_School"},{"link_name":"Christmas break","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_break"},{"link_name":"angel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel"},{"link_name":"doll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doll"},{"link_name":"Parents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_school"},{"link_name":"primary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_school#United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"A children's nativity play in Oklahoma.Many, especially Christian-oriented, primary schools and Sunday Schools put on a Nativity play before the Christmas break begins. Children in costume act as the human and angel characters, and often as the animals and props. The infant Jesus is sometimes represented by a doll, but sometimes played by a real baby. Parents, grandparents and siblings, schoolteachers and sometimes the church community in general form the audience. The tradition of Nativity plays in British state primary schools is declining in favour of secular plays because of the need to include pupils of other faiths. However, a survey in 2012 found that 20% of schools were planning a traditional Nativity play and a further 50% were intending to stage an updated version of the Christmas story, sometimes with new music and extra characters.[8]","title":"In schools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Laurence Housman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Housman"},{"link_name":"Joseph Moorat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Moorat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Lucjan Rydel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucjan_Rydel"},{"link_name":"Cicely Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicely_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Dorothy L. Sayers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_L._Sayers"},{"link_name":"He That Should Come","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/He_That_Should_Come"},{"link_name":"Antony Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antony_Brown_(journalist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Jean-Paul Sartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre"},{"link_name":"Bariona, ou le Fils du tonnerre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bariona,_ou_le_Fils_du_tonnerre&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariona,_ou_le_Fils_du_tonnerre"},{"link_name":"prisoner of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war"},{"link_name":"stalag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag"},{"link_name":"Jewish Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish-Roman_wars"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire's occupation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaea_Province"},{"link_name":"French Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Resistance"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany's occupation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_France_by_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Modern writers to have written Nativity plays include Laurence Housman (Bethlehem, 1902; musical accompaniment by Joseph Moorat c. 1919[9]); Lucjan Rydel (Polish Bethlehem, 1904); Cicely Hamilton (The Child in Flanders: A Nativity Play, 1922); Dorothy L. Sayers (He That Should Come, 1938) and Antony Brown (David and the Donkey, (1966).[10]Jean-Paul Sartre's first play was Bariona, ou le Fils du tonnerre [fr], a nativity play performed on Christmas Eve 1940 while a prisoner of war in a German stalag. Sartre saw Christ as part of the Jewish Resistance to the Roman Empire's occupation, mirroring the French Resistance of Nazi Germany's occupation.[11]","title":"Literary"}] | [{"image_text":"A children's nativity play in Sanok, Poland 2013.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/07_Sternsinger%2C_das_katholische_Fest_der_Heiligen_drei_K%C3%B6nige_2013_in_Sanok.JPG/220px-07_Sternsinger%2C_das_katholische_Fest_der_Heiligen_drei_K%C3%B6nige_2013_in_Sanok.JPG"},{"image_text":"A children's nativity play in Oklahoma.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Childrens_Nativity_Play_2007.jpg/220px-Childrens_Nativity_Play_2007.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Passion Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_Play"},{"title":"Passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_(Christianity)"},{"title":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"title":"Nativity scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity_scene"},{"title":"Madrigal dinner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrigal_dinner"}] | [{"reference":"Wellesz, Egon (1947). \"The Nativity Drama of the Byzantine Church\". Journal of Roman Studies. 37. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 145–151. doi:10.2307/298465. JSTOR 298465. S2CID 162243412.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298465","url_text":"10.2307/298465"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/298465","url_text":"298465"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162243412","url_text":"162243412"}]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Leonard (2004). The Origin of Medieval Drama. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 54–60. ISBN 0-8386-4004-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University","url_text":"Fairleigh Dickinson University"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8386-4004-4","url_text":"0-8386-4004-4"}]},{"reference":"Collins, Ace (2010). Stories Behind the Great Traditions of Christmas. Zondervan. pp. 139–141. ISBN 978-0-310-87388-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-87388-4","url_text":"978-0-310-87388-4"}]},{"reference":"Harris, Cathlyn A. (December 2001). \"Los Pastores/Las Pastorelas: Public Theatre, Popular Devotion\". Hemispheric Institute, NYU. Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2008-01-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071128025901/http://hemi.nyu.edu/archive/studentwork/nation/catharris/public_html/Pages/chindex.html","url_text":"\"Los Pastores/Las Pastorelas: Public Theatre, Popular Devotion\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hemispheric_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Hemispheric Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University","url_text":"NYU"},{"url":"http://hemi.nyu.edu/archive/studentwork/nation/catharris/public_html/Pages/chindex.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gross, Joan (September 2003). Benton Jay Komins (ed.). \"Symbolism, Popular Drama, and Politics and Art in Belgium, 1886-1910\". Comparative Literature and Culture. 5 (5.3 Comparative Cultural Studies and Popular Culture). Purdue University Press. doi:10.7771/1481-4374.1191. ISSN 1481-4374. Retrieved 2008-02-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb03-3/gross03.html","url_text":"\"Symbolism, Popular Drama, and Politics and Art in Belgium, 1886-1910\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University_Press","url_text":"Purdue University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.7771%2F1481-4374.1191","url_text":"10.7771/1481-4374.1191"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1481-4374","url_text":"1481-4374"}]},{"reference":"Fernbach, Nathalie (23 December 2010). \"Journey into Bethlehem\". ABC (Australia). Retrieved 3 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/local/videos/2010/12/23/3100559.htm","url_text":"\"Journey into Bethlehem\""}]},{"reference":"Fernbach, Nathalie; Calderwood, Kathleen (22 December 2015). \"Very first Stable on The Strand baby still supports Townsville event 17 years on\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 10 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-22/stable-on-strand-first-baby-still-involved-event/7047752","url_text":"\"Very first Stable on The Strand baby still supports Townsville event 17 years on\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"}]},{"reference":"Hunt, J. (March 1975). \"Moorat\". The Musical Times. 116 (1585). Musical Times Publications Ltd.: 228. doi:10.2307/959098. JSTOR 959098.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Musical_Times","url_text":"The Musical Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F959098","url_text":"10.2307/959098"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/959098","url_text":"959098"}]},{"reference":"Quinn, Bernard J. (Spring 1972). \"The Politics of Despair versus the Politics of Hope: A Look at Bariona, Sartre's First pièce engagée\". The French Review (Special Issue, No. 4, Studies on the French Theater): 95–105.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298465","external_links_name":"10.2307/298465"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/298465","external_links_name":"298465"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162243412","external_links_name":"162243412"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071128025901/http://hemi.nyu.edu/archive/studentwork/nation/catharris/public_html/Pages/chindex.html","external_links_name":"\"Los Pastores/Las Pastorelas: Public Theatre, Popular Devotion\""},{"Link":"http://hemi.nyu.edu/archive/studentwork/nation/catharris/public_html/Pages/chindex.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb03-3/gross03.html","external_links_name":"\"Symbolism, Popular Drama, and Politics and Art in Belgium, 1886-1910\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.7771%2F1481-4374.1191","external_links_name":"10.7771/1481-4374.1191"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1481-4374","external_links_name":"1481-4374"},{"Link":"http://www.abc.net.au/local/videos/2010/12/23/3100559.htm","external_links_name":"\"Journey into Bethlehem\""},{"Link":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-22/stable-on-strand-first-baby-still-involved-event/7047752","external_links_name":"\"Very first Stable on The Strand baby still supports Townsville event 17 years on\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1571187/School-nativity-plays-under-threat.html","external_links_name":"The Daily Telegraph - 17 December 2012 - School nativity plays under threat"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F959098","external_links_name":"10.2307/959098"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/959098","external_links_name":"959098"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_bks&q=antony+brown+%27%27David+and+the+Donkey%27%27&fq=dt%3Abks","external_links_name":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_bks&q=antony+brown+%27%27David+and+the+Donkey%27%27&fq=dt%3Abks"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4165754-8","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007286328005171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85025314","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000148679&P_CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Latvia"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Freedom_and_Counter-Proliferation_Act | Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act | ["1 History","2 References","3 External links"] | The Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act, (IFCA), (passed as part of National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013 Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 112–239 (text) (PDF)) is an Act of the US Congress which was signed into law by Barack Obama in 2012.
History
In November 2019, Mike Pompeo "made two determinations with sanctions implications pursuant to Section 1245 of the Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act of 2012 (IFCA): One identifying the construction sector of Iran as being controlled directly or indirectly by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC); and one identifying four strategic materials as being used in connection with Iran’s nuclear, military, or ballistic missile programs." The Trump administration "determined that the following materials are used in connection to Iran's nuclear, military or ballistic missile programs: stainless steel 304L tubes; MN40 manganese brazing foil; MN70 manganese brazing foil; and stainless steel CrNi60WTi ESR + VAR (chromium, nickel, 60 percent tungsten, titanium, electro-slag remelting, vacuum arc remelting)."
In June 2020, the Port of Chabahar was spared sanctions because Donald Trump recognized the influence of the port on the stability of Afghanistan.
In July 2020, it caused Iran to drop India from a rail project.
References
^ a b "Iran's Chabahar port spared from US sanctions in rare cooperation". Al Jazeera Media Network. 20 June 2020.
^ a b Mehdi, Syed Zafar (14 July 2020). "Iran drops India in key rail project, citing 'delays'". Anadolu Agency.
^ Jalilov, Orkhan (November 5, 2019). "US Imposes Sanctions On Iran's Construction Sphere". Caspian News.
External links
Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act (IFCA) Section 1245, state.gov
vte Afghanistan–United States relations Diplomatic posts
Embassy of Afghanistan, Washington, D.C.
Ambassadors of Afghanistan to the United States
Embassy of the United States, Kabul
Ambassadors of the United States to Afghanistan
Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction
Permanent Mission of Afghanistan to the United Nations
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Legislation
Access for Afghan Women Act
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Related
Anti-American sentiment in Afghanistan
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Bost Airport
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Herat International Airport
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Kunduz Airport
Mazar-i-Sharif International Airport
Charlie Wilson's War: The Extraordinary Story of the Largest Covert Operation in History
Overthrow
Retrograde
Category:Afghanistan–United States relations
vte Iran–United States relations Diplomatic posts
Embassy of Iran, Washington, D.C.
Ambassadors of Iran to the United States
Embassy of the United States, Tehran
Ambassadors of the United States to Iran
Interests Section of Iran in the United States
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reactions
Thirteen revenge scenarios
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America can't do a damn thing against us
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Leaked Mohammad Javad Zarif audiotape
June 2021 United States airstrike in Syria
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August 2021 Gulf of Oman incident
2021 U.S.–Iran naval incident
2022 Erbil missile attacks
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Seizure of Suez Rajan and St Nikolas
Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–present)
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Tower 22 drone attack
Legislation
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Maximum pressure campaign
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reactions
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Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act
Public Law 113-100
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Dames & Moore v. Regan
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Roxana Saberi
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Sirous Asgari
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Related
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Academic relations between Iran and the United States
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"Bomb Iran"
Overthrow
Not for the Faint of Heart
Category
This United States federal legislation article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mike Pompeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Pompeo"},{"link_name":"Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps"},{"link_name":"stainless steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel"},{"link_name":"304L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/304L"},{"link_name":"MN40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MN40&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"},{"link_name":"brazing foil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazing_foil"},{"link_name":"MN70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MN70&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"CrNi60WTi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CrNi60WTi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ESR + VAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ESR_%2B_VAR&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"tungsten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"electro-slag remelting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting"},{"link_name":"vacuum arc remelting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnoj-3"},{"link_name":"Port of Chabahar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Chabahar"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alch-1"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aaindia-2"}],"text":"In November 2019, Mike Pompeo \"made two determinations with sanctions implications pursuant to Section 1245 of the Iran Freedom and Counter-Proliferation Act of 2012 (IFCA): One identifying the construction sector of Iran as being controlled directly or indirectly by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC); and one identifying four strategic materials as being used in connection with Iran’s nuclear, military, or ballistic missile programs.\" The Trump administration \"determined that the following materials are used in connection to Iran's nuclear, military or ballistic missile programs: stainless steel 304L tubes; MN40 manganese brazing foil; MN70 manganese brazing foil; and stainless steel CrNi60WTi ESR + VAR (chromium, nickel, 60 percent tungsten, titanium, electro-slag remelting, vacuum arc remelting).\"[3]In June 2020, the Port of Chabahar was spared sanctions because Donald Trump recognized the influence of the port on the stability of Afghanistan.[1]In July 2020, it caused Iran to drop India from a rail project.[2]","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Iran's Chabahar port spared from US sanctions in rare cooperation\". Al Jazeera Media Network. 20 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/06/iran-chabahar-port-spared-sanctions-rare-cooperation-200620161933575.html","url_text":"\"Iran's Chabahar port spared from US sanctions in rare cooperation\""}]},{"reference":"Mehdi, Syed Zafar (14 July 2020). \"Iran drops India in key rail project, citing 'delays'\". Anadolu Agency.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/iran-drops-india-in-key-rail-project-citing-delays-/1910117","url_text":"\"Iran drops India in key rail project, citing 'delays'\""}]},{"reference":"Jalilov, Orkhan (November 5, 2019). \"US Imposes Sanctions On Iran's Construction Sphere\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2B960 | Telephone numbers in Maldives | ["1 Fixed Telephony","2 Mobile Telephony","3 Paging","4 Premium Rate Services","5 References"] | Telephone calling codes of Maldives
Telephone numbers in MaldivesLocationCountryMaldivesContinentAsiaNSN length7Access codesCountry code+960International access00Long-distancenone
National Significant Numbers (NSN): seven digits
Format: +960 xxx xxxx
The current numbering plan was introduced in 2005.
Fixed Telephony
List of area codes
Location
Previous numbers
New numbers
Malé City
Malé
3 01 XXXX
3 30 XXXX
31 XXXX
3 31 XXXX
32 XXXX
3 32 XXXX
33 XXXX
3 33 XXXX
34 XXXX
3 34 XXXX
Hulumalé
35 XXXX
3 35 XXXX
Villingili
39 XXXX
3 39 XXXX
Addu City
Seenu
57 XXXX58 XXXX
6 88 XXXX6 89 XXXX6 90 XXXX
Atolls
Haa Alif
20 XXXX
6 50 XXXX
Haa Dhaalu
21 XXXX
6 52 XXXX
Shaviyani
22 XXXX
6 54 XXXX
Noonu
22 XXXX
6 56 XXXX
Raa
22 XXXX
6 58 XXXX
Baa
23 XXXX
6 60 XXXX
Lhaviyani
23 XXXX
6 62 XXXX
Kaafu
44 XXXX
6 64 XXXX
Alif Alif
45 XXXX
6 66 XXXX
Alif Dhaalu
45 XXXX
6 68 XXXX
Vaavu
45 XXXX
6 70 XXXX
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46 XXXX
6 72 XXXX
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46 XXXX
6 74 XXXX
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46 XXXX
6 76 XXXX
Thaa
47 XXXX
6 78 XXXX
Laamu
47 XXXX
6 80 XXXX
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51 XXXX
6 82 XXXX
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52 XXXX
6 84 XXXX
Gnaviyani
54 XXXX
6 86 XXXX
Mobile Telephony
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81 XXXX
781 99515
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+960 900 XXX XXXX
September 2010
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This Maldives-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article related to telephone numbers is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[],"text":"National Significant Numbers (NSN): seven digitsFormat: +960 xxx xxxxThe current numbering plan was introduced in 2005.","title":"Telephone numbers in Maldives"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fixed Telephony"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mobile Telephony"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Paging"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Premium Rate Services"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Maldives\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.itu.int/oth/T0202000082/en","url_text":"\"Maldives\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/oth/T0202000082/en","external_links_name":"\"Maldives\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telephone_numbers_in_Maldives&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telephone_numbers_in_Maldives&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arya_Penangsang | Arya Penangsang | ["1 Sources and further reading"] | Sultan of Demak (1549–1554)
This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Arya PenangsangArya JipangTomb of Arya PenangsangSultan of DemakReign1549–1554PredecessorSunan PrawotoSuccessorSultan Hadiwijaya
(founder of Pajang sultanate )BornArya Penangsang1505Jipang, Cepu, Blora, Sultanate of DemakDied1554Sultanate of DemakReligionIslam
Arya Penangsang was king of the Sultanate of Demak between 1549 and 1554.
In 1521 the husband of Raden Patah's first daughter, Pati Unus attacked the Portuguese in Malacca but died in the war. It is said that Trenggana, the younger brother, fought for the throne.
Prince Surowiyoto or Raden Kikin had two sons named Raden Arya Panangsang and Arya Mataram, while Trenggana had a first son named Raden Mukmin also known as Sunan Prawoto. Mukmin is said to have killed Raden Kikin after Friday prayers on the banks of a river in Lasem using the kris Kyai Setan Kober which made Trenggana the third Sultan of Demak.
After Raden Kikin's death, Arya Panangsang succeeded in his father's position as Duke of Jipang. At that time he was 16 years old, so his government was assisted by Patih Mat Ahun (Mentaun). Arya Panangsang was only made proper ruler four years later in 1525, at 20 years old.
Trenggana ascended the throne of Demak in 1521. His reign ended when he died in Panarukan, Situbondo in 1546 while trying to attack the Portuguese again to continue the struggle of Pati Unus.
In 1554 Arya Panangsang was killed by the Adipati Pajang's messenger troops. With the death of Arya Panangsang, the power of the Demak Sultanate collapsed and the Kingdom of Pajang would soon be established.
Sources and further reading
Olthof, W. L. (2007). Babad Tanah Jawi, Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647. Yogyakarta: Narasi. ISBN 9789791681629.
de Graff, H.J.; Pigeaud, TH. G. TH. (2019). Kerajaan Islam Pertama di Jawa: Tinjauan Sejarah Politik Abad XV dan XVI, cetakan V edisi revisi. Yogyakarta: MataBangsa. ISBN 9789799471239.
Hayati, Chusnul (2000). Peranan Ratu Kalinyamat di jepara pada Abad XVI (PDF). Jakarta: Proyek Peningkatan Kesadaran Sejarah Nasional Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Ricklefs, M.C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 9780230546868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Moedjianto, G. (1987). Konsep Kekuasaan Jawa: Penerapannya oleh Raja-raja Mataram. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. ISBN 9780230546868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Manuskrip Jipang | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sultanate of Demak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demak_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Raden Patah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raden_Patah"},{"link_name":"Pati Unus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pati_Unus"},{"link_name":"Portuguese in Malacca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Malacca"},{"link_name":"Trenggana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenggana"},{"link_name":"Friday prayers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_prayers"},{"link_name":"kris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Pajang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pajang"}],"text":"Arya Penangsang was king of the Sultanate of Demak between 1549 and 1554.In 1521 the husband of Raden Patah's first daughter, Pati Unus attacked the Portuguese in Malacca but died in the war. 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L. (2007). Babad Tanah Jawi, Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647. Yogyakarta: Narasi. ISBN 9789791681629.\nde Graff, H.J.; Pigeaud, TH. G. TH. (2019). Kerajaan Islam Pertama di Jawa: Tinjauan Sejarah Politik Abad XV dan XVI, cetakan V edisi revisi. Yogyakarta: MataBangsa. ISBN 9789799471239.[permanent dead link]\nHayati, Chusnul (2000). Peranan Ratu Kalinyamat di jepara pada Abad XVI (PDF). Jakarta: Proyek Peningkatan Kesadaran Sejarah Nasional Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)\nRicklefs, M.C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 9780230546868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)\nMoedjianto, G. (1987). Konsep Kekuasaan Jawa: Penerapannya oleh Raja-raja Mataram. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. ISBN 9780230546868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)\nManuskrip Jipang","title":"Sources and further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Olthof, W. L. (2007). Babad Tanah Jawi, Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647. Yogyakarta: Narasi. ISBN 9789791681629.","urls":[{"url":"https://perpus.menpan.go.id/opac/detail-opac?id=1635","url_text":"Babad Tanah Jawi, Mulai dari Nabi Adam Sampai Tahun 1647"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789791681629","url_text":"9789791681629"}]},{"reference":"de Graff, H.J.; Pigeaud, TH. G. TH. (2019). Kerajaan Islam Pertama di Jawa: Tinjauan Sejarah Politik Abad XV dan XVI, cetakan V edisi revisi. Yogyakarta: MataBangsa. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mu%27adh | Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim | ["1 References","2 Sources"] | Abbasid Provincial governor (9th century)
Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim يحيى بن معاذ بن مسلمAbbasid Governor of Syria (Sham)In office806–806MonarchHarun al-RashidPreceded bySulayman ibn al-Mansur (804–805)Succeeded byAli ibn al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba (807–809)Abbasid Governor of JaziraIn office820s–820sMonarchAl-Ma'munAbbasid Governor of ArminiyahIn office820s–820sMonarchAl-Ma'mun
Personal detailsDiedc. 821/822Abbasid CaliphateChildren
Ahmad ibn Yahya ibn Mu'adh,
Ishaq ibn Yahya ibn Mu'adh
Sulayman ibn Yahya ibn Mu'adh
ParentMu'adh ibn Muslim
Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim (Arabic: يحيى بن معاذ بن مسلم) was a senior official and governor for the Abbasid Caliphate.
Yahya was the son of the Persian mawla Mu'adh ibn Muslim, a distinguished member of the Khurasaniyya, who served the early Abbasids as governor and general. In 806, Caliph Harun al-Rashid sent Yahya to Syria to suppress the bandit leader Abu al-Nida. Yahya accomplished this task, and served as governor of all of Syria for a year. He then accompanied Harun in his journey to Khurasan to confront the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth, and after Harun's death in 809 remained in Khurasan with Harun's second son, al-Ma'mun. When the civil war with al-Amin broke out, he was offered the position of vizier to al-Ma'mun but refused—the post went to al-Fadl ibn Sahl—and remained uninvolved in the conflict. After the end of the civil war he served as governor of the Jazira and of Armenia, and took the field against the Khurramites of Babak Khorramdin. He died in 821/822.
His sons, Ahmad, Ishaq, and Sulayman, also held governorships and senior positions in the caliphal court.
References
^ a b c d e f Crone (1980), p. 184
^ Cobb (2001), p. 32
Sources
Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White banners: contention in ‘Abbāsid Syria, 750–880. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4880-0.
Crone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52940-9.
This biographical article related to an Asian military person is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Abbasid Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"mawla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawla"},{"link_name":"Mu'adh ibn Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27adh_ibn_Muslim"},{"link_name":"Abbasids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasids"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"},{"link_name":"Harun al-Rashid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Abu al-Nida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abu_al-Nida&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Khurasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasan"},{"link_name":"Rafi ibn al-Layth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafi_ibn_al-Layth"},{"link_name":"al-Ma'mun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"},{"link_name":"civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Fitna"},{"link_name":"al-Amin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Amin"},{"link_name":"vizier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)"},{"link_name":"al-Fadl ibn Sahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Sahl"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"},{"link_name":"Jazira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Jazira_(caliphal_province)"},{"link_name":"Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminiya"},{"link_name":"Khurramites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khurramites"},{"link_name":"Babak Khorramdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babak_Khorramdin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"},{"link_name":"Ishaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishaq_ibn_Yahya_ibn_Mu%27adh"},{"link_name":"Sulayman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sulayman_ibn_Yahya_ibn_Mu%27adh&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crone-1"}],"text":"Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim (Arabic: يحيى بن معاذ بن مسلم) was a senior official and governor for the Abbasid Caliphate.Yahya was the son of the Persian mawla Mu'adh ibn Muslim, a distinguished member of the Khurasaniyya, who served the early Abbasids as governor and general.[1] In 806, Caliph Harun al-Rashid sent Yahya to Syria to suppress the bandit leader Abu al-Nida. Yahya accomplished this task, and served as governor of all of Syria for a year.[1][2] He then accompanied Harun in his journey to Khurasan to confront the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth, and after Harun's death in 809 remained in Khurasan with Harun's second son, al-Ma'mun.[1] When the civil war with al-Amin broke out, he was offered the position of vizier to al-Ma'mun but refused—the post went to al-Fadl ibn Sahl—and remained uninvolved in the conflict.[1] After the end of the civil war he served as governor of the Jazira and of Armenia, and took the field against the Khurramites of Babak Khorramdin. He died in 821/822.[1]His sons, Ahmad, Ishaq, and Sulayman, also held governorships and senior positions in the caliphal court.[1]","title":"Yahya ibn Mu'adh ibn Muslim"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"White banners: contention in ‘Abbāsid Syria, 750–880","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7914-4880-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-4880-0"},{"link_name":"Crone, Patricia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Crone"},{"link_name":"Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=fOu7XGjKmkAC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-52940-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52940-9"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yahya_ibn_Mu%27adh_ibn_Muslim&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Asia-mil-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Asia-mil-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia-mil-bio-stub"}],"text":"Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White banners: contention in ‘Abbāsid Syria, 750–880. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4880-0.\nCrone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52940-9.This biographical article related to an Asian military person is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Sources"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White banners: contention in ‘Abbāsid Syria, 750–880. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4880-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC","url_text":"White banners: contention in ‘Abbāsid Syria, 750–880"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-4880-0","url_text":"0-7914-4880-0"}]},{"reference":"Crone, Patricia (1980). Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambu_languages | Nambu languages | ["1 Languages","2 References","3 External links"] | Papuan language cluster
NambuEast Morehead RiverGeographicdistributionNew GuineaNative speakers3,000 (2000–2003)Linguistic classificationTrans-Fly – Bulaka River?YamNambuGlottolognamb1292
Nambu is a cluster of Papuan languages spoken in the Morehead River region of Papua New Guinea.
Languages
Varieties are distinct but have some mutually intelligibility with their neighbors. Usher (2020) lists the following languages, with Nambo and Namna considered dialects of a single language.
East Morehead River
Neme–Ndre: Ndre (Dre, Ndré-di), Neme (Karigari, Dorro, Moi-e, Moive)
Upper Wassi Kussa: Nen (Nenium, Wekamara), Nambo–Namna (Nmbo, Nombuio, Tanjuamu, Keraki; Tendavi)
Central East Morehead River
Namo–Län: Län (Len, Dapo, Dungerwab, Parb, Tuj), Namo (Kaunje)
Nama–Namat: Nama (Noraia), Namat (Potoia)
References
^ Michael J. Rueck, 2011. Social Network Analysis Applied to Language Planning in the Morehead District, Papua New Guinea
^ East Morehead River
External links
Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–East Morehead River (under construction 2020)
vteYam languagesTonda
Upper Morehead
Anta
Komnzo
Wára
Wérè
Kémä
Kánchá
Ránmo
Mblafe
Warta Thuntai
Arammba
Nggarna
Rema
Smerki
Tamer
Ngkontar
Ngkolmpu
Bedi Ngkolmpu
Nambu
Nen
Nama
Namat
Nambo
Neme
Dre
Namo
Len
Other
Yei
vteLanguages of Papua New GuineaOfficial languages
English
Hiri Motu
Tok Pisin
Papua New Guinean Sign Language
Major Indigenouslanguages
Adzera
Amanab
Awad Bing
Barok
Bimin
Bola
Bugawac
Dedua
Dobu
Iatmul
Kâte
Kobon
Kovai
Kuanua
Kuman
Kuot
Kurti
Lihir
Mandara
Mangseng
Mbula
Mende
Mussau-Emira
Mutu
Nekgini
Ngaing
Niwer Mil
Nobonob
Numanggang
Nyindrou
Pele-Ata
Petats
Ramoaaina
Seimat
Solong
Somba-Siawari
Suau
Sulka
Tangga
Tobo
Uneapa
Ura
Vitu
Waris
Other PapuanlanguagesAngan
Akoye
Angaataha
Ankave
Hamtai
Kamasa
Kawacha
Menya
Safeyoka
Simbari
Susuami
Tainae
Yagwoia
Yipma
Awin–Pa
Awin
Pa
Binanderean
Baruga
Binandere
Ewage
Korafe
Orokaiva
Suena
Yekora
Zia
Bosavi
Aimele
Beami
Edolo
Kaluli
Kasua
Onobasulu
Sonia
Chimbu–Wahgi
Chuave
Dom
Golin
Kandawo
Kaugel
Kuman
Maring
Melpa
Narak
Nii
Nomane
Salt-Yui
Sinasina
Tembagla
Wahgi
New Ireland
Bilur
Fanamaket
Kandas
Konomala
Kuanua
Label
Niwer Mil
Patpatar
Ramoaaina
Siar
Sursurunga
Warwar Feni
Duna–Pogaya
Duna
Pogaya
East Kutubuan
Fasu
Fiwaga
Foi
East Strickland
Fembe
Gobasi
Konai
Kubo
Odoodee
Samo
Engan
Angal
Bisorio
Enga
Huli
Ipili
Kewa
Kyaka
Lembena
Samberigi
Eleman
Kaki Ae
Keoru
Opao
Orokolo
Toaripi
Tairuma
Ok–Oksapmin
Bimin
Faiwol
Mian
Ngalum
Ninggerum
Oksapmin
Setaman
Suganga
Telefol
Tifal
Urap
Yonggom
Teberan
Dadibi
Folopa
Tirio
Abom
Baramu
Bitur
Tirio
Were
Turama–Kikorian
Ikobi
Omati
Rumu
Larger families
Finisterre–Huon
Kainantu–Goroka
Madang
Ramu–Lower Sepik
Sepik
Southeast Papuan
Torricelli
Sign languages
Enga
Kailge
Mehek
Mount Avejaha
Rossel Island
Sinasina
Wanib
This Papuan languages-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Papuan languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papuan_languages"},{"link_name":"Morehead River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morehead_River"},{"link_name":"Papua New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea"}],"text":"Nambu is a cluster of Papuan languages spoken in the Morehead River region of Papua New Guinea.","title":"Nambu languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ndre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndre_language"},{"link_name":"Neme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neme_language"},{"link_name":"Wassi Kussa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassi_Kussa_River"},{"link_name":"Nen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nen_language_(Papuan)"},{"link_name":"Nambo–Namna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambo-Namna_language"},{"link_name":"Län","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4n_language"},{"link_name":"Namo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namo_language"},{"link_name":"Nama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nama_language_(Papuan)"},{"link_name":"Namat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namat_language"}],"text":"Varieties are distinct but have some mutually intelligibility with their neighbors.[1] Usher (2020) lists the following languages, with Nambo and Namna considered dialects of a single language.[2]East Morehead RiverNeme–Ndre: Ndre (Dre, Ndré-di), Neme (Karigari, Dorro, Moi-e, Moive)\nUpper Wassi Kussa: Nen (Nenium, Wekamara), Nambo–Namna (Nmbo, Nombuio, Tanjuamu, Keraki; Tendavi)\nCentral East Morehead River\nNamo–Län: Län (Len, Dapo, Dungerwab, Parb, Tuj), Namo (Kaunje)\nNama–Namat: Nama (Noraia), Namat (Potoia)","title":"Languages"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/namb1292","external_links_name":"namb1292"},{"Link":"http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2011-037","external_links_name":"Social Network Analysis Applied to Language Planning in the Morehead District, Papua New Guinea"},{"Link":"https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/morehead-river/east-morehead-river","external_links_name":"East Morehead River"},{"Link":"https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/morehead-river/east-morehead-river","external_links_name":"Proto–East Morehead River"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nambu_languages&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_in_Phoenicia | Baalbek | ["1 Name","2 History","2.1 Prehistory","2.2 Antiquity","2.3 Middle Ages","2.4 Early modernity","2.5 Excavations","2.6 20th century","2.7 2006 Lebanon War","3 Ruins","3.1 Tomb of Husayn's daughter","4 Ecclesiastical history","4.1 Titular see","5 Climate","6 Notable people","7 In popular culture","8 Twin towns","9 Gallery","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Sources and external links","13.1 Further reading"] | Coordinates: 34°0′22.81″N 36°12′26.36″E / 34.0063361°N 36.2073222°E / 34.0063361; 36.2073222City in Baalbek-Hermel, Lebanon
Not to be confused with Balbec, Indiana, in the United States.
City in Baalbek-Hermel, LebanonBaalbek
بَعْلَبَكّCityBaalbekLocation in LebanonCoordinates: 34°0′22.81″N 36°12′26.36″E / 34.0063361°N 36.2073222°E / 34.0063361; 36.2073222Country LebanonGovernorateBaalbek-HermelDistrictBaalbekGovernment • MayorBachir KhodrArea • City7 km2 (3 sq mi) • Metro16 km2 (6 sq mi)Elevation1,170 m (3,840 ft)Population • City82,608 • Metro105,000Time zoneUTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST)+3
UNESCO World Heritage SiteCriteriaCultural: i, ivReference294Inscription1984 (8th Session)
Baalbek (/ˈbɑːlbɛk, ˈbeɪəlbɛk/; Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ, romanized: Baʿlabakk; Syriac-Aramaic: ܒܥܠܒܟ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about 67 km (42 mi) northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate. In 1998, Baalbek had a population of 82,608, mostly Shia Muslims, followed by Sunni Muslims and Christians. The town is known for its historical sites and tourist attractions, including several ancient Roman temples, a Great Mosque from the Umayyad period, and a Roman quarry site named Hajar al-Hibla.
Baalbek has a history that dates back at least 11,000 years, encompassing significant periods such as Prehistoric, Canaanite, Hellenistic, and Roman eras. After Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 BCE, he renamed it Heliopolis (Ἡλιούπολις, Greek for "Sun City"). The city flourished under Roman rule. However, it underwent transformations during the Christianization period and the subsequent rise of Islam following the Arab conquest in the 7th century. In later periods, the city was sacked by the Mongols and faced a series of earthquakes, resulting in a decline in importance during the Ottoman and modern periods. The city is known for the ruins of the Baalbek temple complex from the Roman period, housing two of the largest and grandest Roman temples: the Temple of Bacchus and the Temple of Jupiter. It was inscribed in 1984 as an UNESCO World Heritage site.
In the modern era, Baalbek is a relatively small city that enjoys economic advantages as a sought-after tourist destination. However, the tourism sector has encountered challenges due to conflicts in Lebanon, particularly the 1975–1990 civil war, and the ongoing Syrian civil war since 2011. Today, the city is a stronghold of the militant organization Hezbollah.
Name
A few miles from the swamp from which the Litani (the classical Leontes) and the Asi (the upper Orontes) flow, Baalbek may be the same as the manbaa al-nahrayn ("Source of the Two Rivers"), the abode of El in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle discovered in the 1920s and a separate serpent incantation.
Baalbek was called "Heliopolis" during the Roman Empire, a latinisation of the Greek Hēlioúpolis (Ἡλιούπολις) used during the Hellenistic period, meaning "Sun City" in reference to the solar cult there. The name is attested under the Seleucids and Ptolemies. However, Ammianus Marcellinus notes that earlier Assyrian names of Levantine towns continued to be used alongside the official Greek ones imposed by the Diadochi, who were successors of Alexander the Great. In Greek religion, Helios was both the sun in the sky and its personification as a god. The local Semitic god Baʿal Haddu was more often equated with Zeus or Jupiter or simply called the "Great God of Heliopolis", but the name may refer to the Egyptians' association of Baʿal with their great god Ra. It was sometimes described as Heliopolis in Syria or Coelesyria (Latin: Heliopolis Syriaca or Syriae) to distinguish it from its namesake in Egypt. In Catholicism, its titular see is distinguished as Heliopolis in Phoenicia, from its former Roman province Phoenice. The importance of the solar cult is also attested in the name Biḳāʿ al-ʿAzīz borne by the plateau surrounding Baalbek, as it references an earlier solar deity named Aziz. In Greek and Roman antiquity, it was known as Heliopolis. Some of the best-preserved Roman ruins in Lebanon are located here, including one of the largest temples of the Roman empire. The gods worshipped there (Jupiter, Venus, and Bacchus) were equivalents of the Canaanite deities Hadad, Atargatis. Local influences are seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which differ from classic Roman design.
The name BʿLBK appears in the Mishnah, a second-century rabbinic text, as a kind of garlic, shum ba'albeki (שום בעלבכי). It also appears in two early 5th-century Syriac manuscripts, a c. 411 translation of Eusebius's Theophania and a c. 435 life of Rabbula, bishop of Edessa. It was pronounced as Baʿlabakk (Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ) in Classical Arabic. In Modern Standard Arabic, its vowels are marked as Baʿlabak (بَعْلَبَك) or Baʿlabekk. It is Bʿalbik (بْعَلْبِك, is ) in Lebanese Arabic.
The etymology of Baalbek has been debated since the 18th century. Cook took it to mean "Baʿal (Lord) of the Beka" and Donne as "City of the Sun". Lendering asserts that it is probably a contraction of Baʿal Nebeq ("Lord of the Source" of the Litani River). Steiner proposes a Semitic adaption of "Lord Bacchus", from the classical temple complex.
19th-century Biblical archaeologists proposed the association of Baalbek with the town of Baalgad in the Book of Joshua, the town of Baalath, one of Solomon's cities in the First Book of Kings, Baal-hamon where Solomon had a vineyard, and the "Plain of Aven" in Book of Amos.
History
Prehistory
The hilltop of Tell Baalbek, part of a valley to the east of the northern Beqaa Valley (Latin: Coelesyria), shows signs of almost continual habitation over the last 8–9000 years. It was well-watered both from a stream running from the Rās-el-ʿAin spring SE of the citadel and, during the spring, from numerous rills formed by meltwater from the Anti-Lebanons. Macrobius later credited the site's foundation to a colony of Egyptian or Assyrian priests. The settlement's religious, commercial, and strategic importance was minor enough, however, that it is never mentioned in any known Assyrian or Egyptian record, unless under another name. Its enviable position in a fertile valley, major watershed, and along the route from Tyre to Palmyra should have made it a wealthy and splendid site from an early age. During the Canaanite period, the local temples were largely devoted to the Heliopolitan Triad: a male god (Baʿal), his consort (Astarte), and their son (Adon). The site of the present Temple of Jupiter was probably the focus of earlier worship, as its altar was located at the hill's precise summit and the rest of the sanctuary raised to its level.
In Islamic mythology, the temple complex was said to have been a palace of Solomon's which was put together by djinn and given as a wedding gift to the Queen of Sheba; its actual Roman origin remained obscured by the citadel's medieval fortifications as late as the 16th-century visit of the Polish prince Radziwiłł.
Antiquity
Reconstruction of Temple of Jupiter/Baalbek
Roman Heliopolis and its surroundings in the 2nd and the 3rd century.
After Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia in the 330s BC, Baalbek (under its Hellenic name Heliopolis) formed part of the Diadochi kingdoms of Egypt & Syria. It was annexed by the Romans during their eastern wars. The settlers of the Roman colony Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana may have arrived as early as the time of Caesar but were more probably the veterans of the 5th and 8th Legions under Augustus, during which time it hosted a Roman garrison. From 15 BC to AD 193, it formed part of the territory of Berytus. It is mentioned in Josephus, Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy and on coins of nearly every emperor from Nerva to Gallienus. The 1st-century Pliny did not number it among the Decapolis, the "Ten Cities" of Coelesyria, while the 2nd-century Ptolemy did. The population likely varied seasonally with market fairs and the schedules of the Indian monsoon and caravans to the coast and interior.
Corinthian capitals ornamenting the columns of the Temple of Bacchus
During Classical Antiquity, the city's temple to Baʿal Haddu was conflated first with the worship of the Greek sun god Helios and then with the Greek and Roman sky god under the name "Heliopolitan Zeus" or "Jupiter". The present Temple of Jupiter presumably replaced an earlier one using the same foundation; it was constructed during the mid-1st century and probably completed around AD 60. His idol was a beardless golden god in the pose of a charioteer, with a whip raised in his right hand and a thunderbolt and stalks of grain in his left; its image appeared on local coinage and it was borne through the streets during several festivals throughout the year. Macrobius compared the rituals to those for Diva Fortuna at Antium and says the bearers were the principal citizens of the town, who prepared for their role with abstinence, chastity, and shaved heads. In bronze statuary attested from Byblos in Phoenicia and Tortosa in Spain, he was encased in a pillarlike term and surrounded (like the Greco-Persian Mithras) by busts representing the sun, moon, and five known planets. In these statues, the bust of Mercury is made particularly prominent; a marble stela at Massilia in Transalpine Gaul shows a similar arrangement but enlarges Mercury into a full figure. Local cults also revered the Baetylia, black conical stones considered sacred to Baʿal. One of these was taken to Rome by the emperor Elagabalus, a former priest "of the sun" at nearby Emesa, who erected a temple for it on the Palatine Hill. Heliopolis was a noted oracle and pilgrimage site, whence the cult spread far afield, with inscriptions to the Heliopolitan god discovered in Athens, Rome, Pannonia, Venetia, Gaul, and near the Wall in Britain. The Roman temple complex grew up from the early part of the reign of Augustus in the late 1st century BC until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century. (The 6th-century chronicles of John Malalas of Antioch, which claimed Baalbek as a "wonder of the world", credited most of the complex to the 2nd-century Antoninus Pius, but it is uncertain how reliable his account is on the point.) By that time, the complex housed three temples on Tell Baalbek: one to Jupiter Heliopolitanus (Baʿal), one to Venus Heliopolitana (Ashtart), and a third to Bacchus. On a nearby hill, a fourth temple was dedicated to the third figure of the Heliopolitan Triad, Mercury (Adon or Seimios). Ultimately, the site vied with Praeneste in Italy as the two largest sanctuaries in the Western world.
The emperor Trajan consulted the site's oracle twice. The first time, he requested a written reply to his sealed and unopened question; he was favorably impressed by the god's blank reply as his own paper had been empty. He then inquired whether he would return alive from his wars against Parthia and received in reply a centurion's vine staff, broken to pieces. In AD 193, Septimius Severus granted the city ius Italicum rights. His wife Julia Domna and son Caracalla toured Egypt and Syria in AD 215; inscriptions in their honour at the site may date from that occasion; Julia was a Syrian native whose father had been an Emesan priest "of the sun" like Elagabalus.
The town became a battleground upon the rise of Christianity. Early Christian writers such as Eusebius (from nearby Caesarea) repeatedly execrated the practices of the local pagans in their worship of the Heliopolitan Venus. In AD 297, the actor Gelasinus converted in the middle of a scene mocking baptism; his public profession of faith provoked the audience to drag him from the theater and stone him to death. In the early 4th century, the deacon Cyril defaced many of the idols in Heliopolis; he was killed and (allegedly) cannibalised. Around the same time, Constantine, though not yet a Christian, demolished the goddess' temple, raised a basilica in its place, and outlawed the locals' ancient custom of prostituting women before marriage. Bar Hebraeus also credited him with ending the locals' continued practice of polygamy. The enraged locals responded by raping and torturing Christian virgins. They reacted violently again under the freedom permitted to them by Julian the Apostate. The city was so noted for its hostility to the Christians that Alexandrians were banished to it as a special punishment. The Temple of Jupiter, already greatly damaged by earthquakes, was demolished under Theodosius in 379 and replaced by another basilica (now lost), using stones scavenged from the pagan complex. The Easter Chronicle states he was also responsible for destroying all the lesser temples and shrines of the city. Around the year 400, Rabbula, the future bishop of Edessa, attempted to have himself martyred by disrupting the pagans of Baalbek but was only thrown down the temple stairs along with his companion. It became the seat of its own bishop as well. Under the reign of Justinian, eight of the complex's Corinthian columns were disassembled and shipped to Constantinople for incorporation in the rebuilt Hagia Sophia sometime between 532 and 537. Michael the Syrian claimed the golden idol of Heliopolitan Jupiter was still to be seen during the reign of Justin II (560s & 570s), and, up to the time of its conquest by the Muslims, it was renowned for its palaces, monuments, and gardens.
Middle Ages
The ruins of a Baalbek mosque c. 1900
The probable remains of a medieval mosque in front of some of the Mamluk fortifications
Baalbek was occupied by the Muslim army in AD 634 (AH 13), in 636, or under Abu ʿUbaidah following the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk in 637 (AH 16), either peacefully and by agreement or following a heroic defense and yielding 2,000 oz (57 kg) of gold, 4,000 oz (110 kg) of silver, 2000 silk vests, and 1000 swords. The ruined temple complex was fortified under the name al-Qala' (lit. "The Fortress") but was sacked with great violence by the Damascene caliph Marwan II in 748, at which time it was dismantled and largely depopulated. It formed part of the district of Damascus under the Umayyads and Abbasids before being conquered by Fatimid Egypt in 942. In the mid-10th century, it was said to have "gates of palaces sculptured in marble and lofty columns also of marble" and that it was the most "stupendous" and "considerable" location in the whole of Syria. It was sacked and razed by the Byzantines under John I in 974, raided by Basil II in 1000, and occupied by Salih ibn Mirdas, emir of Aleppo, in 1025.
In 1075, it was finally lost to the Fatimids on its conquest by Tutush I, Seljuk emir of Damascus. It was briefly held by Muslim ibn Quraysh, emir of Aleppo, in 1083; after its recovery, it was ruled in the Seljuks' name by the eunuch Gümüshtegin until he was deposed for conspiring against the usurper Toghtekin in 1110. Toghtekin then gave the town to his son Buri. Upon Buri's succession to Damascus on his father's death in 1128, he granted the area to his son Muhammad. After Buri's murder, Muhammad successfully defended himself against the attacks of his brothers Ismaʿil and Mahmud and gave Baalbek to his vizier Unur. In July 1139, Zengi, atabeg of Aleppo and stepfather of Mahmud, besieged Baalbek with 14 catapults. The outer city held until 10 October and the citadel until the 21st, when Unur surrendered upon a promise of safe passage. In December, Zengi negotiated with Muhammad, offering to trade Baalbek or Homs for Damascus, but Unur convinced the atabeg to refuse. Zengi strengthened its fortifications and bestowed the territory on his lieutenant Ayyub, father of Saladin. Upon Zengi's assassination in 1146, Ayyub surrendered the territory to Unur, who was acting as regent for Muhammad's son Abaq. It was granted to the eunuch Ata al-Khadim, who also served as viceroy of Damascus.
In December 1151, it was raided by the garrison of Banyas as a reprisal for its role in a Turcoman raid on Banyas. Following Ata's murder, his nephew Dahhak, emir of the Wadi al-Taym, ruled Baalbek. He was forced to relinquish it to Nur ad-Din in 1154 after Ayyub had successfully intrigued against Abaq from his estates near Baalbek. Ayyub then administered the area from Damascus on Nur ad-Din's behalf. In the mid-12th century, Idrisi mentioned Baalbek's two temples and the legend of their origin under Solomon; it was visited by the Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela in 1170.
Baalbek's citadel served as a jail for Crusaders taken by the Zengids as prisoners of war. In 1171, these captives successfully overpowered their guards and took possession of the castle from its garrison. Muslims from the surrounding area gathered, however, and entered the castle through a secret passageway shown to them by a local. The Crusaders were then massacred.
Three major earthquakes occurred in the 12th century, in 1139, 1157, and 1170. The one in 1170 ruined Baalbek's walls and, though Nur ad-Din repaired them, his young heir Ismaʿil was made to yield it to Saladin by a 4-month siege in 1174. Having taken control of Damascus on the invitation of its governor Ibn al-Muqaddam, Saladin rewarded him with the emirate of Baalbek following the Ayyubid victory at the Horns of Hama in 1175. Baldwin, the young leper king of Jerusalem, came of age the next year, ending the Crusaders' treaty with Saladin. His former regent, Raymond of Tripoli, raided the Beqaa Valley from the west in the summer, suffering a slight defeat at Ibn al-Muqaddam's hands. He was then joined by the main army, riding north under Baldwin and Humphrey of Toron; they defeated Saladin's elder brother Turan Shah in August at Ayn al-Jarr and plundered Baalbek. Upon the deposition of Turan Shah for neglecting his duties in Damascus, however, he demanded his childhood home of Baalbek as compensation. Ibn al-Muqaddam did not consent and Saladin opted to invest the city in late 1178 to maintain peace within his own family. An attempt to pledge fealty to the Christians at Jerusalem was ignored on behalf of an existing treaty with Saladin. The siege was maintained peacefully through the snows of winter, with Saladin waiting for the "foolish" commander and his garrison of "ignorant scum" to come to terms. Sometime in spring, Ibn al-Muqaddam yielded and Saladin accepted his terms, granting him Baʿrin, Kafr Tab, and al-Maʿarra. The generosity quieted unrest among Saladin's vassals through the rest of his reign but led his enemies to attempt to take advantage of his presumed weakness. He did not permit Turan Shah to retain Baalbek very long, though, instructing him to lead the Egyptian troops returning home in 1179 and appointing him to a sinecure in Alexandria. Baalbek was then granted to his nephew Farrukh Shah, whose family ruled it for the next half-century. When Farrukh Shah died three years later, his son Bahram Shah was only a child but he was permitted his inheritance and ruled til 1230. He was followed by al-Ashraf Musa, who was succeeded by his brother as-Salih Ismail, who received it in 1237 as compensation for being deprived of Damascus by their brother al-Kamil. It was seized in 1246 after a year of assaults by as-Salih Ayyub, who bestowed it upon Saʿd al-Din al-Humaidi. When as-Salih Ayyub's successor Turan Shah was murdered in 1250, al-Nasir Yusuf, the sultan of Aleppo, seized Damascus and demanded Baalbek's surrender. Instead, its emir did homage and agreed to regular payments of tribute.
The Mongolian general Kitbuqa took Baalbek in 1260 and dismantled its fortifications. Later in the same year, however, Qutuz, the sultan of Egypt, defeated the Mongols and placed Baalbek under the rule of their emir in Damascus. Most of the city's still-extant fine mosque and fortress architecture dates to the reign of the sultan Qalawun in the 1280s. By the early 14th century, Abulfeda the Hamathite was describing the city's "large and strong fortress". The revived settlement was again destroyed by a flood on 10 May 1318, when water from the east and northeast made holes 30 m (98 ft) wide in walls 4 m (13 ft) thick. 194 people were killed and 1500 houses, 131 shops, 44 orchards, 17 ovens, 11 mills, and 4 aqueducts were ruined, along with the town's mosque and 13 other religious and educational buildings. In 1400, Timur pillaged the town, and there was further destruction from a 1459 earthquake.
Early modernity
Baalbek & environs, c. 1856In 1516, Baalbek was conquered with the rest of Syria by the Ottoman sultan Selim the Grim. In recognition of their prominence among the Shiites of the Beqaa Valley, the Ottomans awarded the sanjak of Homs and local iltizam concessions to Baalbek's Harfush family. Like the Hamadas, the Harfush emirs were involved on more than one occasion in the selection of Church officials and the running of local monasteries. Tradition holds that many Christians quit the Baalbek region in the eighteenth century for the newer, more secure town of Zahlé on account of the Harfushes' oppression and rapacity, but more critical studies have questioned this interpretation, pointing out that the Harfushes were closely allied to the Orthodox Ma'luf family of Zahlé (where indeed Mustafa Harfush took refuge some years later) and showing that depredations from various quarters as well as Zahlé's growing commercial attractiveness accounted for Baalbek's decline in the eighteenth century. What repression there was did not always target the Christian community per se. The Shiite 'Usayran family, for example, is also said to have left Baalbek in this period to avoid expropriation by the Harfushes, establishing itself as one of the premier commercial households of Sidon and later even serving as consuls of Iran.
From the 16th century, European tourists began to visit the colossal and picturesque ruins. Donne hyperbolised "No ruins of antiquity have attracted more attention than those of Heliopolis, or been more frequently or accurately measured and described." Misunderstanding the temple of Bacchus as the "Temple of the Sun", they considered it the best-preserved Roman temple in the world. The Englishman Robert Wood's 1757 Ruins of Balbec included carefully measured engravings that proved influential on British and Continental Neoclassical architects. For example, details of the Temple of Bacchus's ceiling inspired a bed and ceiling by Robert Adam and its portico inspired that of St George's in Bloomsbury.
During the 18th century, the western approaches were covered with attractive groves of walnut trees, but the town itself suffered badly during the 1759 earthquakes, after which it was held by the Metawali, who again feuded with other Lebanese tribes. Their power was broken by Jezzar Pasha, the rebel governor of Acre, in the last half of the 18th century. All the same, Baalbek remained no destination for a traveller unaccompanied by an armed guard. Upon the pasha's death in 1804, chaos ensued until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt occupied the area in 1831, after which it again passed into the hands of the Harfushes. In 1835, the town's population was barely 200 people. In 1850, the Ottomans finally began direct administration of the area, making Baalbek a kaza under the Damascus Eyalet and its governor a kaymakam.
Excavations
The largest stone at Baalbek, uncovered in 2014
Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany and his wife passed through Baalbek on 1 November 1898, on their way to Jerusalem. He noted both the magnificence of the Roman remains and the drab condition of the modern settlement. It was expected at the time that natural disasters, winter frosts, and the raiding of building materials by the city's residents would shortly ruin the remaining ruins. The archaeological team he dispatched began work within a month. Despite finding nothing they could date prior to Baalbek's Roman occupation, Otto Puchstein and his associates worked until 1904 and produced a meticulously researched and thoroughly illustrated series of volumes. Later excavations under the Roman flagstones in the Great Court unearthed three skeletons and a fragment of Persian pottery dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC. The sherd featured cuneiform letters.
In 1977, Jean-Pierre Adam made a brief study suggesting most of the large blocks could have been moved on rollers with machines using capstans and pulley blocks, a process which he theorised could use 512 workers to move a 557 tonnes (614 tons) block. "Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman architecture at its apogee", UNESCO reported in making Baalbek a World Heritage Site in 1984. When the committee inscribed the site, it expressed the wish that the protected area include the entire town within the Arab walls, as well as the southwestern extramural quarter between Bastan-al-Khan, the Roman site and the Mameluk mosque of Ras-al-Ain. Lebanon's representative gave assurances that the committee's wish would be honoured. Recent cleaning operations at the Temple of Jupiter discovered the deep trench at its edge, whose study pushed back the date of Tell Baalbek's settlement to the PPNB Neolithic. Finds included pottery sherds including a spout dating to the early Bronze Age. In the summer of 2014, a team from the German Archaeological Institute led by Jeanine Abdul Massih of the Lebanese University discovered a sixth, much larger stone suggested to be the world's largest ancient block. The stone was found underneath and next to the Stone of the Pregnant Woman ("Hajjar al-Hibla") and measures around 19.6 m × 6 m × 5.5 m (64 ft × 20 ft × 18 ft). It is estimated to weigh 1,650 tonnes (1,820 tons).
20th century
A detail from a 1911 map of Turkey in Asia, showing Baalbek's former rail connections
Baalbek was connected to the DHP, the French-owned railway concession in Ottoman Syria, on 19 June 1902. It formed a station on the standard-gauge line between Riyaq to its south and Aleppo (now in Syria) to its north. This Aleppo Railway connected to the Beirut–Damascus Railway but—because that line was built to a 1.05-meter gauge—all traffic had to be unloaded and reloaded at Riyaq. Just before the First World War, the population was still around 5000, about 2000 each of Sunnis and Shia Mutawalis and 1000 Orthodox and Maronites. The French general Georges Catroux proclaimed the independence of Lebanon in 1941 but colonial rule continued until 1943. Baalbek still has its railway station but service has been discontinued since the 1970s, originally owing to the Lebanese Civil War.
The Roman ruins have been the setting for the long running Baalbek International Festival.
In March 1974, Musa al-Sadr announced the launching of the "Movement of the Deprived" in front of a rally in Baalbek attended by 75,000 men. Its objective was to stand up for Lebanon's neglected Shia community. In his speech he referred to Baalbek’s lack of a secondary school and the state of local irrigation compared to the Roman era. His audience included several thousand armed men and the start of the event was delayed due to celebratory gunfire. He also announced the setting up of military training camps to train villagers in southern Lebanon to protect their homes from Israeli attacks. These camps led to the creation of the Amal Militia. In 1982, at the height of the Israeli invasion, Amal split into two factions over Nabih Berri's acceptance of the American plan to evacuate Palestinians from West Beirut. A large number of dissidents, led by Amal's military commander Hussein Musawi moved to Baalbek. Once established in the town the group, which was to evolve into Hizbollah, began to work with Iranian Revolutionary Guards, veterans of the Iran Iraq War. The following year the Iranians established their headquarters in the Sheikh Abdullah barracks in Baalbek. Ultimately there were between 1,500 and 2,000 Revolutionary Guards in Lebanon, with outposts further south in the Shia villages, such as Jebchit.
On 24/25 June 1999, following elections in Israel and the new administration undecided, the IAF launched two massive air raids across Lebanon. One of the targets was the al Manar radio station’s offices in a four storey building in Baalbek which was completely demolished. The attacks also hit Beirut’s power stations and bridges on the roads to the south. An estimated $52 million damage was caused. Eleven Lebanese were killed as well as two Israelis in Kiryat Shmona.
A map of Israeli bombing during the Second Lebanon War. Baalbek was a major target, with more than 70 bombs dropped.
2006 Lebanon War
Main article: Operation Sharp and Smooth
On the evening of 1 August 2006, hundreds of Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) soldiers raided Baalbek and the Dar al-Hikma or Hikmeh Hospital in Jamaliyeh to its north ("Operation Sharp and Smooth"). Their mission was to rescue two captured soldiers, Ehud Goldwasser and Eldad Regev, who were abducted by Hezbollah on 12 July 2006. They were transported by helicopter and supported by Apache helicopters and unmanned drones, The IDF was acting on information that Goldwasser and Regev were at the hospital. al-Jazeera and other sources claimed the IDF was attempting to capture senior Hezbollah officials, particularly Sheikh Mohammad Yazbek. The hospital had been empty for four days, the most unwell patients having been transferred and the rest sent home. No Israelis were killed; Five civilians were abducted and interrogated by the Israelis, presumably because one shared his name with Hassan Nasrallah, the secretary general of Hezbollah; they were released on August 21. Another 9 civilians were killed on 7 August by a strike in the middle of Brital, just south of Baalbek, and by the subsequent attack on the car leaving the scene for the hospital. On 14 August just before the ceasefire took effect, two Lebanese police and five Lebanese soldiers were killed by a drone strike while driving their van around the still-damaged road through Jamaliyeh.
Conservation work at Lebanon's historic sites began in October. The ruins at Baalbek were not directly hit but the effects of blasts during the conflict toppled a block of stones at the Roman ruins and existing cracks in the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus were feared to have widened. Frederique Husseini, director-general of Lebanon's Department of Antiquities, requested $550,000 from Europeans to restore Baalbek's souk and another $900,000 for repairs to other damaged structures.
Ruins
See also: Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek; Temple of Bacchus; Stone of the Pregnant Woman; Temples of the Beqaa Valley; List of Roman monoliths; List of ancient architectural records § Monoliths; and List of largest monoliths in the world
1911 diagram of the ruins after the Puchstein excavations. (Facing SW, with the Temple of Jupiter labelled "Temple of the Sun")
The Tell Baalbek temple complex, fortified as the town's citadel during the Middle Ages, was constructed from local stone, mostly white granite and a rough white marble. Over the years, it has suffered from the region's numerous earthquakes, the iconoclasm of Christian and Muslim lords, and the reuse of the temples' stone for fortification and other construction. The nearby Qubbat Duris, a 13th-century Muslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is built out of granite columns, apparently removed from Baalbek. Further, the jointed columns were once banded together with iron; many were gouged open or toppled by the emirs of Damascus to get at the metal. As late as the 16th century, the Temple of Jupiter still held 27 standing columns out of an original 58; there were only nine before the 1759 earthquakes and six today.
The complex is located on an immense raised plaza erected 5 m (16 ft) over an earlier T-shaped base consisting of a podium, staircase, and foundation walls. These walls were built from about 24 monoliths, at their lowest level weighing approximately 300 tonnes (330 tons) each. The tallest retaining wall, on the west, has a second course of monoliths containing the famous "Three Stones" (Greek: Τρίλιθον, Trílithon): a row of three stones, each over 19 m (62 ft) long, 4.3 m (14 ft) high, and 3.6 m (12 ft) broad, cut from limestone. They weigh approximately 800 tonnes (880 tons) each. A fourth, still larger stone is called the Stone of the Pregnant Woman: it lies unused in a nearby quarry 800 m (2,600 ft) from the town. Its weight, often exaggerated, is estimated at 1,000 tonnes (1,100 tons). A fifth, still larger stone weighing approximately 1,200 tonnes (1,300 tons) lies in the same quarry. This quarry was slightly higher than the temple complex, so no lifting was required to move the stones. Through the foundation there run three enormous passages the size of railway tunnels.
The temple complex was entered from the east through the Propylaea (προπύλαιον, propýlaion) or Portico, consisting of a broad staircase rising 20 feet (6.1 m) to an arcade of 12 columns flanked by 2 towers. Most of the columns have been toppled and the stairs were entirely dismantled for use in the nearby later wall, but a Latin inscription remains on several of their bases stating that Longinus, a lifeguard of the 1st Parthian Legion, and Septimius, a freedman, gilded their capitals with bronze in gratitude for the safety of Septimius Severus's son Antoninus Caracalla and empress Julia Domna.
Immediately behind the Propylaeum is a hexagonal forecourt reached through a threefold entrance that was added in the mid-3rd century by the emperor Philip the Arab. Traces remain of the two series of columns which once encircled it, but its original function remains uncertain. Donne reckoned it as the town's forum. Badly preserved coins of the era led some to believe this was a sacred cypress grove, but better specimens show that the coins displayed a single stalk of grain instead.
The rectangular Great Court to its west covers around 3 or 4 acres (1.2 or 1.6 ha) and included the main altar for burnt offering, with mosaic-floored lustration basins to its north and south, a subterranean chamber, and three underground passageways 17 ft (5.2 m) wide by 30 ft (9.1 m) high, two of which run east and west and the third connecting them north and south, all bearing inscriptions suggesting their occupation by Roman soldiers. These were surrounded by Corinthian porticoes, one of which was never completed. The columns' bases and capitals were of limestone; the shafts were monoliths of highly polished red Egyptian granite 7.08 m (23.2 ft) high. Six remain standing, out of an original 128. Inscriptions attest that the court was once adorned by portraits of Marcus Aurelius's daughter Sabina, Septimius Severus, Gordian, and Velius Rufus, dedicated by the city's Roman colonists. The entablature was richly decorated but is now mostly ruined. A westward-facing basilica was constructed over the altar during the reign of Theodosius; it was later altered to make it eastward-facing like most Christian churches.
The Great Court of ancient Heliopolis's temple complex
The Temple of Jupiter—once wrongly credited to Helios—lay at the western end of the Great Court, raised another 7 m (23 ft) on a 47.7 m × 87.75 m (156.5 ft × 287.9 ft) platform reached by a wide staircase. Under the Byzantines, it was also known as the "Trilithon" from the three massive stones in its foundation and, when taken together with the forecourt and Great Court, it is also known as the Great Temple. The Temple of Jupiter proper was circled by a peristyle of 54 unfluted Corinthian columns: 10 in front and back and 19 along each side. The temple was ruined by earthquakes, destroyed and pillaged for stone under Theodosius, and 8 columns were taken to Constantinople (Istanbul) under Justinian for incorporation into the Hagia Sophia. Three fell during the late 18th century. 6 columns, however, remain standing along its south side with their entablature. Their capitals remain nearly perfect on the south side, while the Beqaa's winter winds have worn the northern faces almost bare. The architrave and frieze blocks weigh up to 60 tonnes (66 tons) each, and one corner block over 100 tonnes (110 tons), all of them raised to a height of 19 m (62.34 ft) above the ground. Individual Roman cranes were not capable of lifting stones this heavy. They may have simply been rolled into position along temporary earthen banks from the quarry or multiple cranes may have been used in combination. They may also have alternated sides a little at a time, filling in supports underneath each time. The Julio-Claudian emperors enriched its sanctuary in turn. In the mid-1st century, Nero built the tower-altar opposite the temple. In the early 2nd century, Trajan added the temple's forecourt, with porticos of pink granite shipped from Aswan at the southern end of Egypt.
The Temple of Bacchus—once wrongly credited to Jupiter—may have been completed under Septimius Severus in the 190s, as his coins are the first to show it beside the Temple of Jupiter. It is the best preserved of the sanctuary's structures, as the other rubble from its ruins protected it. It is enriched by some of the most refined reliefs and sculpture to survive from antiquity. The temple is surrounded by forty-two columns—8 along each end and 15 along each side—nearly 20 m (66 ft) in height. These were probably erected in a rough state and then rounded, polished, and decorated in position. The entrance was preserved as late as Pococke and Wood, but the keystone of the lintel had slid 2 ft (1 m) following the 1759 earthquakes; a column of rough masonry was erected in the 1860s or '70s to support it. The 1759 earthquakes also damaged the area around the soffit's famed inscription of an eagle, which was entirely covered by the keystone's supporting column. The area around the inscription of the eagle was greatly damaged by the 1759 earthquake. The interior of the temple is divided into a 98 ft (30 m) nave and a 36 ft (11 m) adytum or sanctuary on a platform raised 5 ft (2 m) above it and fronted by 13 steps. The screen between the two sections once held reliefs of Neptune, Triton, Arion and his dolphin, and other marine figures but these have been lost. The temple was used as a kind of donjon for the medieval Arab and Turkish fortifications, although its eastern steps were lost sometime after 1688. Much of the portico was incorporated into a huge wall directly before its gate, but this was demolished in July 1870 by Barker on orders from Syria's governor Rashid Pasha. Two spiral staircases in columns on either side of the entrance lead to the roof.
The Temple of Venus—also known as the Circular Temple or Nymphaeum—was added under Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century but destroyed under Constantine, who raised a basilica in its place. Jessup considered it the "gem of Baalbek". It lies about 150 yd (140 m) from the southeast corner of the Temple of Bacchus. It was known in the 19th century as El Barbara or Barbarat el-Atikah (St Barbara's), having been used as a Greek Orthodox church into the 18th century.
The ancient walls of Heliopolis had a circumference of a little less than 4 mi (6 km). Much of the extant fortifications around the complex date to the 13th century reconstruction undertaken by the Mamluk sultan Qalawun following the devastation of the earlier defenses by the Mongol army under Kitbuqa. This includes the great southeast tower. The earliest round of fortifications were two walls to the southwest of the Temples of Jupiter and Bacchus. The original southern gateway with two small towers was filled in and replaced by a new large tower flanked by curtains, probably under Buri or Zengi. Bahramshah replaced that era's southwest tower with one of his own in 1213 and built another in the northwest in 1224; the west tower was probably strengthened around the same time. An inscription dates the barbican-like strengthening of the southern entrance to around 1240. Qalawun relocated the two western curtains nearer to the western tower, which was rebuilt with great blocks of stone. The barbican was repaired and more turns added to its approach. From around 1300, no alterations were made to the fortifications apart from repairs such as Sultan Barkuk's restoration of the moat in preparation for Timur's arrival.
Material from the ruins is incorporated into a ruined mosque north of downtown and probably also in the Qubbat Duris on the road to Damascus. In the 19th century, a "shell-topped canopy" from the ruins was used nearby as a mihrab, propped up to show locals the direction of Mecca for their daily prayers.
Tomb of Husayn's daughter
Under a white dome further towards town is the tomb of Khawla, daughter of Hussein and granddaughter of Ali, who died in Baalbek while Husayn's family was being transported as prisoners to Damascus.
Ecclesiastical history
Heliopolis (in Phoenicia; not to be confused with the Egyptian bishopric Heliopolis in Augustamnica) was a bishopric under Roman and Byzantine rule, but it disappeared due to the Islamic rule.
In 1701, Eastern Catholics (Byzantine Rite) established anew an Eparchy of Baalbek, which in 1964 was promoted to the present Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Baalbek.
Titular see
In the Latin Church, the Ancient diocese was only nominally restored (no later than 1876) as Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis (Latin) / Eliopoli (Curiate Italian), demoted in 1925 to Episcopal Titular bishopric, promoted back in 1932, with its name changed (avoiding Egyptian confusion) in 1933 to (non-Metropolitan) Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis in Phoenicia.
The title has not been assigned since 1965. It was held by:
Titular Archbishop: Luigi Poggi (1876.09.29 – death 1877.01.22) on emeritate (promoted) as former Bishop of Rimini (Italy) (1871.10.27 – 1876.09.29)
Titular Archbishop: Mario Mocenni (1877.07.24 – 1893.01.16) as papal diplomat : Apostolic Delegate to Colombia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Honduras (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Ecuador (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Peru and Bolivia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Venezuela (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Internuncio to Brazil (1882.03.28 – 1882.10.18), created Cardinal-Priest of S. Bartolomeo all'Isola (1893.01.19 – 1894.05.18), promoted Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina (1894.05.18 – death 1904.11.14)
Titular Archbishop: Augustinus Accoramboni (1896.06.22 – death 1899.05.17), without prelature
Titular Archbishop: Robert John Seton (1903.06.22 – 1927.03.22), without prelature
Titular Bishop: Gerald O'Hara (1929.04.26 – 1935.11.26) as Auxiliary Bishop of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania, USA) (1929.04.26 – 1935.11.26), later Bishop of Savannah (USA) (1935.11.26 – 1937.01.05), restyled (only) Bishop of Savannah–Atlanta (USA) (1937.01.05 – 1950.07.12), promoted Archbishop-Bishop of Savannah (1950.07.12 – 1959.11.12), also Apostolic Nuncio (papal ambassador) to Ireland (1951.11.27 – 1954.06.08), Apostolic Delegate to Great Britain (1954.06.08 – death 1963.07.16) and Titular Archbishop of Pessinus (1959.11.12 – 1963.07.16)
Titular Archbishop: Alcide Marina, C.M. (1936.03.07 – death 1950.09.18), mainly as papal diplomat : Apostolic Delegate to Iran (1936.03.07 – 1945), Apostolic Administrator of Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Constantinople (Turkey) (1945–1947) and Apostolic Delegate to Turkey (1945–1947), Apostolic Nuncio to Lebanon (1947 – 1950.09.18)
Titular Archbishop: Daniel Rivero Rivero (1951 – death 1960.05.23) (born Bolivia) on emeritate, formerly Titular Bishop of Tlous (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) as Coadjutor Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) succeeding as Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (1931.03.30 – 1940.02.03), Metropolitan Archbishop of Sucre (Bolivia) (1940.02.03 – 1951)
Titular Archbishop: Raffaele Calabria (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Benevento (Italy) (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Benevento (1962.01.01 – 1982.05.24); previously Titular Archbishop of Soteropolis (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1952.07.10 – 1960.07.12)
Titular Archbishop: Ottavio De Liva (1962.04.18 – death 1965.08.23) as papal diplomat : Apostolic Internuncio to Indonesia (1962.04.18 – 1965.08.23).
Climate
Baalbek has a mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with significant continental influences. It is located in one of the drier regions of the country, giving it an annual average of 450 millimetres or 18 inches of rainfall compared with 800 to 850 millimetres (31 to 33 in) in coastal areas, overwhelmingly concentrated in the months from November to April. Baalbek has hot rainless summers with cool (and occasionally snowy) winters. Autumn and spring are mild and fairly rainy.
Climate data for Baalbek
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
7.1(44.8)
8.8(47.8)
13.5(56.3)
18.3(64.9)
23.5(74.3)
28.4(83.1)
31.6(88.9)
31.7(89.1)
28.3(82.9)
22.9(73.2)
15.8(60.4)
10.3(50.5)
20.0(68.0)
Daily mean °C (°F)
3.4(38.1)
4.7(40.5)
8.8(47.8)
13.3(55.9)
18.3(64.9)
22.3(72.1)
25.2(77.4)
25.3(77.5)
22.3(72.1)
17.8(64.0)
11.2(52.2)
6.2(43.2)
14.9(58.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
−0.1(31.8)
0.9(33.6)
4.1(39.4)
8.0(46.4)
12.5(54.5)
16.1(61.0)
19.0(66.2)
19.2(66.6)
16.8(62.2)
13.4(56.1)
7.4(45.3)
2.7(36.9)
10.0(50.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
71(2.8)
67(2.6)
54(2.1)
34(1.3)
26(1.0)
4(0.2)
1(0.0)
2(0.1)
6(0.2)
23(0.9)
45(1.8)
56(2.2)
389(15.2)
Source:
Notable people
Saint Barbara (273–306)
Callinicus of Heliopolis (c. 600 – c. 680), chemist and inventor
Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i (707–774)
Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912), mathematician and translator
Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir (1070s–1162)
Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī (1547–1621), Lebanese-Iranian scholar, philosopher, architect, mathematician, astronomer
Rahme Haider (born 1886), American lecturer from Baalbek
Khalil Mutran (1872–1949), poet and journalist
Juliana Awada, former First Lady of Argentina
Harfush dynasty
In popular culture
Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration Ruins at Balbec. is on a painting by William Henry Bartlett entitled Six detached pillars of the Great Temple at Balbec, and was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839.
Ameen Rihani's The Book of Khalid (1911), the first English novel by an Arab-American, is set in Baalbek.
The events of the 1984 novel Les fous de Baalbek (SAS, #74) by Gérard de Villiers take place in Baalbek.
Twin towns
Baalbek is twinned with:
Bari, Italy
L'Aquila, Italy
Thrace, Greece
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Gallery
The Round Temple and the Temple of the Muses located outside the sanctuary complex
Temple of Bacchus
Remains of the Propylaeum, the eastern entrance to the site
The Great Court of Temples Complex
Temple of Venus
Massive columns of the Temple of Jupiter
An 1873 German map of Asia Minor & Syria, with relief illustrating the Beqaa (El Bekaa) valley
Panorama, around 1870, by Félix Bonfils
Baalbek in 1910, after the arrival of rail
The ruins of Baalbek facing west from the hexagonal forecourt in the 19th century
The "Stone of the Pregnant Woman" in the early 20th century, the Temple of Jupiter in the background
See also
Cities of the ancient Near East
List of Catholic dioceses in Lebanon
List of colossal sculpture in situ
List of megalithic sites
Notes
^ Also spelled Ba'labek, Balbec, Baalbec and Baalbeck.
^ The name also appears in the Hellenized form Balanios and Baal Helion in records describing the acts of Theodosius's reign.
^ The Egyptian priests' claims that Heliopolis represented a direct descendant of Ra's cult at Iunu, however, is almost certainly mistaken.
^ Commonly mistaken by European visitors to have been the one described in the Biblical First Book of Kings.
^ Daniel Lohmann wrote that, "due to the lack of remains of temple architecture, it can be assumed that the temple this terrace was built for was never completed or entirely destroyed before any new construction started..." "The unfinished pre-Roman sanctuary construction was incorporated into a master plan of monumentalisation. Apparently challenged by the already huge pre-Roman construction, the early imperial Jupiter sanctuary shows both an architectural megalomaniac design and construction technique in the first half of the first century AD."
^ "It is apparent from a graffito on one of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter that that building was nearing completion in 60 A.D."
^ Coins of Septimius Severus bear the legend COL·HEL·I·O·M·H: Colonia Heliopolis Iovi Optimo Maximo Helipolitano.
^ It is mentioned, inter alia, by Sozomen and Theodoret.
^ Notable visitors included Baumgarten (1507), Belon (1548), Thévet (1550), von Seydlitz (1557), Radziwiłł (1583), Quaresmio (1620), Monconys (1647), de la Roque (1688), Maundrell (1699), Pococke (1738), Wood and Dawkins (1751), Volney (1784), Richardson (1818), Chesney (1830), Lamartine (1833), Marmont (1834), Addison (1835), Lindsay (1837), Robinson (1838 & 1852), Wilson (1843), De Saulcy (1851), and Frauberger (19th c.).
^ "Current survey and interpretation, show that a pre-Roman floor level about 5 m lower than the late Great Roman Courtyard floor existed underneath".
^ The staircase is shown intact on a coin from the reign of the emperor Philip the Arab.
^ The inscriptions were distinct in the 18th century but becoming illegible by the end of the 19th: M. DIIS HELIVPOL. PRO SAL. VICTORIIS D. N. ANTONINI PII FEL. AVG. ET IVLIÆ AVG. MATRIS D. N. CAST. SENAT. PATR., AVR. ANT. LONGINVS SPECVL. LEG. I.ONINIANÆ CAPITA COLVMNARVM DVA ÆREA AVRO INLVMINATA SVA PECVNIA EX VOTO L. A. S.and M. PRO SAL D. IMP. ANTONINTIMI BAS AVG. LIB. CAPVT COLVMNÆ ÆNEUM AVRO INLVM VOTVM SVA PECVNIA L.
^ It has also been misattributed to Apollo and Helios. The locals once knew it as the Dar es-Sa'adeh or "Court of Happiness".
^ The cornice of the exaedrum in the northwest corner remains partially sculpted and partially plain.
^ In the 1870s and '80s, its Metawali caretaker Um Kasim would demand bakshish from visitors and for use of the olive oil lamps used to make vows to St Barbara.
References
^ Cook's (1876).
^ a b c d e f Wood (1757).
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l EB (1878), p. 176.
^ إتحاد بلديات غربي بعلبك (in Arabic). 2013. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
^
Olausson, Lena (2 August 2006). "How to Say: Baalbek". London: BBC. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
"Baalbek". Merriam–Webster. 2020.
"Baalbek". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020.
^ "Mohafazah de Baalbek-Hermel". Localiban. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
^ Wolfgang Gockel; Helga Bruns (1998). Syria – Lebanon (illustrated ed.). Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 202. ISBN 9783886181056.
^ a b c Najem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021). Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-1-5381-2043-9.
^ "Israeli Airstrike Hits Hezbollah Stronghold in Northeast Lebanon". Voice of America. 23 March 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
^ "Israel conducts air raid on Baalbek, Hezbollah stronghold in Lebanon, sources say". Reuters. 23 April 2024.
^ Amun, Fadi; Hashmonai, Adi; Peleg, Bar (12 March 2024). "IDF strikes Hezbollah stronghold deep in Lebanon; 100 rockets fired at northern Israel". Haaretz. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
^ KTU 1.4 IV 21.
^ KTU 1.100.3.
^ a b c d Steiner (2009).
^ "Baalbek". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
^ a b Lendering (2013).
^ a b Jidejian (1975), p. 5.
^ Amm. Marc., Hist., Bk XIV, Ch. 8, §6 Archived 1 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jidejian (1975), p. 57.
^ a b c Jessup (1881), p. 473.
^ a b c d e f Cook (1914), p. 550.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t EI (1913), p. 543.
^ Mishnah, Maaserot 5:8
^ Brit. Mus. Add. 12150.
^ Eusebius, Theophania, 2.14.
^ Burkitt (1904), p. 51.
^ Overbeck (1865), p. 196.
^ Arastu (2014), p. 616.
^ a b "Arabic" (PDF). ALA-LC Romanization Tables. Washington: Library of Congress. 2015.
^ EI (1913).
^ DGRG (1878).
^ Josh. 11:17
^ 1 Kings 9:17–18
^ a b c New Class. Dict. (1862).
^ Song of Songs 8:11.
^ Amos 1:5,
^ Jessup (1881), p. 468.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 453.
^ a b EB (1911).
^ "Lebanon, Baalbek". Berlin: German Archaeological Institute. 2004. Archived from the original on 11 October 2004. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
^ a b c d e Jessup (1881), p. 456.
^ a b c DGRG (1878), p. 1036.
^ Hélène Sader.
^ Jidejian (1975), p. 47.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 470.
^ 1 Kings 7:2–7.
^ a b c d CT (2010).
^ a b Volney (1787), p. 224.
^ a b c d DGRG (1878), p. 1038.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 454.
^ a b Radziwiłł (1601).
^ a b EB (1911), p. 89.
^ Josephus, Ant., XIV.3–4.
^ Pliny, Nat. Hist., V.22.
^ Strabo, Geogr., Bk. 14, Ch. 2, §10. (in Greek)
^ a b Ptolemy, Geogr., Bk. V, Ch. 15, §22 Archived 29 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
^ a b c d e f g h DGRG (1878), p. 1037.
^ Lohmann (2010).
^ a b Lohmann (2010), p. 29.
^ Rowland (1956).
^ Kropp & al. (2011).
^ a b c Macrobius, Saturnalia, Vol. I, Ch. 23.
^ a b Cook (1914), p. 552.
^ Macrobius, translated in Cook.
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^ a b c d e f Cook (1914), p. 554.
^ Cook (1914), p. 552–553.
^ Cook (1914), p. 553.
^ Ulpian, De Censibus, Bk. I.
^ Sozomen, Hist. Eccles., v.10.
^ Theodoret, Hist. Eccles., III.7 & IV.22.
^ Bar Hebraeus, Hist. Compend. Dynast., p. 85. (in Latin)
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Cook (1914), p. 556.
^ a b c d e f g h Cook (1914), p. 555.
^ Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Dindorf, Ludwig, eds. (1832). "σπθʹ Ὀλυμπιάς" . Chronicon Paschale. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (in Greek and Latin). Vol. I. Bonn: Impensis ed. Weberi. p. 561.
^ a b c d e f g h i EB (1878), p. 177.
^ CMH (1966), p. 634.
^ a b Venning & al. (2015), p. 109.
^ EI (1936), p. 1225.
^ Venning & al. (2015), p. 138.
^ Venning & al. (2015), p. 141–142.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 475–476.
^ a b c Alouf (1944), p. 94.
^ a b c Humphreys (1977), p. 52.
^ Lock 2013, p. 63.
^ a b Runciman (1951), p. 410.
^ Sato (1997), p. 57.
^ a b Baldwin (1969), p. 572.
^ Köhler (2013), p. 226.
^ a b c Lyons & al. (1982), pp. 132–133.
^ Sato (1997), p. 58.
^ Venning & al. 2015, p. 299.
^ a b Jessup (1881), p. 476.
^ a b Alouf (1944), p. 96.
^ le Strange, 1890, p. xxiii.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n EI (1913), p. 544.
^ Stefan Winter (11 March 2010). The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788. Cambridge University Press, Page 166.
^ a b c d e f g EB (1878), p. 178.
^ Baumgarten (1594).
^ Belon (1553).
^ Belon (1554).
^ a b Thevet (1554).
^ Sedlitz (1580).
^ Quaresmio (1639).
^ Monconys (1665).
^ de la Roque (1722).
^ a b Maundrell (1703).
^ a b Pococke (1745).
^ Volney (1787).
^ Richardson (1822).
^ Chesney (1850).
^ Chesney (1868).
^ Lamartine (1835).
^ Marmont (1837).
^ a b Addison (1838).
^ Lindsay (1838).
^ Robinson (1841).
^ Robinson (1856).
^ Wilson (1847).
^ De Saulcy (1853).
^ Frauberger (1892).
^ Coote, James. "Adam's Bed: 16 Varieties of (Im)propriety". Austin: Center for American Architecture & Design, University of Texas School of Architecture. Archived from the original on 2 September 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
^ "St George's Church Bloomsbury". Archived from the original on 4 November 2007. Retrieved 25 July 2009.
^ a b Wiegand (1925).
^ Jidejian (1975), p. 15.
^ a b Adam & al. (1999), p. 35.
^ Adam (1977).
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^ Genz (2010).
^ Kehrer (2014).
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^ David Hirst pp.187-188
^ David Hirst p.190
^ David Hirst p.186
^ David Hirst p.235
^ Middle East International. No 603, 2 July 1999; Publishers Christopher Mayhew. Dennis Walters; Michael Jansen pp.4-5; Reinoud Leendes pp.5&7
^ a b c d e HRW (2007), p. 124.
^ a b c Butters, Andrew Lee (2 August 2006). "Behind the Battle for Baalbek". Time. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
^ a b Nahla (2 August 2006). "Minute by Minute:: August 2". Lebanon Updates. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
^ HRW (2007), p. 127.
^ HRW (2007), p. 127–128.
^ HRW (2007), p. 137.
^ HRW (2007), p. 164–165.
^ a b c Karam, Zeina (4 October 2006). "Cleanup to Start at Old Sites in Lebanon". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
^ a b EB (1911), p. 90.
^ a b c d e f Jessup (1881), p. 459.
^ a b c d Cook (1914), p. 560.
^ Adam (1977), p. 52.
^ Alouf (1944), p. 139.
^ Ruprechtsberger (1999), p. 15.
^ Ruprechtsberger (1999), p. 17.
^ Hastings (2004), p. 892.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 465.
^ a b c d e f g Jessup (1881), p. 466.
^ Cook (1914), p. 558–559.
^ a b c d e Cook (1914), p. 559.
^ Cook (1914), p. 565.
^ Jessup (1881), p. 460.
^ a b Jessup (1881), p. 462.
^ Coulton (1974), p. 16.
^ Cook (1914), p. 564.
^ a b c d e Jessup (1881), p. 458.
^ EB (1878).
^ a b c Jessup (1881), p. 467.
^ Michel M. Alouf -History of Baalbek 1922 "After the defeat and murder of Hossein by the Ommiads, his family was led captive to Damascus; but Kholat died at Baalbek on her way into exile."
^ Nelles Guide Syria – Lebanon -Wolfgang Gockel, Helga Bruns – 1998 – Page 202 3886181057 "Ensconced under a white dome further towards town are the mortal remains of Kholat, daughter of Hussein and granddaughter of."
^ "Titular See of Heliopolis in Phœnicia, Lebanon". www.gcatholic.org.
^ "Climate: Baalbek". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
^ Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1838). "picture". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839. Fisher, Son & Co.Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1838). "poetical illustration". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839. Fisher, Son & Co.
^ Syaifullah, M. (26 October 2008). "Yogyakarta dan Libanon Bentuk Kota Kembar". Tempo Interaktif. Archived from the original on 18 August 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
Sources and external links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baalbek.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Baalbek.
Google Maps satellite view
Panoramas of the temples at Lebanon 360 and Discover Lebanon
Archaeological research in Baalbek from the German Archaeological Institute
GCatholic – Latin titular see
Baalbeck International Festival
Baalbek Railway Station (2006) at Al Mashriq
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Thevet, André (1554). Cosmographie de Levant (in French). Lyons: Jean de Tournes (Ian de Tournes) & Guillaume Gazeau (Guil. Gazeav).
Venning, Timothy; Frankopan, Peter (2015). A Chronology of the Crusades. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80269-8.
Volney, Constantin François de Chasseboeuf, comte de (1787). Voyage en Syrie et en Égypte, Pendant les anneés 1783, 1784, & 1785, avec deux Cartes Géographiques & deux Planches gravées, représentant les ruines du Temple du Soleil à Balbek, & celles de la ville de Palmyre dans le Désert de Syrie (in French). Paris: Volland; Desenne.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Wiegand, Theodor (1925). Baalbek: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898 bis 1905 (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002370-1.
Wilson, John (1847). The Lands of the Bible Visited and Described in an Extensive Journey Undertaken with Special Reference to the Promotion of Biblical Research and the Advancement of the Cause of Philanthropy, Vol. II. Edinburgh: William Whyte & Co.
Winter, Stefan Helmut (2002). The Shiite Emirates of Ottoman Syria (Mid-17th–Mid-18th Century). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wood, Robert (1757). The Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis in Cœlosyria. London.
Further reading
The Entrance to the Temple of Jupiter. Washington: Library of Congress. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2015 – via World Digital Library.
Baalbek. New York: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 12 September 2007.
vte World Heritage Sites in Lebanon
Anjar
Baalbek
Byblos
Ouadi Qadisha (the Holy Valley) and the Forest of the Cedars of God (Horsh Arz el-Rab)
Rachid Karami International Fair–Tripoli
Tyre
vte Baalbek District, Baalbek-Hermel GovernorateCapital: BaalbekTowns and villages
Ain
Ainata
Arsal
Baalbek
Barka
Bednayel
Bechwat
Beit Chama - Aaqidiyeh
Brital
Btadhi
Bodai
Chaat
Chlifa
Chmestar - Gharbi Baalbeck
Deir el Ahmar
Douriss
Fakiha - Jdeydeh
Fleweh
Hadath Baalbek
Hallanieh
Harbata
Hizzine
Hlabta
Hosh Barada
Hosh el Rafika
Hosh Snid
Haouch Tall Safiyeh
Iaat
Jabbouleh
Janta
Jebaa
Jdeide
Kfar Dane
Kasarnaba
Khodr
Khraibeh
Kneisseh
Laat
Labweh
Majdloun
Mikna
Nabi Chit
Nabi Othman
Nahleh
Qaa
Qarha
Ram - Jbenniyeh
Ras Baalbek
Ras el Hadis
Saayde
Seriine el Fawka
Seriine el Tahta
Talya
Taraya
Taybeh
Temnin el Fawka
Temnine Et Tahta
Tfail
Wadi Faara
Yammouneh
Younine
Other
Ard Tlaili
Jabal es Saaïdé
vte Archaeological sites in Lebanon
Aadloun
Aaiha
Aammiq
Aaqbe
Ain Aata
Ain Choaab
Ain Harcha
Akbiyeh
Akkar plain foothills
Al-Bireh
Amioun
Amlaq Qatih
Anjar, Lebanon
Antelias cave
Apheca
Ard Saouda
Ard Tlaili
Arqa
Augusti Pagus
Baalbek
Baidar ech Chamout
Batroumine
Batroun
Bechamoun
Beirut
Beit Mery
Belat temple
Berytus (Roman Beirut)
Bustan Birke
Byblos
Canalizations of Zenobia
Dahr El Ahmar
Dakoue
Deir El Aachayer
Deir Al-Ahmar
Deir Mar Maroun
Dekwaneh
Douris (Baalbek)
Elaea (Lebanon)
Flaoui
Fadous Sud
Hebbariye
Hadeth south
Haret ech Cheikh
Hashbai
Heliopolis in Phoenicia
Hermel plains
Iaat
Jabal es Saaïdé
Jbaa
Jdeideh
Jebel Aabeby
Jeita Grotto
Joub Jannine
Jieh
Kafr Zabad
Kamid el-Loz
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Karak Nuh
Kaukaba
Kefraya
Kafr Tebnit
Kfar Qouq
Kfarhata
Khallet Michte
Kharayeb
Khirbet El-Knese
Kouachra megalith field
Ksar Akil
Labweh
Lake Qaraoun (Ain Jaouze)
Libbaya
Lion Tower
Majdal Anjar
Mansourieh
Maronite mummies
Mayrouba
Mdoukha (Jebel Kassir)
Moukhtara
Mtaileb
Nabi Zair
Nachcharini
Nahle, Lebanon
Neba'a Faour
Nebi Safa
Hosn Niha
Phoenician port of Beirut
Plain of Zgharta
Qaa
Qal'at Bustra
Qalaat Tannour
Qaraoun
Qasr el Banat
Ras Baalbek I
Ras Beirut
Ras El Kelb
Rashaya
Roman Forum of Berytus
Roman hippodrome of Berytus
Roman temple of Bziza
Sands of Beirut
Saraain El Faouqa
Shheem
Sidon
Sin el Fil
Sarepta
Stone of the Pregnant Woman
Tahun ben Aissa
Taire
Tayibe
Tell Aalaq
Tell Ablah
Tell Addus
Tell Ahle
Tell Ain Cerif
Tell Ain el Meten
Tell Ain Ghessali
Tell Ain Nfaikh
Tell Ain Saouda
Tell Ain Sofar
Tell Ayoub
Tell Bar Elias
Tell Beshara
Tell Bir Dakoue
Tell Deir
Tell Delhamieh
Tell Derzenoun
Tell Dibbine
Tell el-Burak
Tell El Ghassil
Tell El Hadeth
Tell Fadous
Tell Hazzine
Tell Hoch Rafqa
Tell Karmita
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Tell Rayak
Tell Saatiya
Tell Safiyeh
Tell Saoudhi
Tell Serhan
Tell Shaikh Hassan al Rai
Tell Shamsine
Tell Sultan Yakoub
Tell Taalabaya
Tell Wardeen
Tell Zenoub
Tell Zeitoun
Temnin el-Foka
Temple of Bacchus
Temple of Eshmun
Temple of Jupiter
Temple of the Obelisks
Toron
Tripolis (region of Phoenicia)
Tyre Necropolis
Tyre
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Wadi Koura
Wadi Yaroun
Yammoune
Yanta
Ain W Zain
Zahlé
vte Phoenician cities and coloniesAlgeria
Camarata
Cartennae (Tenes)
Hippo Regius
Icosium (Algiers)
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Lebanon
Amia
Ampi
Arqa
Athar (Tripoli)
Baalbek
Birut (Beirut)
Botrys (Teros)
Gebal (Byblos)
Ornithon (Tell el-Burak)
Porphyreon (Jieh)
Sarepta
Sidon
Sur (Tyre), Ushu (Palaetyrus)
Umm al-Amad
Libya
Lepcis (Khoms)
Oyat (Tripoli)
Tsabratan
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Maleth (Cospicua)
Ann (Mdina)
Gaulos (Gozo)
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Ras il-Wardija
Tas-Silġ
Morocco
Azama (Azemmour)
Arambys (Mogador)
Caricus Murus
Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir)
Likush (Larache)
Shalat (Chellah)
Tamusida
Tinga (Tangier)
Anfa (Casablanca)
Volubilis 1
Mogador
Rusadir
Oualidia
Zilil
Gadir
Sala
Thymiaterium
Rusibis
Portugal
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Olissipona (Lisbon)
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Balsa (Tavira)
Spain
Abdera (Adra)
Abyla (Ceuta)
Akra Leuka (Alicante)
Gadir (Cadiz)
Herna
Iboshim (Ibiza)
Mahón
Malake (Málaga)
Onoba
Carthage (Cartagena)
Rushadir (Melilla)
Saguntum
Sexi (Almunecar)
Tagilit (Tíjola)
Toscanos (Velez)
Tyreche
Syria
Arwad
Marat (Amrit)
Balanaea (Baniyas)
Carne
Paltus
Safita
Shuksi
Sumur
Ugarit
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Bulla Regia
Carthage
Hadrumetum (Sousse)
Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte)
Kerkouane
Lepcis (Monastir)
Maqom Hadesh (Ounga)
Meninx (Djerba)
Ruspe
Ruspina
Sicca (El Kef)
Tabarka
Tayinat (Thyna)
Thapsus
Thysdrus (El Djem)
Utica
Other
Myriandus
Phoenicus
Gibraltar
Tahpanhes
vteColonies of Ancient RomeWith correspondence to modern geographyEuropeBritannia Superior
Camulodunum
Lindum Colonia
Londinium
Britannia Inferior
Eboracum
Roman Dacia
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa
Gallia Lugdunensis
Lugdunum
Gallia Narbonensis
Narbo Martius
Germania Inferior
Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium
Mogontiacum
Hispania
Augusta Emerita
Italia
Aelia Augusta Aeclanum
Castra Taurinorum
Florentia
Mediolanum
Placentia
Moesia
Singidunum
LevantOf legion veterans
Berytus
Caesarea Maritima 2
Aelia Capitolina 1 3
Ptolemais 1
Of late Empire
Laodicea
Antioch
Seleucia
Emesa
Heliopolis 1
Palmyra 1 3
Damascus 1 3
Arca Caesarea
Sidon
Tyrus 1
Sebaste
Bostra 1 3
Petra 1
Neapolis
Philippopolis
Dura-Europos 2
Possible colonies
Gaza
Ascalon
Gerasa
Gadara
Emmaus Nicopolis
Neronias
Locations withmodern namesIsrael and thePalestinian territories
Jerusalem: Aelia Capitolina
Acre: Ptolemais
Caesarea Maritima
Imwas: Emmaus Nicopolis
Banias: Neronias
Jordan
Petra
Umm Qais: Gadara
Jerash: Gerasa
Lebanon
Arqa: Arca Caesarea
Beirut: Berytus
Baalbek: Heliopolis
Saida: Sidon
Tyre: Tyrus
Syria
Bosra: Bostra
Damascus
Dura-Europos
Homs: Emesa
Latakia: Laodicea
Shahba: Philippopolis
Tadmur: Palmyra
Turkey
Antakya: Antioch
Samandağ: Seleucia
1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 2 Proposed; 3 in Danger
See also: Legacy of the Roman Empire
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
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BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Latvia
Czech Republic
Geographic
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Other
IdRef
İslâm Ansiklopedisi | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Balbec, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balbec,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"/ˈbɑːlbɛk, ˈbeɪəlbɛk/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"Syriac-Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language"},{"link_name":"Litani River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litani_River"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Beqaa Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"Beirut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut"},{"link_name":"Baalbek-Hermel Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baalbek-Hermel_Governorate"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Shia Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Sunni Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"ancient Roman temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_temples"},{"link_name":"Umayyad period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:102-9"},{"link_name":"Prehistoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Canaanite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Christianization period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"rise of Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islam"},{"link_name":"Arab conquest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant"},{"link_name":"7th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_century_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Mongols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lebanon_under_Ottoman_rule"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:102-9"},{"link_name":"Temple of Bacchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bacchus"},{"link_name":"Temple of Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_(Baalbek)"},{"link_name":"UNESCO World Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage"},{"link_name":"1975–1990 civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:102-9"},{"link_name":"Hezbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"City in Baalbek-Hermel, LebanonNot to be confused with Balbec, Indiana, in the United States.City in Baalbek-Hermel, LebanonBaalbek[a] (/ˈbɑːlbɛk, ˈbeɪəlbɛk/;[5] Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ, romanized: Baʿlabakk; Syriac-Aramaic: ܒܥܠܒܟ) is a city located east of the Litani River in Lebanon's Beqaa Valley, about 67 km (42 mi) northeast of Beirut. It is the capital of Baalbek-Hermel Governorate.[6] In 1998, Baalbek had a population of 82,608, mostly Shia Muslims, followed by Sunni Muslims and Christians.[7] The town is known for its historical sites and tourist attractions, including several ancient Roman temples, a Great Mosque from the Umayyad period, and a Roman quarry site named Hajar al-Hibla.[8]Baalbek has a history that dates back at least 11,000 years, encompassing significant periods such as Prehistoric, Canaanite, Hellenistic, and Roman eras. After Alexander the Great conquered the city in 334 BCE, he renamed it Heliopolis (Ἡλιούπολις, Greek for \"Sun City\"). The city flourished under Roman rule. However, it underwent transformations during the Christianization period and the subsequent rise of Islam following the Arab conquest in the 7th century. In later periods, the city was sacked by the Mongols and faced a series of earthquakes, resulting in a decline in importance during the Ottoman and modern periods.[8] The city is known for the ruins of the Baalbek temple complex from the Roman period, housing two of the largest and grandest Roman temples: the Temple of Bacchus and the Temple of Jupiter. It was inscribed in 1984 as an UNESCO World Heritage site.In the modern era, Baalbek is a relatively small city that enjoys economic advantages as a sought-after tourist destination. However, the tourism sector has encountered challenges due to conflicts in Lebanon, particularly the 1975–1990 civil war, and the ongoing Syrian civil war since 2011.[8] Today, the city is a stronghold of the militant organization Hezbollah.[9][10][11]","title":"Baalbek"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Litani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litani_River"},{"link_name":"Asi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asi_River"},{"link_name":"Orontes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontes_River"},{"link_name":"El","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_(god)"},{"link_name":"Ugaritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic_religion"},{"link_name":"Baal Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal_Cycle"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteiner2009-15"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"latinisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinization_of_names"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELendering2013-17"},{"link_name":"solar cult","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_worship"},{"link_name":"Seleucids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucids"},{"link_name":"Ptolemies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJidejian19755-18"},{"link_name":"Ammianus Marcellinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language"},{"link_name":"Levantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Diadochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochi"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Greek religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"personification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification"},{"link_name":"god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_god"},{"link_name":"Semitic god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanite_religion"},{"link_name":"Baʿal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal"},{"link_name":"Haddu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadad"},{"link_name":"equated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJidejian197557-20"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Baʿal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal"},{"link_name":"Ra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJidejian19755-18"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"its namesake in Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_(Ancient_Egypt)"},{"link_name":"Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"titular see","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Catholic_titular_sees_(B-K)"},{"link_name":"Roman province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province"},{"link_name":"Phoenice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Aziz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Period"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Bacchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus"},{"link_name":"equivalents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca"},{"link_name":"Canaanite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanite_religion"},{"link_name":"Hadad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadad"},{"link_name":"Atargatis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atargatis"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Mishnah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishnah"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Syriac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10633_550]-23"},{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius"},{"link_name":"Theophania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophania_(Eusebius)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurkitt1904[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvssdKNm9Hm4CpgPA51_51]-29"},{"link_name":"life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagiography"},{"link_name":"Rabbula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbula"},{"link_name":"bishop of Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Edessa"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOverbeck1865[httpsarchiveorgstreamsephraemisyrirab00overpage228mode2up_196]-30"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10633_550]-23"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Classical Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Arabic"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArastu2014[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMrxrBwAAQBAJpgPT616_616]-31"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteiner2009-15"},{"link_name":"Modern Standard Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic"},{"link_name":"vowels are marked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_diacritics"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alalc-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913-33"},{"link_name":"[ˈbʕalbik]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Lebanese Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alalc-32"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteiner2009-15"},{"link_name":"Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Bernard_Cook"},{"link_name":"Baʿal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal"},{"link_name":"Beka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10633_550]-23"},{"link_name":"Donne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bodham_Donne"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''1878-34"},{"link_name":"Lendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jona_Lendering"},{"link_name":"Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal#Word"},{"link_name":"Litani River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litani_River"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELendering2013-17"},{"link_name":"Steiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Steiner"},{"link_name":"Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal#Word"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESteiner2009-15"},{"link_name":"Biblical archaeologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_archaeology"},{"link_name":"Baalgad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baalgad"},{"link_name":"Book of Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Joshua"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Baalath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baalath"},{"link_name":"Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon"},{"link_name":"First Book of Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Book_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Class._Dict.''1862-37"},{"link_name":"Baal-hamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal-hamon"},{"link_name":"vineyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vineyard"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"Book of Amos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Amos"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA468_468]-40"}],"text":"A few miles from the swamp from which the Litani (the classical Leontes) and the Asi (the upper Orontes) flow, Baalbek may be the same as the manbaa al-nahrayn (\"Source of the Two Rivers\"), the abode of El in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle[12] discovered in the 1920s and a separate serpent incantation.[13][14]Baalbek was called \"Heliopolis\" during the Roman Empire, a latinisation of the Greek Hēlioúpolis (Ἡλιούπολις) used during the Hellenistic period,[15] meaning \"Sun City\"[16] in reference to the solar cult there. The name is attested under the Seleucids and Ptolemies.[17] However, Ammianus Marcellinus notes that earlier Assyrian names of Levantine towns continued to be used alongside the official Greek ones imposed by the Diadochi, who were successors of Alexander the Great.[18] In Greek religion, Helios was both the sun in the sky and its personification as a god. The local Semitic god Baʿal Haddu was more often equated with Zeus or Jupiter or simply called the \"Great God of Heliopolis\",[19][b] but the name may refer to the Egyptians' association of Baʿal with their great god Ra.[17][c] It was sometimes described as Heliopolis in Syria or Coelesyria (Latin: Heliopolis Syriaca or Syriae) to distinguish it from its namesake in Egypt. In Catholicism, its titular see is distinguished as Heliopolis in Phoenicia, from its former Roman province Phoenice. The importance of the solar cult is also attested in the name Biḳāʿ al-ʿAzīz borne by the plateau surrounding Baalbek, as it references an earlier solar deity named Aziz. In Greek and Roman antiquity, it was known as Heliopolis. Some of the best-preserved Roman ruins in Lebanon are located here, including one of the largest temples of the Roman empire. The gods worshipped there (Jupiter, Venus, and Bacchus) were equivalents of the Canaanite deities Hadad, Atargatis. Local influences are seen in the planning and layout of the temples, which differ from classic Roman design.\n[22]The name BʿLBK appears in the Mishnah, a second-century rabbinic text, as a kind of garlic, shum ba'albeki (שום בעלבכי).[23] It also appears in two early 5th-century Syriac manuscripts, a c. 411[21] translation of Eusebius's Theophania[24][25] and a c. 435[26] life of Rabbula, bishop of Edessa.[27][21] It was pronounced as Baʿlabakk (Arabic: بَعْلَبَكّ) in Classical Arabic.[28][14] In Modern Standard Arabic, its vowels are marked as Baʿlabak (بَعْلَبَك)[29] or Baʿlabekk.[30] It is Bʿalbik (بْعَلْبِك, is [ˈbʕalbik]) in Lebanese Arabic.[29]The etymology of Baalbek has been debated since the 18th century.[22][14] Cook took it to mean \"Baʿal (Lord) of the Beka\"[21] and Donne as \"City of the Sun\".[31] Lendering asserts that it is probably a contraction of Baʿal Nebeq (\"Lord of the Source\" of the Litani River).[16] Steiner proposes a Semitic adaption of \"Lord Bacchus\", from the classical temple complex.[14]19th-century Biblical archaeologists proposed the association of Baalbek with the town of Baalgad in the Book of Joshua,[32] the town of Baalath, one of Solomon's cities in the First Book of Kings,[33][34] Baal-hamon where Solomon had a vineyard,[35][3] and the \"Plain of Aven\" in Book of Amos.[36][37]","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"Beqaa Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA453_453]-41"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"Coelesyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelesyria"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1911-42"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(water)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA456_456]-44"},{"link_name":"spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(season)"},{"link_name":"Anti-Lebanons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781036-45"},{"link_name":"Macrobius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobius"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781036-45"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"Tyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Tyre"},{"link_name":"Palmyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''New_Class._Dict.''1862-37"},{"link_name":"Canaanite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaanite_religion"},{"link_name":"Heliopolitan Triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolitan_Triad"},{"link_name":"Baʿal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFal"},{"link_name":"Astarte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astarte"},{"link_name":"Adon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammuz_(god)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJidejian197547-47"},{"link_name":"Temple of Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_(Baalbek)"},{"link_name":"altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altar"},{"link_name":"Islamic mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_mythology"},{"link_name":"Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA470_470]-48"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"djinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djinn"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolney1787224-52"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781038-53"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA454_454]-54"},{"link_name":"Queen of Sheba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Roman origin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Antiquity"},{"link_name":"medieval fortifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"Radziwiłł","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miko%C5%82aj_Krzysztof_%22the_Orphan%22_Radziwi%C5%82%C5%82"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CT''2010-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadziwi%C5%82%C5%821601-55"}],"sub_title":"Prehistory","text":"The hilltop of Tell Baalbek, part of a valley to the east of the northern Beqaa Valley[38] (Latin: Coelesyria),[39] shows signs of almost continual habitation over the last 8–9000 years.[40] It was well-watered both from a stream running from the Rās-el-ʿAin spring SE of the citadel[41] and, during the spring, from numerous rills formed by meltwater from the Anti-Lebanons.[42] Macrobius later credited the site's foundation to a colony of Egyptian or Assyrian priests.[42] The settlement's religious, commercial, and strategic importance was minor enough, however, that it is never mentioned in any known Assyrian or Egyptian record,[43] unless under another name.[3] Its enviable position in a fertile valley, major watershed, and along the route from Tyre to Palmyra should have made it a wealthy and splendid site from an early age.[3][34] During the Canaanite period, the local temples were largely devoted to the Heliopolitan Triad: a male god (Baʿal), his consort (Astarte), and their son (Adon).[44] The site of the present Temple of Jupiter was probably the focus of earlier worship, as its altar was located at the hill's precise summit and the rest of the sanctuary raised to its level.In Islamic mythology, the temple complex was said to have been a palace of Solomon's[45][d] which was put together by djinn[48][49][50] and given as a wedding gift to the Queen of Sheba;[22] its actual Roman origin remained obscured by the citadel's medieval fortifications as late as the 16th-century visit of the Polish prince Radziwiłł.[47][51]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1921_reconstruction_of_the_Baalbelk_temple_complex.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1865_Spruner_Map_Israel_or_Palestine_post_70_AD.jpg"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_century_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"3rd century.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_century_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great"},{"link_name":"conquest of Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great%27s_conquest_of_Persia"},{"link_name":"Heliopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Name"},{"link_name":"Diadochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochi"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Syria"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Roman colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_colony"},{"link_name":"Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781036-45"},{"link_name":"veterans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legionaries"},{"link_name":"5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legio_V_Alaudae"},{"link_name":"8th 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Fortuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diva_Fortuna"},{"link_name":"Antium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antium"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-macrobe-68"},{"link_name":"bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_sculpture"},{"link_name":"statuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture"},{"link_name":"Byblos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byblos"},{"link_name":"Phoenicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Tortosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortosa"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Spain"},{"link_name":"term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Persian_religion"},{"link_name":"Mithras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithras"},{"link_name":"sun, moon, and five known 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Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine_Hill"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781037-61"},{"link_name":"oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle"},{"link_name":"pilgrimage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrimage"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Athens"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia"},{"link_name":"Venetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10635_552]-69"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"rise of Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"4th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_century_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"John Malalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Malalas"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"wonder of the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonders_of_the_ancient_world"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA471_471]-72"},{"link_name":"Antoninus Pius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoninus_Pius"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CT''2010-50"},{"link_name":"Venus Heliopolitana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_Heliopolitana"},{"link_name":"Bacchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus"},{"link_name":"Heliopolitan Triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolitan_Triad"},{"link_name":"Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"Praeneste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeneste"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Italy"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10635_552%E2%80%93553]-74"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"centurion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centurion"},{"link_name":"vine staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vine_staff"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10636_553]-75"},{"link_name":"Septimius Severus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus"},{"link_name":"ius Italicum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius_Italicum"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Julia Domna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Domna"},{"link_name":"Caracalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracalla"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Syria"},{"link_name":"Emesan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emesa"},{"link_name":"Elagabalus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elagabalus"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA471_471]-72"},{"link_name":"rise of Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea"},{"link_name":"Caesarea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima"},{"link_name":"Gelasinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelasinus"},{"link_name":"baptism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism"},{"link_name":"stone him to death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoning"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"idols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idolatry"},{"link_name":"cannibalised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cannibalism"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"Bar Hebraeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus"},{"link_name":"polygamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygamy"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10637_554]-73"},{"link_name":"Julian the Apostate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"Alexandrians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10639_556]-82"},{"link_name":"Theodosius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10638_555]-83"},{"link_name":"Easter Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Rabbula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbula"},{"link_name":"bishop of Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Edessa"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10638_555]-83"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"Justinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I"},{"link_name":"Corinthian columns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthian_order"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Hagia Sophia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Michael the Syrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_the_Syrian"},{"link_name":"Justin II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_II"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10638_555]-83"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878177-85"}],"sub_title":"Antiquity","text":"Reconstruction of Temple of Jupiter/Baalbek\nRoman Heliopolis and its surroundings in the 2nd and the 3rd century.After Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia in the 330s BC, Baalbek (under its Hellenic name Heliopolis) formed part of the Diadochi kingdoms of Egypt & Syria. It was annexed by the Romans during their eastern wars. The settlers of the Roman colony Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Heliopolitana may have arrived as early as the time of Caesar[3][42] but were more probably the veterans of the 5th and 8th Legions under Augustus,[34][52][21] during which time it hosted a Roman garrison.[3] From 15 BC to AD 193, it formed part of the territory of Berytus. It is mentioned in Josephus,[53] Pliny,[54] Strabo,[55] and Ptolemy[56] and on coins of nearly every emperor from Nerva to Gallienus.[3] The 1st-century Pliny did not number it among the Decapolis, the \"Ten Cities\" of Coelesyria, while the 2nd-century Ptolemy did.[56] The population likely varied seasonally with market fairs and the schedules of the Indian monsoon and caravans to the coast and interior.[57]Corinthian capitals ornamenting the columns of the Temple of BacchusDuring Classical Antiquity, the city's temple to Baʿal Haddu was conflated first with the worship of the Greek sun god Helios[21] and then with the Greek and Roman sky god under the name \"Heliopolitan Zeus\" or \"Jupiter\". The present Temple of Jupiter presumably replaced an earlier one using the same foundation;[e] it was constructed during the mid-1st century and probably completed around AD 60.[f][61] His idol was a beardless golden god in the pose of a charioteer, with a whip raised in his right hand and a thunderbolt and stalks of grain in his left;[64] its image appeared on local coinage and it was borne through the streets during several festivals throughout the year.[62] Macrobius compared the rituals to those for Diva Fortuna at Antium and says the bearers were the principal citizens of the town, who prepared for their role with abstinence, chastity, and shaved heads.[62] In bronze statuary attested from Byblos in Phoenicia and Tortosa in Spain, he was encased in a pillarlike term and surrounded (like the Greco-Persian Mithras) by busts representing the sun, moon, and five known planets.[65] In these statues, the bust of Mercury is made particularly prominent; a marble stela at Massilia in Transalpine Gaul shows a similar arrangement but enlarges Mercury into a full figure.[65] Local cults also revered the Baetylia, black conical stones considered sacred to Baʿal.[57] One of these was taken to Rome by the emperor Elagabalus, a former priest \"of the sun\" at nearby Emesa,[66] who erected a temple for it on the Palatine Hill.[57] Heliopolis was a noted oracle and pilgrimage site, whence the cult spread far afield, with inscriptions to the Heliopolitan god discovered in Athens, Rome, Pannonia, Venetia, Gaul, and near the Wall in Britain.[63] The Roman temple complex grew up from the early part of the reign of Augustus in the late 1st century BC until the rise of Christianity in the 4th century. (The 6th-century chronicles of John Malalas of Antioch, which claimed Baalbek as a \"wonder of the world\",[66] credited most of the complex to the 2nd-century Antoninus Pius, but it is uncertain how reliable his account is on the point.)[47] By that time, the complex housed three temples on Tell Baalbek: one to Jupiter Heliopolitanus (Baʿal), one to Venus Heliopolitana (Ashtart), and a third to Bacchus. On a nearby hill, a fourth temple was dedicated to the third figure of the Heliopolitan Triad, Mercury (Adon or Seimios[67]). Ultimately, the site vied with Praeneste in Italy as the two largest sanctuaries in the Western world.The emperor Trajan consulted the site's oracle twice. The first time, he requested a written reply to his sealed and unopened question; he was favorably impressed by the god's blank reply as his own paper had been empty.[68] He then inquired whether he would return alive from his wars against Parthia and received in reply a centurion's vine staff, broken to pieces.[69] In AD 193, Septimius Severus granted the city ius Italicum rights.[70][g] His wife Julia Domna and son Caracalla toured Egypt and Syria in AD 215; inscriptions in their honour at the site may date from that occasion; Julia was a Syrian native whose father had been an Emesan priest \"of the sun\" like Elagabalus.[66]The town became a battleground upon the rise of Christianity.[67][h] Early Christian writers such as Eusebius (from nearby Caesarea) repeatedly execrated the practices of the local pagans in their worship of the Heliopolitan Venus. In AD 297, the actor Gelasinus converted in the middle of a scene mocking baptism; his public profession of faith provoked the audience to drag him from the theater and stone him to death.[67][3] In the early 4th century, the deacon Cyril defaced many of the idols in Heliopolis; he was killed and (allegedly) cannibalised.[67] Around the same time, Constantine, though not yet a Christian, demolished the goddess' temple, raised a basilica in its place, and outlawed the locals' ancient custom of prostituting women before marriage.[67] Bar Hebraeus also credited him with ending the locals' continued practice of polygamy.[73] The enraged locals responded by raping and torturing Christian virgins.[67] They reacted violently again under the freedom permitted to them by Julian the Apostate.[3] The city was so noted for its hostility to the Christians that Alexandrians were banished to it as a special punishment.[3] The Temple of Jupiter, already greatly damaged by earthquakes,[74] was demolished under Theodosius in 379 and replaced by another basilica (now lost), using stones scavenged from the pagan complex.[75] The Easter Chronicle states he was also responsible for destroying all the lesser temples and shrines of the city.[76] Around the year 400, Rabbula, the future bishop of Edessa, attempted to have himself martyred by disrupting the pagans of Baalbek but was only thrown down the temple stairs along with his companion.[75] It became the seat of its own bishop as well.[3] Under the reign of Justinian, eight of the complex's Corinthian columns were disassembled and shipped to Constantinople for incorporation in the rebuilt Hagia Sophia sometime between 532 and 537.[citation needed] Michael the Syrian claimed the golden idol of Heliopolitan Jupiter was still to be seen during the reign of Justin II (560s & 570s),[75] and, up to the time of its conquest by the Muslims, it was renowned for its palaces, monuments, and gardens.[77]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Old_Mosque,_Baalbek_WDL2449.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BaalbekMosquePillars.jpg"},{"link_name":"mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque"},{"link_name":"Mamluk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Muslim army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_army"},{"link_name":"AH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH_(era)"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10638_555]-83"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA473_473]-21"},{"link_name":"Abu ʿUbaidah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_%CA%BFUbaidah"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"defeat at 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al-Khadim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ata_al-Khadim&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Banyas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banias"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenning_&_al.2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidubflCAAAQBAJpgPA138_138]-89"},{"link_name":"Dahhak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dahhak_ibn_Jandal&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wadi al-Taym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadi_al-Taym"},{"link_name":"Nur ad-Din","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_ad-Din,_atabeg_of_Aleppo"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenning_&_al.2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidubflCAAAQBAJpgPA141_141%E2%80%93142]-90"},{"link_name":"Idrisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA475_475%E2%80%93476]-91"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism"},{"link_name":"Benjamin of Tudela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CT''2010-50"},{"link_name":"Crusaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusaders"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_of_war"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlouf1944[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqiyY1CKE9SICpgPA94_94]-92"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlouf1944[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqiyY1CKE9SICpgPA94_94]-92"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878177-85"},{"link_name":"Ismaʿil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail_al-Malik"},{"link_name":"Saladin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Muqaddam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shams_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_al-Muqaddam"},{"link_name":"Ayyubid victory at the Horns of Hama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Horns_of_Hama"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA52_52]-93"},{"link_name":"Baldwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_IV_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"king of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAkCKZ9Hs4-QCpgPA63_63]-94"},{"link_name":"Raymond of Tripoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_III_of_Tripoli"},{"link_name":"Beqaa Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERunciman1951[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQL88AAAAIAAJpgPA410_410]-95"},{"link_name":"Humphrey of Toron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_II_of_Toron"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERunciman1951[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQL88AAAAIAAJpgPA410_410]-95"},{"link_name":"Turan Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turan_Shah"},{"link_name":"Ayn al-Jarr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_al-Jarr"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlouf1944[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqiyY1CKE9SICpgPA94_94]-92"},{"link_name":"Turan Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turan_Shah"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESato1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMycQL-9_bqwCpgPA57_57]-96"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRfO1J6hjcdgCpgPA572_572]-97"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEK%C3%B6hler2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtYG0AQAAQBAJpgPA226_226]-98"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons_&_al.1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkRF1F3wK26YCpgPA132_132%E2%80%93133]-99"},{"link_name":"Baʿrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%CA%BFrin"},{"link_name":"Kafr Tab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafartab"},{"link_name":"al-Maʿarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%CA%BFarra"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons_&_al.1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkRF1F3wK26YCpgPA132_132%E2%80%93133]-99"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESato1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidMycQL-9_bqwCpgPA58_58]-100"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaldwin1969[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRfO1J6hjcdgCpgPA572_572]-97"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyons_&_al.1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkRF1F3wK26YCpgPA132_132%E2%80%93133]-99"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA52_52]-93"},{"link_name":"Farrukh Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukh_Shah"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumphreys1977[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJfXl5kvabhoCpgPA52_52]-93"},{"link_name":"Bahram Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahram_Shah"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"al-Ashraf Musa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Musa,_Emir_of_Damascus"},{"link_name":"as-Salih Ismail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Salih_Ismail_(Ayyubid_emir)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"al-Kamil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kamil"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVenning_&_al.2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidubflCAAAQBAJpgPA299_299]-101"},{"link_name":"as-Salih Ayyub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As-Salih_Ayyub"},{"link_name":"Saʿd al-Din al-Humaidi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%CA%BFd_al-Din_al-Humaidi"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Turan Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Muazzam_Turanshah"},{"link_name":"al-Nasir Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nasir_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"sultan of Aleppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_of_Aleppo"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Mongolian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kitbuqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitbuqa"},{"link_name":"Qutuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutuz"},{"link_name":"sultan of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA543_543]-25"},{"link_name":"Qalawun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalawun"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Abulfeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abulfeda"},{"link_name":"Hamathite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA476_476]-102"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlouf1944[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqiyY1CKE9SICpgPA96_96]-103"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlouf1944[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqiyY1CKE9SICpgPA96_96]-103"},{"link_name":"Timur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"}],"sub_title":"Middle Ages","text":"The ruins of a Baalbek mosque c. 1900The probable remains of a medieval mosque in front of some of the Mamluk fortificationsBaalbek was occupied by the Muslim army in AD 634 (AH 13),[75] in 636,[20] or under Abu ʿUbaidah following the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk in 637 (AH 16),[citation needed] either peacefully and by agreement[22] or following a heroic defense and yielding 2,000 oz (57 kg) of gold, 4,000 oz (110 kg) of silver, 2000 silk vests, and 1000 swords.[77] The ruined temple complex was fortified under the name al-Qala' (lit. \"The Fortress\")[75] but was sacked with great violence by the Damascene caliph Marwan II in 748, at which time it was dismantled and largely depopulated.[77] It formed part of the district of Damascus under the Umayyads and Abbasids before being conquered by Fatimid Egypt in 942.[22] In the mid-10th century, it was said to have \"gates of palaces sculptured in marble and lofty columns also of marble\" and that it was the most \"stupendous\" and \"considerable\" location in the whole of Syria.[20] It was sacked and razed by the Byzantines under John I in 974,[22] raided by Basil II in 1000,[78] and occupied by Salih ibn Mirdas, emir of Aleppo, in 1025.[22]In 1075, it was finally lost to the Fatimids on its conquest by Tutush I, Seljuk emir of Damascus.[22] It was briefly held by Muslim ibn Quraysh, emir of Aleppo, in 1083; after its recovery, it was ruled in the Seljuks' name by the eunuch Gümüshtegin until he was deposed for conspiring against the usurper Toghtekin in 1110.[22] Toghtekin then gave the town to his son Buri. Upon Buri's succession to Damascus on his father's death in 1128, he granted the area to his son Muhammad.[22] After Buri's murder, Muhammad successfully defended himself against the attacks of his brothers Ismaʿil and Mahmud and gave Baalbek to his vizier Unur.[22] In July 1139, Zengi, atabeg of Aleppo and stepfather of Mahmud, besieged Baalbek with 14 catapults. The outer city held until 10 October and the citadel until the 21st,[79] when Unur surrendered upon a promise of safe passage.[80] In December, Zengi negotiated with Muhammad, offering to trade Baalbek or Homs for Damascus, but Unur convinced the atabeg to refuse.[79] Zengi strengthened its fortifications and bestowed the territory on his lieutenant Ayyub, father of Saladin. Upon Zengi's assassination in 1146, Ayyub surrendered the territory to Unur, who was acting as regent for Muhammad's son Abaq. It was granted to the eunuch Ata al-Khadim,[22] who also served as viceroy of Damascus.In December 1151, it was raided by the garrison of Banyas as a reprisal for its role in a Turcoman raid on Banyas.[81] Following Ata's murder, his nephew Dahhak, emir of the Wadi al-Taym, ruled Baalbek. He was forced to relinquish it to Nur ad-Din in 1154[22] after Ayyub had successfully intrigued against Abaq from his estates near Baalbek. Ayyub then administered the area from Damascus on Nur ad-Din's behalf.[82] In the mid-12th century, Idrisi mentioned Baalbek's two temples and the legend of their origin under Solomon;[83] it was visited by the Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela in 1170.[47]Baalbek's citadel served as a jail for Crusaders taken by the Zengids as prisoners of war.[84] In 1171, these captives successfully overpowered their guards and took possession of the castle from its garrison. Muslims from the surrounding area gathered, however, and entered the castle through a secret passageway shown to them by a local. The Crusaders were then massacred.[84]Three major earthquakes occurred in the 12th century, in 1139, 1157, and 1170.[77] The one in 1170 ruined Baalbek's walls and, though Nur ad-Din repaired them, his young heir Ismaʿil was made to yield it to Saladin by a 4-month siege in 1174.[22] Having taken control of Damascus on the invitation of its governor Ibn al-Muqaddam, Saladin rewarded him with the emirate of Baalbek following the Ayyubid victory at the Horns of Hama in 1175.[85] Baldwin, the young leper king of Jerusalem, came of age the next year, ending the Crusaders' treaty with Saladin.[86] His former regent, Raymond of Tripoli, raided the Beqaa Valley from the west in the summer, suffering a slight defeat at Ibn al-Muqaddam's hands.[87] He was then joined by the main army, riding north under Baldwin and Humphrey of Toron;[87] they defeated Saladin's elder brother Turan Shah in August at Ayn al-Jarr and plundered Baalbek.[84] Upon the deposition of Turan Shah for neglecting his duties in Damascus, however, he demanded his childhood home[88] of Baalbek as compensation. Ibn al-Muqaddam did not consent and Saladin opted to invest the city in late 1178 to maintain peace within his own family.[89] An attempt to pledge fealty to the Christians at Jerusalem was ignored on behalf of an existing treaty with Saladin.[90] The siege was maintained peacefully through the snows of winter, with Saladin waiting for the \"foolish\" commander and his garrison of \"ignorant scum\" to come to terms.[91] Sometime in spring, Ibn al-Muqaddam yielded and Saladin accepted his terms, granting him Baʿrin, Kafr Tab, and al-Maʿarra.[91][92] The generosity quieted unrest among Saladin's vassals through the rest of his reign[89] but led his enemies to attempt to take advantage of his presumed weakness.[91] He did not permit Turan Shah to retain Baalbek very long, though, instructing him to lead the Egyptian troops returning home in 1179 and appointing him to a sinecure in Alexandria.[85] Baalbek was then granted to his nephew Farrukh Shah, whose family ruled it for the next half-century.[85] When Farrukh Shah died three years later, his son Bahram Shah was only a child but he was permitted his inheritance and ruled til 1230.[22] He was followed by al-Ashraf Musa, who was succeeded by his brother as-Salih Ismail,[22] who received it in 1237 as compensation for being deprived of Damascus by their brother al-Kamil.[93] It was seized in 1246 after a year of assaults by as-Salih Ayyub, who bestowed it upon Saʿd al-Din al-Humaidi.[22] When as-Salih Ayyub's successor Turan Shah was murdered in 1250, al-Nasir Yusuf, the sultan of Aleppo, seized Damascus and demanded Baalbek's surrender. Instead, its emir did homage and agreed to regular payments of tribute.[22]The Mongolian general Kitbuqa took Baalbek in 1260 and dismantled its fortifications. Later in the same year, however, Qutuz, the sultan of Egypt, defeated the Mongols and placed Baalbek under the rule of their emir in Damascus.[22] Most of the city's still-extant fine mosque and fortress architecture dates to the reign of the sultan Qalawun in the 1280s.[citation needed] By the early 14th century, Abulfeda the Hamathite was describing the city's \"large and strong fortress\".[94] The revived settlement was again destroyed by a flood on 10 May 1318, when water from the east and northeast made holes 30 m (98 ft) wide in walls 4 m (13 ft) thick.[95] 194 people were killed and 1500 houses, 131 shops, 44 orchards, 17 ovens, 11 mills, and 4 aqueducts were ruined, along with the town's mosque and 13 other religious and educational buildings.[95] In 1400, Timur pillaged the town,[96] and there was further destruction from a 1459 earthquake.[97]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg"},{"link_name":"rest of Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Selim the Grim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_the_Grim"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"},{"link_name":"Shiites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam"},{"link_name":"Beqaa Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"sanjak of Homs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjak_of_Homs"},{"link_name":"iltizam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iltizam"},{"link_name":"Harfush family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harfush_clan"},{"link_name":"Zahlé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahl%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Sidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidon"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"tourists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tourism"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10639_556]-82"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878178-107"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"Donne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bodham_Donne"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781037-61"},{"link_name":"Roman temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_temple"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Robert Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wood_(antiquarian)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1757-2"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"ceiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osterley_House"},{"link_name":"Robert Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adam"},{"link_name":"St George's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_George%27s,_Bloomsbury"},{"link_name":"Bloomsbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"walnut trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walnut_tree"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVolney1787224-52"},{"link_name":"1759 earthquakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_East_earthquakes_of_1759"},{"link_name":"Metawali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metawali"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Jezzar Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezzar_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre_Province_(Ottoman_Empire)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAddison1838-124"},{"link_name":"kaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaza"},{"link_name":"Damascus Eyalet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus_Eyalet"},{"link_name":"kaymakam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaymakam"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"}],"sub_title":"Early modernity","text":"Baalbek & environs, c. 1856In 1516, Baalbek was conquered with the rest of Syria by the Ottoman sultan Selim the Grim.[97] In recognition of their prominence among the Shiites of the Beqaa Valley, the Ottomans awarded the sanjak of Homs and local iltizam concessions to Baalbek's Harfush family. Like the Hamadas, the Harfush emirs were involved on more than one occasion in the selection of Church officials and the running of local monasteries. Tradition holds that many Christians quit the Baalbek region in the eighteenth century for the newer, more secure town of Zahlé on account of the Harfushes' oppression and rapacity, but more critical studies have questioned this interpretation, pointing out that the Harfushes were closely allied to the Orthodox Ma'luf family of Zahlé (where indeed Mustafa Harfush took refuge some years later) and showing that depredations from various quarters as well as Zahlé's growing commercial attractiveness accounted for Baalbek's decline in the eighteenth century. What repression there was did not always target the Christian community per se. The Shiite 'Usayran family, for example, is also said to have left Baalbek in this period to avoid expropriation by the Harfushes, establishing itself as one of the premier commercial households of Sidon and later even serving as consuls of Iran.[98]From the 16th century, European tourists began to visit the colossal and picturesque ruins.[74][99][i] Donne hyperbolised \"No ruins of antiquity have attracted more attention than those of Heliopolis, or been more frequently or accurately measured and described.\"[57] Misunderstanding the temple of Bacchus as the \"Temple of the Sun\", they considered it the best-preserved Roman temple in the world.[citation needed] The Englishman Robert Wood's 1757 Ruins of Balbec[2] included carefully measured engravings that proved influential on British and Continental Neoclassical architects. For example, details of the Temple of Bacchus's ceiling inspired a bed[123] and ceiling by Robert Adam and its portico inspired that of St George's in Bloomsbury.[124]During the 18th century, the western approaches were covered with attractive groves of walnut trees,[48] but the town itself suffered badly during the 1759 earthquakes, after which it was held by the Metawali, who again feuded with other Lebanese tribes.[citation needed] Their power was broken by Jezzar Pasha, the rebel governor of Acre, in the last half of the 18th century.[citation needed] All the same, Baalbek remained no destination for a traveller unaccompanied by an armed guard.[citation needed] Upon the pasha's death in 1804, chaos ensued until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt occupied the area in 1831, after which it again passed into the hands of the Harfushes.[97] In 1835, the town's population was barely 200 people.[116] In 1850, the Ottomans finally began direct administration of the area, making Baalbek a kaza under the Damascus Eyalet and its governor a kaymakam.[97]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbek-stoneofpregnantwoman.jpg"},{"link_name":"The largest stone at Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_the_Pregnant_Woman#Second_monolith"},{"link_name":"Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_II,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10639_556]-82"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10639_556]-82"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA476_476]-102"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romans"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiegand1925-134"},{"link_name":"Otto Puchstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Puchstein"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10639_556]-82"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiegand1925-134"},{"link_name":"skeletons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletons"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire"},{"link_name":"sherd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherd"},{"link_name":"cuneiform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJidejian197515-135"},{"link_name":"Jean-Pierre Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Adam"},{"link_name":"machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine"},{"link_name":"capstans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capstan_(nautical)"},{"link_name":"pulley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulley"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdam_&_al.199935-136"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdam1977-137"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"PPNB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPNB"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"sherds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherd"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenz2010-139"},{"link_name":"German Archaeological Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute"},{"link_name":"Lebanese University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_University"},{"link_name":"world's largest ancient block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_largest_ancient_block#Monoliths"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKehrer2014-140"}],"sub_title":"Excavations","text":"The largest stone at Baalbek, uncovered in 2014Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany and his wife passed through Baalbek on 1 November 1898,[74] on their way to Jerusalem. He noted both the magnificence of the Roman remains and the drab condition of the modern settlement.[74] It was expected at the time that natural disasters, winter frosts, and the raiding of building materials by the city's residents would shortly ruin the remaining ruins.[94] The archaeological team he dispatched began work within a month. Despite finding nothing they could date prior to Baalbek's Roman occupation,[125] Otto Puchstein and his associates worked until 1904[74] and produced a meticulously researched and thoroughly illustrated series of volumes.[125] Later excavations under the Roman flagstones in the Great Court unearthed three skeletons and a fragment of Persian pottery dated to the 6th–4th centuries BC. The sherd featured cuneiform letters.[126]In 1977, Jean-Pierre Adam made a brief study suggesting most of the large blocks could have been moved on rollers with machines using capstans and pulley blocks, a process which he theorised could use 512 workers to move a 557 tonnes (614 tons) block.[127][128] \"Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman architecture at its apogee\", UNESCO reported in making Baalbek a World Heritage Site in 1984.[129] When the committee inscribed the site, it expressed the wish that the protected area include the entire town within the Arab walls, as well as the southwestern extramural quarter between Bastan-al-Khan, the Roman site and the Mameluk mosque of Ras-al-Ain. Lebanon's representative gave assurances that the committee's wish would be honoured. Recent cleaning operations at the Temple of Jupiter discovered the deep trench at its edge, whose study pushed back the date of Tell Baalbek's settlement to the PPNB Neolithic. Finds included pottery sherds including a spout dating to the early Bronze Age.[130] In the summer of 2014, a team from the German Archaeological Institute led by Jeanine Abdul Massih of the Lebanese University discovered a sixth, much larger stone suggested to be the world's largest ancient block. The stone was found underneath and next to the Stone of the Pregnant Woman (\"Hajjar al-Hibla\") and measures around 19.6 m × 6 m × 5.5 m (64 ft × 20 ft × 18 ft). It is estimated to weigh 1,650 tonnes (1,820 tons).[131]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_DB.jpg"},{"link_name":"DHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut%E2%80%93Damascus_Railway"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_French_Republic"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-back-141"},{"link_name":"standard-gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard-gauge"},{"link_name":"Riyaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyaq"},{"link_name":"Aleppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-riho-142"},{"link_name":"Beirut–Damascus Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut%E2%80%93Damascus_Railway"},{"link_name":"gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_gauge"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-riho-142"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"Sunnis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam"},{"link_name":"Shia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiites"},{"link_name":"Mutawalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Shia_Muslims#Shia_Twelvers_(Metouali)"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"},{"link_name":"Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Maronites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronites"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''191189-56"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_France"},{"link_name":"Georges Catroux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Catroux"},{"link_name":"independence of Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_of_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-riho-142"},{"link_name":"Lebanese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Baalbek International Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baalbeck_International_Festival"},{"link_name":"Musa al-Sadr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_al-Sadr"},{"link_name":"Movement of the Deprived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amal_Movement#Harakat_al-Mahrumin_/Movement_of_the_Deprived"},{"link_name":"Shia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"Amal Militia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amal_Militia"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"Israeli invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War"},{"link_name":"Nabih Berri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabih_Berri"},{"link_name":"Hussein Musawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussein_Musawi"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"Hizbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizbollah"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary Guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary_Guards"},{"link_name":"Iran Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"Shia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia"},{"link_name":"Jebchit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebchit"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"IAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"al Manar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Manar"},{"link_name":"Kiryat Shmona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiryat_Shmona"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Locations_bombed_Aug13_no_fact_box.jpg"},{"link_name":"Second Lebanon War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Lebanon_War"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"A detail from a 1911 map of Turkey in Asia, showing Baalbek's former rail connectionsBaalbek was connected to the DHP, the French-owned railway concession in Ottoman Syria, on 19 June 1902.[132] It formed a station on the standard-gauge line between Riyaq to its south and Aleppo (now in Syria) to its north.[133] This Aleppo Railway connected to the Beirut–Damascus Railway but—because that line was built to a 1.05-meter gauge—all traffic had to be unloaded and reloaded at Riyaq.[133] Just before the First World War, the population was still around 5000, about 2000 each of Sunnis and Shia Mutawalis[97] and 1000 Orthodox and Maronites.[52] The French general Georges Catroux proclaimed the independence of Lebanon in 1941 but colonial rule continued until 1943. Baalbek still has its railway station[133] but service has been discontinued since the 1970s, originally owing to the Lebanese Civil War.The Roman ruins have been the setting for the long running Baalbek International Festival.In March 1974, Musa al-Sadr announced the launching of the \"Movement of the Deprived\" in front of a rally in Baalbek attended by 75,000 men. Its objective was to stand up for Lebanon's neglected Shia community. In his speech he referred to Baalbek’s lack of a secondary school and the state of local irrigation compared to the Roman era. His audience included several thousand armed men and the start of the event was delayed due to celebratory gunfire.[134] He also announced the setting up of military training camps to train villagers in southern Lebanon to protect their homes from Israeli attacks. These camps led to the creation of the Amal Militia.[135] In 1982, at the height of the Israeli invasion, Amal split into two factions over Nabih Berri's acceptance of the American plan to evacuate Palestinians from West Beirut. A large number of dissidents, led by Amal's military commander Hussein Musawi moved to Baalbek.[136] Once established in the town the group, which was to evolve into Hizbollah, began to work with Iranian Revolutionary Guards, veterans of the Iran Iraq War. The following year the Iranians established their headquarters in the Sheikh Abdullah barracks in Baalbek.[137] Ultimately there were between 1,500 and 2,000 Revolutionary Guards in Lebanon,[138] with outposts further south in the Shia villages, such as Jebchit.[139]On 24/25 June 1999, following elections in Israel and the new administration undecided, the IAF launched two massive air raids across Lebanon. One of the targets was the al Manar radio station’s offices in a four storey building in Baalbek which was completely demolished. The attacks also hit Beirut’s power stations and bridges on the roads to the south. An estimated $52 million damage was caused. Eleven Lebanese were killed as well as two Israelis in Kiryat Shmona.[140]A map of Israeli bombing during the Second Lebanon War. Baalbek was a major target, with more than 70 bombs dropped.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007124-150"},{"link_name":"Israeli Defense Forces (IDF)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Defense_Forces"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timetimetime-151"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mxm-152"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007124-150"},{"link_name":"Operation Sharp and Smooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sharp_and_Smooth"},{"link_name":"Ehud Goldwasser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehud_Goldwasser"},{"link_name":"Eldad Regev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldad_Regev"},{"link_name":"Hezbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007124-150"},{"link_name":"Apache helicopters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_helicopter"},{"link_name":"unmanned drones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAV"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timetimetime-151"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007124-150"},{"link_name":"IDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Defense_Forces"},{"link_name":"al-Jazeera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Arabic"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Yazbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Yazbek"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mxm-152"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timetimetime-151"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007124-150"},{"link_name":"Hassan Nasrallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007127-153"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007127%E2%80%93128-154"},{"link_name":"Brital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brital"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007137-155"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHRW2007164%E2%80%93165-156"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-157"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-157"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-157"}],"sub_title":"2006 Lebanon War","text":"On the evening of 1 August 2006,[141] hundreds of Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) soldiers raided Baalbek and the Dar al-Hikma[142] or Hikmeh Hospital[143] in Jamaliyeh[141] to its north (\"Operation Sharp and Smooth\"). Their mission was to rescue two captured soldiers, Ehud Goldwasser and Eldad Regev, who were abducted by Hezbollah on 12 July 2006. They were transported by helicopter[141] and supported by Apache helicopters and unmanned drones,[142][141] The IDF was acting on information that Goldwasser and Regev were at the hospital. al-Jazeera and other sources claimed the IDF was attempting to capture senior Hezbollah officials, particularly Sheikh Mohammad Yazbek.[143] The hospital had been empty for four days, the most unwell patients having been transferred and the rest sent home.[142] No Israelis were killed;[141] Five civilians were abducted and interrogated by the Israelis, presumably because one shared his name with Hassan Nasrallah, the secretary general of Hezbollah;[144] they were released on August 21.[145] Another 9 civilians were killed on 7 August by a strike in the middle of Brital, just south of Baalbek, and by the subsequent attack on the car leaving the scene for the hospital.[146] On 14 August just before the ceasefire took effect, two Lebanese police and five Lebanese soldiers were killed by a drone strike while driving their van around the still-damaged road through Jamaliyeh.[147]Conservation work at Lebanon's historic sites began in October.[148] The ruins at Baalbek were not directly hit but the effects of blasts during the conflict toppled a block of stones at the Roman ruins and existing cracks in the temples of Jupiter and Bacchus were feared to have widened.[148] Frederique Husseini, director-general of Lebanon's Department of Antiquities, requested $550,000 from Europeans to restore Baalbek's souk and another $900,000 for repairs to other damaged structures.[148]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter,_Baalbek"},{"link_name":"Temple of Bacchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bacchus"},{"link_name":"Stone of the Pregnant Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_the_Pregnant_Woman"},{"link_name":"Temples of the Beqaa Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temples_of_the_Beqaa_Valley"},{"link_name":"List of Roman monoliths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_monoliths"},{"link_name":"List of ancient architectural records § Monoliths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_architectural_records#Monoliths"},{"link_name":"List of largest monoliths in the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths_in_the_world"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbek_1.png"},{"link_name":"Puchstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Puchstein"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''191190-158"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EI''1913[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzJU3AAAAIAAJpgPA544_544]-105"},{"link_name":"granite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite"},{"link_name":"marble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781038-53"},{"link_name":"iconoclasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclasm"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781037-61"},{"link_name":"Qubbat Duris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubbat_Duris"},{"link_name":"Muslim shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubba"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781038-53"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA459_459]-159"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''DGRG''18781038-53"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThevet1554-111"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10643_560]-160"},{"link_name":"1759 earthquakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_East_earthquakes_of_1759"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1757-2"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"vague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness"},{"link_name":"[j]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"monoliths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith"},{"link_name":"Three Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilithon"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Trílithon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilithon"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA456_456]-44"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdam197752-162"},{"link_name":"Stone of the Pregnant 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Tell Baalbek temple complex, fortified as the town's citadel during the Middle Ages,[97] was constructed from local stone, mostly white granite and a rough white marble.[49] Over the years, it has suffered from the region's numerous earthquakes, the iconoclasm of Christian and Muslim lords,[57] and the reuse of the temples' stone for fortification and other construction. The nearby Qubbat Duris, a 13th-century Muslim shrine on the old road to Damascus, is built out of granite columns, apparently removed from Baalbek.[49] Further, the jointed columns were once banded together with iron; many were gouged open[150] or toppled by the emirs of Damascus to get at the metal.[49] As late as the 16th century, the Temple of Jupiter still held 27 standing columns[103] out of an original 58;[151] there were only nine before the 1759 earthquakes[2] and six today.[when?]The complex is located on an immense[vague] raised plaza erected 5 m (16 ft) over an earlier T-shaped base consisting of a podium, staircase, and foundation walls.[j] These walls were built from about 24 monoliths, at their lowest level weighing approximately 300 tonnes (330 tons) each. The tallest retaining wall, on the west, has a second course of monoliths containing the famous \"Three Stones\" (Greek: Τρίλιθον, Trílithon):[41] a row of three stones, each over 19 m (62 ft) long, 4.3 m (14 ft) high, and 3.6 m (12 ft) broad, cut from limestone. They weigh approximately 800 tonnes (880 tons) each.[152] A fourth, still larger stone is called the Stone of the Pregnant Woman: it lies unused in a nearby quarry 800 m (2,600 ft) from the town.[153] Its weight, often exaggerated, is estimated at 1,000 tonnes (1,100 tons).[154] A fifth, still larger stone weighing approximately 1,200 tonnes (1,300 tons)[155] lies in the same quarry. This quarry was slightly higher than the temple complex,[127][156] so no lifting was required to move the stones. Through the foundation there run three enormous passages the size of railway tunnels.[41]The temple complex was entered from the east through the Propylaea (προπύλαιον, propýlaion) or Portico,[57] consisting of a broad staircase rising 20 feet (6.1 m)[157] to an arcade of 12 columns flanked by 2 towers.[74] Most of the columns have been toppled and the stairs were entirely dismantled for use in the nearby later wall,[41][k] but a Latin inscription remains on several of their bases stating that Longinus, a lifeguard of the 1st Parthian Legion, and Septimius, a freedman, gilded their capitals with bronze in gratitude for the safety of Septimius Severus's son Antoninus Caracalla and empress Julia Domna.[158][l]Immediately behind the Propylaeum is a hexagonal forecourt[74] reached through a threefold entrance[77] that was added in the mid-3rd century by the emperor Philip the Arab.[citation needed] Traces remain of the two series of columns which once encircled it, but its original function remains uncertain.[74] Donne reckoned it as the town's forum.[57] Badly preserved coins of the era led some to believe this was a sacred cypress grove, but better specimens show that the coins displayed a single stalk of grain instead.[159]The rectangular Great Court to its west covers around 3 or 4 acres (1.2 or 1.6 ha)[77] and included the main altar for burnt offering, with mosaic-floored lustration basins to its north and south, a subterranean chamber,[160] and three underground passageways 17 ft (5.2 m) wide by 30 ft (9.1 m) high, two of which run east and west and the third connecting them north and south, all bearing inscriptions suggesting their occupation by Roman soldiers.[77] These were surrounded by Corinthian porticoes, one of which was never completed.[160] The columns' bases and capitals were of limestone; the shafts were monoliths of highly polished red Egyptian granite 7.08 m (23.2 ft) high.[160] Six remain standing, out of an original 128.[citation needed] Inscriptions attest that the court was once adorned by portraits of Marcus Aurelius's daughter Sabina, Septimius Severus, Gordian, and Velius Rufus, dedicated by the city's Roman colonists.[160] The entablature was richly decorated but is now mostly ruined.[160] A westward-facing basilica was constructed over the altar during the reign of Theodosius; it was later altered to make it eastward-facing like most Christian churches.[75]The Great Court of ancient Heliopolis's temple complexThe Temple of Jupiter—once wrongly credited to Helios[161]—lay at the western end of the Great Court, raised another 7 m (23 ft) on a 47.7 m × 87.75 m (156.5 ft × 287.9 ft) platform reached by a wide staircase.[151] Under the Byzantines, it was also known as the \"Trilithon\" from the three massive stones in its foundation and, when taken together with the forecourt and Great Court, it is also known as the Great Temple.[149] The Temple of Jupiter proper was circled by a peristyle of 54 unfluted Corinthian columns:[162] 10 in front and back and 19 along each side.[151] The temple was ruined by earthquakes,[74] destroyed and pillaged for stone under Theodosius,[75] and 8 columns were taken to Constantinople (Istanbul) under Justinian for incorporation into the Hagia Sophia.[citation needed] Three fell during the late 18th century.[77] 6 columns, however, remain standing along its south side with their entablature.[151] Their capitals remain nearly perfect on the south side, while the Beqaa's winter winds have worn the northern faces almost bare.[163] The architrave and frieze blocks weigh up to 60 tonnes (66 tons) each, and one corner block over 100 tonnes (110 tons), all of them raised to a height of 19 m (62.34 ft) above the ground.[164] Individual Roman cranes were not capable of lifting stones this heavy. They may have simply been rolled into position along temporary earthen banks from the quarry[163] or multiple cranes may have been used in combination.[citation needed] They may also have alternated sides a little at a time, filling in supports underneath each time.[citation needed] The Julio-Claudian emperors enriched its sanctuary in turn. In the mid-1st century, Nero built the tower-altar opposite the temple. In the early 2nd century, Trajan added the temple's forecourt, with porticos of pink granite shipped from Aswan at the southern end of Egypt.[citation needed]The Temple of Bacchus—once wrongly credited to Jupiter[165][m]—may have been completed under Septimius Severus in the 190s, as his coins are the first to show it beside the Temple of Jupiter.[citation needed] It is the best preserved of the sanctuary's structures, as the other rubble from its ruins protected it.[citation needed] It is enriched by some of the most refined reliefs and sculpture to survive from antiquity.[150] The temple is surrounded by forty-two columns—8 along each end and 15 along each side[166]—nearly 20 m (66 ft) in height.[citation needed] These were probably erected in a rough state and then rounded, polished, and decorated in position.[150][n] The entrance was preserved as late as Pococke[109] and Wood,[2] but the keystone of the lintel had slid 2 ft (1 m) following the 1759 earthquakes; a column of rough masonry was erected in the 1860s or '70s to support it.[166] The 1759 earthquakes also damaged the area around the soffit's famed inscription of an eagle,[99] which was entirely covered by the keystone's supporting column. The area around the inscription of the eagle was greatly damaged by the 1759 earthquake.[99] The interior of the temple is divided into a 98 ft (30 m) nave and a 36 ft (11 m) adytum or sanctuary[166] on a platform raised 5 ft (2 m) above it and fronted by 13 steps.[150] The screen between the two sections once held reliefs of Neptune, Triton, Arion and his dolphin, and other marine figures[108] but these have been lost.[150] The temple was used as a kind of donjon for the medieval Arab and Turkish fortifications,[97] although its eastern steps were lost sometime after 1688.[167] Much of the portico was incorporated into a huge wall directly before its gate, but this was demolished in July 1870 by Barker[who?] on orders from Syria's governor Rashid Pasha.[166] Two spiral staircases in columns on either side of the entrance lead to the roof.[99]The Temple of Venus—also known as the Circular Temple or Nymphaeum[158]—was added under Septimius Severus in the early 3rd century[citation needed] but destroyed under Constantine, who raised a basilica in its place.[99] Jessup considered it the \"gem of Baalbek\".[158] It lies about 150 yd (140 m) from the southeast corner of the Temple of Bacchus.[158] It was known in the 19th century as El Barbara[158] or Barbarat el-Atikah (St Barbara's), having been used as a Greek Orthodox church into the 18th century.[99][o]The ancient walls of Heliopolis had a circumference of a little less than 4 mi (6 km).[57] Much of the extant fortifications around the complex date to the 13th century[75] reconstruction undertaken by the Mamluk sultan Qalawun following the devastation of the earlier defenses by the Mongol army under Kitbuqa.[22] This includes the great southeast tower.[97] The earliest round of fortifications were two walls to the southwest of the Temples of Jupiter and Bacchus.[97] The original southern gateway with two small towers was filled in and replaced by a new large tower flanked by curtains,[clarification needed] probably under Buri or Zengi.[97] Bahramshah replaced that era's southwest tower with one of his own in 1213 and built another in the northwest in 1224; the west tower was probably strengthened around the same time.[97] An inscription dates the barbican-like strengthening of the southern entrance to around 1240.[97] Qalawun relocated the two western curtains[clarification needed] nearer to the western tower, which was rebuilt with great blocks of stone. The barbican was repaired and more turns added to its approach.[97] From around 1300, no alterations were made to the fortifications apart from repairs such as Sultan Barkuk's restoration of the moat in preparation for Timur's arrival.[97]Material from the ruins is incorporated into a ruined mosque north of downtown[168] and probably also in the Qubbat Duris on the road to Damascus.[168] In the 19th century, a \"shell-topped canopy\" from the ruins was used nearby as a mihrab, propped up to show locals the direction of Mecca for their daily prayers.[168]","title":"Ruins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hussein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"}],"sub_title":"Tomb of Husayn's daughter","text":"Under a white dome further towards town is the tomb of Khawla, daughter of Hussein and granddaughter of Ali, who died in Baalbek while Husayn's family was being transported as prisoners to Damascus.[169][170]","title":"Ruins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heliopolis in Augustamnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_in_Augustamnica"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Rite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Rite"},{"link_name":"Eparchy of Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Eparchy_of_Baalbek"},{"link_name":"Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Archeparchy_of_Baalbek"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Heliopolis (in Phoenicia; not to be confused with the Egyptian bishopric Heliopolis in Augustamnica) was a bishopric under Roman and Byzantine rule, but it disappeared due to the Islamic rule.In 1701, Eastern Catholics (Byzantine Rite) established anew an Eparchy of Baalbek, which in 1964 was promoted to the present Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Baalbek.[citation needed]","title":"Ecclesiastical history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latin Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Church"},{"link_name":"Titular archbishopric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titular_archbishopric"},{"link_name":"Titular bishopric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titular_bishopric"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"Rimini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Rimini"},{"link_name":"Mario Mocenni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Mocenni"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Delegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Delegate"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Internuncio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Internuncio"},{"link_name":"Cardinal-Priest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal-Priest"},{"link_name":"S. Bartolomeo all'Isola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=S._Bartolomeo_all%27Isola&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cardinal-Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal-Bishop"},{"link_name":"Sabina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Sabina"},{"link_name":"Gerald O'Hara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_O%27Hara"},{"link_name":"Auxiliary Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_Bishop"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah"},{"link_name":"Savannah–Atlanta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah%E2%80%93Atlanta"},{"link_name":"Archbishop-Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop-Bishop"},{"link_name":"Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Nuncio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Nuncio"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Delegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Delegate"},{"link_name":"Titular Archbishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titular_Archbishop"},{"link_name":"Pessinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pessinus"},{"link_name":"Alcide Marina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcide_Marina"},{"link_name":"C.M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazarists"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Delegate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Delegate"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Administrator"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Apostolic_Vicariate_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Nuncio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Nuncio"},{"link_name":"Tlous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tlous&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Coadjutor Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coadjutor_Bishop"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz de la Sierra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Santa_Cruz_de_la_Sierra"},{"link_name":"Bolivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia"},{"link_name":"Sucre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Sucre"},{"link_name":"Raffaele Calabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffaele_Calabria"},{"link_name":"Coadjutor Archbishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coadjutor_Archbishop"},{"link_name":"Benevento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Benevento"},{"link_name":"Soteropolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soteropolis"},{"link_name":"Otranto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Otranto"},{"link_name":"Ottavio De Liva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottavio_De_Liva"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Internuncio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Internuncio"}],"sub_title":"Titular see","text":"In the Latin Church, the Ancient diocese was only nominally restored (no later than 1876) as Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis (Latin) / Eliopoli (Curiate Italian), demoted in 1925 to Episcopal Titular bishopric, promoted back in 1932, with its name changed (avoiding Egyptian confusion) in 1933 to (non-Metropolitan) Titular archbishopric of Heliopolis in Phoenicia.The title has not been assigned since 1965. It was held by:[171]Titular Archbishop: Luigi Poggi (1876.09.29 – death 1877.01.22) on emeritate (promoted) as former Bishop of Rimini (Italy) (1871.10.27 – 1876.09.29)\nTitular Archbishop: Mario Mocenni (1877.07.24 – 1893.01.16) as papal diplomat : Apostolic Delegate to Colombia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Honduras (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Ecuador (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Peru and Bolivia (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Delegate to Venezuela (1877.08.14 – 1882.03.28), Apostolic Internuncio to Brazil (1882.03.28 – 1882.10.18), created Cardinal-Priest of S. Bartolomeo all'Isola (1893.01.19 – 1894.05.18), promoted Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina (1894.05.18 – death 1904.11.14)\nTitular Archbishop: Augustinus Accoramboni (1896.06.22 – death 1899.05.17), without prelature\nTitular Archbishop: Robert John Seton (1903.06.22 – 1927.03.22), without prelature\nTitular Bishop: Gerald O'Hara (1929.04.26 – 1935.11.26) as Auxiliary Bishop of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania, USA) (1929.04.26 – 1935.11.26), later Bishop of Savannah (USA) (1935.11.26 – 1937.01.05), restyled (only) Bishop of Savannah–Atlanta (USA) (1937.01.05 – 1950.07.12), promoted Archbishop-Bishop of Savannah (1950.07.12 – 1959.11.12), also Apostolic Nuncio (papal ambassador) to Ireland (1951.11.27 – 1954.06.08), Apostolic Delegate to Great Britain (1954.06.08 – death 1963.07.16) and Titular Archbishop of Pessinus (1959.11.12 – 1963.07.16)\nTitular Archbishop: Alcide Marina, C.M. (1936.03.07 – death 1950.09.18), mainly as papal diplomat : Apostolic Delegate to Iran (1936.03.07 – 1945), Apostolic Administrator of Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Constantinople (Turkey) (1945–1947) and Apostolic Delegate to Turkey (1945–1947), Apostolic Nuncio to Lebanon (1947 – 1950.09.18)\nTitular Archbishop: Daniel Rivero Rivero (1951 – death 1960.05.23) (born Bolivia) on emeritate, formerly Titular Bishop of Tlous (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) as Coadjutor Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Bolivia) (1922.05.17 – 1931.03.30) succeeding as Bishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra (1931.03.30 – 1940.02.03), Metropolitan Archbishop of Sucre (Bolivia) (1940.02.03 – 1951)\nTitular Archbishop: Raffaele Calabria (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Benevento (Italy) (1960.07.12 – 1962.01.01), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Benevento (1962.01.01 – 1982.05.24); previously Titular Archbishop of Soteropolis (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10) as Coadjutor Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1950.05.06 – 1952.07.10), succeeding as Metropolitan Archbishop of Otranto (Italy) (1952.07.10 – 1960.07.12)\nTitular Archbishop: Ottavio De Liva (1962.04.18 – death 1965.08.23) as papal diplomat : Apostolic Internuncio to Indonesia (1962.04.18 – 1965.08.23).","title":"Ecclesiastical history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mediterranean climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_climate"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Climate-Data.org-187"}],"text":"Baalbek has a mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with significant continental influences. It is located in one of the drier regions of the country, giving it an annual average of 450 millimetres or 18 inches of rainfall compared with 800 to 850 millimetres (31 to 33 in) in coastal areas, overwhelmingly concentrated in the months from November to April. Baalbek has hot rainless summers with cool (and occasionally snowy) winters. Autumn and spring are mild and fairly rainy.Climate data for Baalbek\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nMean daily maximum °C (°F)\n\n7.1(44.8)\n\n8.8(47.8)\n\n13.5(56.3)\n\n18.3(64.9)\n\n23.5(74.3)\n\n28.4(83.1)\n\n31.6(88.9)\n\n31.7(89.1)\n\n28.3(82.9)\n\n22.9(73.2)\n\n15.8(60.4)\n\n10.3(50.5)\n\n20.0(68.0)\n\n\nDaily mean °C (°F)\n\n3.4(38.1)\n\n4.7(40.5)\n\n8.8(47.8)\n\n13.3(55.9)\n\n18.3(64.9)\n\n22.3(72.1)\n\n25.2(77.4)\n\n25.3(77.5)\n\n22.3(72.1)\n\n17.8(64.0)\n\n11.2(52.2)\n\n6.2(43.2)\n\n14.9(58.8)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °C (°F)\n\n−0.1(31.8)\n\n0.9(33.6)\n\n4.1(39.4)\n\n8.0(46.4)\n\n12.5(54.5)\n\n16.1(61.0)\n\n19.0(66.2)\n\n19.2(66.6)\n\n16.8(62.2)\n\n13.4(56.1)\n\n7.4(45.3)\n\n2.7(36.9)\n\n10.0(50.0)\n\n\nAverage precipitation mm (inches)\n\n71(2.8)\n\n67(2.6)\n\n54(2.1)\n\n34(1.3)\n\n26(1.0)\n\n4(0.2)\n\n1(0.0)\n\n2(0.1)\n\n6(0.2)\n\n23(0.9)\n\n45(1.8)\n\n56(2.2)\n\n389(15.2)\n\n\nSource: [172]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saint Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Barbara"},{"link_name":"Callinicus of Heliopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callinicus_of_Heliopolis"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Awza%27i"},{"link_name":"Qusta ibn Luqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa"},{"link_name":"Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Adi_ibn_Musafir"},{"link_name":"Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C4%81%CA%BE_al-d%C4%ABn_al-%CA%BF%C4%80mil%C4%AB"},{"link_name":"Lebanese-Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Iran"},{"link_name":"Rahme Haider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahme_Haider"},{"link_name":"Khalil Mutran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalil_Mutran"},{"link_name":"Juliana Awada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliana_Awada"},{"link_name":"Harfush dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harfush_dynasty"}],"text":"Saint Barbara (273–306)\nCallinicus of Heliopolis (c. 600 – c. 680), chemist and inventor\nAbd al-Rahman al-Awza'i (707–774)\nQusta ibn Luqa (820–912), mathematician and translator\nSheikh Adi ibn Musafir (1070s–1162)\nBahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī (1547–1621), Lebanese-Iranian scholar, philosopher, architect, mathematician, astronomer\nRahme Haider (born 1886), American lecturer from Baalbek\nKhalil Mutran (1872–1949), poet and journalist\nJuliana Awada, former First Lady of Argentina\nHarfush dynasty","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Letitia Elizabeth Landon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Ruins at Balbec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letitia_Elizabeth_Landon_(L._E._L.)_in_Fisher%27s_Drawing_Room_Scrap_Book,_1839/Ruins_at_Balbec"},{"link_name":"William Henry Bartlett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Bartlett"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"Ameen Rihani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameen_Rihani"},{"link_name":"The Book of Khalid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Khalid"},{"link_name":"Gérard de Villiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Villiers"}],"text":"Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration Ruins at Balbec. is on a painting by William Henry Bartlett entitled Six detached pillars of the Great Temple at Balbec, and was published in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839.[173]\nAmeen Rihani's The Book of Khalid (1911), the first English novel by an Arab-American, is set in Baalbek.\nThe events of the 1984 novel Les fous de Baalbek (SAS, #74) by Gérard de Villiers take place in Baalbek.","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_towns_and_sister_cities"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Bari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bari"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"L'Aquila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Aquila"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Thrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Yogyakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogyakarta_(city)"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"}],"text":"Baalbek is twinned with:Bari, Italy\n L'Aquila, Italy\n Thrace, Greece\n Yogyakarta, Indonesia.[174]","title":"Twin towns"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Round_Temple_and_the_Temple_of_the_Muses_located_outside_the_sanctuary_complex,_Heliopolis_(Baalbek),_Lebanon.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bacchus,_Baalbek,_Lebanon_(49890013476).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Propylaea_of_Baalbek_temples_complex_16062.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Court_of_Temples_Complex_in_Baalbek_(49856240571).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Venus,_Baalbek_14114.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbeck_Temple.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1873_Stieler_Map_of_Asia_Minor,_Syria_and_Israel_-_Palestine_(modern_Turkey)_-_Geographicus_-_Klein-AsienSyrien-stieler-1873.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbec._Panorama_-_Bonfils._LCCN93500455.jpg"},{"link_name":"Félix Bonfils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Bonfils"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Birdseye_View_of_Baalbek_and_the_Lebanons.jpg"},{"link_name":"rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo_Railway"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbek._General_view_04956r.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colossal_Hewn_Block,_Ancient_Quarries_Baalbek.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stone of the Pregnant Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_the_Pregnant_Woman"}],"text":"The Round Temple and the Temple of the Muses located outside the sanctuary complex\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTemple of Bacchus\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRemains of the Propylaeum, the eastern entrance to the site\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Great Court of Temples Complex\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTemple of Venus\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMassive columns of the Temple of Jupiter\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn 1873 German map of Asia Minor & Syria, with relief illustrating the Beqaa (El Bekaa) valley\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPanorama, around 1870, by Félix Bonfils\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBaalbek in 1910, after the arrival of rail\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe ruins of Baalbek facing west from the hexagonal forecourt in the 19th century\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe \"Stone of the Pregnant Woman\" in the early 20th century, the Temple of Jupiter in the background","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Cook's''1876-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1757-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''EB''1878176-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"Theodosius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJessup1881[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmzdQAQAAIAAJpgPA473_473]-21"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"Iunu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iunu"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1914[httpdigiubuni-heidelbergdediglitcook1914bd10633_550]-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"Biblical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Testament"},{"link_name":"First 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Also spelled Ba'labek,[1] Balbec,[2] Baalbec[3] and Baalbeck.[4]\n\n^ The name also appears in the Hellenized form Balanios and Baal Helion in records describing the acts of Theodosius's reign.[20]\n\n^ The Egyptian priests' claims that Heliopolis represented a direct descendant of Ra's cult at Iunu, however, is almost certainly mistaken.[21]\n\n^ Commonly mistaken by European visitors to have been the one described in the Biblical First Book of Kings.[46][47]\n\n^ Daniel Lohmann wrote that, \"due to the lack of remains of temple architecture, it can be assumed that the temple this terrace was built for was never completed or entirely destroyed before any new construction started...\"[58][page needed] \"The unfinished pre-Roman sanctuary construction was incorporated into a master plan of monumentalisation. Apparently challenged by the already huge pre-Roman construction, the early imperial Jupiter sanctuary shows both an architectural megalomaniac design and construction technique in the first half of the first century AD.\"[59]\n\n^ \"It is apparent from a graffito on one of the columns of the Temple of Jupiter that that building was nearing completion in 60 A.D.\"[60]\n\n^ Coins of Septimius Severus bear the legend COL·HEL·I·O·M·H: Colonia Heliopolis Iovi Optimo Maximo Helipolitano.[3]\n\n^ It is mentioned, inter alia, by Sozomen[71] and Theodoret.[72]\n\n^ Notable visitors[99][39] included Baumgarten (1507),[100] Belon (1548),[101][102] Thévet (1550),[103] von Seydlitz (1557),[104] Radziwiłł (1583),[51] Quaresmio (1620),[105] Monconys (1647),[106] de la Roque (1688),[107] Maundrell (1699),[108] Pococke (1738),[109] Wood and Dawkins (1751),[2] Volney (1784),[110] Richardson (1818),[111] Chesney (1830),[112][113] Lamartine (1833),[114] Marmont (1834),[115] Addison (1835),[116] Lindsay (1837),[117] Robinson (1838[118] & 1852),[119] Wilson (1843),[120] De Saulcy (1851),[121] and Frauberger (19th c.).[122]\n\n^ \"Current survey and interpretation, show that a pre-Roman floor level about 5 m lower than the late Great Roman Courtyard floor existed underneath\".[59]\n\n^ The staircase is shown intact on a coin from the reign of the emperor Philip the Arab.[41]\n\n^ The inscriptions were distinct in the 18th century[2] but becoming illegible by the end of the 19th:[158][I. O.] M. DIIS HELIVPOL. PRO SAL.[ET] VICTORIIS D. N. ANTONINI PII FEL. AVG. ET IVLIÆ AVG. MATRIS D. N. CAST. SENAT. PATR., AVR. ANT. LONGINVS SPECVL. LEG. I.[ANT]ONINIANÆ CAPITA COLVMNARVM DVA ÆREA AVRO INLVMINATA SVA PECVNIA EX VOTO L. A. S.[74]and[I. O.] M. PRO SAL[VTE] D. [N.] IMP. ANTONIN[I PII FELICIS...][...SEP]TIMI[VS...] BAS AVG. LIB. CAPVT COLVMNÆ ÆNEUM AVRO INL[VMINAT]VM VOTVM SVA PECVNIA L. [A. S.][74]\n\n^ It has also been misattributed to Apollo and Helios.[77] The locals once knew it as the Dar es-Sa'adeh or \"Court of Happiness\".[166]\n\n^ The cornice of the exaedrum in the northwest corner remains partially sculpted and partially plain.[150]\n\n^ In the 1870s and '80s, its Metawali caretaker Um Kasim would demand bakshish from visitors and for use of the olive oil lamps used to make vows to St Barbara.[158]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Baalbek"},{"link_name":"Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Baalbek#Q178835"},{"link_name":"Google Maps satellite view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=Baalbek&ie=UTF8&t=k&om=1&ll=34.006857,36.203921&spn=0.003313,0.006781"},{"link_name":"Lebanon 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(1966). The Byzantine Empire. Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nSmith, William; Anthon, Charles, eds. (1862). \"Heliopolis\". A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography. New York: Harper & Bros. p. 349.\nK., T. (2010). \"Baalbek\". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.\n\"Ba'albek\". Cook's Tourists' Handbook for Palestine and Syria. London: T. Cook & Son. 1876. pp. 359–365.\nDonne, William Bodham (1878). \"Helio′polis Syriae\". In Smith, William (ed.). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol. I. London: John Murray. pp. 1036–1038.\nBaynes, T. S., ed. (1878), \"Baalbec\" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 176–178\nHogarth, David George (1911), \"Baalbek\" , in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 89–90\nSobernheim, Moritz (1913). \"Baalbek\". Encyclopaedia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography, and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples. Vol. I (1st ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 543–544. ISBN 9004082654.\nZettersteen, K.V. (1936). \"Zengī\". Encyclopaedia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography, and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples. Vol. VIII (1st ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 1224–1225. ISBN 9004097961.\nAdam, Jean-Pierre (1977). \"À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes\" [About the Baalbeck Trilithon: The Transport and Use of the Megaliths]. Syria (in French). 54 (1/2): 31–63. doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623.\nAdam, Jean-Pierre; Mathews, Anthony (1999). Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-20866-6.\nAddison, Charles Greenstreet (1838). Damascus and Palmyra: A Journey to the East with a Sketch of the State and Prospects of Syria, under Ibrahim Pasha, Vol. II. Philadelphia: T.K. & P.G. Collins for E.L. Carey & A. Hart.\nAlouf, Michel M. (1944). History of Baalbek. Beirut: American Press. ISBN 9781585090631.\nArastu, Rizwan (2014). God's Emissaries: Adam to Jesus. Dearborn: Imam Mahdi Association of Marjaeya. ISBN 978-0-692-21411-4.[permanent dead link]\nBaldwin, Marshall W., ed. (1969). \"The Rise of Saladin\". A History of the Crusades, Vol. I: The First Hundred Years, 2nd ed.. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299048341.\nBaumgarten, Martin von (Martinus à Baumgarten in Braitenbach) (1594). Peregrinatio in Aegyptum, Arabiam, Palaestinam, & Syriam [A Trip to Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, & Syria] (in Latin). Nürnberg (Noriberga).\nBelon, Pierre (Petrus Bellonius Cenomanus) (1553). De Admirabili Operum Antiquorum et Rerum Suspiciendarum Praestantia [On the Admirableness of the Works of the Ancients and a Presentation of Suspected Things] (in Latin). Paris (Parisius): Guillaume Cavellat (Gulielmus Cavellat).\nBelon, Pierre (1554). Les observations de plusieurs singularitez & choses memorables, trouvées en Grece, Asie, Judée, Egypte, Arabie, & autres pays estranges [Observations on the Many Singularities & Memorable Things Found in Greece, Asia, Judea, Egypt, Arabia, & Other Strange Lands] (in French). Paris: Gilles Corrozet.\nBouckaert, Peter; Houry, Nadim (2007). Whitson, Sarah Leah; Ross, James; Saunders, Joseph; Roth, Kenneth (eds.). \"Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War\" (PDF). Human Rights Watch.\nBurkitt, Francis Crawford (1904). Early Eastern Christianity: St Margaret's Lectures, 1904, on the Syriac-speaking Church. London: John Murray. ISBN 9781593331016.[permanent dead link]\nChesney, Francis Rawdon (1850). The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, carried on by Order of the British Government, in the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837; Preceded by Geographical and Historical Notices of the Regions Situated between the Rivers Nile and Indus. London: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans.\nvolume I\nvolume II\nChesney, Francis Rawdon (1868). Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition carried on by Order of the British Government during the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837. London: Spttiswoode & Co. for Longmans, Green, & Co.\nCook, Arthur Bernard (1914). Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion. Vol. I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\nCoulton, J.J. (1974). \"Lifting in Early Greek Architecture\". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 1–19. doi:10.2307/630416. JSTOR 630416. S2CID 162973494.\nde la Roque, Jean (1722). Voyage de Syrie et du Mont-Leban [Travel to Syria and Mount Lebanon] (in French). 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ISBN 9780141959658.\nHastings, James (2004) [1898]. A Dictionary of the Bible Dealing with Its Language, Literature, and Contents. Vol. IV, Pt. II. University Press of the Pacific in Honolulu. ISBN 978-1-4102-1729-5.\nHumphreys, R. Stephen (1977). From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-263-4.\nJessup, Samuel (1881). \"Ba'albek\". In Wilson, Charles William (ed.). Picturesque Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt, Div. II. New York: D. Appleton & Co., illustrated by Henry Fenn & J.D. Woodward. pp. 453–476.\nJidejian, Nina (1975). Baalbek: Heliopolis: \"City of the Sun\". Beirut: Dar el-Machreq Publishers. ISBN 978-2-7214-5884-1.\nKehrer, Nicole (21 November 2014). \"Libanesisch-deutsches Forscherteam entdeckt weltweit größten antiken Steinblock in Baalbek\" [Lebanese-German Research Team Discovers the World's Largest Ancient Stone Block in Baalbek] (in German). Berlin: German Archaeological Institute. 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Voyage du Maréchal Duc de Raguse en Hongrie, en Transylvanie, dans la Russie Méridionale, en Grimée, et sur les Bords de la Mer d'Azoff, a Constantinople, dans Quelques Parties de l'Asie-Mineure, en Syrie, en Palestine, et en Égypte. 1834.–1835 [Travel of Marshal Marmont, the Duke of Ragusa, in Hungary, in Transylvania, within Southern Russia, in the Crimea, and on the Shores of the Sea of Azov, to Constantinople, within Certain Parts of Asia Minor, in Syria, in Palestine, and in Egypt (1834–1835), Vol. III: Syrie [Syria]] (in French). Paris: Ladvocat.\nMonconys, Balthasar de (1665). \"Voyage de Syrie\" [Syrian Travel]. Journal des Voyages de Monsieur de Monconys (in French). I. Lyon: Horace Boissat & George Remeus: 296 ff.\nMaundrell, Henry (1703). A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A.D. 1697. Oxford.\nOverbeck, J. Josephus, ed. (1865). \"Rabulae Vita\". S. Ephraemi Syri Rabulae Episcopi Edesseni Balaei Aliorumque Opera Selecta e Codicibus Syriacis Manuscriptis in Museo Britannico et Bibliotheca Bodleiana Asservatis Primus Edidit (in Latin). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 159–209. & (in Classical Syriac)\nPococke, Richard (1745). \"Of Baalbeck, the antient Heliopolis\". A Description of the East, and Some other Countries, Vol. II, Pt. I Observations on Palæstine or the Holy Land, Syria, Mesopotamia, Cyprus, and Candia. London: W. Bowyer. pp. 106–113.\nQuaresmio, Francisco (Franciscus Quaresmius) (1639). Historica, Theologica, et Moralis Terrae Sanctae Elucidatio [A Historical, Theological, and Moral Elucidation of the Holy Land] (in Latin). Antwerp (Antuerpia): Balthasar Moretus.\nRadziwiłł, Mikołaj Krzystof (Nicolaus Christophorus Radzivilus) (1601). Hierosolymitana Peregrinatio [A Jerusalem Trip] (in Latin). Braniewo (Brunsberga): Georg Schönfels (Georgius Schonfels).\nRichardson, Robert (1822). Travels along the Mediterranean, and Parts Adjacent; in Company with the Earl of Belmore, during the Years 1816–17–18: Extending as far as the Second Cataract of the Nile, Jerusalem, Damascus, Balbec, &c. &c. Illustrated by Plans and other Engravings, Vol. II. London: T. Cadell.\nRobinson, Edward (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petraea. A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838 by E. Robinson and E. Smith, Vol. III. Boston: Crocker & Brewster.\nRobinson, Edward (1856). Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions. A Journal of Travels in the Year 1852 by E. Robinson, E. Smith, and Others. Boston: Crocker & Brewster.\nRowland, Benjamin Jr. (1956). \"The Vine-Scroll in Gandhāra\". Artibus Asiae. Vol. 19. pp. 353–361.\nRunciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–run1187. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34771-8.\nRuprechtsberger, Erwin M. (1999). \"Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon) [From the Quarry to the Temple of Jupiter of Heliopolis (Baalbek, Lebanon)]\". Linzer Archäologische Forschungen (Linz Archaeological Research) (in German). 30: 7–56.\nSato, Tsugitaka (1997). State and Rural Society in Medieval Islam: Sultans, Muqtaʿs, and Fallahun. Islamic History and Civilization, Vol. 17. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10649-9. ISSN 0929-2403. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)\nSedlitz, Melchior von (1580). Gründtliche Beschreibung: Der Wallfart nach dem heyligen Lande [A Thorough Description: The Places of Pilgrimage in the Holy Land] (in German). Fritsch. Reprinted at Görlitz in 1591.\nSteiner, Richard C. (Fall 2009). \"On the Rise and Fall of Canaanite Religion at Baalbek: A Tale of Five Toponyms\". Journal of Biblical Literature. 128 (3): 507–525. doi:10.2307/25610200. JSTOR 25610200. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2015.\nThevet, André (1554). Cosmographie de Levant [A Cosmography of the Levant] (in French). Lyons: Jean de Tournes (Ian de Tournes) & Guillaume Gazeau (Guil. Gazeav).\nVenning, Timothy; Frankopan, Peter (2015). A Chronology of the Crusades. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-80269-8.\nVolney, Constantin François de Chasseboeuf, comte de (1787). Voyage en Syrie et en Égypte, Pendant les anneés 1783, 1784, & 1785, avec deux Cartes Géographiques & deux Planches gravées, représentant les ruines du Temple du Soleil à Balbek, & celles de la ville de Palmyre dans le Désert de Syrie [Travel in Syria and Egypt, during the Years 1783, 1784, & 1785, with two maps & two engravings, showing the ruins of the Temple of the Sun at Baalbek & those of the city of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert] (in French). Paris: Volland; Desenne.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\nWiegand, Theodor (1925). Baalbek: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898 bis 1905 [Baalbek: Results of the Excavations and Surveys from the Years 1898 to 1905] (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-002370-1.\nWilson, John (1847). The Lands of the Bible Visited and Described in an Extensive Journey Undertaken with Special Reference to the Promotion of Biblical Research and the Advancement of the Cause of Philanthropy, Vol. II. Edinburgh: William Whyte & Co.\nWinter, Stefan Helmut (2002). The Shiite Emirates of Ottoman Syria (Mid-17th–Mid-18th Century). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\nWood, Robert (1757). The Ruins of Balbec, otherwise Heliopolis in Cœlosyria. London.","title":"Sources and external links"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Entrance to the Temple of Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wdl.org/en/item/2441/"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070912003207/https://whc.unesco.org/whreview/article8.html"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Centre"},{"link_name":"the 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(Bizerte)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizerte"},{"link_name":"Kerkouane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerkouane"},{"link_name":"Lepcis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptis_Parva"},{"link_name":"Monastir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastir,_Tunisia"},{"link_name":"Maqom Hadesh (Ounga)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqom_Hadesh"},{"link_name":"Meninx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meninx_(town)"},{"link_name":"Djerba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djerba"},{"link_name":"Ruspe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruspe"},{"link_name":"Ruspina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruspina"},{"link_name":"Sicca (El 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Martius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narbo_Martius"},{"link_name":"Germania Inferior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germania_Inferior"},{"link_name":"Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_Claudia_Ara_Agrippinensium"},{"link_name":"Mogontiacum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainz"},{"link_name":"Hispania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispania"},{"link_name":"Augusta Emerita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_Emerita"},{"link_name":"Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Italy"},{"link_name":"Aelia Augusta Aeclanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeclanum"},{"link_name":"Castra Taurinorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin"},{"link_name":"Florentia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"Mediolanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediolanum"},{"link_name":"Placentia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piacenza"},{"link_name":"Moesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moesia"},{"link_name":"Singidunum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singidunum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Romancoloniae.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Bacchus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"Berytus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berytus"},{"link_name":"Caesarea Maritima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima"},{"link_name":"Aelia Capitolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelia_Capitolina"},{"link_name":"Ptolemais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemais_in_Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Laodicea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodicea_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Antioch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch"},{"link_name":"Seleucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucia_Pieria"},{"link_name":"Emesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emesa"},{"link_name":"Heliopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliopolis_of_Phoenicia"},{"link_name":"Palmyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Arca Caesarea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqa"},{"link_name":"Sidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidon"},{"link_name":"Tyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Sebaste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastia,_Nablus"},{"link_name":"Bostra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bostra"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"Neapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavia_Neapolis"},{"link_name":"Philippopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahba"},{"link_name":"Dura-Europos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura-Europos"},{"link_name":"Gaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_City"},{"link_name":"Ascalon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascalon"},{"link_name":"Gerasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerasa"},{"link_name":"Gadara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadara"},{"link_name":"Emmaus Nicopolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmaus_Nicopolis"},{"link_name":"Neronias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Philippi"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Palestinian territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_territories"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel"},{"link_name":"Caesarea Maritima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima"},{"link_name":"Imwas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imwas"},{"link_name":"Banias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banias"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Petra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra"},{"link_name":"Umm Qais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umm_Qais"},{"link_name":"Jerash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerash"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Arqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqa"},{"link_name":"Beirut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut"},{"link_name":"Baalbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Saida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saida,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Tyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Bosra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosra"},{"link_name":"Damascus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus"},{"link_name":"Dura-Europos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura-Europos"},{"link_name":"Homs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs"},{"link_name":"Latakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latakia"},{"link_name":"Shahba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahba"},{"link_name":"Tadmur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadmur"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Antakya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antakya"},{"link_name":"Samandağ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanda%C4%9F"},{"link_name":"UNESCO World Heritage Sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites"},{"link_name":"Legacy of the Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178835#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/133623732"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJy8vmgYxmjmDYBJtd4g8C"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120421528"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120421528"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4086176-4"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566857205171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n81069046"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000307959&P_CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge793369&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pleiades.stoa.org/places/678179"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/028623606"},{"link_name":"İslâm Ansiklopedisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/balebek"}],"sub_title":"Further reading","text":"The Entrance to the Temple of Jupiter. Washington: Library of Congress. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 8 September 2015 – via World Digital Library.\nBaalbek. New York: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 12 September 2007.vte World Heritage Sites in Lebanon\nAnjar\nBaalbek\nByblos\nOuadi Qadisha (the Holy Valley) and the Forest of the Cedars of God (Horsh Arz el-Rab)\nRachid Karami International Fair–Tripoli\nTyrevte Baalbek District, Baalbek-Hermel GovernorateCapital: BaalbekTowns and villages\nAin\nAinata\nArsal\nBaalbek\nBarka\nBednayel\nBechwat\nBeit Chama - Aaqidiyeh\nBrital\nBtadhi\nBodai\nChaat\nChlifa\nChmestar - Gharbi Baalbeck\nDeir el Ahmar\nDouriss\nFakiha - Jdeydeh\nFleweh\nHadath Baalbek\nHallanieh\nHarbata\nHizzine\nHlabta\nHosh Barada\nHosh el Rafika\nHosh Snid\nHaouch Tall Safiyeh\nIaat\nJabbouleh\nJanta\nJebaa\nJdeide\nKfar Dane\nKasarnaba\nKhodr\nKhraibeh\nKneisseh\nLaat\nLabweh\nMajdloun\nMikna\nNabi Chit\nNabi Othman\nNahleh\nQaa\nQarha\nRam - Jbenniyeh\nRas Baalbek\nRas el Hadis\nSaayde\nSeriine el Fawka\nSeriine el Tahta\nTalya\nTaraya\nTaybeh\nTemnin el Fawka\nTemnine Et Tahta\nTfail\nWadi Faara\nYammouneh\nYounine\nOther\nArd Tlaili\nJabal es Saaïdévte Archaeological sites in Lebanon\nAadloun\nAaiha\nAammiq\nAaqbe\nAin Aata\nAin Choaab\nAin Harcha\nAkbiyeh\nAkkar plain foothills\nAl-Bireh\nAmioun\nAmlaq Qatih\nAnjar, Lebanon\nAntelias cave\nApheca\nArd Saouda\nArd Tlaili\nArqa\nAugusti Pagus\nBaalbek\nBaidar ech Chamout\nBatroumine\nBatroun\nBechamoun\nBeirut\nBeit Mery\nBelat temple\nBerytus (Roman Beirut)\nBustan Birke\nByblos\nCanalizations of Zenobia\nDahr El Ahmar\nDakoue\nDeir El Aachayer\nDeir Al-Ahmar\nDeir Mar Maroun\nDekwaneh\nDouris (Baalbek)\nElaea (Lebanon)\nFlaoui\nFadous Sud\nHebbariye\nHadeth south\nHaret ech Cheikh\nHashbai\nHeliopolis in Phoenicia\nHermel plains\nIaat\nJabal es Saaïdé\nJbaa\nJdeideh\nJebel Aabeby\nJeita Grotto\nJoub Jannine\nJieh\nKafr Zabad\nKamid el-Loz\nKamouh el Hermel\nKarak Nuh\nKaukaba\nKefraya\nKafr Tebnit\nKfar Qouq\nKfarhata\nKhallet Michte\nKharayeb\nKhirbet El-Knese\nKouachra megalith field\nKsar Akil\nLabweh\nLake Qaraoun (Ain Jaouze)\nLibbaya\nLion Tower\nMajdal Anjar\nMansourieh\nMaronite mummies\nMayrouba\nMdoukha (Jebel Kassir)\nMoukhtara\nMtaileb\nNabi Zair\nNachcharini\nNahle, Lebanon\nNeba'a Faour\nNebi Safa\nHosn Niha\nPhoenician port of Beirut\nPlain of Zgharta\nQaa\nQal'at Bustra\nQalaat Tannour\nQaraoun\nQasr el Banat\nRas Baalbek I\nRas Beirut\nRas El Kelb\nRashaya\nRoman Forum of Berytus\nRoman hippodrome of Berytus\nRoman temple of Bziza\nSands of Beirut\nSaraain El Faouqa\nShheem\nSidon\nSin el Fil\nSarepta\nStone of the Pregnant Woman\nTahun ben Aissa\nTaire\nTayibe\nTell Aalaq\nTell Ablah\nTell Addus\nTell Ahle\nTell Ain Cerif\nTell Ain el Meten\nTell Ain Ghessali\nTell Ain Nfaikh\nTell Ain Saouda\nTell Ain Sofar\nTell Ayoub\nTell Bar Elias\nTell Beshara\nTell Bir Dakoue\nTell Deir\nTell Delhamieh\nTell Derzenoun\nTell Dibbine\nTell el-Burak\nTell El Ghassil\nTell El Hadeth\nTell Fadous\nTell Hazzine\nTell Hoch Rafqa\nTell Karmita\nTell Khardane\nTell Kirri\nTell Jezireh\nTell Jisr\nTell Kabb Elias\nTell Majdaloun\nTell Masoud\nTell Mekhada\nTell Meouchi\nTell Mureibit\nTell Murtafa\nTell Nahariyah\nTell Neba'a Chaate\nTell Neba'a Litani\nTell Qasr Labwe\nTell Rasm El Hadeth\nTell Rayak\nTell Saatiya\nTell Safiyeh\nTell Saoudhi\nTell Serhan\nTell Shaikh Hassan al Rai\nTell Shamsine\nTell Sultan Yakoub\nTell Taalabaya\nTell Wardeen\nTell Zenoub\nTell Zeitoun\nTemnin el-Foka\nTemple of Bacchus\nTemple of Eshmun\nTemple of Jupiter\nTemple of the Obelisks\nToron\nTripolis (region of Phoenicia)\nTyre Necropolis\nTyre\nUmm al-Amad\nWadi Koura\nWadi Yaroun\nYammoune\nYanta\nAin W Zain\nZahlévte Phoenician cities and coloniesAlgeria\nCamarata\nCartennae (Tenes)\nHippo Regius\nIcosium (Algiers)\nIgilgili (Jijel)\nIol (Cherchell)\nIomnium (Tigzirt)\nCirta (Constantine)\nKissi (Djinet)\nMacomades\nMalaca\nRachgoun\nRusazus (Azeffoun)\nRusguniae (Tamentfoust)\nRusicade (Skikda)\nRusippisir (Taksebt)\nRusubbicari (Zemmouri El Bahri)\nRusuccuru (Dellys)\nSarai (Aïn Oulmene)\nThagora (Taoura)\nTipasa in Mauretania\nTipasa in Numidia\nTimici\nCyprus\nDhali\nKition (Larnaca)\nLapathus\nMarion\nGreece\nCallista (Santorini)\nPaxi\nRhodes\nDelos\nIsrael\nAchzib\nAkka (Acre)\nDora\nMichal\nJaffa\nReshef\nShikmona (Haifa)\nStrato's Tower (Caesarea)\nItaly\nBitan (Chia)\nCape Melqart (Cefalù)\nDrepanum (Trapani)\nEryx (Erice)\nHeraclea Minoa\nKapara (Soluntum)\nKaraly (Cagliari)\nLilybaeum\nMotya\nNeapolis\nNora\nOlbia\nPantelleria\nSelinunte\nSulci (Sant'Antioco)\nTharros\nṢiṣ (Palermo)\nLebanon\nAmia\nAmpi\nArqa\nAthar (Tripoli)\nBaalbek\nBirut (Beirut)\nBotrys (Teros)\nGebal (Byblos)\nOrnithon (Tell el-Burak)\n Porphyreon (Jieh)\nSarepta\nSidon\nSur (Tyre), Ushu (Palaetyrus)\nUmm al-Amad\nLibya\nLepcis (Khoms)\nOyat (Tripoli)\nTsabratan\nMalta\nMaleth (Cospicua)\nAnn (Mdina)\nGaulos (Gozo)\nGħajn Qajjet\nMtarfa\nRas il-Wardija\nTas-Silġ\nMorocco\nAzama (Azemmour)\nArambys (Mogador)\nCaricus Murus\nHeq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir)\nLikush (Larache)\nShalat (Chellah)\nTamusida\nTinga (Tangier)\nAnfa (Casablanca)\nVolubilis 1\nMogador\nRusadir\nOualidia\nZilil\nGadir\nSala\nThymiaterium\nRusibis\nPortugal\nPortus Hannibalis\nPortus Magonis (Portimão)\nOlissipona (Lisbon)\nOssonoba (Faro)\nBalsa (Tavira)\nSpain\nAbdera (Adra)\nAbyla (Ceuta)\nAkra Leuka (Alicante)\nGadir (Cadiz)\nHerna\nIboshim (Ibiza)\nMahón\nMalake (Málaga)\nOnoba\nCarthage (Cartagena)\nRushadir (Melilla)\nSaguntum\nSexi (Almunecar)\nTagilit (Tíjola)\nToscanos (Velez)\nTyreche\nSyria\nArwad\nMarat (Amrit)\nBalanaea (Baniyas)\nCarne\nPaltus\nSafita\nShuksi\nSumur\nUgarit\nTunisia\nAspis (Kelibia)\nBulla Regia\nCarthage\nHadrumetum (Sousse)\nHippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte)\nKerkouane\nLepcis (Monastir)\nMaqom Hadesh (Ounga)\nMeninx (Djerba)\nRuspe\nRuspina\nSicca (El Kef)\nTabarka\nTayinat (Thyna)\nThapsus\nThysdrus (El Djem)\nUtica\nOther\nMyriandus\nPhoenicus\nGibraltar\nTahpanhesvteColonies of Ancient RomeWith correspondence to modern geographyEuropeBritannia Superior\nCamulodunum\nLindum Colonia\nLondinium\nBritannia Inferior\nEboracum\nRoman Dacia\nUlpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa\nGallia Lugdunensis\nLugdunum\nGallia Narbonensis\nNarbo Martius\nGermania Inferior\nColonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium\nMogontiacum\nHispania\nAugusta Emerita\nItalia\nAelia Augusta Aeclanum\nCastra Taurinorum\nFlorentia\nMediolanum\nPlacentia\nMoesia\nSingidunum\nLevantOf legion veterans\nBerytus\nCaesarea Maritima 2\nAelia Capitolina 1 3\nPtolemais 1\nOf late Empire\nLaodicea\nAntioch\nSeleucia\nEmesa\nHeliopolis 1\nPalmyra 1 3\nDamascus 1 3\nArca Caesarea\nSidon\nTyrus 1\nSebaste\nBostra 1 3\nPetra 1\nNeapolis\nPhilippopolis\nDura-Europos 2\nPossible colonies\nGaza\nAscalon\nGerasa\nGadara\nEmmaus Nicopolis\nNeronias\nLocations withmodern namesIsrael and thePalestinian territories\nJerusalem: Aelia Capitolina\nAcre: Ptolemais\nCaesarea Maritima\nImwas: Emmaus Nicopolis\nBanias: Neronias\nJordan\nPetra\nUmm Qais: Gadara\nJerash: Gerasa\nLebanon\nArqa: Arca Caesarea\nBeirut: Berytus\nBaalbek: Heliopolis\nSaida: Sidon\nTyre: Tyrus\nSyria\nBosra: Bostra\nDamascus\nDura-Europos\nHoms: Emesa\nLatakia: Laodicea\nShahba: Philippopolis\nTadmur: Palmyra\nTurkey\nAntakya: Antioch\nSamandağ: Seleucia\n\n1 UNESCO World Heritage Sites; 2 Proposed; 3 in Danger\nSee also: Legacy of the Roman EmpireAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nLatvia\nCzech Republic\nGeographic\nPleiades\nOther\nIdRef\nİslâm Ansiklopedisi","title":"Sources and external links"}] | [{"image_text":"Reconstruction of Temple of Jupiter/Baalbek","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1921_reconstruction_of_the_Baalbelk_temple_complex.jpg/220px-1921_reconstruction_of_the_Baalbelk_temple_complex.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roman Heliopolis and its surroundings in the 2nd and the 3rd century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/1865_Spruner_Map_Israel_or_Palestine_post_70_AD.jpg/220px-1865_Spruner_Map_Israel_or_Palestine_post_70_AD.jpg"},{"image_text":"Corinthian capitals ornamenting the columns of the Temple of Bacchus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Lebanon%2C_Baalbek%2C_Ancient_temple_complex_of_Roman_Heliopolis%2C_Roman_columns.jpg/220px-Lebanon%2C_Baalbek%2C_Ancient_temple_complex_of_Roman_Heliopolis%2C_Roman_columns.jpg"},{"image_text":"The ruins of a Baalbek mosque c. 1900","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ruins_of_Old_Mosque%2C_Baalbek_WDL2449.png/220px-Ruins_of_Old_Mosque%2C_Baalbek_WDL2449.png"},{"image_text":"The probable remains of a medieval mosque in front of some of the Mamluk fortifications","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/BaalbekMosquePillars.jpg/220px-BaalbekMosquePillars.jpg"},{"image_text":"Baalbek & environs, c. 1856","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg/220px-1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg"},{"image_text":"The largest stone at Baalbek, uncovered in 2014","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Baalbek-stoneofpregnantwoman.jpg/220px-Baalbek-stoneofpregnantwoman.jpg"},{"image_text":"A detail from a 1911 map of Turkey in Asia, showing Baalbek's former rail connections","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_DB.jpg/220px-W._%26_A.K._Johnston._Asia_Minor._1911_DB.jpg"},{"image_text":"A map of Israeli bombing during the Second Lebanon War. Baalbek was a major target, with more than 70 bombs dropped.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Locations_bombed_Aug13_no_fact_box.jpg/220px-Locations_bombed_Aug13_no_fact_box.jpg"},{"image_text":"1911 diagram of the ruins after the Puchstein excavations.[149] (Facing SW, with the Temple of Jupiter labelled \"Temple of the Sun\")","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Baalbek_1.png/200px-Baalbek_1.png"},{"image_text":"The Great Court of ancient Heliopolis's temple complex","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Pano_Baalbek_1.jpg/880px-Pano_Baalbek_1.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Lebanon_districts_Baalbek.png/100px-Lebanon_districts_Baalbek.png"}] | [{"title":"Cities of the ancient Near East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East"},{"title":"List of Catholic dioceses in Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_in_Lebanon"},{"title":"List of colossal sculpture in situ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colossal_sculpture_in_situ"},{"title":"List of megalithic sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_megalithic_sites"}] | [{"reference":"إتحاد بلديات غربي بعلبك [West Baalbeck Municipalities Union] (in Arabic). 2013. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210723131204/http://www.west-baalbeck.org/","url_text":"إتحاد بلديات غربي بعلبك"},{"url":"http://www.west-baalbeck.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Olausson, Lena (2 August 2006). \"How to Say: Baalbek\". London: BBC. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2006/08/how_to_say_baalbek.html","url_text":"\"How to Say: Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"\"Baalbek\". Merriam–Webster. 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Baalbek","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""}]},{"reference":"\"Baalbek\". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Baalbek","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mohafazah de Baalbek-Hermel\". Localiban. Archived from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170221111459/http://www.localiban.org/rubrique894.html","url_text":"\"Mohafazah de Baalbek-Hermel\""},{"url":"http://www.localiban.org/rubrique894.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wolfgang Gockel; Helga Bruns (1998). Syria – Lebanon (illustrated ed.). Hunter Publishing, Inc. p. 202. ISBN 9783886181056.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/syrialebanon0000gock/page/202","url_text":"Syria – Lebanon"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/syrialebanon0000gock/page/202","url_text":"202"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783886181056","url_text":"9783886181056"}]},{"reference":"Najem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021). Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-1-5381-2043-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-2043-9","url_text":"978-1-5381-2043-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Israeli Airstrike Hits Hezbollah Stronghold in Northeast Lebanon\". Voice of America. 23 March 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.voanews.com/a/israeli-airstrike-hits-hezbollah-stronghold-in-northeast-lebanon/7540324.html","url_text":"\"Israeli Airstrike Hits Hezbollah Stronghold in Northeast Lebanon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Israel conducts air raid on Baalbek, Hezbollah stronghold in Lebanon, sources say\". Reuters. 23 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-conducts-air-raid-baalbek-hezbollah-stronghold-lebanon-2024-03-23/","url_text":"\"Israel conducts air raid on Baalbek, Hezbollah stronghold in Lebanon, sources say\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"}]},{"reference":"Amun, Fadi; Hashmonai, Adi; Peleg, Bar (12 March 2024). \"IDF strikes Hezbollah stronghold deep in Lebanon; 100 rockets fired at northern Israel\". Haaretz. Retrieved 27 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2024-03-12/ty-article/idf-strikes-hezbollah-stronghold-deep-in-lebanon-100-rockets-fired-at-northern-israel/0000018e-3263-df45-afaf-3f7775df0000","url_text":"\"IDF strikes Hezbollah stronghold deep in Lebanon; 100 rockets fired at northern Israel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Baalbek\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/294/","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arabic\" (PDF). ALA-LC Romanization Tables. Washington: Library of Congress. 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/arabic.pdf","url_text":"\"Arabic\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C.","url_text":"Washington"}]},{"reference":"\"Lebanon, Baalbek\". Berlin: German Archaeological Institute. 2004. Archived from the original on 11 October 2004. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041011160916/http://www.dainst.org/index_12_en.html","url_text":"\"Lebanon, Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute","url_text":"German Archaeological Institute"},{"url":"http://www.dainst.org/index_12_en.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Niebuhr, Barthold Georg; Dindorf, Ludwig, eds. (1832). \"σπθʹ Ὀλυμπιάς\" [CCLXXXIX]. Chronicon Paschale. Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (in Greek and Latin). Vol. I. Bonn: Impensis ed. Weberi. p. 561.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr","url_text":"Niebuhr, Barthold Georg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Dindorf#Ludwig_Dindorf","url_text":"Dindorf, Ludwig"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_8CQAAAAAYAAJ#page/n593","url_text":"\"σπθʹ Ὀλυμπιάς\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Scriptorum_Historiae_Byzantinae","url_text":"Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn","url_text":"Bonn"}]},{"reference":"Coote, James. \"Adam's Bed: 16 Varieties of (Im)propriety\". Austin: Center for American Architecture & Design, University of Texas School of Architecture. Archived from the original on 2 September 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100902070011/http://www.utexas.edu/architecture/center/center9%20copy/coote.html","url_text":"\"Adam's Bed: 16 Varieties of (Im)propriety\""},{"url":"http://www.utexas.edu/architecture/center/center9%20copy/coote.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"St George's Church Bloomsbury\". Archived from the original on 4 November 2007. Retrieved 25 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071104133047/http://www.stgeorgesbloomsbury.org.uk/hist.htm","url_text":"\"St George's Church Bloomsbury\""},{"url":"http://www.stgeorgesbloomsbury.org.uk/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Baalbek\". New York: UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2015. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/294","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO","url_text":"UNESCO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Centre","url_text":"World Heritage Centre"}]},{"reference":"Ludvigsen, Børre (2008). \"Lebanon: Railways: Background\". Al Mashriq: The Levant. Halden: Østfold University. Retrieved 16 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300/380/385/railways/background/index.html","url_text":"Al Mashriq: The Levant"}]},{"reference":"Ludvigsen, Børre (2008). \"Lebanon: Railways: Riyaq–Homs\". Al Mashriq: The Levant. Halden: Østfold University. Retrieved 16 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300/380/385/railways/branches/riyaq-homs/index.html","url_text":"Al Mashriq: The Levant"}]},{"reference":"Butters, Andrew Lee (2 August 2006). \"Behind the Battle for Baalbek\". Time. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121024023615/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1222201,00.html?cnn=yes","url_text":"\"Behind the Battle for Baalbek\""},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1222201,00.html?cnn=yes","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Nahla (2 August 2006). \"Minute by Minute:: August 2\". Lebanon Updates. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201103181906/http://lebanonupdates.blogspot.com/2006/08/minute-by-minute-august-2.html","url_text":"\"Minute by Minute:: August 2\""},{"url":"http://lebanonupdates.blogspot.com/2006/08/minute-by-minute-august-2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Karam, Zeina (4 October 2006). \"Cleanup to Start at Old Sites in Lebanon\". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeina_Karam","url_text":"Karam, Zeina"},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/04/AR2006100401294_pf.html","url_text":"\"Cleanup to Start at Old Sites in Lebanon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Titular See of Heliopolis in Phœnicia, Lebanon\". www.gcatholic.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/t0704.htm","url_text":"\"Titular See of Heliopolis in Phœnicia, Lebanon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Climate: Baalbek\". Climate-Data.org. Retrieved 25 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.climate-data.org/location/4558/","url_text":"\"Climate: Baalbek\""}]},{"reference":"Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1838). \"picture\". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839. Fisher, Son & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA52-IA14","url_text":"Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839"}]},{"reference":"Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (1838). \"poetical illustration\". Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839. Fisher, Son & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=ufpcAAAAcAAJ&pg=GBS.PA52-IA16","url_text":"Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1839"}]},{"reference":"Syaifullah, M. (26 October 2008). \"Yogyakarta dan Libanon Bentuk Kota Kembar\". Tempo Interaktif. Archived from the original on 18 August 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090818225745/http://tempointeraktif.com/hg/nusa/2008/10/26/brk%2C20081026-142146%2Cid.html","url_text":"\"Yogyakarta dan Libanon Bentuk Kota Kembar\""},{"url":"http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nusa/2008/10/26/brk,20081026-142146,id.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hussey, J.M., ed. (1966). The Byzantine Empire. Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. IV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9lHeh36S8ooC","url_text":"The Byzantine Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_England","url_text":"Cambridge"}]},{"reference":"Smith, William; Anthon, Charles, eds. (1862). \"Heliopolis\". A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography. New York: Harper & Bros. p. 349.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FjIaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA349","url_text":"A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology, and Geography"}]},{"reference":"K., T. (2010). \"Baalbek\". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). The Classical Tradition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LbqF8z2bq3sC&pg=PA115","url_text":"The Classical Tradition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Mass.","url_text":"Cambridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03572-0","url_text":"978-0-674-03572-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Ba'albek\". Cook's Tourists' Handbook for Palestine and Syria. London: T. Cook & Son. 1876. pp. 359–365.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/cookstouristsha13ltdgoog#page/n379/mode/2up","url_text":"Cook's Tourists' Handbook for Palestine and Syria"}]},{"reference":"Donne, William Bodham (1878). \"Helio′polis Syriae\". In Smith, William (ed.). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Vol. I. London: John Murray. pp. 1036–1038.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bodham_Donne","url_text":"Donne, William Bodham"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nEtBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1036","url_text":"\"Helio′polis Syriae\""}]},{"reference":"Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878), \"Baalbec\" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 176–178","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Baalbec","url_text":"\"Baalbec\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Hogarth, David George (1911), \"Baalbek\" , in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 89–90","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_George_Hogarth","url_text":"Hogarth, David George"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Baalbek","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Sobernheim, Moritz (1913). \"Baalbek\". Encyclopaedia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography, and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples. Vol. I (1st ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 543–544. ISBN 9004082654.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zJU3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA543","url_text":"\"Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004082654","url_text":"9004082654"}]},{"reference":"Zettersteen, K.V. (1936). \"Zengī\". Encyclopaedia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography, Ethnography, and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples. Vol. VIII (1st ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 1224–1225. ISBN 9004097961.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&pg=PA1224","url_text":"\"Zengī\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004097961","url_text":"9004097961"}]},{"reference":"Adam, Jean-Pierre (1977). \"À propos du trilithon de Baalbek: Le transport et la mise en oeuvre des mégalithes\" [About the Baalbeck Trilithon: The Transport and Use of the Megaliths]. Syria (in French). 54 (1/2): 31–63. doi:10.3406/syria.1977.6623.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Adam","url_text":"Adam, Jean-Pierre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fsyria.1977.6623","url_text":"10.3406/syria.1977.6623"}]},{"reference":"Adam, Jean-Pierre; Mathews, Anthony (1999). Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-20866-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Adam","url_text":"Adam, Jean-Pierre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20866-6","url_text":"978-0-415-20866-6"}]},{"reference":"Addison, Charles Greenstreet (1838). Damascus and Palmyra: A Journey to the East with a Sketch of the State and Prospects of Syria, under Ibrahim Pasha, Vol. II. Philadelphia: T.K. & P.G. Collins for E.L. Carey & A. Hart.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_G._Addison","url_text":"Addison, Charles Greenstreet"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/damascusandpalm01addigoog#page/n7/mode/2up","url_text":"Damascus and Palmyra: A Journey to the East with a Sketch of the State and Prospects of Syria, under Ibrahim Pasha, Vol. II"}]},{"reference":"Alouf, Michel M. (1944). History of Baalbek. Beirut: American Press. ISBN 9781585090631.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qiyY1CKE9SIC","url_text":"History of Baalbek"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781585090631","url_text":"9781585090631"}]},{"reference":"Arastu, Rizwan (2014). God's Emissaries: Adam to Jesus. Dearborn: Imam Mahdi Association of Marjaeya. ISBN 978-0-692-21411-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MrxrBwAAQBAJ","url_text":"God's Emissaries: Adam to Jesus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-692-21411-4","url_text":"978-0-692-21411-4"}]},{"reference":"Baldwin, Marshall W., ed. (1969). \"The Rise of Saladin\". A History of the Crusades, Vol. I: The First Hundred Years, 2nd ed.. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299048341.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RfO1J6hjcdgC","url_text":"A History of the Crusades, Vol. I: The First Hundred Years, 2nd ed."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299048341","url_text":"9780299048341"}]},{"reference":"Baumgarten, Martin von (Martinus à Baumgarten in Braitenbach) (1594). Peregrinatio in Aegyptum, Arabiam, Palaestinam, & Syriam [A Trip to Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, & Syria] (in Latin). Nürnberg (Noriberga).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_von_Baumgarten","url_text":"Baumgarten, Martin von (Martinus à Baumgarten in Braitenbach)"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9SQ8AAAAcAAJ","url_text":"Peregrinatio in Aegyptum, Arabiam, Palaestinam, & Syriam"}]},{"reference":"Belon, Pierre (Petrus Bellonius Cenomanus) (1553). De Admirabili Operum Antiquorum et Rerum Suspiciendarum Praestantia [On the Admirableness of the Works of the Ancients and a Presentation of Suspected Things] (in Latin). Paris (Parisius): Guillaume Cavellat (Gulielmus Cavellat).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Belon","url_text":"Belon, Pierre (Petrus Bellonius Cenomanus)"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CGxEAAAAcAAJ","url_text":"De Admirabili Operum Antiquorum et Rerum Suspiciendarum Praestantia"}]},{"reference":"Belon, Pierre (1554). Les observations de plusieurs singularitez & choses memorables, trouvées en Grece, Asie, Judée, Egypte, Arabie, & autres pays estranges [Observations on the Many Singularities & Memorable Things Found in Greece, Asia, Judea, Egypt, Arabia, & Other Strange Lands] (in French). Paris: Gilles Corrozet.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0ic8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR2","url_text":"Les observations de plusieurs singularitez & choses memorables, trouvées en Grece, Asie, Judée, Egypte, Arabie, & autres pays estranges"}]},{"reference":"Bouckaert, Peter; Houry, Nadim (2007). Whitson, Sarah Leah; Ross, James; Saunders, Joseph; Roth, Kenneth (eds.). \"Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War\" (PDF). Human Rights Watch.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/lebanon0907.pdf","url_text":"\"Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War\""}]},{"reference":"Burkitt, Francis Crawford (1904). Early Eastern Christianity: St Margaret's Lectures, 1904, on the Syriac-speaking Church. London: John Murray. ISBN 9781593331016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vssdKNm9Hm4C","url_text":"Early Eastern Christianity: St Margaret's Lectures, 1904, on the Syriac-speaking Church"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781593331016","url_text":"9781593331016"}]},{"reference":"Chesney, Francis Rawdon (1850). The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, carried on by Order of the British Government, in the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837; Preceded by Geographical and Historical Notices of the Regions Situated between the Rivers Nile and Indus. London: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Rawdon_Chesney","url_text":"Chesney, Francis Rawdon"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=555UAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, carried on by Order of the British Government, in the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837; Preceded by Geographical and Historical Notices of the Regions Situated between the Rivers Nile and Indus"}]},{"reference":"Chesney, Francis Rawdon (1868). Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition carried on by Order of the British Government during the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837. London: Spttiswoode & Co. for Longmans, Green, & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Rawdon_Chesney","url_text":"Chesney, Francis Rawdon"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/narrativeeuphra00chesgoog#page/n12/mode/2up","url_text":"Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition carried on by Order of the British Government during the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837"}]},{"reference":"Cook, Arthur Bernard (1914). Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion. Vol. I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cook1914bd1/0011","url_text":"Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_England","url_text":"Cambridge"}]},{"reference":"Coulton, J.J. (1974). \"Lifting in Early Greek Architecture\". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 1–19. doi:10.2307/630416. JSTOR 630416. S2CID 162973494.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630416","url_text":"10.2307/630416"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/630416","url_text":"630416"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162973494","url_text":"162973494"}]},{"reference":"de la Roque, Jean (1722). Voyage de Syrie et du Mont-Leban [Travel to Syria and Mount Lebanon] (in French). Paris: André Cailleau.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_la_Roque","url_text":"de la Roque, Jean"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BtUWAAAAQAAJ","url_text":"Voyage de Syrie et du Mont-Leban"}]},{"reference":"De Saulcy, Louis Félicien Joseph Caignart (1853). Voyage Autour de la Mer Morte et dans les Terres Bibliques exécuté de Decembre 1850 a Avril 1851 [Travel around the Dead Sea and within the Biblical Lands undertaken from December 1850 to April 1851], Vol. II] (in French). Paris: J. Claye & Co. for Gide & J. Baudry.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_F%C3%A9licien_de_Saulcy","url_text":"De Saulcy, Louis Félicien Joseph Caignart"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/voyageautourdel01saulgoog#page/n6/mode/2up","url_text":"Voyage Autour de la Mer Morte et dans les Terres Bibliques exécuté de Decembre 1850 a Avril 1851"}]},{"reference":"Frauberger, Heinrich (1892). Die Akropolis von Baalbek [The Baalbek Acropolis] (in German). Frankfurt: H. Keller.","urls":[{"url":"http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/frauberger1892/0005?sid=ab950d5b6241a257fc52ce565814ae81","url_text":"Die Akropolis von Baalbek"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_on_Main","url_text":"Frankfurt"}]},{"reference":"Genz, Hermann (2010). \"Reflections on the Early Bronze Age IV in Lebanon\". In Matthiae, Paolo; Pinnock, Frances; Marchetti, Nicolò; Nigro (eds.). Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: 5 May–10 May 2009, \"Sapienza\", Università di Roma. Vol. 2: Excavations, Surveys, and Restorations: Reports on Recent Field Archaeology in the Near East. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 205–218. ISBN 978-3-447-06216-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-06216-9","url_text":"978-3-447-06216-9"}]},{"reference":"Graves, Robert (1955). The Greek Myths. Vol. I. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780141959658.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Graves","url_text":"Graves, Robert"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ClTmOEBNMhAC","url_text":"The Greek Myths"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141959658","url_text":"9780141959658"}]},{"reference":"Hastings, James (2004) [1898]. A Dictionary of the Bible Dealing with Its Language, Literature, and Contents. Vol. IV, Pt. II. University Press of the Pacific in Honolulu. ISBN 978-1-4102-1729-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hastings","url_text":"Hastings, James"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yk1CKgPRKtAC","url_text":"A Dictionary of the Bible Dealing with Its Language, Literature, and Contents"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4102-1729-5","url_text":"978-1-4102-1729-5"}]},{"reference":"Humphreys, R. Stephen (1977). From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-263-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC","url_text":"From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-263-4","url_text":"0-87395-263-4"}]},{"reference":"Jessup, Samuel (1881). \"Ba'albek\". In Wilson, Charles William (ed.). Picturesque Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt, Div. II. New York: D. Appleton & Co., illustrated by Henry Fenn & J.D. Woodward. pp. 453–476.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mzdQAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA453","url_text":"\"Ba'albek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_William_Wilson","url_text":"Wilson, Charles William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Fenn","url_text":"Henry Fenn"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Douglas_Woodward_(artist)","url_text":"J.D. Woodward"}]},{"reference":"Jidejian, Nina (1975). Baalbek: Heliopolis: \"City of the Sun\". Beirut: Dar el-Machreq Publishers. ISBN 978-2-7214-5884-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7MZtAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Baalbek: Heliopolis: \"City of the Sun\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7214-5884-1","url_text":"978-2-7214-5884-1"}]},{"reference":"Kehrer, Nicole (21 November 2014). \"Libanesisch-deutsches Forscherteam entdeckt weltweit größten antiken Steinblock in Baalbek\" [Lebanese-German Research Team Discovers the World's Largest Ancient Stone Block in Baalbek] (in German). Berlin: German Archaeological Institute. Archived from the original on 12 December 2014. Retrieved 30 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141212011113/http://www.dainst.org/pressemitteilung/-/asset_publisher/nZcCAiLqg1db/content/libanesisch-deutsches-forscherteam-entdeckt-weltweit-gro%C3%9Ften-antiken-steinblock-in-baalbek?redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dainst.org%2Fmeldungen&redirectURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dainst.org%2Fpressemitteilung%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_nZcCAiLqg1db%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-6%26p_p_col_count%3D1","url_text":"\"Libanesisch-deutsches Forscherteam entdeckt weltweit größten antiken Steinblock in Baalbek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Archaeological_Institute","url_text":"German Archaeological Institute"},{"url":"http://www.dainst.org/pressemitteilung/-/asset_publisher/nZcCAiLqg1db/content/libanesisch-deutsches-forscherteam-entdeckt-weltweit-gro%C3%9Ften-antiken-steinblock-in-baalbek?redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dainst.org%2Fmeldungen&redirectURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dainst.org%2Fpressemitteilung%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_nZcCAiLqg1db%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-6%26p_p_col_count%3D1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Köhler, Michael (2013). Hirschler, Konrad (ed.). Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East: Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Period of the Crusades. The Muslim World in the Age of the Crusades, Vol. I. Leiden: translated from the German by Peter M. Holt for Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-24857-1. ISSN 2213-1043.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tYG0AQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East: Cross-Cultural Diplomacy in the Period of the Crusades"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24857-1","url_text":"978-90-04-24857-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2213-1043","url_text":"2213-1043"}]},{"reference":"Kropp, Andreas; Lohmann, Daniel (April 2011). \"'Master, look at the size of those stones! Look at the size of those buildings!' Analogies in Construction Techniques Between the Temples at Heliopolis (Baalbek) and Jerusalem\". pp. 38–50. Retrieved 13 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/1154782","url_text":"\"'Master, look at the size of those stones! Look at the size of those buildings!' Analogies in Construction Techniques Between the Temples at Heliopolis (Baalbek) and Jerusalem\""}]},{"reference":"Lamartine, Alphonse de (1835). Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensées, et Paysages pendant un Voyage en Orient 1832–1833 ou Notes d'un Voyageur [Remembrances, Impressions, Thoughts, and Passages concerning Travel in the Orient 1832–1833 or Notes from a Voyager] (in French). Brussels (Bruxelles): L. Hauman.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/souvenirsimpress00lama#page/n3/mode/2up","url_text":"Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensées, et Paysages pendant un Voyage en Orient 1832–1833 ou Notes d'un Voyageur"}]},{"reference":"Lendering, Jona (2013). Baalbek (Heliopolis). Livius. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 8 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jona_Lendering","url_text":"Lendering, Jona"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150702034514/http://www.livius.org/ba-bd/baalbek/baalbek_history.html","url_text":"Baalbek (Heliopolis)"},{"url":"https://www.livius.org/ba-bd/baalbek/baalbek_history.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ENANAAAAIAAJ&q=Lajjun+Guy+le+Strange&pg=PA493","url_text":"Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Exploration_Fund","url_text":"Palestine Exploration Fund"}]},{"reference":"Lindsay, Alexander (1838). Letters from Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land, Vol. II. London: Henry Colburn.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Lindsay,_25th_Earl_of_Crawford","url_text":"Lindsay, Alexander"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/lettersonegypte03crawgoog#page/n8/mode/2up","url_text":"Letters from Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land, Vol. II"}]},{"reference":"Lock, Peter (2013). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge Companions to History. Routledge. ISBN 9781135131371.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AkCKZ9Hs4-QC","url_text":"The Routledge Companion to the Crusades"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135131371","url_text":"9781135131371"}]},{"reference":"Lohmann, Daniel (2010). \"Giant Strides towards Monumentality: The architecture of the Jupiter Sanctuary in Baalbek/Heliopolis\". Bolletino di Archaologia (Bulletin of Archaeology). Special: 29–30.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lyons, Malcolm Cameron; Jackson, David Edward Pritchett (1982). Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. Oriental Publications, No. 30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31739-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kRF1F3wK26YC","url_text":"Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_England","url_text":"Cambridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-31739-8","url_text":"0-521-31739-8"}]},{"reference":"Marmont, Auguste-Frédéric-Louis Viesse de (1837). Voyage du Maréchal Duc de Raguse en Hongrie, en Transylvanie, dans la Russie Méridionale, en Grimée, et sur les Bords de la Mer d'Azoff, a Constantinople, dans Quelques Parties de l'Asie-Mineure, en Syrie, en Palestine, et en Égypte. 1834.–1835 [Travel of Marshal Marmont, the Duke of Ragusa, in Hungary, in Transylvania, within Southern Russia, in the Crimea, and on the Shores of the Sea of Azov, to Constantinople, within Certain Parts of Asia Minor, in Syria, in Palestine, and in Egypt (1834–1835), Vol. III: Syrie [Syria]] (in French). Paris: Ladvocat.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Louis_Viesse_de_Marmont","url_text":"Marmont, Auguste-Frédéric-Louis Viesse de"},{"url":"http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k616452.r=.langEN","url_text":"Voyage du Maréchal Duc de Raguse en Hongrie, en Transylvanie, dans la Russie Méridionale, en Grimée, et sur les Bords de la Mer d'Azoff, a Constantinople, dans Quelques Parties de l'Asie-Mineure, en Syrie, en Palestine, et en Égypte. 1834.–1835"}]},{"reference":"Monconys, Balthasar de (1665). \"Voyage de Syrie\" [Syrian Travel]. Journal des Voyages de Monsieur de Monconys (in French). I. Lyon: Horace Boissat & George Remeus: 296 ff.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balthasar_de_Monconys","url_text":"Monconys, Balthasar de"},{"url":"https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=855257","url_text":"\"Voyage de Syrie\""}]},{"reference":"Maundrell, Henry (1703). A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A.D. 1697. Oxford.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Maundrell","url_text":"Maundrell, Henry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gri_journeyfroma00maun","url_text":"A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter A.D. 1697"}]},{"reference":"Overbeck, J. Josephus, ed. (1865). \"Rabulae Vita\". S. Ephraemi Syri Rabulae Episcopi Edesseni Balaei Aliorumque Opera Selecta e Codicibus Syriacis Manuscriptis in Museo Britannico et Bibliotheca Bodleiana Asservatis Primus Edidit (in Latin). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 159–209.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/sephraemisyrirab00over#page/266/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Rabulae Vita\""}]},{"reference":"Pococke, Richard (1745). \"Of Baalbeck, the antient Heliopolis\". A Description of the East, and Some other Countries, Vol. II, Pt. I Observations on Palæstine or the Holy Land, Syria, Mesopotamia, Cyprus, and Candia. London: W. Bowyer. pp. 106–113.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pococke","url_text":"Pococke, Richard"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/gri_33125009339611#page/n139/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Of Baalbeck, the antient Heliopolis\""}]},{"reference":"Quaresmio, Francisco (Franciscus Quaresmius) (1639). Historica, Theologica, et Moralis Terrae Sanctae Elucidatio [A Historical, Theological, and Moral Elucidation of the Holy Land] (in Latin). Antwerp (Antuerpia): Balthasar Moretus.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscus_Quaresmius","url_text":"Quaresmio, Francisco (Franciscus Quaresmius)"},{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_0zRulLNbGngC#page/n5/mode/2up","url_text":"Historica, Theologica, et Moralis Terrae Sanctae Elucidatio"}]},{"reference":"Radziwiłł, Mikołaj Krzystof (Nicolaus Christophorus Radzivilus) (1601). Hierosolymitana Peregrinatio [A Jerusalem Trip] (in Latin). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace_IM | Myspace IM | ["1 Features","2 Protocol","3 Compatibility","4 Versions","5 See also","6 Notes"] | MySpace IMDeveloper(s)MyspaceStable release1.0.823.0
/ December 1, 2009; 14 years ago (2009-12-01)
Operating systemWindowsTypeInstant messaging clientLicenseFreewareWebsiteMySpaceIM page (archive)
MyspaceIM was the official instant messaging client for the social networking site Myspace.
In 2009, a web-based client dubbed MySpaceIM for Web was released to all English-speaking countries, allowing users to interact with friends and non-friends alike to grow their network. Both the desktop and web-based clients can be used to communicate between friends over a common IM network.
Features
MySpaceIM integrates several features into the IM. Currently, these are the features included:
Basic instant messaging to other Myspace users.
Shortcuts to Myspace.com features and profiles.
Imports friends from Myspace into your contacts list in MySpaceIM.
Instant alerts for all requests, messages, and comments.
Switchable conversation views, such as: traditional IM, with pictures, or with cartoon-like balloons.
Skinnable interface.
Shareable custom backgrounds in message windows.
Built-in avatar picture cropping.
Custom emoticons.
Custom "Zaps". (Zaps is a combination of a sound bite, picture, and/or words.)
Voice calls with MySpaceIM users and Skype native client users.
Voice calls to and from regular phones.
Protocol
MySpaceIM uses a proprietary text-based protocol developed by Myspace. Messages are sent as lists of key/value pairs, separated by backslashes. Logging in involves a challenge/response protocol using the SHA-1 hash function and RC4.
Although no official documentation is available, an unofficial MySpaceIM protocol specification has been produced as part of the effort to implement the protocol in Pidgin.
There has also been a very rough .NET implementation of the MySpaceIM protocol which can be found here:.
Compatibility
In November 2006, Cerulean Studios announced their support in MySpaceIM through the upcoming release of Trillian Astra.
In August 2007, eBuddy announced support for MySpaceIM through their beta web version.
During September 2007, the Pidgin project development team incorporated MyspaceIM support developed through work by Jeff Connelly with the Google Summer of Code. MySpaceIM support appears in the 2.2.0 release of libpurple, enabling MySpaceIM support in Pidgin v2.2.0 and Adium v1.1.3.
Versions
Over time, Myspace has released several versions of MySpaceIM, listed here in reverse chronological order:
Version 1.0.823.0 (released 12/01/2009)
Version 1.0.804.0 (released 10/09/2009)
Version 1.0.800.0 (released 08/27/2009)
Version 1.0.789.0 (released 12/17/2008)
Version 1.0.756.0 (released 04/23/2008)
Version 1.0.754.0 (released 02/07/2008)
Version 1.0.745.0 (released 12/19/2007)
Version 1.0.739.0 (released 12/11/2007)
Version 1.0.731.0 (released 11/28/2007)
Version 1.0.716.0 (released 08/15/2007)
Version 1.0.712.0 (released 08/??/2007)
Version 1.0.697.0 (released 05/31/2007)
Version 1.0.673.0 (released 03/07/2007)
Version 1.0.595.0 (released 01/??/2007)
Version 1.0.594.0 (released 01/09/2007)
Version 1.0.529.0 (released 01/08/2007)
Version 1.0.476.0 (released 10/17/2006)
Version 1.0.458.0 (released 10/10/2006)
Version 1.0.404.0 (released 08/25/2006)
Version 1.0.366.0 (released 07/21/2006)
Version 1.0.357.0
Version 1.0.349.0 (released 07/07/2006)
Version 1.0.337.0
Version 1.0.331.0 (released 06/14/2006)
Version 1.0.330.0
Version 1.0.327.0 (released 06/07/2006)
Version 1.0.318.0 (released 06/06/2006)
Version 1.0.312.0
Version 1.0.306.0
Version 1.0.302.0 (released 05/28/2006)
Version 1.0.281.0 (released 05/20/2006)
Version 1.0.269.0 (released 05/18/2006)
Version 1.0.265.0 (released 05/13/2006)
Version 1.0.262.0 (released 05/12/2006)
Version 1.0.253.0 (released 05/10/2006)
See also
Comparison of instant messaging clients
Meebo
Pidgin
Notes
^ MySpaceIM Download Page Archived June 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
^ "MySpaceIM for Web".
^ MySpaceIM - IMWiki. Imfreedom.org. Retrieved on 2013-12-09.
^ MySpace IM Protocol C# .NET. Pastebin.com (2010-10-13). Retrieved on 2013-12-09.
^ MySpace IM now in Beta! | eBuddy Blog Archived 2012-12-08 at archive.today. Blog.ebuddy.com (2007-08-22). Retrieved on 2013-12-09.
^ "MyspaceIM on Pidgin Wiki". Archived from the original on 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2008-04-24.
^ The third number is the build number.
vteInstant messagingProtocols(comparison)Open
DDP
IMPP
IRC
Matrix
MTProto
Retroshare
Signal Protocol
SIP
MSRP
SIMPLE
Tox
XMPP
Jingle
WFP
Zephyr
Closed
MSNP
OSCAR
TOC
Skype
Services
Band
BBM Enterprise
Beeper
BiP
DingTalk
Discord
Element
Google Chat
Google Meet
Google Messages
GroupMe
Guilded
HipChat
iGap
iMessage
Imo
IRC Networks
Jongla
KakaoTalk
Kik
Lark
Libon
Line
Marco Polo
Mattermost
Facebook Messenger
The Palace
Palringo
Session
Signal
Skype
Slack
Snapchat
Snow
Tango
Telegram
QQ
Textfree/Pinger
Threema
Tox
Trillian
Viber
VK Messenger
WeChat
WhatsApp
Wickr
Windows Messenger service
Zoom
Zulip
Clients(comparison)Single protocol
Baidu Hi
BBM Enterprise
Briar
Element
FaceTime
Gadu-Gadu
GroupMe
HCL Sametime
IMVU
Jami
Jongla
Linphone
Facebook Messenger
Palringo
Retroshare
Ricochet
Session
Signal
Skype
Telegram
QQ
Tox
WeChat
WhatsApp
Wickr
Wire
Multi-protocol
Adium
Ayttm
Beeper
BitlBee
Centericq
eBuddy
Jitsi
Kopete
Messages
Miranda NG
Nimbuzz
Pidgin
Finch
QIP 2010
Skype for Business
Telepathy
Thunderbird
Trillian
XMPP (Jabber)
ChatSecure
Conversations
Gajim
Psi
Spark
Tkabber
Xabber
MSNP
Microsoft Teams
Skype
Defunct
List of defunct instant messaging platforms
See also
Backchannel
Chat log
Chatbot
Circuit
Comparison of user features of messaging platforms
Contact list
Emoticon
File sharing
FirstClass
Flock
Fuze Box
Hall.com
LAN messenger
Presence information
RingCentral Glip
SMS language
Status message
U-Report
Videotelephony
Voice over IP
Web chat
Webcam
Yammer | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social networking site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_social_network"},{"link_name":"MySpaceIM for Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.myspace.com/aplaceforim"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"MyspaceIM was the official instant messaging client for the social networking site Myspace.In 2009, a web-based client dubbed MySpaceIM for Web[2] was released to all English-speaking countries, allowing users to interact with friends and non-friends alike to grow their network. Both the desktop and web-based clients can be used to communicate between friends over a common IM network.","title":"Myspace IM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Skinnable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"}],"text":"MySpaceIM integrates several features into the IM. Currently, these are the features included:Basic instant messaging to other Myspace users.\nShortcuts to Myspace.com features and profiles.\nImports friends from Myspace into your contacts list in MySpaceIM.\nInstant alerts for all requests, messages, and comments.\nSwitchable conversation views, such as: traditional IM, with pictures, or with cartoon-like balloons.\nSkinnable interface.\nShareable custom backgrounds in message windows.\nBuilt-in avatar picture cropping.\nCustom emoticons.\nCustom \"Zaps\". (Zaps is a combination of a sound bite, picture, and/or words.)\nVoice calls with MySpaceIM users and Skype native client users.\nVoice calls to and from regular phones.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SHA-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-1"},{"link_name":"hash function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_function"},{"link_name":"RC4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"MySpaceIM uses a proprietary text-based protocol developed by Myspace. Messages are sent as lists of key/value pairs, separated by backslashes. Logging in involves a challenge/response protocol using the SHA-1 hash function and RC4.Although no official documentation is available, an unofficial MySpaceIM protocol specification [3] has been produced as part of the effort to implement the protocol in Pidgin.There has also been a very rough .NET implementation of the MySpaceIM protocol which can be found here:.[4]","title":"Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trillian Astra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_Astra"},{"link_name":"eBuddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBuddy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Jeff Connelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//developer.pidgin.im/wiki/jeff"},{"link_name":"Google Summer of Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Summer_of_Code"},{"link_name":"libpurple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libpurple"},{"link_name":"Adium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adium"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In November 2006, Cerulean Studios announced their support in MySpaceIM through the upcoming release of Trillian Astra.In August 2007, eBuddy announced [5] support for MySpaceIM through their beta web version.During September 2007, the Pidgin project development team incorporated MyspaceIM support developed through work by Jeff Connelly with the Google Summer of Code. MySpaceIM support appears in the 2.2.0 release of libpurple, enabling MySpaceIM support in Pidgin v2.2.0 and Adium v1.1.3.[6]","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Over time, Myspace has released several versions of MySpaceIM,[7] listed here in reverse chronological order:Version 1.0.823.0 (released 12/01/2009)\nVersion 1.0.804.0 (released 10/09/2009)\nVersion 1.0.800.0 (released 08/27/2009)\nVersion 1.0.789.0 (released 12/17/2008)\nVersion 1.0.756.0 (released 04/23/2008)\nVersion 1.0.754.0 (released 02/07/2008)\nVersion 1.0.745.0 (released 12/19/2007)\nVersion 1.0.739.0 (released 12/11/2007)\nVersion 1.0.731.0 (released 11/28/2007)\nVersion 1.0.716.0 (released 08/15/2007)\nVersion 1.0.712.0 (released 08/??/2007)\nVersion 1.0.697.0 (released 05/31/2007)\nVersion 1.0.673.0 (released 03/07/2007)\nVersion 1.0.595.0 (released 01/??/2007)\nVersion 1.0.594.0 (released 01/09/2007)\nVersion 1.0.529.0 (released 01/08/2007)\nVersion 1.0.476.0 (released 10/17/2006)\nVersion 1.0.458.0 (released 10/10/2006)\nVersion 1.0.404.0 (released 08/25/2006)\nVersion 1.0.366.0 (released 07/21/2006)\nVersion 1.0.357.0\nVersion 1.0.349.0 (released 07/07/2006)\nVersion 1.0.337.0\nVersion 1.0.331.0 (released 06/14/2006)\nVersion 1.0.330.0\nVersion 1.0.327.0 (released 06/07/2006)\nVersion 1.0.318.0 (released 06/06/2006)\nVersion 1.0.312.0\nVersion 1.0.306.0\nVersion 1.0.302.0 (released 05/28/2006)\nVersion 1.0.281.0 (released 05/20/2006)\nVersion 1.0.269.0 (released 05/18/2006)\nVersion 1.0.265.0 (released 05/13/2006)\nVersion 1.0.262.0 (released 05/12/2006)\nVersion 1.0.253.0 (released 05/10/2006)","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"MySpaceIM Download Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.myspace.com/myspaceim"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060610223128/http://www.myspace.com/myspaceim"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"MySpaceIM for Web\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.myspace.com/aplaceforim"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"MySpaceIM - IMWiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//imfreedom.org/wiki/MySpaceIM"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"[C#] MySpace IM Protocol C# .NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//pastebin.com/wtKPmFir"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"MySpace IM now in Beta! | eBuddy Blog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//blog.ebuddy.com/index.php/instant-messaging/myspace-im-now-in-beta/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20121208210310/http://blog.ebuddy.com/index.php/instant-messaging/myspace-im-now-in-beta/"},{"link_name":"archive.today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive.today"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"MyspaceIM on Pidgin Wiki\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080414195210/http://developer.pidgin.im/wiki/MySpaceIM"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//developer.pidgin.im/wiki/MySpaceIM"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"Instant messaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging"},{"link_name":"comparison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_instant_messaging_protocols"},{"link_name":"DDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Data_Protocol"},{"link_name":"IMPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_Messaging_and_Presence_Protocol"},{"link_name":"IRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat"},{"link_name":"Matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"MTProto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)#Encryption_scheme"},{"link_name":"Retroshare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroshare"},{"link_name":"Signal Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_Protocol"},{"link_name":"SIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol"},{"link_name":"MSRP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_Session_Relay_Protocol"},{"link_name":"SIMPLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMPLE_(instant_messaging_protocol)"},{"link_name":"Tox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tox_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"XMPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMPP"},{"link_name":"Jingle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingle_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"WFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Wave_Federation_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Zephyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephyr_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"MSNP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Notification_Protocol"},{"link_name":"OSCAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSCAR_protocol"},{"link_name":"TOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOC_protocol"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_protocol"},{"link_name":"Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_(software)"},{"link_name":"BBM Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBM_Enterprise"},{"link_name":"Beeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeper_(application)"},{"link_name":"BiP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BiP_(software)"},{"link_name":"DingTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DingTalk"},{"link_name":"Discord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discord"},{"link_name":"Element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(software)"},{"link_name":"Google Chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Chat"},{"link_name":"Google Meet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Meet"},{"link_name":"Google Messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Messages"},{"link_name":"GroupMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GroupMe"},{"link_name":"Guilded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilded"},{"link_name":"HipChat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HipChat"},{"link_name":"iGap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGap"},{"link_name":"iMessage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMessage"},{"link_name":"Imo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imo.im"},{"link_name":"IRC Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat#Networks"},{"link_name":"Jongla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jongla"},{"link_name":"KakaoTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KakaoTalk"},{"link_name":"Kik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kik_Messenger"},{"link_name":"Lark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lark_(software)"},{"link_name":"Libon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libon_(service)"},{"link_name":"Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(software)"},{"link_name":"Marco Polo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo_(app)"},{"link_name":"Mattermost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattermost"},{"link_name":"Facebook Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_(software)"},{"link_name":"The Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Palace_(computer_program)"},{"link_name":"Palringo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palringo"},{"link_name":"Session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_(software)"},{"link_name":"Signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(messaging_app)"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"Slack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_(software)"},{"link_name":"Snapchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat"},{"link_name":"Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_(app)"},{"link_name":"Tango","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tango_Live"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"QQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencent_QQ"},{"link_name":"Textfree/Pinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textfree"},{"link_name":"Threema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threema"},{"link_name":"Tox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tox_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"Trillian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(software)"},{"link_name":"Viber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viber"},{"link_name":"VK Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VK_(service)"},{"link_name":"WeChat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WeChat"},{"link_name":"WhatsApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp"},{"link_name":"Wickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickr"},{"link_name":"Windows Messenger service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Messenger_service"},{"link_name":"Zoom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom_Video_Communications"},{"link_name":"Zulip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulip"},{"link_name":"comparison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_cross-platform_instant_messaging_clients"},{"link_name":"Baidu Hi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baidu"},{"link_name":"BBM Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBM_Enterprise"},{"link_name":"Briar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briar_(software)"},{"link_name":"Element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(software)"},{"link_name":"FaceTime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FaceTime"},{"link_name":"Gadu-Gadu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadu-Gadu"},{"link_name":"GroupMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GroupMe"},{"link_name":"HCL Sametime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCL_Sametime"},{"link_name":"IMVU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMVU"},{"link_name":"Jami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jami_(software)"},{"link_name":"Jongla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jongla"},{"link_name":"Linphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linphone"},{"link_name":"Facebook Messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_(software)"},{"link_name":"Palringo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palringo"},{"link_name":"Retroshare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroshare"},{"link_name":"Ricochet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricochet_(software)"},{"link_name":"Session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_(software)"},{"link_name":"Signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(messaging_app)"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"QQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencent_QQ"},{"link_name":"Tox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tox_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"WeChat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WeChat"},{"link_name":"WhatsApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp"},{"link_name":"Wickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickr"},{"link_name":"Wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_(software)"},{"link_name":"Adium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adium"},{"link_name":"Ayttm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayttm"},{"link_name":"Beeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeper_(application)"},{"link_name":"BitlBee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitlBee"},{"link_name":"Centericq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centericq"},{"link_name":"eBuddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBuddy"},{"link_name":"Jitsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jitsi"},{"link_name":"Kopete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopete"},{"link_name":"Messages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messages_(Apple)"},{"link_name":"Miranda NG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_NG"},{"link_name":"Nimbuzz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbuzz"},{"link_name":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"},{"link_name":"Finch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finch_(software)"},{"link_name":"QIP 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiet_Internet_Pager"},{"link_name":"Skype for Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_for_Business"},{"link_name":"Telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE_Telepathy"},{"link_name":"Thunderbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Thunderbird"},{"link_name":"Trillian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trillian_(software)"},{"link_name":"XMPP (Jabber)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XMPP"},{"link_name":"ChatSecure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatSecure"},{"link_name":"Conversations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversations_(software)"},{"link_name":"Gajim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gajim"},{"link_name":"Psi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psi_(instant_messaging_client)"},{"link_name":"Spark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_(XMPP_client)"},{"link_name":"Tkabber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tkabber"},{"link_name":"Xabber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xabber"},{"link_name":"MSNP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Notification_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Teams"},{"link_name":"Skype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype"},{"link_name":"List of defunct instant messaging platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_defunct_instant_messaging_platforms"},{"link_name":"Backchannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backchannel"},{"link_name":"Chat log","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chat_log"},{"link_name":"Chatbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatbot"},{"link_name":"Circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_(software)"},{"link_name":"Comparison of user features of messaging platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_user_features_of_messaging_platforms"},{"link_name":"Contact list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_list"},{"link_name":"Emoticon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticon"},{"link_name":"File sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing"},{"link_name":"FirstClass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FirstClass"},{"link_name":"Flock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flock_(messaging_service)"},{"link_name":"Fuze Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuze_(company)"},{"link_name":"Hall.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall.com"},{"link_name":"LAN messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAN_messenger"},{"link_name":"Presence information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presence_information"},{"link_name":"RingCentral Glip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glip"},{"link_name":"SMS language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_language"},{"link_name":"Status message","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_message_(instant_messaging)"},{"link_name":"U-Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U-Report"},{"link_name":"Videotelephony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotelephony"},{"link_name":"Voice over IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP"},{"link_name":"Web chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_chat"},{"link_name":"Webcam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcam"},{"link_name":"Yammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yammer"}],"text":"^ MySpaceIM Download Page Archived June 10, 2006, at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ \"MySpaceIM for Web\".\n\n^ MySpaceIM - IMWiki. Imfreedom.org. Retrieved on 2013-12-09.\n\n^ [C#] MySpace IM Protocol C# .NET. Pastebin.com (2010-10-13). Retrieved on 2013-12-09.\n\n^ MySpace IM now in Beta! | eBuddy Blog Archived 2012-12-08 at archive.today. Blog.ebuddy.com (2007-08-22). Retrieved on 2013-12-09.\n\n^ \"MyspaceIM on Pidgin Wiki\". Archived from the original on 2008-04-14. Retrieved 2008-04-24.\n\n^ The third number is the build number.vteInstant messagingProtocols(comparison)Open\nDDP\nIMPP\nIRC\nMatrix\nMTProto\nRetroshare\nSignal Protocol\nSIP\nMSRP\nSIMPLE\nTox\nXMPP\nJingle\nWFP\nZephyr\nClosed\nMSNP\nOSCAR\nTOC\nSkype\nServices\nBand\nBBM Enterprise\nBeeper\nBiP\nDingTalk\nDiscord\nElement\nGoogle Chat\nGoogle Meet\nGoogle Messages\nGroupMe\nGuilded\nHipChat\niGap\niMessage\nImo\nIRC Networks\nJongla\nKakaoTalk\nKik\nLark\nLibon\nLine\nMarco Polo\nMattermost\nFacebook Messenger\nThe Palace\nPalringo\nSession\nSignal\nSkype\nSlack\nSnapchat\nSnow\nTango\nTelegram\nQQ\nTextfree/Pinger\nThreema\nTox\nTrillian\nViber\nVK Messenger\nWeChat\nWhatsApp\nWickr\nWindows Messenger service\nZoom\nZulip\nClients(comparison)Single protocol\nBaidu Hi\nBBM Enterprise\nBriar\nElement\nFaceTime\nGadu-Gadu\nGroupMe\nHCL Sametime\nIMVU\nJami\nJongla\nLinphone\nFacebook Messenger\nPalringo\nRetroshare\nRicochet\nSession\nSignal\nSkype\nTelegram\nQQ\nTox\nWeChat\nWhatsApp\nWickr\nWire\nMulti-protocol\nAdium\nAyttm\nBeeper\nBitlBee\nCentericq\neBuddy\nJitsi\nKopete\nMessages\nMiranda NG\nNimbuzz\nPidgin\nFinch\nQIP 2010\nSkype for Business\nTelepathy\nThunderbird\nTrillian\nXMPP (Jabber)\nChatSecure\nConversations\nGajim\nPsi\nSpark\nTkabber\nXabber\nMSNP\nMicrosoft Teams\nSkype\nDefunct\nList of defunct instant messaging platforms\nSee also\nBackchannel\nChat log\nChatbot\nCircuit\nComparison of user features of messaging platforms\nContact list\nEmoticon\nFile sharing\nFirstClass\nFlock\nFuze Box\nHall.com\nLAN messenger\nPresence information\nRingCentral Glip\nSMS language\nStatus message\nU-Report\nVideotelephony\nVoice over IP\nWeb chat\nWebcam\nYammer","title":"Notes"}] | [] | [{"title":"Comparison of instant messaging clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_instant_messaging_clients"},{"title":"Meebo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meebo"},{"title":"Pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin_(software)"}] | [{"reference":"\"MySpaceIM for Web\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.myspace.com/aplaceforim","url_text":"\"MySpaceIM for Web\""}]},{"reference":"\"MyspaceIM on Pidgin Wiki\". Archived from the original on 2008-04-14. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagal_Senior | Kagal | ["1 History","2 Geography","3 Demographics","4 Notable people","5 The Kagal-Hatkanangale industrial area","6 See also","7 References"] | Coordinates: 16°35′N 74°19′E / 16.58°N 74.32°E / 16.58; 74.32
For other uses, see Kagal (disambiguation).
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City in Maharashtra, IndiaKagalcityKagalLocation in Maharashtra, IndiaShow map of MaharashtraKagalKagal (India)Show map of IndiaCoordinates: 16°35′N 74°19′E / 16.58°N 74.32°E / 16.58; 74.32Country IndiaStateMaharashtraDistrictKolhapurElevation553 m (1,814 ft)Population (2001) • Total23,775Languages • OfficialMarathiTime zoneUTC+5:30 (IST)PIN416236Telephone code02325
Kagal is a town in Kolhapur district of the Indian state of Maharashtra.
History
During the rule of the Marathas and British raj, the town was the seat of a noble Ghatge Maratha family who were among the most important in princely state of Kolhapur.
Sultan Mahmud Padshah, the Muslim ruler of Bijapur, rewarded in 1572 the Kagal dynasty founder Piraji Raje, the descendant of Kamraja Suryavanshi, the progenitor of Ghatge family known as Zunzar Rao (Valiant Fighter), with the title Sarjerao and the Kagal pargana, then consisting of 69 and a 1/2 villages, as a Jagir (vassal estate) within the princely state of Kolhapur (later a salute state). The name of his dynastic line came corrupted to Ghatge 'Jump ahead'.
During incessant 19th century warfare and depredations, some of the villages were lost, reducing their number to 41, covering 298 km2, as guaranteed by article 3 of the Treaty entered into by the Maharaja of Kolhapur with the British Government in 1826.
Geography
Kagal is a taluka in Kolhapur district. It is located at the boundary of Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Chhatrapati Shahu Sahakari Sakar Karkhana is located here. The Dudhganga river passes through Kagal. Kagal is located at 16°35′N 74°19′E / 16.58°N 74.32°E / 16.58; 74.32. It has an average elevation of 553 metres (1814 feet).
Demographics
As of 2001 India census, Kagal had a population of 23,775. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Kagal has an average literacy rate of 71%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 78%, and female literacy is 64%. In Kagal, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. Marathi is the predominant native language here, it is widely spoken.
Notable people
Vijayendra Ghatge, TV & Film actor & The Raja of Kagal Royal family
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, did his primary education at Kagal.
Shahu of Kolhapur, also known as Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.
Hasan Mushrif, is a leader of the Nationalist Congress Party and a former minister in the government of Maharashtra. He is member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from Kolhapur’s Kagal Assembly seat.
Anand Yadav, a Sahitya Academy Award winner was born in this city.
The Kagal-Hatkanangale industrial area
The Kagal-Hatkanangale industrial area is situated 12 km from Kolhapur city and the airport.
The nearest railway station is at Kolhapur 13 km away from the industrial area. The industrial area is located 3 km from the National Highway 4 (Mumbai-Bangalore).
The Karnataka State boundary is just 3 km from this estate and Belagavi, a city just 70 km from the estate.
Nearest airport is Kolhapur (12 km) Ratnagiri port is 110 km and Panaji (Goa)and Dabolim airport 210 km.
Two other major cities Pune and Mumbai are accessed via the National Highway and railways.
The other major industrial areas, Shiroli, Udyamnagar in Kolhapur and Gokul-shirgaon, are just 12 km, 15 km and 5 km from this area. 5-star MIDC is the main industry and other big companies are arriving.
See also
Belunki
References
^ Indian Princely States on www.uq.net.au, as archived on web.archive.org; with genealogy "KAGAL (Jagir)"
^ Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Kagal
^ "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 16 June 2004. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
^ The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency"(1894) J.F.Fleet, Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (Vol-1, Part-II, Book-III). ISBN 81-206-0277-3.
^ Barnett, L. D. (1910). "A catalogue of Kannada, Badaga and Coorg books" (PDF). Retrieved 4 March 2016.
vteKolhapur district topicsHistory
Battle of Kolhapur
Kolhapur State
Panhala Fort
Shahu IV of Kolhapur
Geography
Panchganga River
Chitri Dam
Kudnur Dam
Radhanagari Dam
Tillari (Forebay) Dam
Tillari (Main) Dam
Cities and towns
Ajara
Uttur
Chandgad
Gadhinglaj
Halkarni
Hatkanangale
Harali
Ichalkaranji
Jaysingpur
Kadgaon
Kagal
Kolhapur
Mahagaon, Gadhinglaj
Mugruwadi
Murgud
Nesari
Shirol
Transport
Amba Ghat
Kolhapur Airport
MH SH 134
NH 48
NH 166
Visitor attractions
Bhavani Mandap
Jyotiba Temple
Khasbag Wrestling Stadium
Kumbhoj
Mahalakshmi Temple
Narsobawadi
Rajarampuri
Rankala Lake
Shalini Palace
Shree Chhatrapati Shahu Museum
Siddhagiri Gramjivan Museum
Culture
Kolhapuri chappal
Maharashtra Film Company
Veg kolhapuri
Education
D. Y. Patil College of Engineering and Technology
Private High School Kolhapur
R.C.S.M. Govt Medical College and CPR Hospital
Rajaram College
St. Xavier's School
Shivaji University
Vidyapeeth Highschool
Lok Sabha constituencies
Hatkanangle ‡
Kolhapur
Vidhan SabhaconstituenciesHatkanangle ‡
Hatkanangale
Ichalkaranji
Shahuwadi
Shirol
Kolhapur
Chandgad
Kagal
Karvir
Kolhapur North
Kolhapur South
Radhanagari
Taluka/Tehsil
Gadhinglaj
Shirol
Stadiums
Rajarshi Shahu Stadium
Shri Chhatrapati Shivaji Stadium
Khasbag Wrestling Stadium
‡ This constituency also has portions in Sangli district
See also
Districts of Maharashtra | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kagal (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagal_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Kolhapur district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolhapur_district"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Maharashtra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharashtra"}],"text":"For other uses, see Kagal (disambiguation).City in Maharashtra, IndiaKagal is a town in Kolhapur district of the Indian state of Maharashtra.","title":"Kagal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marathas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha"},{"link_name":"British raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_raj"},{"link_name":"Ghatge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghatge&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Maratha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha"},{"link_name":"princely state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_state"},{"link_name":"Kolhapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolhapur"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bijapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bijapur"},{"link_name":"pargana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pargana"},{"link_name":"Jagir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagir"},{"link_name":"princely state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_state"},{"link_name":"Kolhapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolhapur_State"},{"link_name":"salute state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salute_state"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"During the rule of the Marathas and British raj, the town was the seat of a noble Ghatge Maratha family who were among the most important in princely state of Kolhapur.[citation needed]Sultan Mahmud Padshah, the Muslim ruler of Bijapur, rewarded in 1572 the Kagal dynasty founder Piraji Raje, the descendant of Kamraja Suryavanshi, the progenitor of Ghatge family known as Zunzar Rao (Valiant Fighter), with the title Sarjerao and the Kagal pargana, then consisting of 69 and a 1/2 villages, as a Jagir (vassal estate) within the princely state of Kolhapur (later a salute state). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIDO-FM | CIDO-FM | ["1 History","2 References","3 External links"] | Coordinates: 49°05′25″N 116°22′49″W / 49.09028°N 116.38028°W / 49.09028; -116.38028Radio station in Creston, British Columbia
CIDO-FMCreston, British ColumbiaFrequency97.7 MHzBrandingCreston Community RadioProgrammingFormatcommunity radioOwnershipOwnerCreston Community Radio SocietyTechnical informationClassLPERP20 wattsHAAT332.7 meters (1,092 ft)LinksWebcastWebsiteCreston Radio Canada
CIDO-FM, branded as Creston Community Radio, was a community radio station broadcasting with an effective radiated power of 20 watts in the Southern Interior town of Creston, British Columbia, Canada. The non-commercial station, airing on 97.7 FM, was staffed entirely by members and volunteers of the Creston Community Radio Society.
History
The Society was founded in 2001 to provide locally based broadcasting in the Creston Area, after the Creston Valley's only commercial radio station discontinued its local broadcasting. The station branded itself as "977 CIDO, Creston Valley's Community Radio Station" and promoted itself as "A different view on a familiar valley." Also on the FM dial is CBTS-FM at 100.3 MHz (rebroadcasting CBTK-FM Kelowna, BC as part of the CBC Radio One network.
CIDO-FM's broadcast application to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission was approved in February 2005, allowing the society to broadcast as an English-language FM type B community radio station.
The station was one of several new community radio stations launched in the Kootenay region in the 2000s. Others include CJLY-FM in Nelson, CFAD-FM in Salmo, CJHQ-FM in Nakusp and CHLI-FM in Rossland.
The Creston radio scene changed again on August 7, 2015 when commercial radio station CKCV-FM took to the air. CIDO-FM’s licence was due to expire August 31, 2016 but the CRTC received word on August 3, 2016 that the station had closed and would not be seeking to have the licence renewed.
References
^ CRTC Decision 2005-38
^ Anne DeGrace, "Turn me on, I'm a radio" Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, Articulate Arts, fall 2005, pp. 13-14.
^ "CIDO-FM , Community, Creston Community Radio Society"
External links
Creston Community Radio
CIDO-FM at The History of Canadian Broadcasting by the Canadian Communications Foundation
CIDO-FM in the REC Canadian station database
49°05′25″N 116°22′49″W / 49.09028°N 116.38028°W / 49.09028; -116.38028
This article about a radio station in British Columbia is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"community radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_radio"},{"link_name":"Southern Interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Interior"},{"link_name":"Creston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creston,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"}],"text":"Radio station in Creston, British ColumbiaCIDO-FM, branded as Creston Community Radio, was a community radio station broadcasting with an effective radiated power of 20 watts in the Southern Interior town of Creston, British Columbia, Canada. The non-commercial station, airing on 97.7 FM, was staffed entirely by members and volunteers of the Creston Community Radio Society.","title":"CIDO-FM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CBTK-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBTK-FM"},{"link_name":"CBC Radio One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBC_Radio_One"},{"link_name":"Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Kootenay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kootenays"},{"link_name":"CJLY-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CJLY-FM"},{"link_name":"Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"CFAD-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFAD-FM"},{"link_name":"Salmo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmo,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"CJHQ-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CJHQ-FM"},{"link_name":"Nakusp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakusp,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"CHLI-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHLI-FM"},{"link_name":"Rossland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossland,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"CKCV-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CKCV-FM"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The Society was founded in 2001 to provide locally based broadcasting in the Creston Area, after the Creston Valley's only commercial radio station discontinued its local broadcasting. The station branded itself as \"977 CIDO, Creston Valley's Community Radio Station\" and promoted itself as \"A different view on a familiar valley.\" Also on the FM dial is CBTS-FM at 100.3 MHz (rebroadcasting CBTK-FM Kelowna, BC as part of the CBC Radio One network.CIDO-FM's broadcast application to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission was approved in February 2005, allowing the society to broadcast as an English-language FM type B community radio station.[1]The station was one of several new community radio stations launched in the Kootenay region in the 2000s. Others include CJLY-FM in Nelson, CFAD-FM in Salmo, CJHQ-FM in Nakusp and CHLI-FM in Rossland.[2]The Creston radio scene changed again on August 7, 2015 when commercial radio station CKCV-FM took to the air. CIDO-FM’s licence was due to expire August 31, 2016 but the CRTC received word on August 3, 2016 that the station had closed and would not be seeking to have the licence renewed.[3]","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=CIDO-FM¶ms=49_05_25_N_116_22_49_W_type:landmark_region:CA","external_links_name":"49°05′25″N 116°22′49″W / 49.09028°N 116.38028°W / 49.09028; -116.38028"},{"Link":"http://www.crestonradio.ca/?page=listen","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://byrnesmedia.com/directory/british-columbia/creston/cido-fm/","external_links_name":"Creston Radio Canada"},{"Link":"http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2005/db2005-38.htm","external_links_name":"CRTC Decision 2005-38"},{"Link":"http://wkarts.kics.bc.ca/ARTiculate%20PDF/Articulate%20Fall05%20sm.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Turn me on, I'm a radio\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070629222953/http://wkarts.kics.bc.ca/ARTiculate%20PDF/Articulate%20Fall05%20sm.pdf#","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.broadcasting-history.com/listing_and_histories/radio/cido-fm","external_links_name":"\"CIDO-FM , Community, Creston Community Radio Society\""},{"Link":"http://www.crestonradio.ca/","external_links_name":"Creston Community Radio"},{"Link":"https://broadcasting-history.ca/radio/radio-stations/british-columbia/british-columbia-south/cido-fm/","external_links_name":"CIDO-FM"},{"Link":"https://fccdata.org/?facid=&call=CIDO-FM&ccode=2&latd=&lond=&city=&state=&country=US&zip=&party=&party_type=LICEN&fac_type=ALL","external_links_name":"CIDO-FM"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=CIDO-FM¶ms=49_05_25_N_116_22_49_W_type:landmark_region:CA","external_links_name":"49°05′25″N 116°22′49″W / 49.09028°N 116.38028°W / 49.09028; -116.38028"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CIDO-FM&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Pahar | Rishi Pahar | ["1 References"] | Coordinates: 30°31′48″N 79°59′25″E / 30.53000°N 79.99028°E / 30.53000; 79.99028Mountain peak in Uttarakhand, India
Rishi PaharRishi PaharLocation in northern IndiaShow map of UttarakhandRishi PaharRishi Pahar (Tibet)Show map of Tibet
Highest pointElevation6,992 m (22,940 ft)Prominence650 m (2,130 ft)Coordinates30°31′48″N 79°59′25″E / 30.53000°N 79.99028°E / 30.53000; 79.99028GeographyLocationPithoragarh, Uttarakhand, IndiaParent rangeKumaon HimalayaClimbingFirst ascent1975Easiest routeWestern Ridge
Rishi Pahar is a Himalayan mountain peak, located in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand state in India. It lies at the northeast corner of the ring of peaks surrounding the Nanda Devi Sanctuary, and on the eastern rim of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, just south of Trishuli and Hardeol. The Milam Glacier lies on its east flank. It marks the triple divide between the Milam, Dunagiri, and Uttari Rishi Ganga valleys. Rishi Pahar means 'The Peak of Saint' in Hindi.
The first ascent to the summit of Rishi Pahar was made in 1975 via the west ridge.
References
^ Garhwal-Himalaya-Ost, 1:150,000 scale topographic map, prepared in 1992 by Ernst Huber for the Swiss Foundation for Alpine Research, based on maps of the Survey of India.
Nanda Devi by Eric Shipton
This article related to a location in the Indian state of Uttarakhand is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Himalayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"Pithoragarh district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithoragarh_district"},{"link_name":"Uttarakhand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakhand"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Nanda Devi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanda_Devi"},{"link_name":"Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanda_Devi_Biosphere_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Trishuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trishuli"},{"link_name":"Hardeol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardeol"},{"link_name":"Milam Glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milam_Glacier"},{"link_name":"triple divide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_divide"},{"link_name":"Rishi Ganga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Ganga"},{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi"}],"text":"Mountain peak in Uttarakhand, IndiaRishi Pahar is a Himalayan mountain peak, located in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand state in India. It lies at the northeast corner of the ring of peaks surrounding the Nanda Devi Sanctuary, and on the eastern rim of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, just south of Trishuli and Hardeol. The Milam Glacier lies on its east flank. It marks the triple divide between the Milam, Dunagiri, and Uttari Rishi Ganga valleys. Rishi Pahar means 'The Peak of Saint' in Hindi.The first ascent to the summit of Rishi Pahar was made in 1975 via the west ridge.","title":"Rishi Pahar"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rishi_Pahar¶ms=30_31_48_N_79_59_25_E_type:mountain_region:IN-UL_scale:100000","external_links_name":"30°31′48″N 79°59′25″E / 30.53000°N 79.99028°E / 30.53000; 79.99028"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Rishi_Pahar¶ms=30_31_48_N_79_59_25_E_type:mountain_region:IN-UL_scale:100000","external_links_name":"30°31′48″N 79°59′25″E / 30.53000°N 79.99028°E / 30.53000; 79.99028"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rishi_Pahar&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics | Philippines at the 2018 Winter Olympics | ["1 Background","2 Competitors","3 Alpine skiing","4 Figure skating","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Sporting event delegationPhilippines at the2018 Winter OlympicsFlag of The PhilippinesIOC codePHINOCPhilippine Olympic Committeein Pyeongchang, South KoreaFebruary 9–25, 2018Competitors2 in 2 sportsFlag bearers Asa Miller (opening and closing)Medals
Gold
0
Silver
0
Bronze
0
Total
0
Winter Olympics appearances (overview)19721976–1984198819921994–2010201420182022
The Philippines competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from 9 to 25 February 2018. The country was represented by two male athletes, a figure skater and an alpine skier.
Background
The Philippine delegation and flag being featured during the opening ceremony.
The Philippines made its second consecutive participation at the Winter Olympic Games after they participated in the 2014 edition in Sochi, Russia. They had previously achieved this feat when they participated in the 1988 and 1992 editions.
Michael Christian Martinez, the sole competitor for the Philippines in 2014, originally failed to qualify for the 2018 edition of the Games after failing to secure qualification through the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy. However, after Sweden returned their quota spot in January 2018, the Philippines was assigned the quota spot, thereby allowing Michael Christian Martinez to compete in the Olympics.
The Philippines was also assigned a quota spot for a male athlete in alpine skiing by the International Ski Federation. Asa Miller, who was also the country's flag bearer in the opening ceremony, is set to compete for the Philippines in the sport.
Tom Carrasco, Jr., who is the chef de mission for the Philippine delegation, has said he is "not expecting much" from the participation and is just looking to build experience of the athletes.
Competitors
The following is the list of number of competitors which participated in the delegation per sport.
Sport
Men
Women
Total
Alpine skiing
1
0
1
Figure skating
1
0
1
Total
2
0
2
Alpine skiing
Main articles: Alpine skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics and Alpine skiing at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Qualification
The Philippines achieved the following quota place.
Athlete
Event
Run 1
Run 2
Total
Time
Rank
Time
Rank
Time
Rank
Asa Miller
Men's giant slalom
1:27.52
81
1:22.43
68
2:49.95
70
The country's single quota place was filled in by Asa Miller. Miller, who resides in Oregon within the United States, is allowed to compete for the Philippines due to his dual citizenship. Miller made a fundraising campaign through GoFundMe for his Olympic stint though the Philippine Olympic Committee has volunteered to finance his expenses. Miller is the first Filipino born in the 2000s to qualify for the Winter Olympics.
In the giant slalom event contested on February 18, Miller entered the course at 104th in both the 1st and 2nd runs. In the first run, Miller had a slight slip but was able to finish the course clocking 1:27.52 for 81st place while in the second run he recorded a time of 1:22.43 for 68th place. His total run for the giant slalom was 2:49.95 finishing 70th overall. 110 skiers participated. Among them only 85 completed the first run, and 75 finished the second and final run. Miller's total time was 31.91 seconds behind gold medalist Marcel Hirscher of Austria.
Figure skating
Main articles: Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics and Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Qualification
The Philippines achieved the following quota place.
Athlete
Event
SP
FS
Total
Points
Rank
Points
Rank
Points
Rank
Michael Christian Martinez
Men's singles
55.56
28
did not advance
Michael Christian Martinez is the sole competitor for the Philippines in figure skating. He initially failed to qualify for Winter Olympics after not making a sufficient finish at the CS Nebelhorn Trophy in September 2017. On January 23, 2018, he was informed that he is eligible to participate in the Games after Sweden returned a quota place and went back to training. At that time he had already retired from figure skating to focus in body building and had to crash diet to reduce his weight from 75 kg (165 lb) to 68 kg (150 lb).
He and his coach, Slava Zagor left for Pyeongchang from Los Angeles on February 5, 2018.
Martinez was the sixth to skate in the short program skated to the tune of “Emerald Tiger” by Vanessa-Mae in the short program where he accumulated a total of 55.56 points (26.04 points credited to elements performed). He placed 28th among 30 competitors besting only Felipe Montoya of Spain and Yaroslav Paniot of Ukraine and failed to advance to the free skate program by placing within the bottom six in the short program. He planned skate to the songs “El Tango de Roxanne” from Moulin Rouge! and “Tango de los Exilados” in the free skate program.
Chef de mission, Tom Carrasco remarked Martinez did his best given the skater's "condition and circumstances". According to the official, Zagor described Martinez' short program as "not a bad performance".
See also
Philippines at the 2017 Asian Winter Games
Philippines at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics
References
^ Alberto, Noel (7 February 2018). "Pyeongchang 2018: The Philippines set to make second consecutive appearance at Winter Games". Vavel. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
^ Leongson, Randolph (1 October 2017). "Martinez fails to qualify for 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics". The Philippine Daily Inquirer.
^ "Well, no Olympic ticket for me". 22 January 2018. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021.
^ a b "Figure skater Michael Martinez claims Olympics seat". The Philippine Star. 25 January 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
^ a b "Alpine Skiing Quota List for Olympic Games 2018". www.data.fis-ski.com/. International Ski Federation (FIS). 12 June 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
^ Parry, Richard (9 February 2018). "Every flag bearer at Winter Olympics 2018 opening ceremony". London Evening Standard. UK. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
^ "Athlete Profile: Asa Miller". Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Winter Games. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
^ a b Geist, Luke (29 November 2017). "Senior prepares to compete in the Olympics". The Cardinal Times. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
^ Murillo, Michael Angelo (9 February 2018). "PHL taking the opportunities at the Olympic Winter Games". Business World. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
^ "NOC Entries - Philippines". Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Winter Games. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
^ "Meet Asa Miller, the Philippines' only delegate to Pyeongchang". www.news.abs-cbn.com/. ABS-CBN Sports. 16 January 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
^ Matel, Philip (20 January 2018). "PH Olympic pride rests on 17-year old Asa Miller's shoulders". ABS-CBN. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
^ a b Ramos, Josef (18 February 2018). "Young Miller falls in Winter Olympics". The Manila Times. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
^ Leongson, Randolph (18 February 2018). "Asa Miller ranks 81st after Run 1". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
^ "2018 Winter Olympics: Miller finishes 70th in men's giant slalom". Manila Bulletin. 18 February 2018. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
^ Leongson, Randolph (18 February 2018). "Asa Miller finishes in top 70 of men's giant slalom". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
^ a b c "Winter Olympics: Pinoy figure skater Michael Martinez bows out in preliminaries". ABS-CBN News. Reuters, ABS-CBN. 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ "Michael Martinez and coach depart for Pyeongchang". ABS-CBN News. 6 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
^ Mather, Victor; Longman, Jeré (16 February 2018). "Olympics Figure Skating Live Results: Yuzuru Hanyu Leads; Nathan Chen Stumbles". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ Henson, Joaquin (1 February 2018). "Michael Martinez adjusts music for Olympics". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
External links
Philippines at the 2018 Winter Olympics
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vtePhilippines at the OlympicsSummer Olympic Games192419281932193619481952195619601964196819721976198019841988199219962000200420082012201620202024Winter Olympic Games19721976–1984198819921994–2010201420182022Philippines did not participate in 1980 due to a boycott. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"2018 Winter Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Pyeongchang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyeongchang"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"}],"text":"Sporting event delegationThe Philippines competed at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea, from 9 to 25 February 2018. The country was represented by two male athletes, a figure skater and an alpine skier.","title":"Philippines at the 2018 Winter Olympics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Opening_Ceremony_Pyeongchang_2018_Steven_Williams.jpg"},{"link_name":"2014 edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Sochi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi"},{"link_name":"1988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_at_the_1988_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"1992 editions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_at_the_1992_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Michael Christian Martinez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Christian_Martinez"},{"link_name":"2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_CS_Nebelhorn_Trophy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inquirer266940-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JP171122-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martinezclaims-4"},{"link_name":"assigned a quota spot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Qualification"},{"link_name":"alpine skiing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_skiing_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics"},{"link_name":"International Ski Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Ski_Federation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fis-5"},{"link_name":"Asa Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Miller"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-standard-flag-bearer-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pyeongchang-miller-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-senior-8"},{"link_name":"chef de mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chef_de_mission"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Philippine delegation and flag being featured during the opening ceremony.The Philippines made its second consecutive participation at the Winter Olympic Games after they participated in the 2014 edition in Sochi, Russia. They had previously achieved this feat when they participated in the 1988 and 1992 editions.[1]Michael Christian Martinez, the sole competitor for the Philippines in 2014, originally failed to qualify for the 2018 edition of the Games after failing to secure qualification through the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy.[2] However, after Sweden returned their quota spot in January 2018,[3] the Philippines was assigned the quota spot, thereby allowing Michael Christian Martinez to compete in the Olympics.[4]The Philippines was also assigned a quota spot for a male athlete in alpine skiing by the International Ski Federation.[5] Asa Miller, who was also the country's flag bearer in the opening ceremony,[6][7] is set to compete for the Philippines in the sport.[8]Tom Carrasco, Jr., who is the chef de mission for the Philippine delegation, has said he is \"not expecting much\" from the participation and is just looking to build experience of the athletes.[9]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The following is the list of number of competitors which participated in the delegation per sport.[10]","title":"Competitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fis-5"},{"link_name":"Asa Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Miller"},{"link_name":"Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"dual citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_citizenship"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-senior-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Philippine Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-youngmiller-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-youngmiller-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Marcel Hirscher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Hirscher"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pdimiller-16"}],"text":"The Philippines achieved the following quota place.[5]The country's single quota place was filled in by Asa Miller. Miller, who resides in Oregon within the United States, is allowed to compete for the Philippines due to his dual citizenship.[8][11] Miller made a fundraising campaign through GoFundMe for his Olympic stint though the Philippine Olympic Committee has volunteered to finance his expenses.[12] Miller is the first Filipino born in the 2000s to qualify for the Winter Olympics.In the giant slalom event contested on February 18, Miller entered the course at 104th in both the 1st and 2nd runs.[13] In the first run, Miller had a slight slip but was able to finish the course clocking 1:27.52 for 81st place[14] while in the second run he recorded a time of 1:22.43 for 68th place. His total run for the giant slalom was 2:49.95 finishing 70th overall.[13] 110 skiers participated. Among them only 85 completed the first run, and 75 finished the second and final run.[15] Miller's total time was 31.91 seconds behind gold medalist Marcel Hirscher of Austria.[16]","title":"Alpine skiing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martinezclaims-4"},{"link_name":"CS Nebelhorn Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_CS_Nebelhorn_Trophy"},{"link_name":"body building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_building"},{"link_name":"crash diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_diet"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bowsout-17"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Emerald Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choreography_(Vanessa-Mae_album)"},{"link_name":"Vanessa-Mae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa-Mae"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bowsout-17"},{"link_name":"Felipe Montoya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_Montoya"},{"link_name":"Yaroslav Paniot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslav_Paniot"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-19"},{"link_name":"El Tango de Roxanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Tango_de_Roxanne"},{"link_name":"Moulin Rouge!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moulin_Rouge!"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adjust-20"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bowsout-17"}],"text":"The Philippines achieved the following quota place.[4]Michael Christian Martinez is the sole competitor for the Philippines in figure skating. He initially failed to qualify for Winter Olympics after not making a sufficient finish at the CS Nebelhorn Trophy in September 2017. On January 23, 2018, he was informed that he is eligible to participate in the Games after Sweden returned a quota place and went back to training. At that time he had already retired from figure skating to focus in body building and had to crash diet to reduce his weight from 75 kg (165 lb) to 68 kg (150 lb).[17]\nHe and his coach, Slava Zagor left for Pyeongchang from Los Angeles on February 5, 2018.[18]Martinez was the sixth to skate in the short program skated to the tune of “Emerald Tiger” by Vanessa-Mae in the short program where he accumulated a total of 55.56 points (26.04 points credited to elements performed).[17] He placed 28th among 30 competitors besting only Felipe Montoya of Spain and Yaroslav Paniot of Ukraine and failed to advance to the free skate program by placing within the bottom six in the short program.[19] He planned skate to the songs “El Tango de Roxanne” from Moulin Rouge! and “Tango de los Exilados” in the free skate program.[20]Chef de mission, Tom Carrasco remarked Martinez did his best given the skater's \"condition and circumstances\". According to the official, Zagor described Martinez' short program as \"not a bad performance\".[17]","title":"Figure skating"}] | [{"image_text":"The Philippine delegation and flag being featured during the opening ceremony.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Opening_Ceremony_Pyeongchang_2018_Steven_Williams.jpg/220px-Opening_Ceremony_Pyeongchang_2018_Steven_Williams.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Philippines at the 2017 Asian Winter Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_at_the_2017_Asian_Winter_Games"},{"title":"Philippines at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_at_the_2018_Summer_Youth_Olympics"}] | [{"reference":"Alberto, Noel (7 February 2018). \"Pyeongchang 2018: The Philippines set to make second consecutive appearance at Winter Games\". Vavel. Retrieved 9 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vavel.com/en-us/more-sports/876620-pyeongchang-2018-the-philippines-set-to-make-second-consecutive-appearance-at-winter-games.html","url_text":"\"Pyeongchang 2018: The Philippines set to make second consecutive appearance at Winter Games\""}]},{"reference":"Leongson, Randolph (1 October 2017). \"Martinez fails to qualify for 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics\". The Philippine Daily Inquirer.","urls":[{"url":"http://sports.inquirer.net/266940/michael-martinez-fails-to-qualify-for-2018-pyeongchang-winter-olympics","url_text":"\"Martinez fails to qualify for 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Well, no Olympic ticket for me\". 22 January 2018. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BeP92W_F5Ks","url_text":"\"Well, no Olympic ticket for me\""},{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BeP92W_F5Ks/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Figure skater Michael Martinez claims Olympics seat\". The Philippine Star. 25 January 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philstar.com/sports/2018/01/25/1781190/figure-skater-michael-martinez-claims-olympics-seat","url_text":"\"Figure skater Michael Martinez claims Olympics seat\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alpine Skiing Quota List for Olympic Games 2018\". www.data.fis-ski.com/. International Ski Federation (FIS). 12 June 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.fis-ski.com/dynamic/olympic-quotas-list.html?sectorcode=al&listid=2018","url_text":"\"Alpine Skiing Quota List for Olympic Games 2018\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Ski_Federation","url_text":"International Ski Federation"}]},{"reference":"Parry, Richard (9 February 2018). \"Every flag bearer at Winter Olympics 2018 opening ceremony\". London Evening Standard. UK. Retrieved 12 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/every-flag-bearer-at-the-winter-olympics-2018-opening-ceremony-a3762216.html","url_text":"\"Every flag bearer at Winter Olympics 2018 opening ceremony\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Evening_Standard","url_text":"London Evening Standard"}]},{"reference":"\"Athlete Profile: Asa Miller\". Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Winter Games. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180209225335/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/jp/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/alpine-skiing/athlete-profile-n3029250-asa-miller.htm","url_text":"\"Athlete Profile: Asa Miller\""},{"url":"https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/jp/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/alpine-skiing/athlete-profile-n3029250-asa-miller.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Geist, Luke (29 November 2017). \"Senior prepares to compete in the Olympics\". The Cardinal Times. Retrieved 17 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://cardinaltimes.org/11709/sports/senior-prepares-to-compete-in-the-olympics/","url_text":"\"Senior prepares to compete in the Olympics\""}]},{"reference":"Murillo, Michael Angelo (9 February 2018). \"PHL taking the opportunities at the Olympic Winter Games\". Business World. Retrieved 9 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://bworldonline.com/phl-taking-opportunities-olympic-winter-games/","url_text":"\"PHL taking the opportunities at the Olympic Winter Games\""}]},{"reference":"\"NOC Entries - Philippines\". Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Winter Games. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180228024929/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/general/noc-entries-philippines.htm","url_text":"\"NOC Entries - Philippines\""},{"url":"https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/general/noc-entries-philippines.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Meet Asa Miller, the Philippines' only delegate to Pyeongchang\". www.news.abs-cbn.com/. ABS-CBN Sports. 16 January 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/01/16/18/meet-asa-miller-the-philippines-only-delegate-to-pyeongchang","url_text":"\"Meet Asa Miller, the Philippines' only delegate to Pyeongchang\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABS-CBN_Sports","url_text":"ABS-CBN Sports"}]},{"reference":"Matel, Philip (20 January 2018). \"PH Olympic pride rests on 17-year old Asa Miller's shoulders\". ABS-CBN. Retrieved 9 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://sports.abs-cbn.com/generalsports/news/2018/01/20/ph-olympic-pride-rests-17-year-old-asa-miller-s-shoulders-36385","url_text":"\"PH Olympic pride rests on 17-year old Asa Miller's shoulders\""}]},{"reference":"Ramos, Josef (18 February 2018). \"Young Miller falls in Winter Olympics\". The Manila Times. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.manilatimes.net/young-miller-falls-winter-olympics/381202/","url_text":"\"Young Miller falls in Winter Olympics\""}]},{"reference":"Leongson, Randolph (18 February 2018). \"Asa Miller ranks 81st after Run 1\". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://sports.inquirer.net/284750/asa-miller-ranks-81st-run-1","url_text":"\"Asa Miller ranks 81st after Run 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"2018 Winter Olympics: Miller finishes 70th in men's giant slalom\". Manila Bulletin. 18 February 2018. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://sports.mb.com.ph/2018/02/18/2018-winter-olympics-miller-finishes-70th-in-mens-giant-slalom/","url_text":"\"2018 Winter Olympics: Miller finishes 70th in men's giant slalom\""}]},{"reference":"Leongson, Randolph (18 February 2018). \"Asa Miller finishes in top 70 of men's giant slalom\". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://sports.inquirer.net/284765/asa-miller-finishes-in-top-70-of-mens-giant-slalom-winter-olympics","url_text":"\"Asa Miller finishes in top 70 of men's giant slalom\""}]},{"reference":"\"Winter Olympics: Pinoy figure skater Michael Martinez bows out in preliminaries\". ABS-CBN News. Reuters, ABS-CBN. 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/02/16/18/winter-olympics-pinoy-figure-skater-michael-martinez-bows-out-in-preliminaries","url_text":"\"Winter Olympics: Pinoy figure skater Michael Martinez bows out in preliminaries\""}]},{"reference":"\"Michael Martinez and coach depart for Pyeongchang\". ABS-CBN News. 6 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://sports.abs-cbn.com/generalsports/news/2018/02/06/michael-martinez-coach-depart-pyeongchang-37270","url_text":"\"Michael Martinez and coach depart for Pyeongchang\""}]},{"reference":"Mather, Victor; Longman, Jeré (16 February 2018). \"Olympics Figure Skating Live Results: Yuzuru Hanyu Leads; Nathan Chen Stumbles\". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/sports/olympics/figure-skating-yuzuru-hanyu-nathan-chen.html","url_text":"\"Olympics Figure Skating Live Results: Yuzuru Hanyu Leads; Nathan Chen Stumbles\""}]},{"reference":"Henson, Joaquin (1 February 2018). \"Michael Martinez adjusts music for Olympics\". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 1 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philstar.com/sports/2018/02/01/1783419/michael-martinez-adjusts-music-olympics","url_text":"\"Michael Martinez adjusts music for Olympics\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.vavel.com/en-us/more-sports/876620-pyeongchang-2018-the-philippines-set-to-make-second-consecutive-appearance-at-winter-games.html","external_links_name":"\"Pyeongchang 2018: The Philippines set to make second consecutive appearance at Winter Games\""},{"Link":"http://sports.inquirer.net/266940/michael-martinez-fails-to-qualify-for-2018-pyeongchang-winter-olympics","external_links_name":"\"Martinez fails to qualify for 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BeP92W_F5Ks","external_links_name":"\"Well, no Olympic ticket for me\""},{"Link":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BeP92W_F5Ks/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.philstar.com/sports/2018/01/25/1781190/figure-skater-michael-martinez-claims-olympics-seat","external_links_name":"\"Figure skater Michael Martinez claims Olympics seat\""},{"Link":"https://data.fis-ski.com/dynamic/olympic-quotas-list.html?sectorcode=al&listid=2018","external_links_name":"\"Alpine Skiing Quota List for Olympic Games 2018\""},{"Link":"https://www.standard.co.uk/sport/every-flag-bearer-at-the-winter-olympics-2018-opening-ceremony-a3762216.html","external_links_name":"\"Every flag bearer at Winter Olympics 2018 opening ceremony\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180209225335/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/jp/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/alpine-skiing/athlete-profile-n3029250-asa-miller.htm","external_links_name":"\"Athlete Profile: Asa Miller\""},{"Link":"https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/jp/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/alpine-skiing/athlete-profile-n3029250-asa-miller.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://cardinaltimes.org/11709/sports/senior-prepares-to-compete-in-the-olympics/","external_links_name":"\"Senior prepares to compete in the Olympics\""},{"Link":"http://bworldonline.com/phl-taking-opportunities-olympic-winter-games/","external_links_name":"\"PHL taking the opportunities at the Olympic Winter Games\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180228024929/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/general/noc-entries-philippines.htm","external_links_name":"\"NOC Entries - Philippines\""},{"Link":"https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/general/noc-entries-philippines.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/01/16/18/meet-asa-miller-the-philippines-only-delegate-to-pyeongchang","external_links_name":"\"Meet Asa Miller, the Philippines' only delegate to Pyeongchang\""},{"Link":"https://sports.abs-cbn.com/generalsports/news/2018/01/20/ph-olympic-pride-rests-17-year-old-asa-miller-s-shoulders-36385","external_links_name":"\"PH Olympic pride rests on 17-year old Asa Miller's shoulders\""},{"Link":"http://www.manilatimes.net/young-miller-falls-winter-olympics/381202/","external_links_name":"\"Young Miller falls in Winter Olympics\""},{"Link":"https://sports.inquirer.net/284750/asa-miller-ranks-81st-run-1","external_links_name":"\"Asa Miller ranks 81st after Run 1\""},{"Link":"https://sports.mb.com.ph/2018/02/18/2018-winter-olympics-miller-finishes-70th-in-mens-giant-slalom/","external_links_name":"\"2018 Winter Olympics: Miller finishes 70th in men's giant slalom\""},{"Link":"https://sports.inquirer.net/284765/asa-miller-finishes-in-top-70-of-mens-giant-slalom-winter-olympics","external_links_name":"\"Asa Miller finishes in top 70 of men's giant slalom\""},{"Link":"http://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/02/16/18/winter-olympics-pinoy-figure-skater-michael-martinez-bows-out-in-preliminaries","external_links_name":"\"Winter Olympics: Pinoy figure skater Michael Martinez bows out in preliminaries\""},{"Link":"https://sports.abs-cbn.com/generalsports/news/2018/02/06/michael-martinez-coach-depart-pyeongchang-37270","external_links_name":"\"Michael Martinez and coach depart for Pyeongchang\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/sports/olympics/figure-skating-yuzuru-hanyu-nathan-chen.html","external_links_name":"\"Olympics Figure Skating Live Results: Yuzuru Hanyu Leads; Nathan Chen Stumbles\""},{"Link":"http://www.philstar.com/sports/2018/02/01/1783419/michael-martinez-adjusts-music-olympics","external_links_name":"\"Michael Martinez adjusts music for Olympics\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180228024929/https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/game-time/results/OWG2018/en/general/noc-entries-philippines.htm","external_links_name":"Philippines at the 2018 Winter Olympics"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Planet_Live | Animal Actors on Location | ["1 Summary","2 History","3 References"] | Live stage show at Universal Studios
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Animal Actors on LocationUniversal Studios FloridaNameAnimal Actors Stage (1990–2001)Animal Planet Live (2001–2006)AreaExpo Center (1990–1999)Woody Woodpecker's KidZone (1999–2024)Hollywood (2024–present)StatusOperatingOpening date1990 (1990)
Universal Studios HollywoodNameAnimal Actors School Stage (1970–2001)Animal Planet Live (2001–2007)AreaUpper LotStatusRemovedOpening date1970 (1970)Closing dateJanuary 8, 2023 (January 8, 2023)Replaced byFast & Furious: Hollywood Drift
Universal Studios JapanNameToto & Friends (2006–2011)StatusRemovedOpening date2001 (2001)Closing date2011 (2011)
Animal Actors on Location (formerly known as Animal Planet Live and additional names) is a live stage show at Universal Studios Florida, and formerly at Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Japan. The show features multiple animals performing stunts and tricks.
Summary
The attraction is a live show featuring dogs, cats, birds, pigs, and other animals performing tricks onstage in a covered outdoor theatre. This show also integrates video segments and comedy from the human trainers. One of the trainers acts as the show's main host, explaining how the animals are conditioned to perform the tricks. Several of the animals are veteran actors of TV and film productions, many who were rescued from shelters. The show makes use of audience volunteers, primarily children, during several of its training segments. After the show, guests are invited to meet and pet some of the animals. The show's rotation of animals has varied throughout the years, including otters, horses, orangutans, and skunks.
Animal performers that have appeared throughout the attraction's run have starred as:
Babe
Beethoven
Max in The Grinch
Frank the Pug in Men in Black
Additional animals in Evan Almighty, Meet the Parents and Ace Ventura: Pet Detective.
History
The attraction opened in Hollywood as "Animal Actors School Stage" in 1970, in Florida as "Animal Actors Stage" in 1990, and in Japan as "Animal Actors Stage" in 2001. Both US versions of the attraction received an Animal Planet-sponsored theming from 2001 to 2006.
The Japanese iteration of the attraction was rethemed to "Toto & Friends", as part of the Land of Oz area in 2006, until being closed for the construction of the Universal Wonderland area in 2011. The Hollywood incarnation of the attraction, known as "Universal's Animal Actors," closed on January 8, 2023, alongside Special Effects Stage, and both will be replaced by a Fast & the Furious-themed rollercoaster.
References
^ "Universal Orlando-Animal Actors on Location". Universal Orlando Resort. Retrieved 2022-12-18.
^ "Animal Actors on Location | Universal Studios Florida". touringplans.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ "Animal Actors on Location in Universal Studios Florida". UO FAN GUIDE. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ "Animal Actors on Location! Review - Universal Orlando Florida - Sights | Fodor's Travel". www.fodors.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ "UOFan.com – Animal Actors on Location | Universal Orlando Florida". uofan.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ "Universal Studios Hollywood - Los Angeles, California - Official Site". Universal Studios Hollywood. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ "Animal Actors Walk Of Fame Pictures and Photos - Getty Images". www.gettyimages.com. Retrieved 2023-01-02.
^ "Animal Actors (Theatre)". TV Tropes. Retrieved 2022-12-24.
^ Davis-Friedman, Samantha (2022-11-10). "Two Universal Studios Hollywood shows are closing". Attractions Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-18.
^ Martinez, Christian (2023-07-13). "New 'Fast & Furious' coaster coming to Universal Studios Hollywood". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
Links to related articles
vteUniversal Studios Florida
Former attractions
Minion Land on Illumination Ave
Despicable Me Minion Mayhem
Illumination's Villain-Con Minion Blast
New York
The Blues Brothers Show
Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit
Race Through New York Starring Jimmy Fallon
Revenge of the Mummy
Transformers: The Ride 3D
Universal Music Plaza Stage
San Francisco
Fast & Furious: Supercharged
Diagon Alley
Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts
Hogwarts Express
World Expo
Men in Black: Alien Attack
Springfield
The Simpsons Ride
Kang & Kodos' Twirl 'n' Hurl
Hollywood
E.T. Adventure
Animal Actors on Location
The Bourne Stuntacular
Universal Orlando's Horror Make-Up Show
NBC Media Center
Annual events and festivities
Universal's Halloween Horror Nights
Universal's Holiday Parade Featuring Macy's
Mardi Gras
Rock the Universe | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Universal Studios Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios_Florida"},{"link_name":"Universal Studios Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"Universal Studios Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios_Japan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Animal Actors on Location (formerly known as Animal Planet Live and additional names) is a live stage show at Universal Studios Florida, and formerly at Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Japan. The show features multiple animals performing stunts and tricks.[1]","title":"Animal Actors on Location"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Babe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babe_(film)"},{"link_name":"Beethoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beethoven_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Grinch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Grinch_Stole_Christmas_(2000_film)"},{"link_name":"Frank the Pug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_the_Pug"},{"link_name":"Men in Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_in_Black_(1997_film)"},{"link_name":"Evan Almighty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evan_Almighty"},{"link_name":"Meet the Parents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_the_Parents"},{"link_name":"Ace Ventura: Pet Detective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Ventura:_Pet_Detective"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The attraction is a live show featuring dogs, cats, birds, pigs, and other animals performing tricks onstage in a covered outdoor theatre. This show also integrates video segments and comedy from the human trainers. One of the trainers acts as the show's main host, explaining how the animals are conditioned to perform the tricks. Several of the animals are veteran actors of TV and film productions, many who were rescued from shelters. The show makes use of audience volunteers, primarily children, during several of its training segments. After the show, guests are invited to meet and pet some of the animals. The show's rotation of animals has varied throughout the years, including otters, horses, orangutans, and skunks.[2][3][4]Animal performers that have appeared throughout the attraction's run have starred as:Babe\nBeethoven\nMax in The Grinch\nFrank the Pug in Men in Black\nAdditional animals in Evan Almighty, Meet the Parents and Ace Ventura: Pet Detective.[5][6][7]","title":"Summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Animal Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Planet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Special Effects Stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Effects_Stage"},{"link_name":"Fast & the Furious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_%26_Furious"},{"link_name":"rollercoaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller_coaster"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The attraction opened in Hollywood as \"Animal Actors School Stage\" in 1970, in Florida as \"Animal Actors Stage\" in 1990, and in Japan as \"Animal Actors Stage\" in 2001. Both US versions of the attraction received an Animal Planet-sponsored theming from 2001 to 2006.The Japanese iteration of the attraction was rethemed to \"Toto & Friends\", as part of the Land of Oz area in 2006, until being closed for the construction of the Universal Wonderland area in 2011.[8] The Hollywood incarnation of the attraction, known as \"Universal's Animal Actors,\" closed on January 8, 2023, alongside Special Effects Stage, and both will be replaced by a Fast & the Furious-themed rollercoaster.[9][10]","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Universal Orlando-Animal Actors on Location\". Universal Orlando Resort. Retrieved 2022-12-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.universalorlando.com/web/en/us/things-to-do/shows/animal-actors-on-location","url_text":"\"Universal Orlando-Animal Actors on Location\""}]},{"reference":"\"Animal Actors on Location | Universal Studios Florida\". touringplans.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://touringplans.com/universal-studios-florida/attractions/animal-actors","url_text":"\"Animal Actors on Location | Universal Studios Florida\""}]},{"reference":"\"Animal Actors on Location in Universal Studios Florida\". UO FAN GUIDE. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uofanguide.com/animal-actors-on-location","url_text":"\"Animal Actors on Location in Universal Studios Florida\""}]},{"reference":"\"Animal Actors on Location! Review - Universal Orlando Florida - Sights | Fodor's Travel\". www.fodors.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fodors.com/world/north-america/usa/florida/universal-orlando/things-to-do/sights/reviews/animal-actors-on-location-147626","url_text":"\"Animal Actors on Location! Review - Universal Orlando Florida - Sights | Fodor's Travel\""}]},{"reference":"\"UOFan.com – Animal Actors on Location | Universal Orlando Florida\". uofan.com. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://uofan.com/universal-studios-florida/woody-woodpeckers-kidzone/animal-actors-on-location/","url_text":"\"UOFan.com – Animal Actors on Location | Universal Orlando Florida\""}]},{"reference":"\"Universal Studios Hollywood - Los Angeles, California - Official Site\". Universal Studios Hollywood. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.universalstudioshollywood.com/web/en/us/things-to-do/entertainment/universals-animal-actors","url_text":"\"Universal Studios Hollywood - Los Angeles, California - Official Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Animal Actors Walk Of Fame Pictures and Photos - Getty Images\". www.gettyimages.com. Retrieved 2023-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/animal-actors-walk-of-fame?assettype=image&family=editorial&phrase=Animal%20Actors%20Walk%20of%20Fame&sort=mostpopular&page=2","url_text":"\"Animal Actors Walk Of Fame Pictures and Photos - Getty Images\""}]},{"reference":"\"Animal Actors (Theatre)\". TV Tropes. Retrieved 2022-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Theatre/AnimalActors","url_text":"\"Animal Actors (Theatre)\""}]},{"reference":"Davis-Friedman, Samantha (2022-11-10). \"Two Universal Studios Hollywood shows are closing\". Attractions Magazine. Retrieved 2022-12-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://attractionsmagazine.com/animal-actors-and-special-effects-shows-are-closing-at-universal-studios-hollywood/","url_text":"\"Two Universal Studios Hollywood shows are closing\""}]},{"reference":"Martinez, Christian (2023-07-13). \"New 'Fast & Furious' coaster coming to Universal Studios Hollywood\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-07-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023-07-13/new-fast-furious-coaster-coming-to-universal-studios-hollywood","url_text":"\"New 'Fast & Furious' coaster coming to Universal Studios Hollywood\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors on Location\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Animal+Actors+on+Location%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.universalorlando.com/web/en/us/things-to-do/shows/animal-actors-on-location","external_links_name":"\"Universal Orlando-Animal Actors on Location\""},{"Link":"https://touringplans.com/universal-studios-florida/attractions/animal-actors","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors on Location | Universal Studios Florida\""},{"Link":"http://www.uofanguide.com/animal-actors-on-location","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors on Location in Universal Studios Florida\""},{"Link":"https://www.fodors.com/world/north-america/usa/florida/universal-orlando/things-to-do/sights/reviews/animal-actors-on-location-147626","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors on Location! Review - Universal Orlando Florida - Sights | Fodor's Travel\""},{"Link":"https://uofan.com/universal-studios-florida/woody-woodpeckers-kidzone/animal-actors-on-location/","external_links_name":"\"UOFan.com – Animal Actors on Location | Universal Orlando Florida\""},{"Link":"https://www.universalstudioshollywood.com/web/en/us/things-to-do/entertainment/universals-animal-actors","external_links_name":"\"Universal Studios Hollywood - Los Angeles, California - Official Site\""},{"Link":"https://www.gettyimages.com/photos/animal-actors-walk-of-fame?assettype=image&family=editorial&phrase=Animal%20Actors%20Walk%20of%20Fame&sort=mostpopular&page=2","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors Walk Of Fame Pictures and Photos - Getty Images\""},{"Link":"https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Theatre/AnimalActors","external_links_name":"\"Animal Actors (Theatre)\""},{"Link":"https://attractionsmagazine.com/animal-actors-and-special-effects-shows-are-closing-at-universal-studios-hollywood/","external_links_name":"\"Two Universal Studios Hollywood shows are closing\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023-07-13/new-fast-furious-coaster-coming-to-universal-studios-hollywood","external_links_name":"\"New 'Fast & Furious' coaster coming to Universal Studios Hollywood\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslamah_Ibn_Ahmad_al-Majriti | Maslama al-Majriti | ["1 Achievements","2 Pseudo-Majrīṭī","3 Supposed daughter","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | For other people with the same name, see Maslama.
For the planet, see Upsilon Andromedae d.
Maslama al-MajritiBorn950Madrid, Al-Andalus, now SpainDied1007 (aged 57)Córdoba, Caliphate of Córdoba (now Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain)Occupation(s)Muslim Astronomer, Alchemist, Mathematician, Scholar, Economist
Abu al-Qasim Maslama ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (Arabic: أبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي: c. 950–1007), known or Latin as Methilem, was a Muslim Arab astronomer, alchemist, mathematician, economist and Scholar in Islamic Spain, active during the reign of Al-Hakam II. His full name is Abu 'l-Qāsim Maslama ibn Aḥmad al-Faraḍī al-Ḥāsib al-Maj̲rīṭī al-Qurṭubī al-Andalusī.
Achievements
Al-Majrīṭī took part in the translation of Ptolemy's Planisphaerium, improved existing translations of the Almagest, introduced and improved the astronomical tables of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, aided historians by working out tables to convert Persian dates to Hijri years, and introduced the techniques of surveying and triangulation.
Al-Majrīṭī was one of the earliest alchemists to record the usage and experimentation of mercury(II) oxide.
According to Said al-Andalusi, he was the best mathematician and astronomer of his time in al-Andalus.: 64 He also introduced new surveying methods by working closely with his colleague ibn al-Saffar. He also wrote a book on taxation and the economy of al-Andalus.
He edited and made changes to the parts of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity when it arrived in al-Andalus.
Al-Majrīṭī also predicted a futuristic process of scientific interchange and the advent of networks for scientific communication. He built a school of Astronomy and Mathematics and marked the beginning of organized scientific research in al-Andalus. Among his students were Ibn al-Saffar, Abu al-Salt and at-Turtushi.: 64
Pseudo-Majrīṭī
From his date of death, inconsistencies result in the dating of two influential works in alchemy attributed to him, as either they were published long after his death, or they were the work of someone else claiming some of his glory: the latter is the current general belief.
The two works are the "Sage's Step/The Rank of the Wise" (Rutbat al-hakim, ?1009) and the Picatrix. Both were translated into Latin, in a version somewhat bowdlerised by Christian dogma, in 1252 on the orders of King Alfonso X of Castile; the original Arabic text dates probably from the middle of the eleventh century.
The Rutbat includes alchemical formulae and instructions for purification of precious metals, and was also the first to note the principle of conservation of mass, which he did in the course of his pathbreaking experiment on mercury(II) oxide:
I took natural quivering mercury, free from impurity, and placed it in a glass vessel shaped like an egg. This I put inside another vessel like a cooking pot, and set the whole apparatus over an extremely gentle fire. The outer pot was then in such a degree of heat that I could bear my hand upon it. I heated the apparatus day and night for forty days, after which I opened it. I found that the mercury (the original weight of which was a quarter of a pound) had been completely converted into red powder, soft to touch, the weight remaining as it was originally.
The Picatrix is more concerned with advanced esotericism, principally astrology and talismanic magic, although he also goes into prophecy. The author considers this the advanced level of work, occasionally referring to the Rutbat as the foundation text.
Supposed daughter
Several modern sources state that al-Majriti had a daughter, Fátima de Madrid, who was also an astronomer. However, the earliest known mention of her is a short biographical article on her in the Enciclopedia universal ilustrada europeo-americana, published in the 1920s.
See also
Al-Andalus
Alchemy
References
^ Selin, Helaine (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
^ Dodds, Jerrilynn Denise (1992). Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-87099-637-5.
^ King, David A. (1995). Islamic Mathematical Astronomy. Edinburgh University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-85043-740-6.
^ Goodman, Lenn E. (2009). Ibn Ṭufayl's Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān : a philosophical tale. University of Chicago Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-226-30310-9.
^ Wiedemann, E. (1993) . "al- Mad̲j̲rīṭī". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.). Brill Publishers. p. 96.
^ a b c Sarton, George (1927). Introduction to the History of Science. Vol. 1. Carnegie Institution for Science. pp. 668–9.
^ a b c Andalusī, Ṣāʻid ibn Aḥmad; Salem, Semaʻan I.; Kumar, Alok (1991). Science in the medieval world: book of the Categories of nations. University of Texas Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-292-71139-6. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
^ H. Kahane et al. 'Picatrix and the talismans', in Romance Philology, xix, 1966, p 575; E.J. Holmyard, 'Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutba 'l-Hakim', in Isis, vi, 1924, p 294.
^ One recent study suggests that the authorship of this work should be attributed to Maslama b. Qasim al-Qurtubi (d. 353/964). See Maribel Fierro, 'Bāṭinism in Al-Andalus. Maslama b. Qāsim al-Qurṭubī (d. 353/964), Author of the "Rutbat al- Ḥakīm" and the "Ghāyat al-Ḥakīm (Picatrix)"', in Studia Islamica, No. 84, (1996), pp. 87-112
^ Holmyard, E.J. (1924). "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim". Isis. 6 (3): 293–305. doi:10.1086/358238. S2CID 144175388.
^ (Holmyard, 1924), p. 302.
^ Marín, Manuela (2011). "Arabismo en Madrid". In Gil Flores, Daniel (ed.). De Maŷrit a Madrid. Madrid y los árabes, del siglo IX al siglo XXI. Madrid/Barcelona: Casa Árabe/Lunwerg. p. 191. ISBN 978-84-9785-707-9.
External links
Vernet, Juan (2008) . "Al-Majrītī Abu 'L-Qāsim Maslama Ibn Aḥmad Al-Faraḍī". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com.
Casulleras, Josep (2007). "Majrīṭī: Abū al-Qāsim Maslama ibn Aḥmad al-Ḥāsib al-Faraḍī al-Majrīṭī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 727–8. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
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pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)
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İslâm Ansiklopedisi | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maslama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslama_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Upsilon Andromedae d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upsilon_Andromedae_d"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Arab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_astronomy"},{"link_name":"alchemist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_(Islam)"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_mathematics"},{"link_name":"economist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist"},{"link_name":"Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholar"},{"link_name":"Islamic Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus"},{"link_name":"Al-Hakam II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hakam_II"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"For other people with the same name, see Maslama.For the planet, see Upsilon Andromedae d.Abu al-Qasim Maslama ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (Arabic: أبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي: c. 950–1007), known or Latin as Methilem, was a Muslim Arab[1][2][3][4] astronomer, alchemist, mathematician, economist and Scholar in Islamic Spain, active during the reign of Al-Hakam II. 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He also wrote a book on taxation and the economy of al-Andalus.[6]He edited and made changes to the parts of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity when it arrived in al-Andalus.[8][9]Al-Majrīṭī also predicted a futuristic process of scientific interchange and the advent of networks for scientific communication. He built a school of Astronomy and Mathematics and marked the beginning of organized scientific research in al-Andalus. Among his students were Ibn al-Saffar, Abu al-Salt and at-Turtushi.[7]: 64","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sarton-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Andalus%C4%ABSalem1991-7"},{"link_name":"Picatrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picatrix"},{"link_name":"Alfonso X of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"conservation of mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_mass"},{"link_name":"mercury(II) oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury(II)_oxide"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"From his date of death, inconsistencies result in the dating of two influential works in alchemy attributed to him,[10][6] as either they were published long after his death, or they were the work of someone else claiming some of his glory: the latter is the current general belief.[7]The two works are the \"Sage's Step/The Rank of the Wise\" (Rutbat al-hakim, ?1009) and the Picatrix. Both were translated into Latin, in a version somewhat bowdlerised by Christian dogma, in 1252 on the orders of King Alfonso X of Castile; the original Arabic text dates probably from the middle of the eleventh century.The Rutbat includes alchemical formulae and instructions for purification of precious metals, and was also the first to note the principle of conservation of mass, which he did in the course of his pathbreaking experiment on mercury(II) oxide:I took natural quivering mercury, free from impurity, and placed it in a glass vessel shaped like an egg. This I put inside another vessel like a cooking pot, and set the whole apparatus over an extremely gentle fire. The outer pot was then in such a degree of heat that I could bear my hand upon it. I heated the apparatus day and night for forty days, after which I opened it. 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ISBN 978-1-85043-740-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._King_(historian)","url_text":"King, David A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-740-6","url_text":"978-1-85043-740-6"}]},{"reference":"Goodman, Lenn E. (2009). Ibn Ṭufayl's Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān : a philosophical tale. University of Chicago Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-226-30310-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenn_E._Goodman","url_text":"Goodman, Lenn E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30310-9","url_text":"978-0-226-30310-9"}]},{"reference":"Wiedemann, E. (1993) [1927]. \"al- Mad̲j̲rīṭī\". In Houtsma, M. Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.). Brill Publishers. p. 96.","urls":[{"url":"http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/al-madjriti-SIM_4414","url_text":"\"al- Mad̲j̲rīṭī\""}]},{"reference":"Sarton, George (1927). Introduction to the History of Science. Vol. 1. Carnegie Institution for Science. pp. 668–9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Sarton","url_text":"Sarton, George"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_for_Science","url_text":"Carnegie Institution for Science"}]},{"reference":"Andalusī, Ṣāʻid ibn Aḥmad; Salem, Semaʻan I.; Kumar, Alok (1991). Science in the medieval world: book of the Categories of nations. University of Texas Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-292-71139-6. Retrieved 25 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j9K4AAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Science in the medieval world: book of the Categories of nations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_Press","url_text":"University of Texas Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71139-6","url_text":"978-0-292-71139-6"}]},{"reference":"Holmyard, E.J. (1924). \"Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim\". Isis. 6 (3): 293–305. doi:10.1086/358238. S2CID 144175388.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F358238","url_text":"10.1086/358238"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144175388","url_text":"144175388"}]},{"reference":"Marín, Manuela (2011). \"Arabismo en Madrid\". In Gil Flores, Daniel (ed.). De Maŷrit a Madrid. Madrid y los árabes, del siglo IX al siglo XXI. Madrid/Barcelona: Casa Árabe/Lunwerg. p. 191. ISBN 978-84-9785-707-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9785-707-9","url_text":"978-84-9785-707-9"}]},{"reference":"Vernet, Juan (2008) [1970-80]. \"Al-Majrītī Abu 'L-Qāsim Maslama Ibn Aḥmad Al-Faraḍī\". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830902778.html","url_text":"\"Al-Majrītī Abu 'L-Qāsim Maslama Ibn Aḥmad Al-Faraḍī\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scientific_Biography","url_text":"Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia.com","url_text":"Encyclopedia.com"}]},{"reference":"Casulleras, Josep (2007). \"Majrīṭī: Abū al-Qāsim Maslama ibn Aḥmad al-Ḥāsib al-Faraḍī al-Majrīṭī\". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 727–8. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Macfadyen | Matthew Macfadyen | ["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Personal life","4 Filmography","4.1 Film","4.2 Television","4.3 Radio","4.4 Documentary","5 Theatre","6 Awards and nominations","7 References","8 External links"] | English actor (born 1974)
Matthew MacfadyenMacfayden in 2019BornDavid Matthew Macfadyen (1974-10-17) 17 October 1974 (age 49)Great Yarmouth, EnglandEducationRoyal Academy of Dramatic Art (BA)OccupationActorYears active1994–presentSpouse
Keeley Hawes (m. 2004)Children2
David Matthew Macfadyen (/məkˈfædiən/; born 17 October 1974) is an English actor. Known for his performances on stage and screen, he gained prominence for his role as Mr. Darcy in Joe Wright's Pride & Prejudice (2005). He rose to international fame for his role as Tom Wambsgans in the HBO drama series Succession (2018–2023), for which he received two consecutive Primetime Emmy Awards, two BAFTA Television Award, and a Golden Globe Award.
Macfadyen is also known for his roles in films such as Death at a Funeral (2007), Frost/Nixon (2008), Anna Karenina (2012), The Assistant (2019), and Operation Mincemeat (2021). He made his television debut in 1998 as Hareton Earnshaw in Wuthering Heights. He portrayed Tom Quinn in the BBC One spy series Spooks (2002–04, 2011), and Inspector Edmund Reid in the BBC mystery series Ripper Street (2012–2016). For his role in Criminal Justice (2009), he received the British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor. He also starred in various miniseries playing roles such as Henry Wilcox in Howards End (2017), Charles Ingram in Quiz (2020), and John Stonehouse in Stonehouse (2023).
Early life and education
Macfadyen was born on 17 October 1974 in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, the son of Meinir (née Owen), a drama teacher and former actress, and Martin Macfadyen, an oil engineer. His paternal grandparents were Scottish and his maternal grandparents were Welsh. Macfadyen was brought up in a number of places, including Jakarta, Indonesia, as a result of his father's occupation.
He attended schools in England, including in Louth, Lincolnshire, as well as in Scotland and Indonesia. He went to Oakham School in Rutland before being accepted to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) at 17. As a student, he was inspired by Ingmar Bergman's Fanny and Alexander, which he thought was "n example to follow – an example of people acting with each other...", and "eatured just the most extraordinary acting I'd ever seen". He studied at RADA from 1992 to 1995.
Career
After leaving RADA, Macfadyen became known in British theatre primarily for his work with the stage company Cheek by Jowl, for which he played Antonio in The Duchess of Malfi, Charles Surface in The School for Scandal, and Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing. His Benedick was played as an officer-class buffoon with a moustache and a braying laugh. In 2005, he played Prince Hal in Henry IV, Parts One and Two at the Royal National Theatre, with Michael Gambon in the role of Falstaff. In 2007, he returned to the stage, portraying an American, Clay, a stay-at-home father with a liberal attitude in the play The Pain and the Itch. A TV breakthrough came when he appeared as Hareton Earnshaw in an adaptation of Wuthering Heights, screened on the ITV network in 1998. Further television drama work followed, including starring roles in the dramas Warriors (1999) and The Way We Live Now (2001), both for the BBC. Also in 2001, he earned acclaim for his starring role in the BBC Two drama serial Perfect Strangers, which was written and directed by Stephen Poliakoff. In 2002, he starred in The Project, a BBC drama charting New Labour's rise to power.
A bust of Mr. Darcy played by Matthew Macfadyen in Pride & Prejudice
He starred in Spooks, which became a success when screened on BBC One. A longer second season was screened in 2003, and a third season was broadcast in autumn 2004, with him leaving the series in the second episode. The series was aired as MI-5 on the A&E Network. In 2007 he appeared in the one-off Channel 4 drama Secret Life, which dealt with paedophilia. Macfadyen won the Best Actor award at the Royal Television Society 2007 Awards for this part, and was nominated for a BAFTA. He also appeared in a short sketch for Comic Relief as the bridegroom in Mr. Bean's Wedding, alongside Rowan Atkinson and Michelle Ryan. Macfadyen appeared in films including Enigma (released in 2001), and In My Father's Den, for which he received the New Zealand Screen Award for Best Actor. He starred as the romantic lead Fitzwilliam Darcy in an adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, released in the UK in September 2005.
Macfadyen starred in Frank Oz's Death at a Funeral and the film Incendiary, based on Chris Cleave's novel alongside Michelle Williams and Ewan McGregor. He also appeared in Ron Howard's film Frost/Nixon, in which he played John Birt. In 2008, he played the male lead Arthur Clennam in the BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens' Little Dorrit. In 2009 Macfadyen appeared alongside Academy Award-nominated actress Helena Bonham Carter in the BBC Four movie Enid, based on the life of Enid Blyton, as Hugh Pollock, Blyton's publisher and first husband. In 2010, he played the Sheriff of Nottingham in Robin Hood. He starred as Prior Philip in the TV serial The Pillars of the Earth, and was the middle-aged Logan Mountstuart in Any Human Heart. In June 2010, Macfadyen won a British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor for his work in Criminal Justice. In 2011, Macfadyen made a final cameo in Spooks, and in 2012, he played Oblonsky in Joe Wright's film Anna Karenina. In December 2012 he began portraying Detective Inspector Edmund Reid in BBC One's Ripper Street.
In 2013–14, he played Jeeves in the production of Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense at the Duke of York's Theatre in the West End of London. The play won the 2014 Olivier award for Best New Comedy. In 2015, Amazon Prime picked up Ripper Street and, after good reviews, it was recommissioned for fourth and fifth seasons. Macfadyen said he was "delighted to be embarking on another dose of Ripper Street – blood and guts, pocket watches and Victorian headgear, wonderfully dark, moving and mysterious story lines from Mr Richard Wardlow". The series also aired in the U.S. on BBC America. Also in 2015, he guest starred in the pilot episode of The Last Kingdom.
From 2018 to 2023, he starred as Tom Wambsgans in the HBO series Succession, for which he received Primetime Emmy Awards in 2022 and 2023 for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2020, and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role on Television in 2024. In 2020, he appeared in the role of Major Charles Ingram in a three-part ITV drama, Quiz, based on the controversial coughing cheat scandal on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in 2001. In 2023, Macfadyen was cast in Deadpool & Wolverine.
Personal life
In 2002, Macfadyen began a relationship with his Spooks co-star Keeley Hawes. They were married in November 2004. The couple has two children. Macfadyen is stepfather to Hawes's son from her previous marriage. Macfadyen and Hawes are patrons of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham. In March 2024, it was reported that Macfadyen is a member of the Garrick Club.
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2000
Maybe Baby
Nigel
2001
Enigma
Lt. Cave
2002
The Project
Paul Tibbenham
2004
The Reckoning
King's Justice
In My Father's Den
Paul Prior
2005
Pride & Prejudice
Fitzwilliam Darcy
2007
Grindhouse
Eye Gouging Victim
Segment: Don't
Death at a Funeral
Daniel Howells
2008
Incendiary
Terence Butcher
Frost/Nixon
John Birt
2010
Robin Hood
Sheriff of Nottingham
2011
The Three Musketeers
Athos
2012
Anna Karenina
Oblonsky
2014
Lost in Karastan
Emil Forester
2015
The von Trapp Family: A Life of Music
Georg von Trapp
2016
Revolution: New Art for a New World
Vladimir Lenin (voice)
Documentary
2017
The Current War
J. P. Morgan
2018
The Nutcracker and the Four Realms
Benjamin Stahlbaum
2019
The Assistant
Wilcock
2021
Operation Mincemeat
Charles Cholmondeley
2024
Deadpool & Wolverine
Paradox
Post-production
TBA
Holland, Michigan
TBA
Post-production
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1998
Wuthering Heights
Hareton Earnshaw
Television film
1999
Warriors
Alan James
2000
Murder Rooms: Mysteries of the Real Sherlock Holmes
Brian Waller
Episode: "The Dark Beginnings of Sherlock Holmes: Part 1"
2001
Perfect Strangers
Daniel Symon
3 episodes
The Way We Live Now
Sir Felix Carbury
4 episodes
2002–2004, 2011
Spooks
Tom Quinn
19 episodes
2007
Mr. Bean's Wedding
The Groom
Short video
Secret Life
Charlie
Television film
2008
Ashes to Ashes
Gil Hollis
Episode #1.7
Little Dorrit
Arthur Clennam
8 episodes
Agatha Christie's Marple
Inspector Neele
Episode: "A Pocket Full of Rye"
2009
Enid
Hugh Pollock
Television film
Criminal Justice
Joe Miller
3 episodes
2010
The Pillars of the Earth
Prior Philip
8 episodes
Any Human Heart
Logan Mountstuart
4 episodes
2012–2016
Ripper Street
Det. Insp. Edmund Reid
36 episodes
2013
Ambassadors
Prince of Darkness
3 episodes
2015
The Enfield Haunting
Guy Playfair
The Last Kingdom
Lord Uhtred
Episode #1.1
2016
Churchill's Secret
Randolph Churchill
Television film
2017
Howards End
Henry Wilcox
4 episodes
2018–2023
Succession
Tom Wambsgans
Main role
2020
Quiz
Maj. Charles Ingram
3 episodes
2023
Stonehouse
John Stonehouse
Main role
Radio
Year
Title
Author
Notes
Ref.
2000
The Voyage of the Beagle
Charles Darwin
BBC Radio 4
2001
Trampoline
Meredith Oakes
BBC Radio 4
2004
The Coma
Alex Garland
audio book
Getting Away From It: The Island
Tim Pears
BBC Radio 4
2005
Stories We Could Tell
Tony Parsons
audio book
2007
The Making of Music
—
BBC Radio 4
Documentary
Year
Title
Notes
Ref.
2003
Essential Poems (To Fall in Love With)
BBC Two
2004
The Hungerford Massacre
BBC One
2006
The 9/11 Liars
Channel 4
Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial
BBC Two
2007
The Blair Years
BBC One
Last Party at the Palace
Channel 4
2008
Dangerous Jobs for Girls
Channel 4
Words of War
ITV1
2009
Wine
BBC Four
Inside MI5
ITV1
2014
Horse Power
Sky Atlantic
Theatre
Year
Title
Role
Playwright
Venue
Ref.
1994
The Crimson Island
Dymogatsky
Mikhail Bulgakov
Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts
Lorca's Death
Rafael/Intellect
Ben Benison
The Feigned Inconstancy
Chevalier
Marivaux
The Beggar's Opera
Macheath
John Gay
1995
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest
Chief Bromden
Dale Wasserman
The Libertine
John Wilmot
Stephen Jeffreys
My Funny Valentine
Solo Performer
—
The Duchess of Malfi
Antonio Bologna
John Webster
Cheek by Jowl
1996
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Demetrius
William Shakespeare
Royal Shakespeare Company
1998
Much Ado About Nothing
Benedick
Cheek by Jowl
The School for Scandal
Charles Surface
Richard Brinsley Sheridan
Royal Shakespeare Company
1999
Battle Royal
Mr. Brougham
Nick Stafford
Royal National Theatre
2005
Henry IV
Prince Hal
William Shakespeare
2006
Total Eclipse
Paul Verlaine
Christopher Hampton
reading at Royal Court Theatre
2007
The Pain and the Itch
Clay
Bruce Norris
Royal Court Theatre
2010
Private Lives
Elyot Chase
Noël Coward
Vaudeville Theatre
2013
Perfect Nonsense
Jeeves
David and Robert Goodale
Duke of York's Theatre
Awards and nominations
Macfadyen at the 2024 Emmy Awards
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result
Ref.
2008
British Academy Television Awards
Best Actor
Secret Life
Nominated
2010
Best Supporting Actor
Criminal Justice
Won
2022
Best Supporting Actor
Succession
Won
2024
Best Supporting Actor
Won
2005
British Independent Film Awards
Best Actor
In My Father's Den
Nominated
2018
Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (season two)
Nominated
2021
Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (season three)
Nominated
2023
Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (season four)
Nominated
2024
Golden Globe Awards
Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Succession
Won
2006
London Critics Circle Film Awards
Best Newcomer
Pride & Prejudice
Nominated
2020
Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (episode: "This Is Not for Tears")
Nominated
2022
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (episode: "All the Bells Say")
Won
2024
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (episode: "Tailgate Party")
Won
2008
Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture
Frost/Nixon
Nominated
2021
Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series
Succession (season three)
Won
2023
Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series
Succession (season four)
Nominated
Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series
Won
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^ "London Critics Circle nominations announced". Time Out. Retrieved 12 May 2024.
^ "Emmy Awards 2020: The Full Winners List". Variety. Retrieved 12 May 2024.
^ Moreau, Jordan; Schneider, Michael (12 July 2022). "Emmys 2022: The Complete Nominations List". Variety. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
^ Blyth, Antonia (15 January 2024). "'Succession' Supporting Actor Emmy Winner Matthew Macfadyen Thanks "On-Screen Wife" Sarah Snook, "Other Wife" Nicholas Braun & Actual Wife Keeley Hawes". BBC News. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
^ "15th Screen Actors Guild Awards". sagawards.org. Retrieved 12 May 2024.
^ "28th Screen Actors Guild Awards". sagawards.org. Retrieved 12 May 2024.
^ "Nominations Announced for the 30th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards®" (Press release). Screen Actors Guild. 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
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Matthew Macfadyen at IMDb
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/məkˈfædiən/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Mr. Darcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Darcy"},{"link_name":"Joe Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Wright"},{"link_name":"Pride & Prejudice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Tom Wambsgans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Succession_characters#TomWambsgans"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"Succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Primetime Emmy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award"},{"link_name":"BAFTA Television Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Television_Award"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Award"},{"link_name":"Death at a Funeral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_at_a_Funeral_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"Frost/Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_(film)"},{"link_name":"Anna Karenina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"The Assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Assistant_(2019_film)"},{"link_name":"Operation Mincemeat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Mincemeat_(film)"},{"link_name":"Hareton Earnshaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hareton_Earnshaw"},{"link_name":"Wuthering Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuthering_Heights_(1998_film)"},{"link_name":"Tom Quinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Quinn_(Spooks)"},{"link_name":"BBC One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"Spooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooks_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Inspector Edmund Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Reid"},{"link_name":"Ripper Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripper_Street"},{"link_name":"Criminal Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Justice_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor"},{"link_name":"Howards End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howards_End_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Charles Ingram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ingram"},{"link_name":"Quiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiz_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"John Stonehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stonehouse"},{"link_name":"Stonehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehouse_(TV_series)"}],"text":"David Matthew Macfadyen (/məkˈfædiən/; born 17 October 1974) is an English actor. Known for his performances on stage and screen, he gained prominence for his role as Mr. Darcy in Joe Wright's Pride & Prejudice (2005). He rose to international fame for his role as Tom Wambsgans in the HBO drama series Succession (2018–2023), for which he received two consecutive Primetime Emmy Awards, two BAFTA Television Award, and a Golden Globe Award.Macfadyen is also known for his roles in films such as Death at a Funeral (2007), Frost/Nixon (2008), Anna Karenina (2012), The Assistant (2019), and Operation Mincemeat (2021). He made his television debut in 1998 as Hareton Earnshaw in Wuthering Heights. He portrayed Tom Quinn in the BBC One spy series Spooks (2002–04, 2011), and Inspector Edmund Reid in the BBC mystery series Ripper Street (2012–2016). For his role in Criminal Justice (2009), he received the British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor. He also starred in various miniseries playing roles such as Henry Wilcox in Howards End (2017), Charles Ingram in Quiz (2020), and John Stonehouse in Stonehouse (2023).","title":"Matthew Macfadyen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Great Yarmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Yarmouth"},{"link_name":"Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph1-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph1-3"},{"link_name":"Louth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louth,_Lincolnshire"},{"link_name":"Lincolnshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshire"},{"link_name":"Oakham School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakham_School"},{"link_name":"Rutland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutland"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Dramatic Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Dramatic_Art"},{"link_name":"Ingmar Bergman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman"},{"link_name":"Fanny and Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_and_Alexander"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macfadyen-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Macfadyen was born on 17 October 1974[1][2] in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, the son of Meinir (née Owen), a drama teacher and former actress, and Martin Macfadyen, an oil engineer.[3][4][5] His paternal grandparents were Scottish and his maternal grandparents were Welsh.[3][6] Macfadyen was brought up in a number of places, including Jakarta, Indonesia, as a result of his father's occupation.[3]He attended schools in England, including in Louth, Lincolnshire, as well as in Scotland and Indonesia. He went to Oakham School in Rutland before being accepted to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) at 17. As a student, he was inspired by Ingmar Bergman's Fanny and Alexander, which he thought was \"[a]n example to follow – an example of people acting with each other...\", and \"[f]eatured just the most extraordinary acting I'd ever seen\".[7] He studied at RADA from 1992 to 1995.[citation needed]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cheek by Jowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek_by_Jowl"},{"link_name":"The Duchess of Malfi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Duchess_of_Malfi"},{"link_name":"The School for Scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal"},{"link_name":"Much Ado About Nothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing"},{"link_name":"One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_One"},{"link_name":"Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_Two"},{"link_name":"Royal National Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Michael Gambon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gambon"},{"link_name":"The Pain and the Itch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pain_and_the_Itch"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Wuthering Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuthering_Heights"},{"link_name":"ITV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)"},{"link_name":"Warriors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warriors_(1999_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Way We Live Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Live_Now_(2001_TV_serial)"},{"link_name":"BBC Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"Perfect Strangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_Strangers_(TV_serial)"},{"link_name":"Stephen Poliakoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Poliakoff"},{"link_name":"The Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Project_(film)"},{"link_name":"New Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Labour"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bust_of_Matthew_Macfadyen_as_Fitzwilliam_Darcy.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pride & Prejudice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Spooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooks_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"BBC One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"A&E Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%26E_Network"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Royal Television Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Television_Society"},{"link_name":"BAFTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA"},{"link_name":"Comic Relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_Relief_(charity)"},{"link_name":"bridegroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groom"},{"link_name":"Mr. Bean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Bean"},{"link_name":"Rowan Atkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowan_Atkinson"},{"link_name":"Michelle Ryan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Ryan"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Enigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_(2001_film)"},{"link_name":"In My Father's Den","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_My_Father%27s_Den_(film)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Fitzwilliam Darcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Darcy"},{"link_name":"adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Pride and Prejudice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Death at a Funeral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_at_a_Funeral_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"Incendiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incendiary_(film)"},{"link_name":"Michelle Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Williams_(actress)"},{"link_name":"Ewan McGregor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewan_McGregor"},{"link_name":"Ron Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Howard"},{"link_name":"Frost/Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost/Nixon_(film)"},{"link_name":"John Birt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Birt"},{"link_name":"Little Dorrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Dorrit_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"Helena Bonham Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Bonham_Carter"},{"link_name":"BBC Four","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Four"},{"link_name":"Enid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enid_(film)"},{"link_name":"Enid Blyton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enid_Blyton"},{"link_name":"Hugh Pollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Alexander_Pollock"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Robin Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hood_(2010_film)"},{"link_name":"The Pillars of the Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pillars_of_the_Earth_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Any Human Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Any_Human_Heart_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_Television_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor"},{"link_name":"Criminal Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Justice_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Anna Karenina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Karenina_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"Edmund Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Reid"},{"link_name":"BBC One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"Ripper Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripper_Street"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeeves_and_Wooster_in_Perfect_Nonsense"},{"link_name":"Duke of York's Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_York%27s_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"BBC America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_America"},{"link_name":"The Last Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Kingdom_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Primetime Emmy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Golden Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe_Awards"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Charles Ingram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ingram"},{"link_name":"Quiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiz_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Millionaire%3F_(British_game_show)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Deadpool & Wolverine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadpool_%26_Wolverine"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"After leaving RADA, Macfadyen became known in British theatre primarily for his work with the stage company Cheek by Jowl, for which he played Antonio in The Duchess of Malfi, Charles Surface in The School for Scandal, and Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing. His Benedick was played as an officer-class buffoon with a moustache and a braying laugh. In 2005, he played Prince Hal in Henry IV, Parts One and Two at the Royal National Theatre, with Michael Gambon in the role of Falstaff. In 2007, he returned to the stage, portraying an American, Clay, a stay-at-home father with a liberal attitude in the play The Pain and the Itch.[citation needed] A TV breakthrough came when he appeared as Hareton Earnshaw in an adaptation of Wuthering Heights, screened on the ITV network in 1998. Further television drama work followed, including starring roles in the dramas Warriors (1999) and The Way We Live Now (2001), both for the BBC. Also in 2001, he earned acclaim for his starring role in the BBC Two drama serial Perfect Strangers, which was written and directed by Stephen Poliakoff. In 2002, he starred in The Project, a BBC drama charting New Labour's rise to power.[citation needed]A bust of Mr. Darcy played by Matthew Macfadyen in Pride & PrejudiceHe starred in Spooks, which became a success when screened on BBC One. A longer second season was screened in 2003, and a third season was broadcast in autumn 2004, with him leaving the series in the second episode. The series was aired as MI-5 on the A&E Network. In 2007 he appeared in the one-off Channel 4 drama Secret Life, which dealt with paedophilia.[8] Macfadyen won the Best Actor award at the Royal Television Society 2007 Awards for this part, and was nominated for a BAFTA. He also appeared in a short sketch for Comic Relief as the bridegroom in Mr. Bean's Wedding, alongside Rowan Atkinson and Michelle Ryan.[citation needed] Macfadyen appeared in films including Enigma (released in 2001), and In My Father's Den, for which he received the New Zealand Screen Award for Best Actor.[9] He starred as the romantic lead Fitzwilliam Darcy in an adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, released in the UK in September 2005.[citation needed]Macfadyen starred in Frank Oz's Death at a Funeral and the film Incendiary, based on Chris Cleave's novel alongside Michelle Williams and Ewan McGregor. He also appeared in Ron Howard's film Frost/Nixon, in which he played John Birt. In 2008, he played the male lead Arthur Clennam in the BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens' Little Dorrit. In 2009 Macfadyen appeared alongside Academy Award-nominated actress Helena Bonham Carter in the BBC Four movie Enid, based on the life of Enid Blyton, as Hugh Pollock, Blyton's publisher and first husband.[citation needed] In 2010, he played the Sheriff of Nottingham in Robin Hood. He starred as Prior Philip in the TV serial The Pillars of the Earth, and was the middle-aged Logan Mountstuart in Any Human Heart. In June 2010, Macfadyen won a British Academy Television Award for Best Supporting Actor for his work in Criminal Justice.[citation needed] In 2011, Macfadyen made a final cameo in Spooks, and in 2012, he played Oblonsky in Joe Wright's film Anna Karenina. In December 2012 he began portraying Detective Inspector Edmund Reid in BBC One's Ripper Street.[citation needed]In 2013–14, he played Jeeves in the production of Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense at the Duke of York's Theatre in the West End of London. The play won the 2014 Olivier award for Best New Comedy.[10][11][12] In 2015, Amazon Prime picked up Ripper Street and, after good reviews, it was recommissioned for fourth and fifth seasons. Macfadyen said he was \"delighted to be embarking on another dose of Ripper Street – blood and guts, pocket watches and Victorian headgear, wonderfully dark, moving and mysterious story lines from Mr Richard Wardlow\".[13] The series also aired in the U.S. on BBC America. Also in 2015, he guest starred in the pilot episode of The Last Kingdom.[citation needed]From 2018 to 2023, he starred as Tom Wambsgans in the HBO series Succession, for which he received Primetime Emmy Awards in 2022 and 2023 for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2020,[14] and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role on Television in 2024.[15] In 2020, he appeared in the role of Major Charles Ingram in a three-part ITV drama, Quiz, based on the controversial coughing cheat scandal on Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? in 2001.[16] In 2023, Macfadyen was cast in Deadpool & Wolverine.[17]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooks_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Keeley Hawes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeley_Hawes"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-showbiz-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-showbiz-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Lace Market Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lace_Market_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Nottingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottingham"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Garrick Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrick_Club"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_guardian_Garrick-22"}],"text":"In 2002, Macfadyen began a relationship with his Spooks co-star Keeley Hawes. They were married in November 2004.[18] The couple has two children.[18][19] Macfadyen is stepfather to Hawes's son from her previous marriage.[20] Macfadyen and Hawes are patrons of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham.[21] In March 2024, it was reported that Macfadyen is a member of the Garrick Club.[22]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Radio","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Documentary","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Theatre"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matthew_Macfadyen_2024_Emmys_01.png"}],"text":"Macfadyen at the 2024 Emmy Awards","title":"Awards and nominations"}] | [{"image_text":"A bust of Mr. Darcy played by Matthew Macfadyen in Pride & Prejudice","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Bust_of_Matthew_Macfadyen_as_Fitzwilliam_Darcy.jpg/170px-Bust_of_Matthew_Macfadyen_as_Fitzwilliam_Darcy.jpg"},{"image_text":"Macfadyen at the 2024 Emmy Awards","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Matthew_Macfadyen_2024_Emmys_01.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Celebrity Birthdays: Oct. 17\". St. Louis Post Dispatch. US. 17 October 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stltoday.com/news/nation-world/celebrity-birthdays-oct-17","url_text":"\"Celebrity Birthdays: Oct. 17\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Post_Dispatch","url_text":"St. Louis Post Dispatch"}]},{"reference":"W Magazine [@wmag] (17 October 2023). \"Matthew Macfadyen Directed by Lynn Hirschberg\". Retrieved 29 October 2023 – via Instagram.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_(magazine)","url_text":"W Magazine [@wmag]"},{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CyggoOPJXBJ/","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Directed by Lynn Hirschberg\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram","url_text":"Instagram"}]},{"reference":"Cavendish, Dominic (2 February 2010). \"Matthew Macfadyen interview\". The Daily Telegraph. UK. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-features/7139221/Matthew-Macfadyen-interview.html","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen interview\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-features/7139221/Matthew-Macfadyen-interview.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Macdonald, Marianne (12 September 2005). \"Leading question\". The Daily Telegraph. UK. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/3646503/Leading-question.html","url_text":"\"Leading question\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/3646503/Leading-question.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"With 'Succession', Matthew Macfadyen finds himself a long way from Mr. Darcy\". NPR.org. Retrieved 27 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2022/01/26/1075741669/succession-actor-matthew-macfadyen","url_text":"\"With 'Succession', Matthew Macfadyen finds himself a long way from Mr. Darcy\""}]},{"reference":"\"A man of mystery; Graham Keal talks to Spooks star Matthew Macfadyen about the new series, his Welsh roots and being hounded by the paparazzi.(Features) – Daily Post (Liverpool)\". 7 June 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-102942369","url_text":"\"A man of mystery; Graham Keal talks to Spooks star Matthew Macfadyen about the new series, his Welsh roots and being hounded by the paparazzi.(Features) – Daily Post (Liverpool)\""}]},{"reference":"Lamont, Tom (21 August 2011). \"The Observer\". The film that changed my life: Matthew Macfadyen. Retrieved 26 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/aug/21/matthew-macfadyen-fanny-and-alexander","url_text":"\"The Observer\""}]},{"reference":"\"TV star defends paedophile role\". Evening Times. 11 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/news/12860732.TV_star_defends_paedophile_role/","url_text":"\"TV star defends paedophile role\""}]},{"reference":"\"In My Father's Den\". New Zealand Film Commission. Retrieved 28 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nzfilm.co.nz/films/my-fathers-den","url_text":"\"In My Father's Den\""}]},{"reference":"Billington, Michael (13 November 2013). \"Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense – review\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2013/nov/13/jeeves-and-wooster-perfect-nonsense","url_text":"\"Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense – review\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jeeves & Wooster, Duke of York's, review\". Telegraph.co.uk. 13 November 2013. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-reviews/10444954/Jeeves-and-Wooster-Duke-of-Yorks-review.html","url_text":"\"Jeeves & Wooster, Duke of York's, review\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-reviews/10444954/Jeeves-and-Wooster-Duke-of-Yorks-review.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Vine, Richard (13 May 2015). \"Ripper Street to return for two more series of 'blood, guts and pocket watches'\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/tvandradioblog/2015/may/13/ripper-street-to-return-for-two-more-series-of-blood-guts-and-pocket-watches","url_text":"\"Ripper Street to return for two more series of 'blood, guts and pocket watches'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Awards and Nominations\". Television Academy. Emmys. Retrieved 16 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.emmys.com/bios/matthew-macfadyen","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Awards and Nominations\""}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Macfadyen\". Golden Globe Awards. Retrieved 16 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://goldenglobes.com/person/matthew-macfadyen/","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen\""}]},{"reference":"\"ITV has commissioned 'Quiz' a three-part drama directed by Stephen Frears starring Hollywood star, Michael Sheen\". ITV Media. Retrieved 15 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itvmedia.co.uk/making-an-impact/itv-has-commissioned-quiz-a-three-part-drama-directed-by-stephen-frears-starring-hollywood-star-michael-sheen","url_text":"\"ITV has commissioned 'Quiz' a three-part drama directed by Stephen Frears starring Hollywood star, Michael Sheen\""}]},{"reference":"Couch, Aaron (28 March 2023). \"Deadpool 3 Adds 'Succession' Actor Matthew Macfadyen\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 23 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/deadpool-3-casts-succession-actor-matthew-macfadyen-1235330298/","url_text":"\"Deadpool 3 Adds 'Succession' Actor Matthew Macfadyen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]},{"reference":"Liz Hoggard (1 April 2010). \"Ashes to Ashes star Keeley Hawes on surviving a shobiz marriage\". London Evening Standard. Retrieved 3 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/lifestyle/ashes-to-ashes-star-keeley-hawes-on-surviving-a-showbiz-marriage-6455459.html","url_text":"\"Ashes to Ashes star Keeley Hawes on surviving a shobiz marriage\""}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Macfadyen and Keeley Hawes welcome second child\". People.com. 11 January 2007. Archived from the original on 20 June 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120620214819/http://celebritybabies.people.com/2007/01/11/matthew_macfady/","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen and Keeley Hawes welcome second child\""},{"url":"http://celebritybabies.people.com/2007/01/11/matthew_macfady/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Spencer McCallum\". wikidata.org. Retrieved 15 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17319971","url_text":"\"Spencer McCallum\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lace Market Theatre – Patrons\". Archived from the original on 22 June 2007. Retrieved 15 February 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070622220201/http://www.lacemarkettheatre.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=40&Itemid=52","url_text":"\"Lace Market Theatre – Patrons\""},{"url":"http://www.lacemarkettheatre.co.uk/index.php?option%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D40%26Itemid%3D52","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gentleman, Amelia. \"Garrick Club's men-only members list reveals roll-call of British establishment\". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/society/2024/mar/18/garrick-club-men-only-members-list-roll-call-british-establishment","url_text":"\"Garrick Club's men-only members list reveals roll-call of British establishment\""}]},{"reference":"Dick, Jeremy (23 May 2023). \"Deadpool 3 Officially Starts Filming\". MovieWeb. Archived from the original on 24 May 2023. 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Retrieved 13 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itv.com/presscentre/press-releases/itv-commissions-real-life-drama-stonehouse-starring-matthew-macfadyen-and-keeley","url_text":"\"ITV commissions real life drama, Stonehouse, starring Matthew Macfadyen and Keeley Hawes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Login\".","urls":[{"url":"http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article411999.ece","url_text":"\"Login\""}]},{"reference":"Audiobook is not available - Audible.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.audible.com/adbl/site/products/ProductDetail.jsp?productID=BK_HCUK_000163&BV_UseBVCookie=Yes","url_text":"Audiobook is not available - Audible.com"}]},{"reference":"\"BBC – Radio 4 The making of music – Homepage\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/makingofmusic/","url_text":"\"BBC – Radio 4 The making of music – Homepage\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC – Press Office – BBC TWO Essential Poems (To Fall in Love With)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2003/01_january/22/essential_poems.shtml","url_text":"\"BBC – Press Office – BBC TWO Essential Poems (To Fall in Love With)\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC NEWS – UK – Magazine – How a gun massacre changed Britain\". 7 December 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4075055.stm","url_text":"\"BBC NEWS – UK – Magazine – How a gun massacre changed Britain\""}]},{"reference":"\"9/11 The Five Year Anniversary on Channel 4\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/911_five_year_anniversary/index.html","url_text":"\"9/11 The Five Year Anniversary on Channel 4\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC – History – Nazis on Trial\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuremberg_article_01.shtml","url_text":"\"BBC – History – Nazis on Trial\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC – Press Office – The Blair Years part three: Blair in Power\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2007/11_november/25/blair.shtml","url_text":"\"BBC – Press Office – The Blair Years part three: Blair in Power\""}]},{"reference":"\"Last Party at the Palace on Channel 4\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.channel4.com/video/last-party-at-the-palace/series-1/","url_text":"\"Last Party at the Palace on Channel 4\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dangerous Jobs for Girls on Channel 4\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.channel4.com/video/dangerous-jobs-for-girls/series-1/","url_text":"\"Dangerous Jobs for Girls on Channel 4\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wine News\". Decanter.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.decanter.com/news/news.php?id=276139","url_text":"\"Wine News\""}]},{"reference":"\"Au théâtre : The Crimson Island\".","urls":[{"url":"http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/The-Crimson-Island-pic_85.htm","url_text":"\"Au théâtre : The Crimson Island\""}]},{"reference":"\"Au théâtre : Lorca's Death\".","urls":[{"url":"http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/Lorca-s-Death-pic_508.htm","url_text":"\"Au théâtre : Lorca's Death\""}]},{"reference":"\"Au théâtre : The Feigned Inconstancy\". Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090922011506/http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/The-Feigned-Inconstancy-pic_71.htm","url_text":"\"Au théâtre : The Feigned Inconstancy\""},{"url":"http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/The-Feigned-Inconstancy-pic_71.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Au théâtre : The Beggar's Opera\". Archived from the original on 20 September 2009. Retrieved 14 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090920232535/http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/The-Beggar-s-Opera-pic_69.htm","url_text":"\"Au théâtre : The Beggar's Opera\""},{"url":"http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/The-Beggar-s-Opera-pic_69.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Au théâtre : One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest\".","urls":[{"url":"http://matthew-macfadyen.forumactif.net/gallery/Divers/Au-theatre/One-Flew-Over-The-Cuckoo-s-Nest-pic_87.htm","url_text":"\"Au théâtre : One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest\""}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Theatre Credits\". 17 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.darcylicious.com/drupal/theater","url_text":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Theatre Credits\""}]},{"reference":"\"National Theatre\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/?lid=1255","url_text":"\"National Theatre\""}]},{"reference":"\"National Theatre\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/?lid=12001","url_text":"\"National Theatre\""}]},{"reference":"\"London Theatre Tickets, Theatre News and Reviews – WhatsOnStage\". whatsonstage. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071201131052/http://www.whatsonstage.com/index.php?pg=207&story=E8821138291727","url_text":"\"London Theatre Tickets, Theatre News and Reviews – WhatsOnStage\""},{"url":"http://www.whatsonstage.com/index.php?pg=207&story=E8821138291727","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Pain and the Itch at The Royal Court Theatre\". Archived from the original on 29 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120629103900/http://www.royalcourttheatre.com/whatson01.asp?play=477","url_text":"\"The Pain and the Itch at The Royal Court Theatre\""},{"url":"http://www.royalcourttheatre.com/whatson01.asp?play=477","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vaudeville Theatre\". London Theatreland.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.london-theatreland.co.uk/theatres/vaudeville-theatre/theatre.php","url_text":"\"Vaudeville Theatre\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bafta TV Awards 2022: All the winners from British TV's biggest night\". 8 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://metro.co.uk/2022/05/08/bafta-tv-awards-2022-all-the-winners-from-british-tvs-biggest-night-16607438/","url_text":"\"Bafta TV Awards 2022: All the winners from British TV's biggest night\""}]},{"reference":"\"BAFTA TV Awards Winners Unveiled\". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 12 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/bafta-tv-awards-2024-winners-list-1235893562/","url_text":"\"BAFTA TV Awards Winners Unveiled\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]},{"reference":"\"Mathew Macfadyen – Awards\". Internet Movie Database.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0532193/awards?ref_=nm_awd","url_text":"\"Mathew Macfadyen – Awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Movie_Database","url_text":"Internet Movie Database"}]},{"reference":"\"'Roma,' 'The Americans' and 'The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel' Win Top Critics' Choice Honors\". Variety. Retrieved 12 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2019/film/awards/2019-critics-choice-awards-winners-nominees-full-list-1203106702/","url_text":"\"'Roma,' 'The Americans' and 'The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel' Win Top Critics' Choice Honors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Critics Choice Awards 2022: 'The Power of the Dog,' 'Ted Lasso,' 'Succession' Win Big (Full Winners List)\". Variety. 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Retrieved 12 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2022/tv/awards/emmys-nominations-list-2022-1235313788/","url_text":"\"Emmys 2022: The Complete Nominations List\""}]},{"reference":"Blyth, Antonia (15 January 2024). \"'Succession' Supporting Actor Emmy Winner Matthew Macfadyen Thanks \"On-Screen Wife\" Sarah Snook, \"Other Wife\" Nicholas Braun & Actual Wife Keeley Hawes\". BBC News. Retrieved 16 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2024/01/matthew-macfadyen-succession-2023-emmy-winner-speech-wife-news-1235792579/","url_text":"\"'Succession' Supporting Actor Emmy Winner Matthew Macfadyen Thanks \"On-Screen Wife\" Sarah Snook, \"Other Wife\" Nicholas Braun & Actual Wife Keeley Hawes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"\"15th Screen Actors Guild Awards\". sagawards.org. Retrieved 12 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sagawards.org/awards/nominees-and-recipients/15th-annual-screen-actors-guild-awards","url_text":"\"15th Screen Actors Guild Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"28th Screen Actors Guild Awards\". sagawards.org. Retrieved 12 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sagawards.org/awards/nominees-and-recipients/28th-annual-screen-actors-guild-awards","url_text":"\"28th Screen Actors Guild Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nominations Announced for the 30th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards®\" (Press release). Screen Actors Guild. 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sagawards.org/media/news/releases/nominations-announced-30th-annual-screen-actors-guild-awardsr","url_text":"\"Nominations Announced for the 30th Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards®\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild","url_text":"Screen Actors Guild"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.stltoday.com/news/nation-world/celebrity-birthdays-oct-17","external_links_name":"\"Celebrity Birthdays: Oct. 17\""},{"Link":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CyggoOPJXBJ/","external_links_name":"\"Matthew Macfadyen Directed by Lynn Hirschberg\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-features/7139221/Matthew-Macfadyen-interview.html","external_links_name":"\"Matthew Macfadyen 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande_people | Mandé peoples | ["1 History","1.1 Central Sahara","1.2 Tichitt culture","1.3 Djenné-Djenno","1.4 Ghana Empire","1.5 Mali Empire","1.6 Post-Songhai","2 Culture","2.1 Secret societies","2.2 Caste system","2.3 Fadenya","2.4 Oral tradition","2.5 Literature","2.6 Religion","2.7 Arts","2.8 Music","3 See also","4 References","4.1 Bibliography"] | Ethnic groups who speak the Mande languages
Often misused to refer to the Mandinka people, an ethnicity under the Mande language classification and their historical homeland Mande region. Also not to be confused with Manding speakers, sometimes referred to as Manden.
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The Mandé peoples are an ethnolinguistic grouping of native African ethnic groups who speak Mande languages. Various Mandé-speaking ethnic groups are found particularly in the western regions of West Africa. The Mandé languages are divided into two primary groups: East Mandé and West Mandé.
The Mandinka or Malinke, a western branch of the Mandé, are credited with the founding one of the largest West African empires. Other large Mandé-speaking ethnicities include the Soninke and Susu as well as smaller ethnic groups such as the Ligbi, Vai, and Bissa. The Mandé-speaking people inhabit various environments, from coastal rainforests to the sparse Sahel, are organized mainly by their language group, and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs.
After migrating from the Central Sahara, Mandé-speaking peoples established Tichitt culture in the Western Saharan region of Mauritania, which had Dhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly the Malian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mandé-speaking peoples began to spread and established Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno in the Middle Niger region as well as the Ghana Empire.
Today, Mandé-speaking people are predominantly Muslim and follow a caste system. Islam has played a central role in identifying the Mandé-speaking people who live in the Sahel regions. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited the Sahel and Savanna. The Mandé people conducted increased trade along the Niger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with the expansion of the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Kaabu and Wassoulou states.
The non-Mandé-speaking Fula, Songhai, Wolof, Hausa, and Voltaic peoples such as the Kingdom of Dagbon, Guang people, Maghan people and the Gonja people maintain varying degrees of close alignment with the Mandé-speaking people's worldview, clothing, and other cultural artifacts (e.g., a shared written script, architecture, cuisine, and social norms).
History
Central Sahara
Main article: Pastoral Period
After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara, Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa. In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara. Saharan pastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields of tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt.
West African sites with archaeobotanical remains from third to first millennium cal bc. The arrows indicate directions of pearl millet diffusion into sub-Saharan West Africa, including 21. Tichitt region sites.
Tichitt culture
Main article: Tichitt culture
After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara. The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture at Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and Dhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure, farming of cereals, metallurgy, numerous funerary tombs, and a rock art tradition. At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the Neolithic. Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and the Malian Lakes Region, which includes Tondidarou, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition. The urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, complexly organized society in West Africa, and an early civilization of the Sahara, which may have served as the segue for state formation in West Africa.
As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma. Farming of crops (e.g., millet) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt.
As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai. The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant. In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground. Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, copper was also utilized.
After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali (e.g., at Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among rammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE). Thereafter, the Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE.
Tichitt Tradition rock art depicting cart, with long platform, framed by two wheels
Djenné-Djenno
Main article: Djenné-Djenno
The civilization of Djenné-Djenno was located in the Niger River valley in Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites in Sub-Saharan Africa. The site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town of Djenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres). The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné. Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia, also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC. Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with the oldest ceramics found in Djenné-Djenno, which have been dated to 250 BCE. The egalitarian civilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE.
13th–15th century female terracotta figure covered with red ochre
Ghana Empire
Main article: Ghana Empire
Since around 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto-Soninke descent, one of the oldest branches of Mandé-speaking peoples, came together under the leadership of Dinga Cisse. The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upper Senegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with the north by a coastal route leading to Morocco via Sijilmasa.
Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants of Ghâna came to dominate the trade, having had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara and to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into the Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghâna was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size of Texas, stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city of Kumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab traveler Ibn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as the "richest king in the world because of his gold."
In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition, Almoravid Muslims came from the North and invaded Ghâna.
The western Sanhaja was converted to Islam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the "Sudanese", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel. Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel of Awdaghust, a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by the Ghana empire. The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa
Before the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghâna would reemerge, it became the target of attacks by the Susu people who were Mandinka (another Mandé-speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known as Mandinka people) emerged under a new dynamic ruler, Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghâna had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by the Mali Empire of Sundiata.
Mali Empire
Main article: Mali Empire
Sankore Mosque
The most renowned Emperor of Mali was Sundiata's grandson, Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as “Kan Kan Mussa" or "The Lion of Mali". His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to the UNESCO General History of Africa). He had so much gold that when he stopped in Egypt, the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and 'Ethiopian' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." Consequently, the names of Mali and Timbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map.
In the 12th century CE, the University of Sankore, which began as the Mosque of Sankore, served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu. The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as the University of Timbuktu.
In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire of Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great).
Post-Songhai
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Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé-speaking people (Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mandé-speaking people came about. These were the Mane, Southern Mandé speakers (Mende, Gbandi, Kpelle, Loma ethnic groups) who invaded the western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. The Mane advanced parallel to the coastline of modern Liberia, fighting in turn with each tribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering the Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is now Sierra Leone. The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics.
Painted rock art from Manding peoples are found largely in Mali, where Malinke and Bambara peoples reside. The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g., saurian) and human artforms. Some of the Manding rock art may relate to circumcision rituals for initiates. During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area of Guinea and southern area of Mali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area of Burkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), and Dogon country.
French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected the life of Mandé-speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on the Atlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé-speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé-speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states.
Existence amongst the Mandé-speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African ethnic groups has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because of desertification, they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast.
Culture
Mandé-speaking ethnic groups typically have patrilineal kinship system and patriarchal society. Several Mandé tribes practice Islam, like the Mandinka and Soninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wear veils. The Mandinka in particular practice the social concept of sanankuya or "joking relationship" among clans.
Secret societies
Amongst the Mende, Kpelle, Gbandi and Loma Mandé-speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known as Poro and Sande, or Bundu, respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern the internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty.
Caste system
Amongst specific Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' societies are hierarchies or "caste"-based systems, with nobility and vassals. There were also serfs (Jonw/Jong(o)), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots.
Many Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages as griots). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called "nyamakala" among peoples of Manding branch of the Mandé-speaking family (Mandinka people), and "Nyaxamalo" among the Soninke people,
Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mandé-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere the Western Sudan and Western Sahel regions of West Africa. Among the non-Mande Wolof people, craft and bardic castes were collectively termed "nyeno".
With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled as blacksmiths, cattle herders, and griots or bards.
Fadenya
See also: Fadenya
Fadenya or “father-childness” is a word used by the Manding, a Mandé-speaking people (e.g., Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers. The concept of fadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé world. Fadenya is often discussed in contrast to badenya, or mother-childness.
Oral tradition
Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures, history is passed orally, one famous instance being the Epic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known as kumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known as nyamankala. These nyamankala form an important part of Mandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition. Kela school, the most notable, is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called a tariku. This intersection of written and oral history is unique to Mandinka culture.
The epic is typically performed in two ways: one is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic. The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of the epic.
The Kandasi also started a school for oral history.
Literature
Mandé literature includes the Epic of Sundiata, an epic poem of the Manding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Mali Empire. Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales "form a vast body of oral and written literature" ranging from Ibn Khaldun's 14th-century Arabic-language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance. Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan are two important Timbuktu chronicles. By the late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata. Although traditionally attributed to Mahmud Kati, Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors. Among the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, griots are a group, traditionally a specialized caste who are bards, storytellers, and oral historians.
Religion
A 13th-century mosque in northern Ghana attributed to the Wangara.
Many of the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part of West Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as the Bambara, a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs. Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups like Chiwara, and Dwo, and beliefs in the power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature). Many smaller Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Bobo, retain pre-Islamic belief systems in their entirety. Many Mandé-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized.
According to oral histories, Mandé-speaking people, in particular the Soninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to the Islamization of non-Mandé Gur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa.
Arts
Much Mandé art is in the form of jewelry and carvings. The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The Bambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to the Soninke in Mali.
The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together.
Djenné-Djenno, an ancient city on the Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD. It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in the area as late as the 20th century.
Music
The best known type of traditional music amongst the Mandé-speaking people is played on the kora, a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by the Mandinka people. It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka as Jeliw (sing. Jeli), or in French as griots. The kora is a unique harp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It is arguably the most complex chordophone of Africa.
The N'goni is the ancestor of the modern banjo, and is also played by jelis.
Griots are professional bards in northern West Africa, keepers of their great oral epic traditions and history. They are trusted and powerful advisors of Mandinka leaders. Among the most celebrated of these today are Toumani Diabate, Mamadou Diabate, and Kandia Kouyaté.
See also
Griot
Djembe
N'goni
Kora (instrument)
List of Mandé peoples of Africa
Mande Studies Association
Mande languages
Tichitt Culture
Ghana Empire
Djenne-Djenno
Mali Empire
Sosso Empire
Bambara Kingdom
Kaabu Empire
Wassoulou Empire
Kong Empire
Borgu Emirate
Gwiriko
Manneh Warriors
Nyamakala
Fadenya
Sofa Soldiers
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vteMandé peoplesBenin
Boko people
Burkina Faso
Bobo people
Kpee people
Samo people
Seenku people
Ivory Coast
Beng people
Gban people
Dan people
Goo people
Guro people
Jeri people
Mwan people
Tura people
Wan people
Yaure people
Ghana
Bissa people
Dyula people
Ligbi people
Wangara people
Guinea
Jakhanke people
Kakabe people
Lele people
Loma people
Mogofin people
Susu people
Yalunka people
Zialo people
Liberia
Dan people
Gbandi people
Mano people
Vai people
Mali
Bambara people
Banka people
Bozo people
Duun people
Dyula people
Jowulu people
Malinke people
Soninke people
Marka people
Wangara people
Nigeria
Busa people
Kyenga people
Shangawa people
Senegal/Gambia
Bafour people
Mandinka people
Sierra Leone
Kono people
Kpelle people
Kuranko people
Loko people
Mandingo people
Mende people
Ethnic groups whose languages are in the Manding group of Mandé are in Bold. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mandinka people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Manding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manding_languages"},{"link_name":"ethnolinguistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnolinguistic"},{"link_name":"African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"ethnic groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"Mande languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande_languages"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"West African empires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_empires#West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Susu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susu_people"},{"link_name":"Ligbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligbi_language"},{"link_name":"Vai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai_(ethnic_group)"},{"link_name":"Bissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bissa_people"},{"link_name":"rainforests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinean_Forests_of_West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Sahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel"},{"link_name":"Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"},{"link_name":"Tichitt culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_culture"},{"link_name":"Mauritania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania"},{"link_name":"Dhar Tichitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt"},{"link_name":"Malian Lakes Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malian_Lakes_Region"},{"link_name":"Méma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9ma"},{"link_name":"Macina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macina,_Mali"},{"link_name":"Dia Shoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia,_Mali"},{"link_name":"Jenne Jeno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenne_Jeno"},{"link_name":"Middle Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Niger"},{"link_name":"Ghana Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Empire"},{"link_name":"Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Sahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel"},{"link_name":"Sahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel"},{"link_name":"Savanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna"},{"link_name":"Niger River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River"},{"link_name":"Mali Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kaabu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaabu"},{"link_name":"Wassoulou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassoulou"},{"link_name":"Fula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_people"},{"link_name":"Songhai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_people"},{"link_name":"Wolof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_people"},{"link_name":"Hausa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_people"},{"link_name":"Voltaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur_people"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Dagbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dagbon"},{"link_name":"Guang people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guang_people"},{"link_name":"Maghan people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maghan_people&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gonja people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonja_people"},{"link_name":"clothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boubou_(clothing)"},{"link_name":"a shared written script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajami_script"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudano-Sahelian_architecture"},{"link_name":"cuisine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_cuisine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Often misused to refer to the Mandinka people, an ethnicity under the Mande language classification and their historical homeland Mande region. Also not to be confused with Manding speakers, sometimes referred to as Manden.The Mandé peoples are an ethnolinguistic grouping of native African ethnic groups who speak Mande languages. Various Mandé-speaking ethnic groups are found particularly in the western regions of West Africa. The Mandé languages are divided into two primary groups: East Mandé and West Mandé.The Mandinka or Malinke, a western branch of the Mandé, are credited with the founding one of the largest West African empires. Other large Mandé-speaking ethnicities include the Soninke and Susu as well as smaller ethnic groups such as the Ligbi, Vai, and Bissa. The Mandé-speaking people inhabit various environments, from coastal rainforests to the sparse Sahel, are organized mainly by their language group, and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs.After migrating from the Central Sahara, Mandé-speaking peoples established Tichitt culture in the Western Saharan region of Mauritania, which had Dhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly the Malian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mandé-speaking peoples began to spread and established Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno in the Middle Niger region as well as the Ghana Empire.Today, Mandé-speaking people are predominantly Muslim and follow a caste system. Islam has played a central role in identifying the Mandé-speaking people who live in the Sahel regions. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited the Sahel and Savanna. The Mandé people conducted increased trade along the Niger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with the expansion of the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Kaabu and Wassoulou states.The non-Mandé-speaking Fula, Songhai, Wolof, Hausa, and Voltaic peoples such as the Kingdom of Dagbon, Guang people, Maghan people and the Gonja people maintain varying degrees of close alignment with the Mandé-speaking people's worldview, clothing, and other cultural artifacts (e.g., a shared written script, architecture, cuisine, and social norms).[citation needed]","title":"Mandé peoples"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kel Essuf Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel_Essuf_Period"},{"link_name":"Round Head Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Head_Period"},{"link_name":"Pastoral Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral_Period"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soukopova_I-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soukopova_X-2"},{"link_name":"aridification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aridification"},{"link_name":"Green Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Sahara"},{"link_name":"hunter-gatherers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherers"},{"link_name":"herders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herders"},{"link_name":"Niger River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River"},{"link_name":"Chad Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Basin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soukopova_II-3"},{"link_name":"Pastoral Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral_Period"},{"link_name":"Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brass3-4"},{"link_name":"pastoral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral"},{"link_name":"tumuli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brass_II-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brass3-4"},{"link_name":"hierarchies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchies"},{"link_name":"Dhar Tichitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brass3-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:West_African_sites_with_archaeobotanical_remains_from_third_to_first_millennium_cal_bc.webp"},{"link_name":"archaeobotanical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeobotany"},{"link_name":"pearl millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_millet"},{"link_name":"sub-Saharan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Tichitt region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_culture"}],"sub_title":"Central Sahara","text":"After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed.[1] Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not.[2] As a result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara, Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa.[3] In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara.[4] Saharan pastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields of tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants.[5] By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions.[4] The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt.[4]West African sites with archaeobotanical remains from third to first millennium cal bc. The arrows indicate directions of pearl millet diffusion into sub-Saharan West Africa, including 21. Tichitt region sites.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mande peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande_peoples"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abd-El-Moniem-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kea-7"},{"link_name":"Tichitt Tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_Tradition"},{"link_name":"Mauritania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDougall-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holl-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kay-11"},{"link_name":"Dhar Néma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_N%C3%A9ma"},{"link_name":"Dhar Tagant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Tagant"},{"link_name":"Dhar Tichitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Tichitt"},{"link_name":"Dhar Walata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhar_Walata"},{"link_name":"farming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farming"},{"link_name":"cereals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereals"},{"link_name":"metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy"},{"link_name":"funerary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funerary"},{"link_name":"rock art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_art"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sterry-12"},{"link_name":"pearl millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_millet"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Champion-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Linares-Mat%C3%A1s-14"},{"link_name":"Malian Lakes Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malian_Lakes_Region"},{"link_name":"Tondidarou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tondidarou"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vernet-15"},{"link_name":"urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_area"},{"link_name":"complexly organized society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_society"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kea-7"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_II-16"},{"link_name":"civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization"},{"link_name":"Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDougall-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abd-El-Moniem-6"},{"link_name":"state formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_formation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brass_II-5"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_II-16"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_II-16"},{"link_name":"Dia Shoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia,_Mali"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_II-16"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kay-11"},{"link_name":"temper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)"},{"link_name":"tuyeres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuyere"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-10"},{"link_name":"Iron metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_metallurgy_in_Africa"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald_IV-10"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kea-7"},{"link_name":"Middle Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Niger"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"Méma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9ma"},{"link_name":"Macina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macina,_Mali"},{"link_name":"Dia Shoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia,_Mali"},{"link_name":"Jenne Jeno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenne_Jeno"},{"link_name":"rammed earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammed_earth"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald2-17"},{"link_name":"Ghana Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Empire"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacDonald2-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Char_rupestre_du_village_v.157_%C3%A0_longue_plate-forme_(103_x_50_cm).jpg"},{"link_name":"Tichitt Tradition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_Tradition"},{"link_name":"rock art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_culture#Rock_Art"},{"link_name":"cart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cart"},{"link_name":"two wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_wheel_in_Africa#Mauritania"}],"sub_title":"Tichitt culture","text":"After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto-Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara.[6][7] The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE[8][9] to 200 BCE.[10][11] Tichitt culture at Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and Dhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure, farming of cereals, metallurgy, numerous funerary tombs, and a rock art tradition.[12] At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the Neolithic.[13] Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition,[14] and the Malian Lakes Region, which includes Tondidarou, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition.[15] The urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, complexly organized society in West Africa,[7][16] and an early civilization of the Sahara,[8][6] which may have served as the segue for state formation in West Africa.[5]As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma.[16] Farming of crops (e.g., millet) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt.[16]As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai.[16] The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant.[11] In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground.[10] Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE.[10] At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, copper was also utilized.[7]After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali (e.g., at Méma, Macina, Dia Shoma, and Jenne Jeno), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among rammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE).[17] Thereafter, the Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE.[17]Tichitt Tradition rock art depicting cart, with long platform, framed by two wheels","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Djenné-Djenno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno"},{"link_name":"Niger River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"Sub-Saharan Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa"},{"link_name":"Djenné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Great Mosque of Djenné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Djenn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Dia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dia,_Mali"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arazi-18"},{"link_name":"Round Head paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_Head_Period"},{"link_name":"Sub-Saharan African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_African"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soukopova-19"},{"link_name":"Djenné-Djenno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenne-Djenno"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Soukopova-19"},{"link_name":"egalitarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarian"},{"link_name":"civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization"},{"link_name":"Bozo people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozo_people"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vydrin-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statuette_f%C3%A9minine-R%C3%A9gion_de_Djenn%C3%A9-Mali.jpg"},{"link_name":"terracotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terracotta"},{"link_name":"ochre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre"}],"sub_title":"Djenné-Djenno","text":"The civilization of Djenné-Djenno was located in the Niger River valley in Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites in Sub-Saharan Africa. The site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town of Djenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres). The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné. Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia, also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC.[18] Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures.[19] Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with the oldest ceramics found in Djenné-Djenno, which have been dated to 250 BCE.[19] The egalitarian civilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE.[20]13th–15th century female terracotta figure covered with red ochre","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Dinga Cisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dinga_Cisse&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Senegal River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_River"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Sijilmasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmasa"},{"link_name":"Ghâna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Empire"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"Kumbi Saleh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koumbi_Saleh"},{"link_name":"Ibn Hawqal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Hawqal"},{"link_name":"Almoravid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid"},{"link_name":"Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Sudanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan_(region)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Awdaghust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awdaghust"},{"link_name":"trans-Saharan trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade"},{"link_name":"Ghana empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_empire"},{"link_name":"Zenata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenata"},{"link_name":"Maghrawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrawa"},{"link_name":"Sijilmassa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijilmassa"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Mandinka people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Sundiata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundiata_Keita"},{"link_name":"Mali Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire"}],"sub_title":"Ghana Empire","text":"Since around 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto-Soninke descent, one of the oldest branches of Mandé-speaking peoples, came together under the leadership of Dinga Cisse. The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upper Senegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with the north by a coastal route leading to Morocco via Sijilmasa.Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants of Ghâna came to dominate the trade, having had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara and to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into the Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghâna was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size of Texas, stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city of Kumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab traveler Ibn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as the \"richest king in the world because of his gold.\"In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition, Almoravid Muslims came from the North and invaded Ghâna.The western Sanhaja was converted to Islam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the \"Sudanese\", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel.[21] Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel of Awdaghust, a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After the collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by the Ghana empire. The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of SijilmassaBefore the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghâna would reemerge, it became the target of attacks by the Susu people who were Mandinka (another Mandé-speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known as Mandinka people) emerged under a new dynamic ruler, Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghâna had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by the Mali Empire of Sundiata.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Timbuktu_Mosque_Sankore.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sankore Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankore_Madrasah"},{"link_name":"Mansa Musa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansa_Musa"},{"link_name":"Mecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecca"},{"link_name":"General History of Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_History_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Timbuktu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu"},{"link_name":"University of Sankore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sankore"},{"link_name":"Mosque of Sankore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_of_Sankore"},{"link_name":"organization of higher learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_higher-learning_institutions#Mali"},{"link_name":"Timbuktu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peters-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alemu-24"},{"link_name":"Sidi Yahya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidi_Yahya_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Djinguereber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djinguereber"},{"link_name":"University of Timbuktu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Timbuktu"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peters-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alemu-24"},{"link_name":"Askia Muhammad I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askia_Muhammad_I"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Mali Empire","text":"Sankore MosqueThe most renowned Emperor of Mali was Sundiata's grandson, Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as “Kan Kan Mussa\" or \"The Lion of Mali\". His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to the UNESCO General History of Africa).[22] He had so much gold that when he stopped in Egypt, the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, \"the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and 'Ethiopian' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams.\" Consequently, the names of Mali and Timbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map.In the 12th century CE, the University of Sankore, which began as the Mosque of Sankore, served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu.[23][24] The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as the University of Timbuktu.[23][24]In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire of Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great).[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mane,_Malian_Soldiers"},{"link_name":"Mende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mende_people"},{"link_name":"Gbandi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gbandi_people"},{"link_name":"Kpelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpelle_people"},{"link_name":"Loma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loma_people"},{"link_name":"Mane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mane_people"},{"link_name":"Liberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia"},{"link_name":"tribal group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribal_groups"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"rock art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_art"},{"link_name":"Manding peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manding_languages"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"Malinke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Bambara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambara_people"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Huysecom-25"},{"link_name":"saurian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauria"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Huysecom-25"},{"link_name":"circumcision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Huysecom-25"},{"link_name":"Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"Burkina Faso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso"},{"link_name":"Dogon country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogon_country"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Huysecom-25"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"desertification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Post-Songhai","text":"Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé-speaking people (Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mandé-speaking people came about. These were the Mane, Southern Mandé speakers (Mende, Gbandi, Kpelle, Loma ethnic groups) who invaded the western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. The Mane advanced parallel to the coastline of modern Liberia, fighting in turn with each tribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering the Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is now Sierra Leone. The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics.[citation needed]Painted rock art from Manding peoples are found largely in Mali, where Malinke and Bambara peoples reside.[25] The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g., saurian) and human artforms.[25] Some of the Manding rock art may relate to circumcision rituals for initiates.[25] During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area of Guinea and southern area of Mali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area of Burkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), and Dogon country.[25]French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected the life of Mandé-speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on the Atlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé-speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé-speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states.[citation needed]Existence amongst the Mandé-speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African ethnic groups has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because of desertification, they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"patrilineal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrilineal"},{"link_name":"patriarchal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchal"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"veils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veil"},{"link_name":"sanankuya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanankuya"}],"text":"Mandé-speaking ethnic groups typically have patrilineal kinship system and patriarchal society. Several Mandé tribes practice Islam, like the Mandinka and Soninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wear veils. The Mandinka in particular practice the social concept of sanankuya or \"joking relationship\" among clans.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mende_people"},{"link_name":"Kpelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kpelle_people"},{"link_name":"Gbandi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gbandi_people"},{"link_name":"Loma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loma_people"},{"link_name":"Poro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poro"},{"link_name":"Sande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sande_society"},{"link_name":"Bundu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundu,_Senegal"}],"sub_title":"Secret societies","text":"Amongst the Mende, Kpelle, Gbandi and Loma Mandé-speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known as Poro and Sande, or Bundu, respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern the internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Susu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susu_people"},{"link_name":"\"caste\"-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_in_Africa"},{"link_name":"nobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobility"},{"link_name":"griots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griots"},{"link_name":"nyamakala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyamakala"},{"link_name":"Manding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manding_languages"},{"link_name":"Mandinka people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alexander2010p79-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Appiah532-27"},{"link_name":"Soninke people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alexander2010p79-26"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Western Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Sahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahel"},{"link_name":"Wolof people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolof_people"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"blacksmiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacksmith"},{"link_name":"cattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle"},{"link_name":"griots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griot"}],"sub_title":"Caste system","text":"Amongst specific Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' societies are hierarchies or \"caste\"-based systems, with nobility and vassals. There were also serfs (Jonw/Jong(o)), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots.Many Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages as griots). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called \"nyamakala\" among peoples of Manding branch of the Mandé-speaking family (Mandinka people),[26][27] and \"Nyaxamalo\" among the Soninke people,[26][28]Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mandé-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere the Western Sudan and Western Sahel regions of West Africa. Among the non-Mande Wolof people, craft and bardic castes were collectively termed \"nyeno\".[29]With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled as blacksmiths, cattle herders, and griots or bards.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fadenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadenya"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jansen-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BirdKendell1980-31"}],"sub_title":"Fadenya","text":"See also: FadenyaFadenya or “father-childness” is a word used by the Manding, a Mandé-speaking people (e.g., Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers.[30] The concept of fadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé world. Fadenya is often discussed in contrast to badenya, or mother-childness.[31]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Epic of Sundiata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundiata_epic"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-32"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-32"}],"sub_title":"Oral tradition","text":"Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures, history is passed orally, one famous instance being the Epic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known as kumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known as nyamankala. These nyamankala form an important part of Mandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition.[32] Kela school, the most notable, is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called a tariku. This intersection of written and oral history is unique to Mandinka culture.[32]The epic is typically performed in two ways: one is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic. The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of the epic.The Kandasi also started a school for oral history.[32]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Epic of Sundiata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Sundiata"},{"link_name":"epic poem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poem"},{"link_name":"Manding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Sundiata Keita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundiata_Keita"},{"link_name":"Mali Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Charry-33"},{"link_name":"Ethnomusicologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicologist"},{"link_name":"oral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_literature"},{"link_name":"Ibn Khaldun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun"},{"link_name":"Arabic-language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic-language"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Charry-33"},{"link_name":"Tarikh al-Fattash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikh_al-Fattash"},{"link_name":"Tarikh al-Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarikh_al-Sudan"},{"link_name":"Timbuktu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbuktu"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wise-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Charry-33"},{"link_name":"Mahmud Kati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Kati"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wise-34"},{"link_name":"Mandinka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Susu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susu_people"},{"link_name":"griots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griots"},{"link_name":"caste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"bards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard"},{"link_name":"oral historians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_historians"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Literature","text":"Mandé literature includes the Epic of Sundiata, an epic poem of the Manding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise of Sundiata Keita, the founder of the Mali Empire.[33] Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales \"form a vast body of oral and written literature\" ranging from Ibn Khaldun's 14th-century Arabic-language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance.[33] Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan are two important Timbuktu chronicles.[34] By the late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata.[33] Although traditionally attributed to Mahmud Kati, Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors.[34] Among the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu, griots are a group, traditionally a specialized caste[35][36] who are bards, storytellers, and oral historians.[37]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ghana_mosque.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana"},{"link_name":"Wangara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_Wangara"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Bambara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambara_people"},{"link_name":"Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"Chiwara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiwara"},{"link_name":"Dwo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dwo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alexander2010p79-26"},{"link_name":"Bobo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_people"},{"link_name":"belief systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_African_religion"},{"link_name":"Soninke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soninke_people"},{"link_name":"Gur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur_languages"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"A 13th-century mosque in northern Ghana attributed to the Wangara.Many of the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part of West Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as the Bambara, a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs. Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups like Chiwara, and Dwo, and beliefs in the power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature).[26] Many smaller Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Bobo, retain pre-Islamic belief systems in their entirety. Many Mandé-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized.According to oral histories, Mandé-speaking people, in particular the Soninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to the Islamization of non-Mandé Gur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"jewelry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery"},{"link_name":"carvings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carving"},{"link_name":"Marka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marka_people"},{"link_name":"Bambara people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambara_people"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Djenné-Djenno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cotter-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAC-39"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAC-39"}],"sub_title":"Arts","text":"Much Mandé art is in the form of jewelry and carvings. The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The Bambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to the Soninke in Mali.[citation needed]The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together.[citation needed]Djenné-Djenno, an ancient city on the Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD.[38][39] It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in the area as late as the 20th century.[39]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kora_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"Mandinka people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandinka_people"},{"link_name":"griots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griot"},{"link_name":"harp-lute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harp-lute"},{"link_name":"chordophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordophone"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"N'goni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngoni_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"banjo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjo"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Toumani Diabate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toumani_Diabate"},{"link_name":"Mamadou Diabate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamadou_Diabate"},{"link_name":"Kandia Kouyaté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandia_Kouyat%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Music","text":"The best known type of traditional music amongst the Mandé-speaking people is played on the kora, a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by the Mandinka people. It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka as Jeliw (sing. Jeli), or in French as griots. The kora is a unique harp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It is arguably the most complex chordophone of Africa.[citation needed]The N'goni is the ancestor of the modern banjo, and is also played by jelis.[citation needed]Griots are professional bards in northern West Africa, keepers of their great oral epic traditions and history. They are trusted and powerful advisors of Mandinka leaders. Among the most celebrated of these today are Toumani Diabate, Mamadou Diabate, and Kandia Kouyaté.[citation needed]","title":"Culture"}] | [{"image_text":"West African sites with archaeobotanical remains from third to first millennium cal bc. The arrows indicate directions of pearl millet diffusion into sub-Saharan West Africa, including 21. Tichitt region sites.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/West_African_sites_with_archaeobotanical_remains_from_third_to_first_millennium_cal_bc.webp/300px-West_African_sites_with_archaeobotanical_remains_from_third_to_first_millennium_cal_bc.webp.png"},{"image_text":"Tichitt Tradition rock art depicting cart, with long platform, framed by two wheels","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Char_rupestre_du_village_v.157_%C3%A0_longue_plate-forme_%28103_x_50_cm%29.jpg/200px-Char_rupestre_du_village_v.157_%C3%A0_longue_plate-forme_%28103_x_50_cm%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"13th–15th century female terracotta figure covered with red ochre","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Statuette_f%C3%A9minine-R%C3%A9gion_de_Djenn%C3%A9-Mali.jpg/200px-Statuette_f%C3%A9minine-R%C3%A9gion_de_Djenn%C3%A9-Mali.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sankore Mosque","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Timbuktu_Mosque_Sankore.jpg/200px-Timbuktu_Mosque_Sankore.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 13th-century mosque in northern Ghana attributed to the Wangara.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ghana_mosque.jpg/300px-Ghana_mosque.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Griot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griot"},{"title":"Djembe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djembe"},{"title":"N'goni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%27goni"},{"title":"Kora (instrument)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kora_(instrument)"},{"title":"List of Mandé peoples of Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mand%C3%A9_peoples_of_Africa"},{"title":"Mande Studies Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande_Studies_Association"},{"title":"Mande languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mande_languages"},{"title":"Tichitt Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tichitt_culture"},{"title":"Ghana Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana_Empire"},{"title":"Djenne-Djenno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno"},{"title":"Mali Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire"},{"title":"Sosso Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosso_Empire"},{"title":"Bambara Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamana_Empire"},{"title":"Kaabu Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaabu"},{"title":"Wassoulou Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassoulou_Empire"},{"title":"Kong Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong_Empire"},{"title":"Borgu Emirate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borgu_Emirate"},{"title":"Gwiriko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwiriko"},{"title":"Manneh Warriors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mane_people"},{"title":"Nyamakala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyamakala"},{"title":"Fadenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadenya"},{"title":"Sofa Soldiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofa_(warrior)"}] | [{"reference":"Soukopova, Jitka (August 2017). \"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules\". Journal of Arid Environments. 143: 10–14. Bibcode:2017JArEn.143...10S. doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011. ISSN 0140-1963. OCLC 7044514678. S2CID 132225521.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/33092285","url_text":"\"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JArEn.143...10S","url_text":"2017JArEn.143...10S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FJ.JARIDENV.2016.12.011","url_text":"10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0140-1963","url_text":"0140-1963"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7044514678","url_text":"7044514678"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132225521","url_text":"132225521"}]},{"reference":"Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). \"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?\". Expression: 116–120. ISSN 2499-1341.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/24483825","url_text":"\"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2499-1341","url_text":"2499-1341"}]},{"reference":"Soukopova, Jitka (2020). \"Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation\". Expression: 79–90. ISSN 2499-1341.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/43418786","url_text":"\"Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2499-1341","url_text":"2499-1341"}]},{"reference":"Brass, Michael (June 2019). \"The Emergence of Mobile Pastoral Elites during the Middle to Late Holocene in the Sahara\". Journal of African Archaeology. 17 (1): 3. doi:10.1163/21915784-20190003. OCLC 8197260980. S2CID 198759644.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334154351","url_text":"\"The Emergence of Mobile Pastoral Elites during the Middle to Late Holocene in the Sahara\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_African_Archaeology","url_text":"Journal of African Archaeology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F21915784-20190003","url_text":"10.1163/21915784-20190003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8197260980","url_text":"8197260980"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198759644","url_text":"198759644"}]},{"reference":"Brass, Michael (2007). \"Reconsidering the emergence of social complexity in early Saharan pastoral societies, 5000 – 2500 B.C.\" Sahara (Segrate, Italy). 18. Sahara (Segrate): 7–22. 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A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art (PDF). University of London. p. 221. OCLC 500051500. S2CID 130112115.","urls":[{"url":"https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444476/1/U591781.pdf","url_text":"A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/500051500","url_text":"500051500"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130112115","url_text":"130112115"}]},{"reference":"Kea, Ray (26 November 2004). \"Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. – 1200/1250 A.D.)\". Journal of World-Systems Research. X (3): 738–740. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2004.286. ISSN 1076-156X. S2CID 147397386.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/208574355","url_text":"\"Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. – 1200/1250 A.D.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5195%2FJWSR.2004.286","url_text":"10.5195/JWSR.2004.286"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-156X","url_text":"1076-156X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147397386","url_text":"147397386"}]},{"reference":"McDougall, E. Ann (2019). \"Saharan Peoples and Societies\". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4. S2CID 159184437.","urls":[{"url":"https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-285","url_text":"\"Saharan Peoples and Societies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.285","url_text":"10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4","url_text":"978-0-19-027773-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159184437","url_text":"159184437"}]},{"reference":"Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009). \"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\". Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 341 (8–9): 703. Bibcode:2009CRGeo.341..703H. doi:10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005. ISSN 1631-0713. OCLC 5900121710. S2CID 128545688.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071309000996","url_text":"\"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009CRGeo.341..703H","url_text":"2009CRGeo.341..703H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crte.2009.04.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1631-0713","url_text":"1631-0713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5900121710","url_text":"5900121710"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128545688","url_text":"128545688"}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, K.; Vernet, R. (2007). \"Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper\". Fields of Change: Progress in African Archaeobotany. Barkhuis. pp. 71–72. ISBN 9789077922309. OCLC 309688961. S2CID 130234059.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gTnffH-elc0C&q=%22Tichitt%22+%22metallurgy%22&pg=PA71","url_text":"\"Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789077922309","url_text":"9789077922309"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/309688961","url_text":"309688961"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130234059","url_text":"130234059"}]},{"reference":"Kay, Andrea U. (2019). \"Diversification, Intensification and Specialization: Changing Land Use in Western Africa from 1800 BC to AD 1500\". Journal of World Prehistory. 32 (2): 179–228. doi:10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2. hdl:10261/181848. 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(26 March 2020). \"Pre-Islamic Oasis Settlements in the Southern Sahara\". Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. doi:10.1017/9781108637978.008. ISBN 9781108494441. OCLC 1128066278. 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(2021). \"Agricultural diversification in West Africa: an archaeobotanical study of the site of Sadia (Dogon Country, Mali)\". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 13 (4): 60. doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01293-5. PMC 7937602. PMID 33758626.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7937602","url_text":"\"Agricultural diversification in West Africa: an archaeobotanical study of the site of Sadia (Dogon Country, Mali)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12520-021-01293-5","url_text":"10.1007/s12520-021-01293-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7937602","url_text":"7937602"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33758626","url_text":"33758626"}]},{"reference":"Linares-Matás, Gonzalo J. (13 April 2022). \"Spatial Organization and Socio-Economic Differentiation at the Dhar Tichitt Center of Dakhlet el Atrouss I (Southeastern Mauritania)\". African Archaeological Review. 39 (2): 167–188. doi:10.1007/s10437-022-09479-5. ISSN 1572-9842. OCLC 9530792981. 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Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 46: 49, 51, 54, 56–57, 59–60. doi:10.1080/0067270X.2011.553485. ISSN 0067-270X. OCLC 4839360348. S2CID 161938622.","urls":[{"url":"https://dokumen.tips/documents/betwixt-tichitt-and-the-ind-the-pottery-of-the-faita-facies-tichitt-tradition.html","url_text":"\"Betwixt Tichitt and the IND: the pottery of the Faita Facies, Tichitt Tradition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0067270X.2011.553485","url_text":"10.1080/0067270X.2011.553485"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0067-270X","url_text":"0067-270X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4839360348","url_text":"4839360348"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161938622","url_text":"161938622"}]},{"reference":"Arazi, Noemie. \"Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources\" (PDF). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Appeal_(newspaper) | Socialist Appeal (newspaper) | ["1 References","2 External links"] | American political newspaper, 1935–1941
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Socialist Appeal was a newspaper published by American Trotskyists from 1935 to 1941. It was founded by supporters of the Trotskyist Workers Party of the United States in Chicago who had practiced entryism of the Socialist Party of America in 1935. It was edited by Albert Goldman. In 1936, the Workers Party formally dissolved and entered en masse into the SPA. In August 1937 the publication moved to New York City and was re-launched as the organ of the "Left Wing Branches of the Socialist Party" but was effectively controlled by the unofficial Trotskyist faction within the SPA. The "Socialist Appeal tendency" split from the Socialist Party to form the Socialist Workers Party in 1938. The publication became the official organ of the SWP and continued as Socialist Appeal until 1941, when it was retitled The Militant, reverting to the name of the original (1928–1934) Communist League of America publication.
References
^ "Socialist Appeal - Contents by Issue (1935-1937)".
^ "Workers Party of the United States. Publications, 1933-1939". Cornell University Library. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
^ "The Militant - NY".
^ "Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism archives".
External links
Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism, Serial Archives Listing (The Online Books Page)
Socialist Appeal (Chicago 1935-1937) Marxists.org archive
Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1937 Marxists.org archive
Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1938 Marxists.org archive
Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1939 Marxists.org archive
Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1940 Marxists.org archive
This communist party–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trotskyists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism"},{"link_name":"Workers Party of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers_Party_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"entryism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entryism"},{"link_name":"Socialist Party of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America"},{"link_name":"Albert Goldman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Goldman_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Socialist Workers Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"The Militant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Militant"},{"link_name":"Communist League of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_League_of_America"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Socialist Appeal was a newspaper published by American Trotskyists from 1935 to 1941. It was founded by supporters of the Trotskyist Workers Party of the United States in Chicago who had practiced entryism of the Socialist Party of America in 1935. It was edited by Albert Goldman.[1][2] In 1936, the Workers Party formally dissolved and entered en masse into the SPA. In August 1937 the publication moved to New York City and was re-launched as the organ of the \"Left Wing Branches of the Socialist Party\" but was effectively controlled by the unofficial Trotskyist faction within the SPA. The \"Socialist Appeal tendency\" split from the Socialist Party to form the Socialist Workers Party in 1938. The publication became the official organ of the SWP and continued as Socialist Appeal until 1941, when it was retitled The Militant, reverting to the name of the original (1928–1934) Communist League of America publication.[3][4]","title":"Socialist Appeal (newspaper)"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Socialist Appeal [Chicago] - Contents by Issue (1935-1937)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/socialistappeal/index.htm","url_text":"\"Socialist Appeal [Chicago] - Contents by Issue (1935-1937)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Workers Party of the United States. Publications, 1933-1939\". Cornell University Library. Retrieved 13 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ead/htmldocs/KCL05306.html","url_text":"\"Workers Party of the United States. Publications, 1933-1939\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Militant - NY\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/index.htm","url_text":"\"The Militant - NY\""}]},{"reference":"\"Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism archives\".","urls":[{"url":"http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/serial?id=socialistappeal","url_text":"\"Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism archives\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/socialistappeal/index.htm","external_links_name":"\"Socialist Appeal [Chicago] - Contents by Issue (1935-1937)\""},{"Link":"http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ead/htmldocs/KCL05306.html","external_links_name":"\"Workers Party of the United States. Publications, 1933-1939\""},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/index.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Militant - NY\""},{"Link":"http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/serial?id=socialistappeal","external_links_name":"\"Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism archives\""},{"Link":"http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/serial?id=socialistappeal","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal: An Organ of Revolutionary Socialism"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/socialistappeal/index.htm","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal (Chicago 1935-1937)"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1937/index.htm","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1937"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1938/index.htm","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1938"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1939/index.htm","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1939"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/themilitant/socialist-appeal-1940/index.htm","external_links_name":"Socialist Appeal (New York) Content by issue 1940"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Socialist_Appeal_(newspaper)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._J._Massingham | H. J. Massingham | ["1 Life","2 Works","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"] | British writer
H. J. Massingham, by Elliott & Fry, 1948
Harold John Massingham (25 March 1888 – 22 August 1952) was a prolific British writer on ruralism, matters to do with the countryside and agriculture. He was also a published poet.
Life
Massingham was the son of the journalist H. W. Massingham. He was brought up in London, and educated at Westminster School and Queen's College, Oxford. He failed to graduate from Oxford, because of bad health. He then became a journalist in London. He worked for the Morning Leader, Athenaeum, and the Nation, and knew D. H. Lawrence. In the 1920s he became a research assistant for two anthropologists from University College, London, and an interest in archeology and anthropology, which proved lifelong, led to the publication of Downland Man (1926) and a number of other works. He worked on a research project whose aim was to show that all megalithic culture in England had spread from Egypt.
By 1932 Massingham began to write more and more on country life, and the first of a long series of such books, possibly his best-known, was Wold Without End (1932), reflecting his experiences living in Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds. A serious accident happened in 1937, when he injured his leg, leading to a two-year period of regular hospital visits, at the end of which he hurt the same leg again, and it had to be amputated. He was forced to stop travelling as frequently as he had been doing and settled down to writing some thirty more books.
He was strongly influenced by the writings of Gilbert White and edited selections of White's writings.
He was one of a group of ruralist British writers of the period; Massingham's friend Adrian Bell, a farmer in Suffolk, was another prominent writer, and John Musty suggests that Massingham may have had a hand in getting Bell published. They have attracted subsequent attention both as precursors to later developments, such as organic farming, and because of their political entanglements in the 1930s (for example, Henry Williamson was a supporter of Oswald Mosley). Massingham himself wrote in a vein compatible with the Social Credit and distributist ideas current at the time, as in his 1943 The Tree of Life.
He was one of the twelve members of the Kinship in Husbandry, set up in 1941 by Rolf Gardiner, a society dedicated to countryside revival in a post-war world. According to academics Richard Moore-Colyer and Philip Conford, Massingham was uncomfortable with what he felt was a pro-German tendency in this group. When the Kinship later merged with two other bodies to form the Soil Association, Massingham with Gardiner, the landowner Lord Portsmouth and the agricultural journalist Lawrence Easterbrook came onto the Soil Association's Council.
After Massingham's death his collection of tools, implements and products of craftsmanship and husbandry were donated to the Museum of English Rural Life. Many of the objects appear in his book "Country Relics".
Works
Letters to X from H.J. Massingham (1919) Constable & Co.
Dogs, Birds, and Others (1921), letters to The Spectator, editor
Some Birds of the Countryside: The Art Of Nature (1921)
"John Clare". The Athenaeum, 4732 (7 January 1921): 9–10.
Poems About Birds from the Middle Ages to the Present Day (1922), editor
Andrew Marvell 1621–1678 Tercentenary Tributes (1922) co-editor
Untrodden Ways – Adventures of English Coasts, Heaths and Marshes and Also Among the Works of Hudson, Crabbe and Other Country Writers (1923)
Sanctuaries for Birds and How to Make Them (1924)
In Praise of England (1924), miscellany
H. W. M.: A Selection From the Writings of H. W. Massingham (1925), editor
Downland Man (1926)
Fee, Fi, Fo, Fum: The Giants in England (1926)
The Golden Age: The Story of Human Nature (1927)
The Heritage of Man (1929)
Guide to the Cotswolds, with Clough Williams-Ellis, and others
Pre-Roman Britain (1930)
The Friend of Shelley: A Memoir of Edward John Trelawny (1930)
A Treasury of seventeenth Century English Verse (1931) editor
Birds of the Seashore (1931)
Wold Without End (1932)
London Scene (1933)
The Great Victorians (1932), with Hugh Massingham
English Country: Fifteen Essays by Various Authors (1934) editor, with H. E. Bates, Edmund Blunden, W. H. Davies, Vita Sackville-West, A. G. Street, John Collier
Country (1934), illustrated with photographs by Edgar Ward
World Without End (1935)
Through the Wilderness (1935)
The English Downland (1936), from The Face of Britain series
The Genius of England (1937)
The Writings of Gilbert White of Selborne (Nonesuch Press, 1938), editor, two volumes with engravings by Eric Ravilious
Britain and the Beast (1937), essay volume with A. G. Street, J. M. Keynes, John Moore, E. M. Forster, Clough Williams-Ellis
Shepherd's Country: a Record of the Crafts and People of the Hills (1938)
Country Relics (1939)
A Countryman's Journal (1939)
The English Countryside (1939), editor, with Adrian Bell, Harry Batsford, H. E. Bates. Batsford, Harry; Fry, Charles; Clark, Geoffrey; Warren, C. Henry; Bozman, E. F.; Bell, Adrian; Fairfax- Blakeborough, J)
The Sweet of the Year; March–April, May–June (1939)
Chiltern Country (1940), from The Face of Britain series
Cotswold Country (1941), from The Face of Britain series
Remembrance, an autobiography (1941) with Paul Nash
The Fall of the Year (1941)
England and the Farmer a symposium (1941), editor, Viscount Lymington, Sir Albert Howard, C. Henry Warren, Adrian Bell, Rolf Gardiner, L. J. Picton and Sir George Stapledon.
Field Fellowship (1942)
The English Countryman: a Study of the English Tradition (1942)
Men of Earth (1943)
Tree of Life (1943)
This Plot of Earth: A Gardener's Chronicle (1944)
The Wisdom of the Fields (1945)
Where Man Belongs: Rural Influence On Literature (1946)
The Natural Order – Essays in the Return to Husbandry (1946) (editor, with Philip Mairet, Lord Northbourne, the Earl of Portsmouth (Illustrated by Thomas Hennell)
The Small Farmer A Survey By Various Hands (1947), editor
The Countryside and How to Enjoy it (1948)
An Englishman's Year (1948)
The Best Days (1949)
The Curious Traveller (1950)
The Faith of a Fieldsman (1951)
Shakespeare Country, The, Including the Peak and the Cotswolds (1951)
The Southern Marches (1952)
Published posthumously
Prophesy of Famine: a Warning and the Remedy (1953), with Edward Hyams
The Essential Gilbert White of Selborne (1983), editor, selected by Mark Daniel
Fifteen Poems (Hayloft Press, 1987)
A Mirror of England: an anthology of the Writings of H. J. Massingham (1882–1952), edited by Edward Abelson (1988)
References
^ "Search Results for Massingham, (Harold) John (1888–1952), rural writer". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
^ "H J Massingham Collection". The National Archives. 18 December 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
^ "Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary". TheFreeDictionary.com.
^ Mark Kinkead-Weekes (1996). D.H. Lawrence. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25420-5.
^ a b c Musty, John (1985). "Collecting Country Writers: H. J. Massingham and W. Beach Thomas". Antiquarian Book Monthly Review. 12 (3): 94–101.
^ David Pepper, Modern Environmentalism: An Introduction, Routledge, 1996 (p. 170).
^ "Massingham Collection". The Museum of English Rural Life. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
^ Massingham, H.J. Country Relics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1939
^ Detail from a copy of book which is published by Ivor Nicholson and Watson London in 1832, and reprinted in the same year
^ Detail from a book published by Cobden-Sanderson London in 1934
^ Detail taken from a copy of the book first published in 1945 by J. M. Dent London
^ Detail from a book published by Collins London in 1950
Further reading
Thorpe, Adam (March–April 2009). "Downland Eden". Resurgence (253): 54–55.
External links
Abstract on Kinship of Husbandry
Authority control databases International
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harold_John_Massingham.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elliott & Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_%26_Fry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"ruralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruralism"}],"text":"British writerH. J. Massingham, by Elliott & Fry, 1948Harold John Massingham (25 March 1888 – 22 August 1952)[1] was a prolific British writer on ruralism, matters to do with the countryside and agriculture. He was also a published poet.","title":"H. J. Massingham"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"H. W. 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W. Massingham. He was brought up in London, and educated at Westminster School and Queen's College, Oxford. He failed to graduate from Oxford, because of bad health. He then became a journalist in London.[2] He worked for the Morning Leader, Athenaeum, and the Nation,[3] and knew D. H. Lawrence.[4] In the 1920s he became a research assistant for two anthropologists from University College, London, and an interest in archeology and anthropology, which proved lifelong, led to the publication of Downland Man (1926) and a number of other works. He worked on a research project whose aim was to show that all megalithic culture in England had spread from Egypt.[5]By 1932 Massingham began to write more and more on country life, and the first of a long series of such books, possibly his best-known, was Wold Without End (1932), reflecting his experiences living in Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds. A serious accident happened in 1937, when he injured his leg, leading to a two-year period of regular hospital visits, at the end of which he hurt the same leg again, and it had to be amputated. He was forced to stop travelling as frequently as he had been doing and settled down to writing some thirty more books.[5]He was strongly influenced by the writings of Gilbert White and edited selections of White's writings.\n[6] \nHe was one of a group of ruralist British writers of the period; Massingham's friend Adrian Bell, a farmer in Suffolk, was another prominent writer, and John Musty suggests that Massingham may have had a hand in getting Bell published.[5] They have attracted subsequent attention both as precursors to later developments, such as organic farming, and because of their political entanglements in the 1930s (for example, Henry Williamson was a supporter of Oswald Mosley). Massingham himself wrote in a vein compatible with the Social Credit and distributist ideas current at the time, as in his 1943 The Tree of Life.He was one of the twelve members of the Kinship in Husbandry, set up in 1941 by Rolf Gardiner, a society dedicated to countryside revival in a post-war world. According to academics Richard Moore-Colyer and Philip Conford, Massingham was uncomfortable with what he felt was a pro-German tendency in this group. When the Kinship later merged with two other bodies to form the Soil Association, Massingham with Gardiner, the landowner Lord Portsmouth and the agricultural journalist Lawrence Easterbrook came onto the Soil Association's Council.After Massingham's death his collection of tools, implements and products of craftsmanship and husbandry were donated to the Museum of English Rural Life.[7] Many of the objects appear in his book \"Country Relics\".[8]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Spectator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Spectator"},{"link_name":"Clough Williams-Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clough_Williams-Ellis"},{"link_name":"Edward John Trelawny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_John_Trelawny"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"H. E. Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._E._Bates"},{"link_name":"Edmund Blunden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Blunden"},{"link_name":"W. H. Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._H._Davies"},{"link_name":"Vita Sackville-West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vita_Sackville-West"},{"link_name":"A. G. Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._G._Street"},{"link_name":"John Collier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Collier_(fiction_writer)"},{"link_name":"Edgar Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edgar_Ward&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"The Face of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Face_of_Britain_(book_series)"},{"link_name":"Eric Ravilious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Ravilious"},{"link_name":"A. G. Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._G._Street"},{"link_name":"J. M. Keynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._Keynes"},{"link_name":"John Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Moore_(British_author)"},{"link_name":"E. M. Forster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._M._Forster"},{"link_name":"Clough Williams-Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clough_Williams-Ellis"},{"link_name":"Adrian Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Bell"},{"link_name":"Harry Batsford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harry_Batsford&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"H. E. Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._E._Bates"},{"link_name":"Viscount Lymington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Vernon_Wallop,_9th_Earl_of_Portsmouth"},{"link_name":"Adrian Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Bell"},{"link_name":"Rolf Gardiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_Gardiner"},{"link_name":"George Stapledon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Stapledon"},{"link_name":"Philip Mairet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Mairet"},{"link_name":"Lord Northbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Northbourne"},{"link_name":"Earl of Portsmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Wallop,_9th_Earl_of_Portsmouth"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hennell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hennell"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Edward Hyams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Hyams"},{"link_name":"Hayloft Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hayloft_Press&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Edward Abelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_Abelson&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Letters to X from H.J. Massingham (1919) Constable & Co.\nDogs, Birds, and Others (1921), letters to The Spectator, editor\nSome Birds of the Countryside: The Art Of Nature (1921)\n\"John Clare\". The Athenaeum, 4732 (7 January 1921): 9–10.\nPoems About Birds from the Middle Ages to the Present Day (1922), editor\nAndrew Marvell 1621–1678 Tercentenary Tributes (1922) co-editor\nUntrodden Ways – Adventures of English Coasts, Heaths and Marshes and Also Among the Works of Hudson, Crabbe and Other Country Writers (1923)\nSanctuaries for Birds and How to Make Them (1924)\nIn Praise of England (1924), miscellany\nH. W. M.: A Selection From the Writings of H. W. Massingham (1925), editor\nDownland Man (1926)\nFee, Fi, Fo, Fum: The Giants in England (1926)\nThe Golden Age: The Story of Human Nature (1927)\nThe Heritage of Man (1929)\nGuide to the Cotswolds, with Clough Williams-Ellis, and others\nPre-Roman Britain (1930)\nThe Friend of Shelley: A Memoir of Edward John Trelawny (1930)\nA Treasury of seventeenth Century English Verse (1931) editor\nBirds of the Seashore (1931)\nWold Without End (1932)\nLondon Scene (1933)\nThe Great Victorians (1932), with Hugh Massingham[9]\nEnglish Country: Fifteen Essays by Various Authors (1934) editor, with H. E. Bates, Edmund Blunden, W. H. Davies, Vita Sackville-West, A. G. Street, John Collier\nCountry (1934), illustrated with photographs by Edgar Ward[10]\nWorld Without End (1935)\nThrough the Wilderness (1935)\nThe English Downland (1936), from The Face of Britain series\nThe Genius of England (1937)\nThe Writings of Gilbert White of Selborne (Nonesuch Press, 1938), editor, two volumes with engravings by Eric Ravilious\nBritain and the Beast (1937), essay volume with A. G. Street, J. M. Keynes, John Moore, E. M. Forster, Clough Williams-Ellis\nShepherd's Country: a Record of the Crafts and People of the Hills (1938)\nCountry Relics (1939)\nA Countryman's Journal (1939)\nThe English Countryside (1939), editor, with Adrian Bell, Harry Batsford, H. E. Bates. Batsford, Harry; Fry, Charles; Clark, Geoffrey; Warren, C. Henry; Bozman, E. F.; Bell, Adrian; Fairfax- Blakeborough, J)\nThe Sweet of the Year; March–April, May–June (1939)\nChiltern Country (1940), from The Face of Britain series\nCotswold Country (1941), from The Face of Britain series\nRemembrance, an autobiography (1941) with Paul Nash\nThe Fall of the Year (1941)\nEngland and the Farmer a symposium (1941), editor, Viscount Lymington, Sir Albert Howard, C. Henry Warren, Adrian Bell, Rolf Gardiner, L. J. Picton and Sir George Stapledon.\nField Fellowship (1942)\nThe English Countryman: a Study of the English Tradition (1942)\nMen of Earth (1943)\nTree of Life (1943)\nThis Plot of Earth: A Gardener's Chronicle (1944)\nThe Wisdom of the Fields (1945)\nWhere Man Belongs: Rural Influence On Literature (1946)\nThe Natural Order – Essays in the Return to Husbandry (1946) (editor, with Philip Mairet, Lord Northbourne, the Earl of Portsmouth (Illustrated by Thomas Hennell)[11]\nThe Small Farmer A Survey By Various Hands (1947), editor\nThe Countryside and How to Enjoy it (1948)\nAn Englishman's Year (1948)\nThe Best Days (1949)\nThe Curious Traveller (1950)[12]\nThe Faith of a Fieldsman (1951)\nShakespeare Country, The, Including the Peak and the Cotswolds (1951)\nThe Southern Marches (1952)Published posthumouslyProphesy of Famine: a Warning and the Remedy (1953), with Edward Hyams\nThe Essential Gilbert White of Selborne (1983), editor, selected by Mark Daniel\nFifteen Poems (Hayloft Press, 1987)\nA Mirror of England: an anthology of the Writings of H. J. Massingham (1882–1952), edited by Edward Abelson (1988)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thorpe, Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Thorpe"},{"link_name":"Resurgence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurgence_%26_Ecologist"}],"text":"Thorpe, Adam (March–April 2009). \"Downland Eden\". Resurgence (253): 54–55.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"H. J. Massingham, by Elliott & Fry, 1948","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3b/Harold_John_Massingham.jpg/220px-Harold_John_Massingham.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Search Results for Massingham, (Harold) John (1888–1952), rural writer\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 2 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/search?q=Massingham%2C+%28Harold%29+John+%281888%E2%80%931952%29%2C+rural+writer","url_text":"\"Search Results for Massingham, (Harold) John (1888–1952), rural writer\""}]},{"reference":"\"H J Massingham Collection\". The National Archives. 18 December 2008. Retrieved 2 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=007-massingham&cid=0#0","url_text":"\"H J Massingham Collection\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary\". TheFreeDictionary.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thefreedictionary.com/","url_text":"\"Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"Mark Kinkead-Weekes (1996). D.H. Lawrence. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25420-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_joEY3nPIpgC&q=Harold+Massingham&pg=PA815","url_text":"D.H. Lawrence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25420-5","url_text":"978-0-521-25420-5"}]},{"reference":"Musty, John (1985). \"Collecting Country Writers: H. J. Massingham and W. Beach Thomas\". Antiquarian Book Monthly Review. 12 (3): 94–101.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Massingham Collection\". The Museum of English Rural Life. Retrieved 25 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://merl.reading.ac.uk/collections/massingham-collection/","url_text":"\"Massingham Collection\""}]},{"reference":"Thorpe, Adam (March–April 2009). \"Downland Eden\". Resurgence (253): 54–55.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Thorpe","url_text":"Thorpe, Adam"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurgence_%26_Ecologist","url_text":"Resurgence"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/search?q=Massingham%2C+%28Harold%29+John+%281888%E2%80%931952%29%2C+rural+writer","external_links_name":"\"Search Results for Massingham, (Harold) John (1888–1952), rural writer\""},{"Link":"http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=007-massingham&cid=0#0","external_links_name":"\"H J Massingham Collection\""},{"Link":"https://www.thefreedictionary.com/","external_links_name":"\"Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_joEY3nPIpgC&q=Harold+Massingham&pg=PA815","external_links_name":"D.H. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messe_I.X%E2%80%93VI.X | Messe I.X–VI.X | ["1 Background","2 Live performances","3 Critical reception","4 Track listing","5 Personnel","5.1 Ulver","5.2 Tromsø Chamber Orchestra","5.3 Additional musicians","5.4 Additional credits","6 References"] | 2013 studio album by UlverMesse I.X–VI.XStudio album by UlverReleasedOctober 8, 2013 (2013-10-08)RecordedSeptember 21, 2012Genre
Experimental
dark ambient
classical
Length44:52LabelJesterProducerUlverUlver chronology
Live at Roadburn(2012)
Messe I.X–VI.X(2013)
Terrestrials(2014)
Messe I.X–VI.X is the ninth studio album by the Norwegian experimental electronica band Ulver, created in collaboration with the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra with additional aid from composer Martin Romberg. Written and produced by Ulver, released on October 8, 2013, via Jester Records and Kscope.
On September 17, 2013, a trailer was released, and on October 4, 2013, the track "Shri Schneider" was released for streaming via Pitchfork.
Background
The music was commissioned in 2012 by the Tromsø Kulturhus (House of Culture) in Norway, in a cooperation with the Arctic Opera and Philharmonic Orchestra cultural institution. It was composed and first performed live by Ulver, alongside the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra on September 21, 2012. The band then took the recordings back to Crystal Canyon, Oslo and spent winter and spring in post-production, honing the material for its studio-equivalent.
Six compositions altogether written and produced, recorded and mixed by Ulver, this time consisting of Ole Alexander Halstensgård, Kristoffer Rygg, Jørn H. Sværen and Tore Ylwizaker, with additional aid and advice from composer Martin Romberg who also arranged the music for the 21 members of Tromsø Chamber Orchestra. The album also features contemporary composers/musicians Ole-Henrik Moe and Kari Rønnekleiv.
The band named some of their influences for Messe I.X–VI.X:
Górecki's No. 3: Symphony of Sorrowful Songs. It haunted us for years and probably always will. The Gustavs Mahler and Holst. Sound collages from When or Nurse with Wound. 70's kraut and synth. Ash Ra and Autobahn. 80's pop scores. John Carpenter and Tin Drum. Terry Riley, again and again and again. Saint John of the Cross.
Opening song "As Syrians Pour In, Lebanon Grapples with Ghosts of a Bloody Past" was named after a news piece by Reuters concerning the flood of Syrian refugees into Lebanon following the ongoing Syrian civil war. However, vocalist Kristoffer Rygg has stated: "This appropriation is not any more, or less, political other than an indication of concern. We live in troubled times. The song itself has a distinct Middle Eastern feel to it and coupled with sounds of vultures and war that title seemed both appropriate as well as contemporary. But we have no ideology for sale. Only our sadness."
Live performances
Following its original performance at Tromsø Kulturhus in Tromsø, Norway, with Tromsø Chamber Orchestra, on September 21, 2012, Ulver have performed Messe I.X–VI.X in its entirety a further two times: on May 20, 2013 at Wave Gotik Treffen, Leipzig, Germany with the Stüba Philharmonie, Volkspalast and on November 16, 2013 at Teatro Regio, Parma, Italy with the MG_INC Orchestra.
Critical reception
Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAdresseavisen6/6Exclaim!8/10Hifi.nl9/10Noise10/10Rock Area10/10Verdens Gang6/6
Upon its release, Messe I.X–VI.X received positive reviews from music critics. Alex Franquelli, writing for The Quietus, described the album as "a challenging work and an album of rare beauty." Gregory Burkart, writing for Fearnet, described Messe I.X–VI.X as "one of the band's most surreal and haunting projects to date, combining their unorthodox soundscapes (which often incorporate elements of electronic music, metal, rock and folk instrumentation, blended through inventive production techniques) with a full symphony orchestra." Falk Wehmeier, writing for Metal.de, wrote "Ulver have found a perfect expression of their perception of a world void of home or footing… Within the scope of the chosen style, Ulver couldn't have clothed their message better in sound."
Robert Dłucik, writing for Polish online magazine Rock Area, gave Messe I.X–VI.X a 10/10 rating. Tor Martin Bøe, writing for Verdens Gang, gave the album a 6/6 rating. Martin Anfinsen, writing for Norwegian newspaper Adresseavisen, rated the album 6/6. Austen R. Walsh, writing for arts website The Arts Fuse, described Messe I.X–VI.X as "a brilliant blend of classical, dark ambient, and hard rock music." Dutch media website hifi.nl rated the album 9/10. Daniel Schnettler, writing for online Spanish webzine Noise, rated the album 10/10.
Track listing
No.TitleLength1."As Syrians Pour In, Lebanon Grapples with Ghosts of a Bloody Past"11:502."Shri Schneider"5:343."Glamour Box (Ostinati)"6:104."Son of Man"8:235."Noche oscura del alma" ("Dark Night of the Soul")5:256."Mother of Mercy"7:22Total length:44:52
Personnel
Ulver
Jørn H. Sværen
Kristoffer Rygg
Ole Alexander Halstensgård
Tore Ylwizaker
Tromsø Chamber Orchestra
Cello – Inga Raab, Mario Machlik, Ørnulf Lillebjerka
Double bass – Stein Paulsen
Grand piano – Martin Romberg
Trombone – Jens Christian Kloster, Torbjørn Ingvaldsen
Trumpet – Arne Bjørhei, Ingrid Eliassen
Viola – Katrina Brown, Mari Giske, Sigrid Lien Schulerud
Violin (1st) – Aelita Osadchuk, Brynjar Lien Schulerud, Kristina Nygaard Walsnes, Snorre Holmgren, Yuko Kawami
Violin (2nd) – Anders Melhus, Berit Fonnes, Eira Foss, Sari Martinussen
Violin, viola – Kari Rønnekleiv, Ole-Henrik Moe
Additional musicians
Drums – Tomas Pettersen
Guitar – Alexander Kloster-Jensen
Hurdy-gurdy – John Stenersen
Additional credits
Cover photography – Ingrid Aas
Design – Trine + Kim Design Studio
Liner notes (Purgatory, Summer 2013) – Ulver
Mastering – Jaime Gomez Arellano
Mixing – Ulver
Photography (video stills) – Kristin Bøyesen
Score (scored for orchestra) – Martin Romberg
References
^ "ULVER To Release 'Messe I.X-VI.X' This Fall". Blabbermouth.net. August 21, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
^ "ULVER: 'Messe I.X - IV.X' Trailer Available". Blabbermouth.net. January 3, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Kelly, Kim (October 2013). "Ulver: "Shri Schneider"". Pitchfork. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ "ULVER! KulturHuset i Tromsø". KulturHuset. August 2012. Archived from the original on May 17, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ "Kscope - Ulver". Kscope. August 19, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Dziadosz, Alexander (February 6, 2013). "As Syrians pour in, Lebanon grapples with ghosts of a bloody past". Reuters. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ D, Chris (July 17, 2013). "Kristoffer Rygg (Ulver) interviewed". Decibel. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ a b Anfinsen, Martin (August 23, 2013). "Ulvetimen -adressa.no". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Walschots, Natalie Zina (7 October 2013). "Ulver Messe I.X-VI.X". Exclaim!. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
^ a b "Ulver - Messe I.X - VI.X (cd)". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ a b Schnettler, Daniel (July 17, 2013). "Ulver messe i x vi x Reviews-cd - reviews-cd NOISE WebZine". Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ a b Dłucik, Robert (September 2, 2013). "Rock Area - Artykuły: Ulver - 2013 - Messe I.X - VI.X". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ a b Bøe, Tor Martin (September 3, 2013). "Plateanmeldelse: Ulver - "MESSE I.X-VI.X" - Musikkanmeldelser - VG". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Franquelli, Alex (December 13, 2013). "Ulver Messe I.X–VI.X". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Burkart, Gregory (October 11, 2013). "Ulver: 'Messe I.X-VI.X'". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Wehmeier, Falk (August 25, 2013). "Ulver "Messe I.X - VI.X"". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
^ Walsh, Austen R. (July 17, 2013). "Fuse Alternative Rock Round-Up: From Black Metal to Electronic Rock - The Arts Fuse". Retrieved May 25, 2014.
vteUlver
Kristoffer Rygg
Tore Ylwizaker
Jørn H. Sværen
Ole Alexander Halstensgård
Grellmund
A. Reza
Robin
Carl-Michael Eide
Håvard Jørgensen
Hugh Mingay
Erik Olivier Lancelot
Torbjørn Pedersen
Knut Magne Valle
Daniel O'Sullivan
Albums
Bergtatt – Et eeventyr i 5 capitler
Kveldssanger
Nattens madrigal
Themes from William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
Perdition City
Blood Inside
Shadows of the Sun
Wars of the Roses
Messe I.X–VI.X (with the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra)
ATGCLVLSSCAP
The Assassination of Julius Caesar
Flowers of Evil
Scary Muzak
Demos, EPs and Singles
Vargnatt
Metamorphosis
Silence Teaches You How to Sing
Silencing the Singing
A Quick Fix of Melancholy
Sic Transit Gloria Mundi
Live
The Norwegian National Opera
Live at Roadburn
Hexahedron (Live at Henie Onstad Kunstsenter)
Compilations
The Trilogie
Teachings in Silence
Trolsk Sortmetall 1993–1997
Soundtracks
Lyckantropen Themes
Svidd neger
Riverhead
Other releases
1993–2003: 1st Decade in the Machines
My Own Wolf: A New Approach to Ulver
Terrestrials (with Sunn O))))
Childhood's End
Related
Discography
Authority control databases
MusicBrainz release group | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"experimental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_music"},{"link_name":"electronica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica"},{"link_name":"Ulver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulver"},{"link_name":"Tromsø Chamber Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Arctic_Philharmonic_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Martin Romberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Romberg"},{"link_name":"Jester Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jester_Records"},{"link_name":"Kscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kscope"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pitchfork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitchfork_(website)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitchfork-3"}],"text":"Messe I.X–VI.X is the ninth studio album by the Norwegian experimental electronica band Ulver, created in collaboration with the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra with additional aid from composer Martin Romberg. Written and produced by Ulver, released on October 8, 2013, via Jester Records and Kscope.[1]On September 17, 2013, a trailer was released,[2] and on October 4, 2013, the track \"Shri Schneider\" was released for streaming via Pitchfork.[3]","title":"Messe I.X–VI.X"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KulturHuset-4"},{"link_name":"Ulver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulver"},{"link_name":"Oslo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo"},{"link_name":"Górecki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki"},{"link_name":"No. 3: Symphony of Sorrowful Songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._3_(G%C3%B3recki)"},{"link_name":"Mahler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Mahler"},{"link_name":"Holst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Holst"},{"link_name":"When","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_(band)"},{"link_name":"Nurse with Wound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_with_Wound"},{"link_name":"kraut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krautrock"},{"link_name":"synth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthpop"},{"link_name":"Ash Ra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashra_(band)"},{"link_name":"Autobahn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobahn_(album)"},{"link_name":"John Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"Tin Drum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_Drum_(album)"},{"link_name":"Terry Riley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Riley"},{"link_name":"Saint John of the Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_the_Cross"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KscopeUlver-5"},{"link_name":"Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters-6"},{"link_name":"Syrian refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DecibelMagazine-7"}],"text":"The music was commissioned in 2012 by the Tromsø Kulturhus (House of Culture) in Norway,[4] in a cooperation with the Arctic Opera and Philharmonic Orchestra cultural institution. It was composed and first performed live by Ulver, alongside the Tromsø Chamber Orchestra on September 21, 2012. The band then took the recordings back to Crystal Canyon, Oslo and spent winter and spring in post-production, honing the material for its studio-equivalent.Six compositions altogether written and produced, recorded and mixed by Ulver, this time consisting of Ole Alexander Halstensgård, Kristoffer Rygg, Jørn H. Sværen and Tore Ylwizaker, with additional aid and advice from composer Martin Romberg who also arranged the music for the 21 members of Tromsø Chamber Orchestra. The album also features contemporary composers/musicians Ole-Henrik Moe and Kari Rønnekleiv.The band named some of their influences for Messe I.X–VI.X:Górecki's No. 3: Symphony of Sorrowful Songs. It haunted us for years and probably always will. The Gustavs Mahler and Holst. Sound collages from When or Nurse with Wound. 70's kraut and synth. Ash Ra and Autobahn. 80's pop scores. John Carpenter and Tin Drum. Terry Riley, again and again and again. Saint John of the Cross.[5]Opening song \"As Syrians Pour In, Lebanon Grapples with Ghosts of a Bloody Past\" was named after a news piece by Reuters[6] concerning the flood of Syrian refugees into Lebanon following the ongoing Syrian civil war. However, vocalist Kristoffer Rygg has stated: \"This appropriation is not any more, or less, political other than an indication of concern. We live in troubled times. The song itself has a distinct Middle Eastern feel to it and coupled with sounds of vultures and war that title seemed both appropriate as well as contemporary. But we have no ideology for sale. Only our sadness.\"[7]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Following its original performance at Tromsø Kulturhus in Tromsø, Norway, with Tromsø Chamber Orchestra, on September 21, 2012, Ulver have performed Messe I.X–VI.X in its entirety a further two times: on May 20, 2013 at Wave Gotik Treffen, Leipzig, Germany with the Stüba Philharmonie, Volkspalast and on November 16, 2013 at Teatro Regio, Parma, Italy with the MG_INC Orchestra.","title":"Live performances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Quietus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Quietus"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheQuietus-14"},{"link_name":"Fearnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fearnet"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fear.net-15"},{"link_name":"Metal.de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal.de"},{"link_name":"Ulver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulver"},{"link_name":"Ulver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulver"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Metal.de-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RockArea-12"},{"link_name":"Verdens Gang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdens_Gang"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VerdensGang-13"},{"link_name":"Adresseavisen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adresseavisen"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adresseavisen-8"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Arts_Fuse-17"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hifi.nl-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NoiseWebzine-11"}],"text":"Upon its release, Messe I.X–VI.X received positive reviews from music critics. Alex Franquelli, writing for The Quietus, described the album as \"a challenging work and an album of rare beauty.\"[14] Gregory Burkart, writing for Fearnet, described Messe I.X–VI.X as \"one of the band's most surreal and haunting projects to date, combining their unorthodox soundscapes (which often incorporate elements of electronic music, metal, rock and folk instrumentation, blended through inventive production techniques) with a full symphony orchestra.\"[15] Falk Wehmeier, writing for Metal.de, wrote \"Ulver have found a perfect expression of their perception of a world void of home or footing… Within the scope of the chosen style, Ulver couldn't have clothed their message better in sound.\"[16]Robert Dłucik, writing for Polish online magazine Rock Area, gave Messe I.X–VI.X a 10/10 rating.[12] Tor Martin Bøe, writing for Verdens Gang, gave the album a 6/6 rating.[13] Martin Anfinsen, writing for Norwegian newspaper Adresseavisen, rated the album 6/6.[8] Austen R. Walsh, writing for arts website The Arts Fuse, described Messe I.X–VI.X as \"a brilliant blend of classical, dark ambient, and hard rock music.\"[17] Dutch media website hifi.nl rated the album 9/10.[10] Daniel Schnettler, writing for online Spanish webzine Noise, rated the album 10/10.[11]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dark Night of the Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Night_of_the_Soul"}],"text":"No.TitleLength1.\"As Syrians Pour In, Lebanon Grapples with Ghosts of a Bloody Past\"11:502.\"Shri Schneider\"5:343.\"Glamour Box (Ostinati)\"6:104.\"Son of Man\"8:235.\"Noche oscura del alma\" (\"Dark Night of the Soul\")5:256.\"Mother of Mercy\"7:22Total length:44:52","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messe_I.X%E2%80%93VI.X&action=edit§ion=6"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messe_I.X%E2%80%93VI.X&action=edit§ion=7"},{"link_name":"Martin Romberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Romberg"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messe_I.X%E2%80%93VI.X&action=edit§ion=8"},{"link_name":"Hurdy-gurdy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurdy-gurdy"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messe_I.X%E2%80%93VI.X&action=edit§ion=9"}],"text":"Ulver[edit]\nJørn H. Sværen\nKristoffer Rygg\nOle Alexander Halstensgård\nTore Ylwizaker\nTromsø Chamber Orchestra[edit]\nCello – Inga Raab, Mario Machlik, Ørnulf Lillebjerka\nDouble bass – Stein Paulsen\nGrand piano – Martin Romberg\nTrombone – Jens Christian Kloster, Torbjørn Ingvaldsen\nTrumpet – Arne Bjørhei, Ingrid Eliassen\nViola – Katrina Brown, Mari Giske, Sigrid Lien Schulerud\nViolin (1st) – Aelita Osadchuk, Brynjar Lien Schulerud, Kristina Nygaard Walsnes, Snorre Holmgren, Yuko Kawami\nViolin (2nd) – Anders Melhus, Berit Fonnes, Eira Foss, Sari Martinussen\nViolin, viola – Kari Rønnekleiv, Ole-Henrik Moe\nAdditional musicians[edit]\nDrums – Tomas Pettersen\nGuitar – Alexander Kloster-Jensen\nHurdy-gurdy – John Stenersen\n\n\nAdditional credits[edit]\nCover photography – Ingrid Aas\nDesign – Trine + Kim Design Studio\nLiner notes (Purgatory, Summer 2013) – Ulver\nMastering – Jaime Gomez Arellano\nMixing – Ulver\nPhotography (video stills) – Kristin Bøyesen\nScore (scored for orchestra) – Martin Romberg","title":"Personnel"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"ULVER To Release 'Messe I.X-VI.X' This Fall\". 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Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-lebanon-refugees-idUSBRE9150UK20130206","url_text":"\"As Syrians pour in, Lebanon grapples with ghosts of a bloody past\""}]},{"reference":"D, Chris (July 17, 2013). \"Kristoffer Rygg (Ulver) interviewed\". Decibel. Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.decibelmagazine.com/featured/kristoffer-rygg-ulver-interviewed/","url_text":"\"Kristoffer Rygg (Ulver) interviewed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel_(magazine)","url_text":"Decibel"}]},{"reference":"Anfinsen, Martin (August 23, 2013). \"Ulvetimen -adressa.no\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.adressa.no/kultur/musikk/musikkanmeldelser/article8171379.ece","url_text":"\"Ulvetimen -adressa.no\""}]},{"reference":"Walschots, Natalie Zina (7 October 2013). \"Ulver Messe I.X-VI.X\". Exclaim!. Retrieved 19 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://exclaim.ca/Reviews/Metal/ulver-messe_ix-vix","url_text":"\"Ulver Messe I.X-VI.X\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclaim!","url_text":"Exclaim!"}]},{"reference":"\"Ulver - Messe I.X - VI.X (cd)\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hifi.nl/artikel/21052/Ulver-Messe-I.X-VI.X-cd.html","url_text":"\"Ulver - Messe I.X - VI.X (cd)\""}]},{"reference":"Schnettler, Daniel (July 17, 2013). \"Ulver messe i x vi x Reviews-cd - reviews-cd NOISE WebZine\". Archived from the original on May 18, 2014. Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140518005745/http://www.noisezine.cl/site/reviews-cd/607/ulver---messe-i-x---vi-x.html","url_text":"\"Ulver messe i x vi x Reviews-cd - reviews-cd NOISE WebZine\""},{"url":"http://www.noisezine.cl/site/reviews-cd/607/ulver---messe-i-x---vi-x.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dłucik, Robert (September 2, 2013). \"Rock Area - Artykuły: Ulver - 2013 - Messe I.X - VI.X\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rockarea.eu/articles.php?article_id=3338","url_text":"\"Rock Area - Artykuły: Ulver - 2013 - Messe I.X - VI.X\""}]},{"reference":"Bøe, Tor Martin (September 3, 2013). \"Plateanmeldelse: Ulver - \"MESSE I.X-VI.X\" - Musikkanmeldelser - VG\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vg.no/rampelys/musikk/musikkanmeldelser/plateanmeldelse-ulver-messe-i-x-vi-x/a/10143076/","url_text":"\"Plateanmeldelse: Ulver - \"MESSE I.X-VI.X\" - Musikkanmeldelser - VG\""}]},{"reference":"Franquelli, Alex (December 13, 2013). \"Ulver Messe I.X–VI.X\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://thequietus.com/articles/14107-ulver-messe-ix-vix-review","url_text":"\"Ulver Messe I.X–VI.X\""}]},{"reference":"Burkart, Gregory (October 11, 2013). \"Ulver: 'Messe I.X-VI.X'\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fearnet.com/news/review/ulver-messe-ix-vix-%E2%80%93-album-review","url_text":"\"Ulver: 'Messe I.X-VI.X'\""}]},{"reference":"Wehmeier, Falk (August 25, 2013). \"Ulver \"Messe I.X - VI.X\"\". Retrieved May 25, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.metal.de/industrial--electronic/review/ulver/55042-messe-ix-vix/?page=2","url_text":"\"Ulver \"Messe I.X - VI.X\"\""}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Austen R. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Williams_(spree_killer) | Barry Williams (spree killer) | ["1 Background","2 1978 incident","3 Release","4 2013 incident","5 References"] | British spree killer (1944–2014)
Barry WilliamsBornBarry Kenneth Williams1944Died(2014-12-24)24 December 2014 (aged 69 or 70)Merseyside, EnglandNationalityBritishOther namesHarry StreetKnown forSpree killings of 5 peopleCriminal charges
Murder (1978)
Possessing a prohibited firearm (2013)
Putting a neighbour in fear of violence (2013)
Making an improvised explosive device (2013)
Criminal penaltyIndefinite detention under mental health legislation (twice)Criminal statusDetained in a high-security hospital, died while institutionalised
Barry Kenneth Williams (1944 – 24 December 2014), known since 1994 as Harry Street, was a British spree killer. A foundry worker who lived with his parents, he shot eight people in the English Midlands towns of West Bromwich and Nuneaton in little over an hour on 26 October 1978, killing five. Following a high-speed car chase, he was arrested and in 1979 was convicted of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility. He was detained in high-security hospitals under mental health legislation.
After being given a conditional release in 1994, he changed his name, moved to Wales, and married. In 2014, following allegations of harassment against his neighbours, he was convicted of further firearms offences. He was again ordered to be detained in a secure hospital, with little likelihood of release, and died in December 2014.
Background
At the time of his first offence, Williams was an unmarried foundry worker. He lived at 14 Andrew Road on the Bustleholme Mill estate in West Bromwich, West Midlands, England with his elderly parents, Hilda and Horrace, who owned and ran a metal polishing business in Birmingham.
He held a valid firearms certificate, allowing him to possess a single semi-automatic weapon. He used this weapon at approved gun clubs for sports shooting at targets. His erratic behaviour, including shooting at dummies dressed in wigs, and modifying his bullets to make them more powerful, led to his being expelled from one club, in Telford, Shropshire. His nickname there had been "The Cowboy". Members of another gun club where Williams was a member had expressed concerns that he was stealing bullets.
During the mid 1970s, he had been involved in a number of disputes with his neighbours, the Burkitt family, of 16 Andrew Road, alleging that the noise of their television and record player disturbed him and his parents. This became an obsession, and he suffered the delusion that his neighbours were mocking him. On one occasion, during a row about noise, he told Philip Burkitt, "I'm going to exterminate you".
1978 incident
On the evening of 26 October 1978, about a week after the extermination threat, George Burkitt and his 20-year-old son Philip were working on Philip's Triumph Spitfire car (bearing the registration WHA 370H) in front of their house. At around 7pm, annoyed by the noise they were making, Williams shot them both with a 9mm Smith & Wesson semi-automatic pistol. George died where he fell and Philip, wounded, ran into the house. Williams followed him, shooting him again and killing him. He then shot and killed George's wife, Iris. The Burkitts' 17-year-old daughter was hit four times in the back and once in the thigh, but survived. Two other neighbours, a married couple who had witnessed the attack on the Burkitts, also survived being shot. The injured were treated at Birmingham General Hospital.
After discharging a total of 23 rounds, Williams fled the scene by car, firing a further six shots from a second, .22-calibre pistol as he did so. In Stanhurst Way he shot at two boys, aged 10 and 11, who were playing football, and at a woman, but missed them all. Passing through Wednesbury, he shot through the windows of a barber's shop and two houses. In one of these, a nine-year-old girl was hurt by flying glass. He stopped for petrol in Walsall and drove off without paying.
The former Stafford Crown Court building
At around 8:10pm, Williams shot and killed another married couple, Michel and Lisa Di Maria, after stopping to use the petrol filling station which they ran, Arbury Road Service Station, in Stockingford, Nuneaton, Warwickshire, some 20 miles (32 km) from his home. Lisa was killed immediately, and Michel died later in hospital.
Williams slept rough in some woodland, and was arrested the next morning, in Spring Gardens, Buxton, after a 30 miles (48 km) car chase at high speed, starting on the Derbyshire moors. After his car was involved in a collision, he pulled a gun and attempted to hijack one of the police cars which had been following him. He was overpowered without firing his gun by the unarmed officers who had been pursuing him. He later said he had wanted the police to shoot him. Police found 147 9mm and 770 .22 rounds in his car, along with the .22 calibre pistol which had a full magazine, and several home-made bombs.
He was subsequently charged with five counts of murder. Two counts of attempted murder were ordered to lie on file.
In March 1979 at Stafford Crown Court he pleaded not guilty to murder but instead pleaded guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility. The plea was accepted by the prosecution, after psychiatrists gave evidence that he had an active paranoid psychosis. His indefinite detention was ordered by the trial judge, Mr Justice Stephen Brown, and he was held in Broadmoor Hospital and at Ashworth Hospital, both high security units.
His parents described him as "a quiet boy" and said they had "no idea" of what he had been preparing to do.
Release
Williams, who had schizophrenia, was released from hospital in 1994 once doctors and a mental health tribunal decided that he was no longer a risk to the public. This was on condition that he could be detained again if his behaviour warranted it. A Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust spokesman said in 2014, "Harry Street was released on a conditional discharge, subject to specific conditions, in 1993 by a Mental Health Tribunal, an independent judicial body, after careful consideration of the medical evidence presented to them."
On release, he changed his name to Harry Street and initially was allowed to live in a bail hostel around 6 miles (9.7 km) from Andrew Road, resulting in complaints from the MP for the latter area, Peter Snape, on behalf of several concerned constituents, to the Home Secretary, Michael Howard. Williams subsequently moved to Wales. He married in 1996 and a child was born later that year. The family moved to Hazelville Road, Hall Green, Birmingham, in 2005.
2013 incident
Ashworth Hospital, seen in 2005
In October 2013, allegations arose that he had waged a campaign of harassment against his next-door neighbour. Williams's home was searched by West Midlands Police as part of their investigation, and he was found to be in possession of an improvised bomb, 50 homemade bullets, a revolver and two pistols. The bomb squad was called in to make the explosive device safe. This was featured in the Channel 5 documentary series The Nightmare Neighbour Next Door.
At Birmingham Crown Court in October 2014, he pleaded guilty to three charges of possessing a prohibited firearm, to putting a neighbour in fear of violence, and to making an improvised explosive device. He was again ordered to be detained indefinitely, this time under sections 37 and 41 of the Mental Health Act 1983, by Mr Justice Blair, who said that "The effect of these orders is that the defendant may never be released". He also likened Williams's more recent behaviour to that leading up to the 1978 incident and said that "a similar tragedy had been narrowly averted". Williams was returned to Ashworth Hospital, where he was already being treated on recall from his previous detention.
West Midlands Police announced after the trial concluded that a Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements serious case review would be held. A spokesman for the police said, "There was no trace of Harry Street on any police systems; but it is thanks to the tenacity of a local police officer who, when the harassment escalated, made extensive checks which led her to Street's GP and his true identity."
He died on 24 December 2014 from a suspected heart attack.
References
^ a b c d e Osman, Arthur (28 October 1978). "Murder charge after car chase". The Times. Retrieved 6 October 2014. (subscription required)
^ 52°33′04″N 1°58′22″W / 52.55120°N 1.97268°W / 52.55120; -1.97268
^ a b c d e f g h i j k "A killing spree that shocked Britain - How Harry Street's rampage unfolded". Express & Star. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ a b c d e f g h McCarthy, Nick. "The night Barry Williams killed five people after neighbour dispute over noise". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Jeys, Anna (12 October 2014). "Serial killer Barry Williams dressed like gun-toting television detectives Starsky & Hutch - Birmingham Mail". Retrieved 18 October 2014.
^ a b c Wheeler, Caroline (26 October 2003). "This man killed five people in a gun rampage ...now he's back in the Midlands; Twenty-five years ago today a crazed gunman went on a killing spree in the Midlands". Sunday Mercury. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ a b c d e f g h i j "Gunman who shot 5 sent to Broadmoor". The Glasgow Herald. 27 March 1979. p. 3. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ a b c d e f "1978 West Bromwich killings remembered". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ "1978: Gunman runs amok in West Midlands". BBC Online. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ a b c d e f g h McCarthy, Nick (6 October 2014). "Harry Street: Timeline of a serial killer". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ a b c "Spree killer Harry Street pleads guilty to making bomb". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ "How Far is it Between Andrew Road, West Bromwich and Stockingford, Nuneaton". Retrieved 8 October 2014.
^ a b c d e f g h i Greatrex, Jonny (6 October 2014). "Replay: Serial killer Barry Williams stockpiled weapons under new identity - live updates from Birmingham Crown Court". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ a b "Mass killer Harry Street - who shot dead five people - dies in hospital". Express and Star. 28 December 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
^ a b c Evans, Martin (6 October 2014). "Calls for law to be changed after Broadmoor killer Barry Williams is released without supervision". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
^ Cartledge, James (7 October 2014). "Ex-West Bromwich MP Peter Snape: 'It beggars belief that Harry Street was not being monitored'". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ McCarthy, Nick (7 October 2014). "Serial killer Barry Williams who shot dead Nuneaton couple may never be released after collecting arsenal of weapons". The Coventry Telegraph. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
^ The Nightmare Neighbour Next Door, Series 4, episode 5. First aired 26 August 2015.
^ a b Evans, Martin (6 October 2014). "Mass killer Harry Street is detained indefinitely after admitting bomb plot". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
^ Cartledge, James. "Harry Street: Serious case review launched into how authorities 'lost' serial killer who changed name from Barry Williams". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
vteMass shootings in the United Kingdom19thcentury
Stanfield Hall, Norwich (28 Nov 1848)
20thcentury
Tottenham, London (23 Jan 1909)
Houndsditch, London (26 Dec 1910)
Eastbourne, East Sussex (19 Aug 1912)
Knowsley Hall, Merseyside (9 Oct 1952)
Westminster, London (20 Mar 1974)
Penmaenmawr, Clwyd (24 Sep 1976)
Westminster, London (20 Aug 1978)
West Bromwich/Nuneaton, Staffordshire/Warwickshire (26 Oct 1978)
Westminster, London (17 Apr 1984)
Tolleshunt D'Arcy, Essex (7 Aug 1985)
Hungerford, Berkshire (19 Aug 1987)
Southall, London (11 Nov 1987)
Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire (8 Jan 1988)
Monkseaton, Tyne and Wear (30 Apr 1989)
Dunblane, Perthshire (13 Mar 1996)
21stcentury
Aston, Birmingham (2 Jan 2003)
Cumbria (2 Jun 2010)
Tyne & Wear/Northumberland (3-10 Jul 2010)
Horden, County Durham (1 Jan 2012)
Moss Side, Manchester (12 Aug 2018)
Plymouth, Devon (12 Aug 2021)
Wallasey, Merseyside (24 Dec 2022)
Euston, London (14 Jan 2023) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_people"},{"link_name":"spree killer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spree_killer"},{"link_name":"foundry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry"},{"link_name":"Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Midlands"},{"link_name":"West Bromwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bromwich"},{"link_name":"Nuneaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuneaton"},{"link_name":"manslaughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manslaughter_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"diminished responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished_responsibility_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"high-security hospitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital#Secure_units"},{"link_name":"mental health legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Health_Act"},{"link_name":"firearms offences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation#United_Kingdom_(Except_Northern_Ireland)"}],"text":"British spree killer (1944–2014)Barry Kenneth Williams (1944 – 24 December 2014), known since 1994 as Harry Street, was a British spree killer. A foundry worker who lived with his parents, he shot eight people in the English Midlands towns of West Bromwich and Nuneaton in little over an hour on 26 October 1978, killing five. Following a high-speed car chase, he was arrested and in 1979 was convicted of manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility. He was detained in high-security hospitals under mental health legislation.After being given a conditional release in 1994, he changed his name, moved to Wales, and married. In 2014, following allegations of harassment against his neighbours, he was convicted of further firearms offences. He was again ordered to be detained in a secure hospital, with little likelihood of release, and died in December 2014.","title":"Barry Williams (spree killer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Osman-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_(county)"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Osman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"firearms certificate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearms_certificate"},{"link_name":"semi-automatic weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-automatic_weapon"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"Telford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telford"},{"link_name":"Shropshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shropshire"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jeys-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"}],"text":"At the time of his first offence, Williams was an unmarried foundry worker. He lived at 14 Andrew Road[1][2] on the Bustleholme Mill estate in West Bromwich, West Midlands, England with his elderly parents, Hilda and Horrace, who owned and ran a metal polishing business in Birmingham.[1][3][4]He held a valid firearms certificate, allowing him to possess a single semi-automatic weapon.[3] He used this weapon at approved gun clubs for sports shooting at targets.[3] His erratic behaviour, including shooting at dummies dressed in wigs, and modifying his bullets to make them more powerful, led to his being expelled from one club, in Telford, Shropshire.[4] His nickname there had been \"The Cowboy\".[4] Members of another gun club where Williams was a member had expressed concerns that he was stealing bullets.[5]During the mid 1970s, he had been involved in a number of disputes with his neighbours, the Burkitt family, of 16 Andrew Road, alleging that the noise of their television and record player disturbed him and his parents.[3][4] This became an obsession, and he suffered the delusion that his neighbours were mocking him.[4] On one occasion, during a row about noise, he told Philip Burkitt, \"I'm going to exterminate you\".[4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Triumph Spitfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumph_Spitfire"},{"link_name":"registration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"},{"link_name":"9mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9mm"},{"link_name":"Smith & Wesson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Osman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Osman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"Birmingham General Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_General_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OTD-9"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":".22-calibre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.22_LR"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"Wednesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wednesbury"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"Walsall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsall"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Staffordshire_Shire_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stafford Crown Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford_Crown_Court"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"Stockingford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockingford"},{"link_name":"Warwickshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwickshire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Osman-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_pleads-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FMT-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"Buxton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buxton"},{"link_name":"Derbyshire moors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire_moors"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"wanted the police to shoot him","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_by_cop"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"lie on file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_on_file"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"Stafford Crown Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_Hall,_Stafford"},{"link_name":"manslaughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manslaughter_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"diminished responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished_responsibility_in_English_law"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"paranoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoia"},{"link_name":"psychosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"Stephen Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Brown_(judge)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glasgow-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"Broadmoor Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadmoor_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Ashworth Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashworth_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-2-4"}],"text":"On the evening of 26 October 1978, about a week after the extermination threat, George Burkitt and his 20-year-old son Philip were working on Philip's Triumph Spitfire car (bearing the registration WHA 370H) in front of their house.[4] At around 7pm, annoyed by the noise they were making, Williams shot them both with a 9mm Smith & Wesson semi-automatic pistol.[1][3][6] George died where he fell and Philip, wounded, ran into the house. Williams followed him, shooting him again and killing him. He then shot and killed George's wife, Iris.[3][6] The Burkitts' 17-year-old daughter was hit four times in the back and once in the thigh,[7] but survived.[1][3] Two other neighbours, a married couple who had witnessed the attack on the Burkitts, also survived being shot.[8] The injured were treated at Birmingham General Hospital.[9]After discharging a total of 23 rounds,[3] Williams fled the scene by car, firing a further six shots from a second, .22-calibre pistol as he did so.[7] In Stanhurst Way he shot at two boys, aged 10 and 11, who were playing football, and at a woman, but missed them all.[10] Passing through Wednesbury, he shot through the windows of a barber's shop and two houses.[10] In one of these, a nine-year-old girl was hurt by flying glass.[10] He stopped for petrol in Walsall and drove off without paying.[7]The former Stafford Crown Court buildingAt around 8:10pm,[10] Williams shot and killed another married couple, Michel and Lisa Di Maria, after stopping to use the petrol filling station which they ran, Arbury Road Service Station, in Stockingford, Nuneaton, Warwickshire,[1][8][11] some 20 miles (32 km) from his home.[12] Lisa was killed immediately, and Michel died later in hospital.[7]Williams slept rough in some woodland,[13] and was arrested the next morning, in Spring Gardens, Buxton, after a 30 miles (48 km) car chase at high speed, starting on the Derbyshire moors.[7] After his car was involved in a collision,[10] he pulled a gun and attempted to hijack one of the police cars which had been following him.[13] He was overpowered without firing his gun by the unarmed officers who had been pursuing him.[10] He later said he had wanted the police to shoot him.[7] Police found 147 9mm and 770 .22 rounds in his car, along with the .22 calibre pistol which had a full magazine,[7] and several home-made bombs.[13]He was subsequently charged with five counts of murder.[8] Two counts of attempted murder were ordered to lie on file.[3]In March 1979 at Stafford Crown Court he pleaded not guilty to murder but instead pleaded guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility.[7][8] The plea was accepted by the prosecution,[7] after psychiatrists gave evidence that he had an active paranoid psychosis.[3] His indefinite detention was ordered by the trial judge, Mr Justice Stephen Brown,[7][8] and he was held in Broadmoor Hospital and at Ashworth Hospital, both high security units.[13]His parents described him as \"a quiet boy\" and said they had \"no idea\" of what he had been preparing to do.[4]","title":"1978 incident"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-E&S_dies-14"},{"link_name":"mental health tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health_tribunal"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans2-15"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_and_Solihull_Mental_Health_NHS_Foundation_Trust"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans2-15"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-remembered-8"},{"link_name":"bail hostel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bail_hostel"},{"link_name":"Peter Snape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Snape"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ES-3"},{"link_name":"Home Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Secretary"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cartledge-16"},{"link_name":"Michael Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Howard"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"Hall Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_Green"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Williams, who had schizophrenia,[14] was released from hospital in 1994 once doctors and a mental health tribunal decided that he was no longer a risk to the public.[15] This was on condition that he could be detained again if his behaviour warranted it.[6][13] A Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health NHS Foundation Trust spokesman said in 2014, \"Harry Street was released on a conditional discharge, subject to specific conditions, in 1993 [sic] by a Mental Health Tribunal, an independent judicial body, after careful consideration of the medical evidence presented to them.\"[15]On release, he changed his name to Harry Street[8] and initially was allowed to live in a bail hostel around 6 miles (9.7 km) from Andrew Road, resulting in complaints from the MP for the latter area, Peter Snape, on behalf of several concerned constituents,[3] to the Home Secretary,[16] Michael Howard. Williams subsequently moved to Wales.[10] He married in 1996 and a child was born later that year. The family moved to Hazelville Road, Hall Green, Birmingham, in 2005.[17]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ashworth_Hospital_-_geograph.org.uk_-_90341.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"West Midlands Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_Police"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"bomb squad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_squad"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarthy-10"},{"link_name":"Channel 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_5_(UK)"},{"link_name":"The Nightmare Neighbour Next Door","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nightmare_Neighbour_Next_Door"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Birmingham Crown Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Crown_Court"},{"link_name":"improvised explosive device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvised_explosive_device"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_pleads-11"},{"link_name":"Mental Health Act 1983","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Health_Act_1983"},{"link_name":"Mr Justice Blair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blair_(judge)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans-19"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_pleads-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Greatrex-13"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans-19"},{"link_name":"Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Agency_Public_Protection_Arrangements"},{"link_name":"serious case review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serious_case_review"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans2-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-E&S_dies-14"}],"text":"Ashworth Hospital, seen in 2005In October 2013, allegations arose that he had waged a campaign of harassment against his next-door neighbour.[13] Williams's home was searched by West Midlands Police as part of their investigation, and he was found to be in possession of an improvised bomb, 50 homemade bullets, a revolver and two pistols.[13] The bomb squad was called in to make the explosive device safe.[10] This was featured in the Channel 5 documentary series The Nightmare Neighbour Next Door.[18]At Birmingham Crown Court in October 2014, he pleaded guilty to three charges of possessing a prohibited firearm, to putting a neighbour in fear of violence, and to making an improvised explosive device.[11] He was again ordered to be detained indefinitely, this time under sections 37 and 41 of the Mental Health Act 1983, by Mr Justice Blair, who said that \"The effect of these orders is that the defendant may never be released\".[19] He also likened Williams's more recent behaviour to that leading up to the 1978 incident and said that \"a similar tragedy had been narrowly averted\".[13] Williams was returned to Ashworth Hospital, where he was already being treated on recall from his previous detention.[11][13][19]West Midlands Police announced after the trial concluded that a Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements serious case review would be held.[20] A spokesman for the police said, \"There was no trace of Harry Street on any police systems; but it is thanks to the tenacity of a local police officer who, when the harassment escalated, made extensive checks which led her to Street's GP and his true identity.\"[15]He died on 24 December 2014 from a suspected heart attack.[14]","title":"2013 incident"}] | [{"image_text":"The former Stafford Crown Court building","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Staffordshire_Shire_Hall.jpg/220px-Staffordshire_Shire_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ashworth Hospital, seen in 2005","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Ashworth_Hospital_-_geograph.org.uk_-_90341.jpg/220px-Ashworth_Hospital_-_geograph.org.uk_-_90341.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Osman, Arthur (28 October 1978). \"Murder charge after car chase\". The Times. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/newspaperRetrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=DateAscend&tabID=T003&prodId=TTDA&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchId=R2&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=1&qrySerId=Locale%28en%2C%2C%29%3AFQE%3D%28tx%2CNone%2C14%29Barry+Williams%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28da%2CNone%2C6%29%3E+1977%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28MB%2CNone%2C8%29%22TTDA-1%22%24&retrieveFormat=MULTIPAGE_DOCUMENT&userGroupName=bclib&inPS=true&contentSet=LTO&&docId=&docLevel=FASCIMILE&workId=&relevancePageBatch=CS17793884&contentSet=UDVIN&callistoContentSet=UDVIN&docPage=article&hilite=y","url_text":"\"Murder charge after car chase\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"}]},{"reference":"\"A killing spree that shocked Britain - How Harry Street's rampage unfolded\". Express & Star. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/crime/2014/10/06/a-killing-spree-that-shocked-britain-how-harry-streets-rampage-unfolded/","url_text":"\"A killing spree that shocked Britain - How Harry Street's rampage unfolded\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Express_%26_Star","url_text":"Express & Star"}]},{"reference":"McCarthy, Nick. \"The night Barry Williams killed five people after neighbour dispute over noise\". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/night-barry-williams-killed-five-7888180","url_text":"\"The night Barry Williams killed five people after neighbour dispute over noise\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Mail","url_text":"Birmingham Mail"}]},{"reference":"Jeys, Anna (12 October 2014). \"Serial killer Barry Williams dressed like gun-toting television detectives Starsky & Hutch - Birmingham Mail\". Retrieved 18 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/serial-killer-barry-williams-dressed-7920626","url_text":"\"Serial killer Barry Williams dressed like gun-toting television detectives Starsky & Hutch - Birmingham Mail\""}]},{"reference":"Wheeler, Caroline (26 October 2003). \"This man killed five people in a gun rampage ...now he's back in the Midlands; Twenty-five years ago today a crazed gunman went on a killing spree in the Midlands\". Sunday Mercury. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefreelibrary.com/This+man+killed+five+people+in+a+gun+rampage+...now+he%27s+back+in+the...-a0109238620","url_text":"\"This man killed five people in a gun rampage ...now he's back in the Midlands; Twenty-five years ago today a crazed gunman went on a killing spree in the Midlands\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Mercury","url_text":"Sunday Mercury"}]},{"reference":"\"Gunman who shot 5 sent to Broadmoor\". The Glasgow Herald. 27 March 1979. p. 3. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2507&dat=19790327&id=PsJAAAAAIBAJ&pg=3592,6261416","url_text":"\"Gunman who shot 5 sent to Broadmoor\""}]},{"reference":"\"1978 West Bromwich killings remembered\". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-29455728","url_text":"\"1978 West Bromwich killings remembered\""}]},{"reference":"\"1978: Gunman runs amok in West Midlands\". BBC Online. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/27/newsid_2478000/2478217.stm","url_text":"\"1978: Gunman runs amok in West Midlands\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Online","url_text":"BBC Online"}]},{"reference":"McCarthy, Nick (6 October 2014). \"Harry Street: Timeline of a serial killer\". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/harry-street-timeline-serial-killer-7888213","url_text":"\"Harry Street: Timeline of a serial killer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Mail","url_text":"Birmingham Mail"}]},{"reference":"\"Spree killer Harry Street pleads guilty to making bomb\". BBC News. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-29507450","url_text":"\"Spree killer Harry Street pleads guilty to making bomb\""}]},{"reference":"\"How Far is it Between Andrew Road, West Bromwich and Stockingford, Nuneaton\". Retrieved 8 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.freemaptools.com/how-far-is-it-between-andrew-road_-west-bromwich-and-stockingford_-nuneaton.htm","url_text":"\"How Far is it Between Andrew Road, West Bromwich and Stockingford, Nuneaton\""}]},{"reference":"Greatrex, Jonny (6 October 2014). \"Replay: Serial killer Barry Williams stockpiled weapons under new identity - live updates from Birmingham Crown Court\". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/replay-serial-killer-barry-williams-7888058","url_text":"\"Replay: Serial killer Barry Williams stockpiled weapons under new identity - live updates from Birmingham Crown Court\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Mail","url_text":"Birmingham Mail"}]},{"reference":"\"Mass killer Harry Street - who shot dead five people - dies in hospital\". Express and Star. 28 December 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/2014/12/27/mass-killer-harry-street-who-shot-dead-five-people-dies-in-hospital/","url_text":"\"Mass killer Harry Street - who shot dead five people - dies in hospital\""}]},{"reference":"Evans, Martin (6 October 2014). \"Calls for law to be changed after Broadmoor killer Barry Williams is released without supervision\". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 8 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11144857/Calls-for-law-to-be-changed-after-Broadmoor-killer-Barry-Williams-is-released-without-supervision.html","url_text":"\"Calls for law to be changed after Broadmoor killer Barry Williams is released without supervision\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"}]},{"reference":"Cartledge, James (7 October 2014). \"Ex-West Bromwich MP Peter Snape: 'It beggars belief that Harry Street was not being monitored'\". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/ex-west-bromwich-mp-peter-snape-7893641","url_text":"\"Ex-West Bromwich MP Peter Snape: 'It beggars belief that Harry Street was not being monitored'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Mail","url_text":"Birmingham Mail"}]},{"reference":"McCarthy, Nick (7 October 2014). \"Serial killer Barry Williams who shot dead Nuneaton couple may never be released after collecting arsenal of weapons\". The Coventry Telegraph. Retrieved 20 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.coventrytelegraph.net/news/local-news/serial-killer-barry-williams-who-7894028","url_text":"\"Serial killer Barry Williams who shot dead Nuneaton couple may never be released after collecting arsenal of weapons\""}]},{"reference":"Evans, Martin (6 October 2014). \"Mass killer Harry Street is detained indefinitely after admitting bomb plot\". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11144384/Mass-killer-Harry-Street-is-detained-indefinitely-after-admitting-bomb-plot.html","url_text":"\"Mass killer Harry Street is detained indefinitely after admitting bomb plot\""}]},{"reference":"Cartledge, James. \"Harry Street: Serious case review launched into how authorities 'lost' serial killer who changed name from Barry Williams\". Birmingham Mail. Retrieved 7 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/harry-street-serious-case-review-7893561","url_text":"\"Harry Street: Serious case review launched into how authorities 'lost' serial killer who changed name from Barry Williams\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Mail","url_text":"Birmingham Mail"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/newspaperRetrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=DateAscend&tabID=T003&prodId=TTDA&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchId=R2&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=1&qrySerId=Locale%28en%2C%2C%29%3AFQE%3D%28tx%2CNone%2C14%29Barry+Williams%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28da%2CNone%2C6%29%3E+1977%3AAnd%3ALQE%3D%28MB%2CNone%2C8%29%22TTDA-1%22%24&retrieveFormat=MULTIPAGE_DOCUMENT&userGroupName=bclib&inPS=true&contentSet=LTO&&docId=&docLevel=FASCIMILE&workId=&relevancePageBatch=CS17793884&contentSet=UDVIN&callistoContentSet=UDVIN&docPage=article&hilite=y","external_links_name":"\"Murder charge after car chase\""},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Barry_Williams_(spree_killer)¶ms=52.5512_N_1.97268_W_region:GB-SAW_type_landmark","external_links_name":"52°33′04″N 1°58′22″W / 52.55120°N 1.97268°W / 52.55120; -1.97268"},{"Link":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/crime/2014/10/06/a-killing-spree-that-shocked-britain-how-harry-streets-rampage-unfolded/","external_links_name":"\"A killing spree that shocked Britain - How Harry Street's rampage unfolded\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/night-barry-williams-killed-five-7888180","external_links_name":"\"The night Barry Williams killed five people after neighbour dispute over noise\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/serial-killer-barry-williams-dressed-7920626","external_links_name":"\"Serial killer Barry Williams dressed like gun-toting television detectives Starsky & Hutch - Birmingham Mail\""},{"Link":"http://www.thefreelibrary.com/This+man+killed+five+people+in+a+gun+rampage+...now+he%27s+back+in+the...-a0109238620","external_links_name":"\"This man killed five people in a gun rampage ...now he's back in the Midlands; Twenty-five years ago today a crazed gunman went on a killing spree in the Midlands\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2507&dat=19790327&id=PsJAAAAAIBAJ&pg=3592,6261416","external_links_name":"\"Gunman who shot 5 sent to Broadmoor\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-29455728","external_links_name":"\"1978 West Bromwich killings remembered\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/27/newsid_2478000/2478217.stm","external_links_name":"\"1978: Gunman runs amok in West Midlands\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/harry-street-timeline-serial-killer-7888213","external_links_name":"\"Harry Street: Timeline of a serial killer\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-29507450","external_links_name":"\"Spree killer Harry Street pleads guilty to making bomb\""},{"Link":"http://www.freemaptools.com/how-far-is-it-between-andrew-road_-west-bromwich-and-stockingford_-nuneaton.htm","external_links_name":"\"How Far is it Between Andrew Road, West Bromwich and Stockingford, Nuneaton\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/replay-serial-killer-barry-williams-7888058","external_links_name":"\"Replay: Serial killer Barry Williams stockpiled weapons under new identity - live updates from Birmingham Crown Court\""},{"Link":"https://www.expressandstar.com/news/2014/12/27/mass-killer-harry-street-who-shot-dead-five-people-dies-in-hospital/","external_links_name":"\"Mass killer Harry Street - who shot dead five people - dies in hospital\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11144857/Calls-for-law-to-be-changed-after-Broadmoor-killer-Barry-Williams-is-released-without-supervision.html","external_links_name":"\"Calls for law to be changed after Broadmoor killer Barry Williams is released without supervision\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/ex-west-bromwich-mp-peter-snape-7893641","external_links_name":"\"Ex-West Bromwich MP Peter Snape: 'It beggars belief that Harry Street was not being monitored'\""},{"Link":"https://www.coventrytelegraph.net/news/local-news/serial-killer-barry-williams-who-7894028","external_links_name":"\"Serial killer Barry Williams who shot dead Nuneaton couple may never be released after collecting arsenal of weapons\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11144384/Mass-killer-Harry-Street-is-detained-indefinitely-after-admitting-bomb-plot.html","external_links_name":"\"Mass killer Harry Street is detained indefinitely after admitting bomb plot\""},{"Link":"http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/harry-street-serious-case-review-7893561","external_links_name":"\"Harry Street: Serious case review launched into how authorities 'lost' serial killer who changed name from Barry Williams\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Masters_Guide | Dungeon Master's Guide | ["1 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons","1.1 Reception","1.2 Other reviews","2 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition","2.1 Reviews","3 Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition","3.1 Reviews","4 Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition","4.1 Reviews","5 Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition","5.1 Reception","5.2 Reviews","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"] | Role-playing game rulebook
Dungeon Master's Guide AuthorGary GygaxCover artistDavid C. Sutherland IIIGenreRole-playing gamePublisherTSRPublication date1979Pages238ISBN0935696024
The Dungeon Master's Guide (DMG or DM's Guide; in some printings, the Dungeon Masters Guide or Dungeon Master Guide) is a book of rules for the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons. The Dungeon Master's Guide contains rules concerning the arbitration and administration of a game, and is intended for use by the game's Dungeon Master.
The Dungeon Master's Guide is a companion book to the Player's Handbook, which contains all of the basic rules of gameplay, and the Monster Manual, which is a reference book of statistics for various animals and monsters. The Player's Handbook, Dungeon Master's Guide, and Monster Manual are collectively referred to as the "core rules" of the Dungeons & Dragons game. Both the Dungeon Master's Guide and the Player's Handbook give advice, tips, and suggestions for various styles of play.
While all players, including the Dungeon Master, are expected to have at their disposal a copy of the Player's Handbook, only the Dungeon Master is expected to refer to the Dungeon Master's Guide or Monster Manual during gameplay.
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons
The original AD&D Dungeon Masters Guide (sic) was published by TSR in 1979. It was written by Gary Gygax and published as a 232-page hardcover with a cover by David C. Sutherland III. The book was intended to give Dungeon Masters all the information and rules necessary to run a D&D game campaign. The 1983 printing featured a new cover by Jeff Easley.
Like other volumes of Dungeons & Dragons handbooks, the Dungeon Masters Guide has gone through several versions through the years. The original edition was written by Gary Gygax and edited by Mike Carr, who also wrote the foreword. The original cover art was by David C. Sutherland III, and interior illustrations were provided by Sutherland, D. A. Trampier, Darlene Pekul, Will McLean, David S. LaForce, and Erol Otus.
The first edition Dungeon Masters Guide covered the essential game rules for the Dungeon Master: creating and managing both player characters and non-player characters, directing combat, and handling adventures and campaigns that last multiple sessions. The book also included game statistics for magic items and treasure, details how to use random monster encounters, and provides statistics for some of the basic monsters and creatures of the game. New magic items were introduced.
The Dungeon Masters Guide contains scores of tables and charts for figuring damage and resolving encounters in a typical adventure, tables and rules for creating characters, and lists of the various abilities of the different classes of characters.
One supplement to the Guide was the Dungeon Masters Screen: two heavy-duty tri-fold boards with the most frequently used tables printed on them for easy reference. The 1979 second edition of the screen describes its purpose as "useful for shielding maps and other game materials from the players when placed upright, and also provide instant reference to the charts and tables most commonly used during play." The Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Second Edition screen came packaged with a brief adventure; later editions of that screen, and screens produced for later editions, have instead included character sheets and general reference booklets.
A feature of the first edition Dungeon Masters Guide was the random dungeon generator. The generator allowed the Dungeon Master, by the rolling of dice, to generate a dungeon adventure "on the fly". A dungeon complete with passageways, rooms, treasure, monsters, and other encounters could easily and randomly be constructed as the player progressed. It could be used with several people or a single player. The generator was not included in subsequent editions of the Dungeon Master's Guide but made a re-appearance in the fifth edition Dungeon Master's Guide.
In 1999, a paperback reprint of the first edition was released.
The first edition Dungeon Masters Guide was reproduced as a premium reprint on July 17, 2012.
Reception
The original Dungeon Masters Guide was reviewed by Don Turnbull in issue #16 of the magazine White Dwarf (December 1979/January 1980). Turnbull commented mostly on the size of the book, "I would say that only the most severe critic could point at a minor omission, let alone a serious one."
Scott Taylor for Black Gate in 2014 listed both the 1st edition AD&D DMG re-cover and the 2nd Edition AD&D DMG both by Jeff Easley as #10 in The Top 10 TSR Cover Paintings of All Time.
Scott Taylor of Black Gate listed the Dungeon Master's Guide as #2 on the list of "Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers By Jeff Easley, saying "Not taking anything away from EVERYTHING THAT THE DM IS and how well Jeff represents it here, but I still believe when many folks think about an 'orange spine', they are going to remember #1 first, because at the end of the day, this a re-cover, and half the folks out there are going to be about the Sutherland III edition."
In his 2023 book Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, "The Dungeon Master's Guide is strange and deeply idiosyncratic. Without a doubt, I believe it's also a masterpiece. Gygax expresses in it a singular vision that feels true in a way few other RPG books can ever hope to equal — it is an accidental portrait of the man's brain circa 1978."
Other reviews
Casus Belli (Issue 5 - Sep 1981)
Casus Belli #39 (Aug 1987)
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition
The AD&D 2nd Edition Dungeon Master Guide was released in 1989. This 192-page hardcover book was designed by David "Zeb" Cook, with cover art by Jeff Easley. The book featured interior illustrations by Easley, Clyde Caldwell, John and Laura Lakey, David Dorman, Douglas Chaffee, and Jean E. Martin.
This Dungeon Master's Guide featured revised second edition rules, reorganized and streamlined for the Dungeon Master. The book detailed options for character creation, handling the alignment rules, new rules for money and equipment, treasure and magical items, encounters, time and movement, and managing non-player characters. The book is indexed, and contains numerous full-page color illustrations.
The second edition Dungeon Master Guide is an ORIGINS and Gamer's Choice award-winner. In his 1991 book Heroic Worlds, Lawrence Schick commented that this book contained "lots of excellent new advice on how to run AD&D". A new version of the Dungeon Master Guide, with new art and layout but the same text, was released in 1995, as part of TSR's 25th anniversary.
The 2nd edition Dungeon Master Guide was reproduced as a premium reprint on May 21, 2013.
Reviews
Magia i Miecz #29 (May 1996) (Polish)
Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition
Dungeon Master's Guide (v.3.5) GenreRole-playing gamePublisherWizards of the CoastPublication dateJuly 2003Media typePrint (Hardback)Pages320ISBN0-7869-2889-1OCLC52691405LC ClassGV1469.62.D84 D836 2000
The 3rd edition D&D Dungeon Master's Guide was published in September 2000.
Monte Cook, Jonathan Tweet, and Skip Williams all contributed to the 3rd edition Player's Handbook, Dungeon Master's Guide, and Monster Manual, and then each designer wrote one of the books based on those contributions. Cook is credited with the book's design. Cover art is by Henry Higginbotham, with interior art by Lars Grant-West, Scott Fischer, John Foster, Todd Lockwood, David Martin, Arnie Swekel, Kevin Walker, Sam Wood, and Wayne Reynolds. Dungeon Master's Guide was republished in 2001 as a slightly revised edition, correcting a few errors in the first edition.
In 2003, the Dungeon Master's Guide was revised for the 3.5 edition. David Noonan and Rich Redman are credited for the Dungeon Master's Guide 3.5 revision. Cover art is by Henry Higginbotham, with interior art by Matt Cavotta, Ed Cox, Lars Grant-West, Scott Fischer, John Foster, Jeremy Jarvis, John and Laura Lakey, Todd Lockwood, David Martin, Raven Mimura, Wayne Reynolds, Scott Roller, Brian Snoddy, Arnie Swekel, and Sam Wood.
When asked about the changes from the previous Dungeon Master's Guide, Rich Redman said:I think the most immediate, obvious, and dramatic change is the reorganization. When the 3rd Edition books came out, the adventure game was supposed to teach you about D&D (including both playing and DMing) and the adventure path modules were supposed to help you learn more about DMing. That meant that the DMG could be, more or less, a catalogue or encyclopedia of rules information, a reference book for DMs. With the demise of the adventure game (which had stopped printing long before we started on 3.5), we needed to focus the 3.5 books much more on introducing the game to players. That meant reorganizing the DMG in particular. Several years of published books that referred to pages and chapters in the DMG meant we could only reorganize so much, but the copies I've seen stayed pretty close to the way I reorganized it.
The D&D Dungeon Master's Guide (v.3.5) was reproduced as a premium reprint on September 18, 2012.
Reviews
Backstab #24
SF Site
Envoyer
Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition
Dungeon Master's Guide (4E) AuthorJames Wyatt, Wizards RPG TeamGenreRole-playing gamePublisherWizards of the CoastPublication dateJune 2008Media typePrint (Hardback)Pages224ISBN978-0-7869-4880-2
The 4th edition D&D Dungeon Master's Guide was released on June 6, 2008, at the same time as its companion volumes. It is a 224-page hardcover written by James Wyatt. The front cover illustration was by Wayne Reynolds and the back cover illustration is by Brian Hagan, with interior illustrations by Rob Alexander, Steve Argyle, Wayne England, Jason Engle, David Griffith, Espen Grundetjern, Brian Hagan, Ralph Horsley, Howard Lyon, Lee Moyer, William O'Connor, Wayne Reynolds, Dan Scott, Ron Spears, Chris Stevens, Anne Stokes, and Eva Widermann. In addition to a comprehensive look at how to DM a 4th Edition campaign or adventure, it contains information on building encounters, aquatic and mounted combat, skill challenges, traps and hazards, rewards, NPC creation, artifacts, monster creation, and template, along with a sample town and short adventure so that DMs can start running their first 4th Edition adventure right away. Although it does contain artifacts, it is the first Dungeon Master's Guide not to contain standard magic items, which were moved into the Player's Handbook for 4th Edition.
Shannon Appelcline, author of Designers & Dragons, highlighted that the book introduced mechanical changes such as a "new style for adventure encounters" and a "skill challenge system" which were part of the key design philosophies of 4th edition. Appelcline wrote "besides revamping philosophies and rules, D&D 4e also revamped the game's standard world model and its cosmology" and "Wizards also introduced a new world setting that has become most popularly known as 'Nentir Vale' (though that just designates a small part of the world)".
In September 2009, the Dungeon Master's Guide 2 was released. It was written by James Wyatt, with Bill Slavicsek, Mike Mearls, and Robin D. Laws. Appelcline wrote "the original Dungeon Master's Guide had covered heroic adventuring (levels 1-10), so now the Dungeon Master's Guide 2 detailed paragon adventuring (levels 11-20). However, there is much more in the book too, including storytelling advice, skill challenge and monster customization, and the return of one of D&D's most beloved settings". The "fan-favorite setting of Sigil" was last revisited in depth in the Planescape Campaign Setting (1994) for the 2nd edition.
As part of the Essentials line of products, which were intended as an easy entry point for new players, Wizards of the Coast released a Dungeon Master's Kit (2010) that included a digest-sized book for the Dungeon Master containing much of the same material as the 4th edition Dungeon Master's Guide along with a two-part adventure module and a set of cardboard tokens for monsters.
Reviews
Pyramid
Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition
Dungeon Master's Guide (5E) AuthorMike Mearls, Jeremy Crawford, Christopher Perkins, James WyattGenreRole-playing gamePublisherWizards of the CoastPublication dateDecember 9, 2014Media typePrint (Hardback)Pages320ISBN978-0786965625
The 5th edition Dungeons & Dragons Dungeon Master's Guide was released in 2014 as the last of three core rulebooks for the new edition. On the staggered release schedule, Jeremy Crawford wrote "our small team couldn’t finish the books at the same time and also ensure their high quality. We could either stagger their releases, or we could sit on the books until all three were finished". Crawford and Mike Mearls co-lead design for the Fifth Edition of Dungeons & Dragons. Polygon reported that the book "is by far the densest of the rulebooks yet released, but shares the same cover price — $50 in the US".
In an interview with Escapist Magazine, Mearls said:Basic D&D hits core fantasy, it's stereotypical fantasy adventuring. If you're the DM and you want to do something more exotic, you say "I want to add technology to my game" or "I want to have more detailed rules for a grim and grittier game, more of a horror game." That's where the DMG comes in, it's for really fine-tuning your campaign, and creating a different type of experience than your standard fantasy campaign. It's also for expanding the scope of the game. The DMG also has a lot of utilities in it, like for dungeon creation, adventure creation, creating monsters, creating spells, even if you wanted to create a character class. So it's really for getting under the hood of how the system works and building up your campaign.
Reception
The book won the 2015 ENnie "Best Supplement" Gold award and the 2015 Origins "Best Role-Playing Game Supplement" and "Fan Favorite" awards.
Henry Glasheen, for SLUG Magazine, wrote "Fifth Edition, to my eyes, is the new gold standard for D20-based tabletop RPGs. It strips away the tedium of systems and statistics and replaces them with the true substance of role playing—deep, immersive stories. I’ve often found that the Dungeon Master’s Guide was the most vestigial of all the D&D manuals, but Fifth Edition has elevated this previously tertiary book into something far more important and useful".
Jonathan Bolding, for Escapist Magazine, wrote "however, on finishing the book it's clear that while many critics - myself included - thought that this system would hinge on the DMG, the DMG just confirmed what we already knew D&D 5th Edition to be. This is a living history of D&D, a collection of what the game has been so far. Perfection, not innovation. Options, not prescriptions".
Chuck Francisco of mania.com commented: "Miles of treasure tables escort a wealth of random adventure tables to the ball, where they're resplendent in all of their easy session crafting majesty. The versatility of this tome is nowhere more obvious than amongst the flavor filled side panels, which further detail the lower magical level of the main setting, before explaining all of the variable options a DM has in bringing to life a world of their own."
In a review of Dungeon Master's Guide in Black Gate, Scott Taylor said "The 5E DMG devotes the first 127 pages to teaching a novice player how to a Dungeon Master in this system. Where Gygax made the assumption that an aspiring DM needed to sit at a table as a player and learn the system from another, become inspired, and then extrapolate on what they'd learned firsthand, the folks Wizards of the Coast have gone in the opposite direction and believe anyone buying this book has never really played D&D before and needs instruction on how to DM the game."
Reviews
Casus Belli (v4, Issue 13 - Jan/Feb 2015)
References
^ a b "Dungeons & Dragons FAQ". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on May 14, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2008.
^ a b Turnbull, Don (December 1979 – January 1980). "Open Box". White Dwarf (review) (16). Games Workshop: 15.
^ Livingstone, Ian (August–September 1979). "White Dwarf Interviews Gary Gygax". White Dwarf (Interview) (14). Games Workshop: 23–24.
^ Pulsipher, Lewis (April–May 1981). "An Introduction to Dungeons & Dragons, Part II". White Dwarf (Overview) (24). Games Workshop: 10–11.
^ Pulsipher, Lewis (February–March 1981). "An Introduction to Dungeons & Dragons". White Dwarf (Overview) (23). Games Workshop: 8–9.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Schick, Lawrence (1991). Heroic Worlds: A History and Guide to Role-Playing Games. Prometheus Books. p. 85. ISBN 0-87975-653-5.
^ a b c "The History of TSR". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on 2008-09-24. Retrieved 2005-08-20.
^ Fogens, M. (August 1999). "Classic AD&D books are back". InQuest Gamer. No. 52. Wizard Entertainment. p. 20.
^ "Dungeon Master's Guide". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 22, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
^ "Art of the Genre: The Old School Renaissance – Black Gate". 28 August 2012.
^ "Art of the Genre: The Top 10 TSR Cover Paintings of All Time – Black Gate". 17 September 2014.
^ "Art of the Genre: Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers by Jeff Easley – Black Gate". 14 September 2016.
^ Horvath, Stu (2023). Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780262048224.
^ "Casus Belli #005". 1981.
^ "Têtes d'Affiche | Article | RPGGeek". rpggeek.com.
^ "Dungeon Master Guide". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
^ "My Youth Was Delivered Yesterday: AD&D 2nd Edition Re-Released – Black Gate". 29 May 2013.
^ "Magia I Miecz 1996 05". May 1996.
^ "WotC Product Library: Dungeon Master's Guide". wizards.com. Archived from the original on June 6, 2002.
^ "Profiles: Monte Cook". Dragon (#275). Renton, Washington: Wizards of the Coast: 10, 12, 14. September 2000.
^ Ryan, Michael (July 4, 2003). "Product Spotlight: D&D 3.5". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on August 11, 2003. Retrieved August 11, 2013.
^ "3.5 Edition Premium Dungeon Master's Guide". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on August 30, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2013.
^ "Backstab Magazine (French) Issue 24".
^ "The SF Site Featured Review: Urban Arcana". www.sfsite.com.
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^ Appelcline, Shannon. "Dungeon Master's Guide (4e) - Product History". DriveThruRPG. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
^ Appelcline, Shannon. "Dungeon Master's Guide 2 (4e) - Product History". DriveThruRPG. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
^ Kulp, Kevin. "Dungeon Master's Kit (4e) - Product History". DriveThruRPG. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
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^ "2015 ENnie Award Winners". ENNIE Awards. 2015-08-12. Archived from the original on 2019-03-08. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
^ "2015 Origins Award Winners". icv2.com. Retrieved 2020-06-20.
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Further reading
"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Combat Tables", White Dwarf #13.
"Clerics Turning Undead", Footprints #7.
"Expanded Secondary Skills", Footprints #8.
"Master Encumbrance Guide: Lessening the Burden of Encumbrance", Footprints #7.
"Sneak Preview: AD&D Dungeon Masters Guide", The Dragon #22.
"The Complete Attack and Saving Throw Table", Footprints #10.
External links
Full list of contents for the AD&D Dungeon Master's Guide
Errata
Review of the AD&D Dungeon Master's Guide from RPG.net
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D&D Insider
D&D Beyond | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D&Dfaq-1"},{"link_name":"role-playing game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_game"},{"link_name":"Dungeons & Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WD16-2"},{"link_name":"Player's Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player%27s_Handbook"},{"link_name":"Monster Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Manual"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"monsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster"},{"link_name":"Player's Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player%27s_Handbook"},{"link_name":"Monster Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Manual"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The Dungeon Master's Guide (DMG[1] or DM's Guide; in some printings, the Dungeon Masters Guide or Dungeon Master Guide) is a book of rules for the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons. The Dungeon Master's Guide contains rules concerning the arbitration and administration of a game, and is intended for use by the game's Dungeon Master.[2]The Dungeon Master's Guide is a companion book to the Player's Handbook, which contains all of the basic rules of gameplay, and the Monster Manual, which is a reference book of statistics for various animals and monsters. The Player's Handbook, Dungeon Master's Guide, and Monster Manual are collectively referred to as the \"core rules\" of the Dungeons & Dragons game.[3] Both the Dungeon Master's Guide and the Player's Handbook give advice, tips, and suggestions for various styles of play.[4]While all players, including the Dungeon Master, are expected to have at their disposal a copy of the Player's Handbook, only the Dungeon Master is expected to refer to the Dungeon Master's Guide or Monster Manual during gameplay.[5]","title":"Dungeon Master's Guide"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"TSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSR_(company)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"Gary Gygax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Gygax"},{"link_name":"David C. Sutherland III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Sutherland_III"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D&Dfaq-1"},{"link_name":"Jeff Easley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Easley"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"Gary Gygax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Gygax"},{"link_name":"Mike Carr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Carr_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"David C. Sutherland III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_C._Sutherland_III"},{"link_name":"D. A. Trampier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Trampier"},{"link_name":"Darlene Pekul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlene_Pekul"},{"link_name":"Will McLean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_McLean_(artist)"},{"link_name":"David S. LaForce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_S._LaForce"},{"link_name":"Erol Otus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erol_Otus"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master"},{"link_name":"player characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_character"},{"link_name":"non-player characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-player_character"},{"link_name":"campaigns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campaign_(role-playing_games)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"magic items","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_item_(Dungeons_%26_Dragons)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Masters Screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Masters_Screen"},{"link_name":"adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_(role-playing_games)"},{"link_name":"character sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_sheet"},{"link_name":"booklets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"},{"link_name":"dice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dice"},{"link_name":"passageways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passage_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"rooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"treasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure"},{"link_name":"encounters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_encounter"},{"link_name":"paperback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fogens-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The original AD&D Dungeon Masters Guide (sic) was published by TSR in 1979.[6][7] It was written by Gary Gygax and published as a 232-page hardcover with a cover by David C. Sutherland III.[6] The book was intended to give Dungeon Masters all the information and rules necessary to run a D&D game campaign.[1] The 1983 printing featured a new cover by Jeff Easley.[6]Like other volumes of Dungeons & Dragons handbooks, the Dungeon Masters Guide has gone through several versions through the years. The original edition was written by Gary Gygax and edited by Mike Carr, who also wrote the foreword. The original cover art was by David C. Sutherland III, and interior illustrations were provided by Sutherland, D. A. Trampier, Darlene Pekul, Will McLean, David S. LaForce, and Erol Otus.The first edition Dungeon Masters Guide covered the essential game rules for the Dungeon Master: creating and managing both player characters and non-player characters, directing combat, and handling adventures and campaigns that last multiple sessions.[6] The book also included game statistics for magic items and treasure, details how to use random monster encounters, and provides statistics for some of the basic monsters and creatures of the game.[6] New magic items were introduced.The Dungeon Masters Guide contains scores of tables and charts for figuring damage and resolving encounters in a typical adventure, tables and rules for creating characters, and lists of the various abilities of the different classes of characters.One supplement to the Guide was the Dungeon Masters Screen: two heavy-duty tri-fold boards with the most frequently used tables printed on them for easy reference. The 1979 second edition of the screen describes its purpose as \"useful for shielding maps and other game materials from the players when placed upright, and also provide[s] instant reference to the charts and tables most commonly used during play.\" The Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Second Edition screen came packaged with a brief adventure; later editions of that screen, and screens produced for later editions, have instead included character sheets and general reference booklets.A feature of the first edition Dungeon Masters Guide was the random dungeon generator. The generator allowed the Dungeon Master, by the rolling of dice, to generate a dungeon adventure \"on the fly\". A dungeon complete with passageways, rooms, treasure, monsters, and other encounters could easily and randomly be constructed as the player progressed. It could be used with several people or a single player. The generator was not included in subsequent editions of the Dungeon Master's Guide but made a re-appearance in the fifth edition Dungeon Master's Guide.In 1999, a paperback reprint of the first edition was released.[8]The first edition Dungeon Masters Guide was reproduced as a premium reprint on July 17, 2012.[9][10]","title":"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Don Turnbull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Turnbull_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"White Dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WD16-2"},{"link_name":"Black Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Gate_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Jeff Easley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Easley"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Black Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Gate_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mahg-13"}],"sub_title":"Reception","text":"The original Dungeon Masters Guide was reviewed by Don Turnbull in issue #16 of the magazine White Dwarf (December 1979/January 1980). Turnbull commented mostly on the size of the book, \"I would say that only the most severe critic could point at a minor omission, let alone a serious one.\"[2]Scott Taylor for Black Gate in 2014 listed both the 1st edition AD&D DMG re-cover and the 2nd Edition AD&D DMG both by Jeff Easley as #10 in The Top 10 TSR Cover Paintings of All Time.[11]Scott Taylor of Black Gate listed the Dungeon Master's Guide as #2 on the list of \"Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers By Jeff Easley, saying \"Not taking anything away from EVERYTHING THAT THE DM IS and how well Jeff represents it here, but I still believe when many folks think about an 'orange spine', they are going to remember #1 first, because at the end of the day, this [is] a re-cover, and half the folks out there are going to be about the Sutherland III edition.\"[12]In his 2023 book Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, \"The Dungeon Master's Guide is strange and deeply idiosyncratic. Without a doubt, I believe it's also a masterpiece. Gygax expresses in it a singular vision that feels true in a way few other RPG books can ever hope to equal — it is an accidental portrait of the man's brain circa 1978.\"[13]","title":"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Casus Belli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casus_Belli_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Other reviews","text":"Casus Belli (Issue 5 - Sep 1981)[14]\nCasus Belli #39 (Aug 1987)[15]","title":"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"David \"Zeb\" Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cook_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"Jeff Easley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Easley"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"Clyde Caldwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clyde_Caldwell"},{"link_name":"John and Laura Lakey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_and_Laura_Lakey"},{"link_name":"David Dorman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Dorman"},{"link_name":"Douglas Chaffee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Chaffee"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"alignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alignment_(Dungeons_%26_Dragons)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Schick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Schick"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HW-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The AD&D 2nd Edition Dungeon Master Guide was released in 1989.[7] This 192-page hardcover book was designed by David \"Zeb\" Cook, with cover art by Jeff Easley.[6] The book featured interior illustrations by Easley, Clyde Caldwell, John and Laura Lakey, David Dorman, Douglas Chaffee, and Jean E. Martin.This Dungeon Master's Guide featured revised second edition rules, reorganized and streamlined for the Dungeon Master.[6] The book detailed options for character creation, handling the alignment rules, new rules for money and equipment, treasure and magical items, encounters, time and movement, and managing non-player characters.[6] The book is indexed, and contains numerous full-page color illustrations.[6]The second edition Dungeon Master Guide is an ORIGINS and Gamer's Choice award-winner.[6] In his 1991 book Heroic Worlds, Lawrence Schick commented that this book contained \"lots of excellent new advice on how to run AD&D\".[6] A new version of the Dungeon Master Guide, with new art and layout but the same text, was released in 1995, as part of TSR's 25th anniversary.[7]The 2nd edition Dungeon Master Guide was reproduced as a premium reprint on May 21, 2013.[16][17]","title":"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Magia i Miecz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magia_i_Miecz"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Reviews","text":"Magia i Miecz #29 (May 1996) (Polish)[18]","title":"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Monte Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Cook"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Tweet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Tweet"},{"link_name":"Skip Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_Williams"},{"link_name":"Player's Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player%27s_Handbook"},{"link_name":"Monster Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Manual"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dragon_#275-20"},{"link_name":"Henry Higginbotham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Higginbotham"},{"link_name":"Lars Grant-West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Grant-West"},{"link_name":"Scott Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Fischer_(artist)"},{"link_name":"John Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Foster_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Todd Lockwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Lockwood"},{"link_name":"David Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Martin"},{"link_name":"Arnie Swekel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnie_Swekel"},{"link_name":"Kevin Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kev_Walker"},{"link_name":"Sam Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wood_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Wayne Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"David Noonan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Noonan_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"Henry Higginbotham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Higginbotham"},{"link_name":"Matt Cavotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Cavotta"},{"link_name":"Ed Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Cox_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Lars Grant-West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Grant-West"},{"link_name":"Scott Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Fischer_(artist)"},{"link_name":"John Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Foster_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Jarvis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Jarvis"},{"link_name":"John and Laura Lakey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_and_Laura_Lakey"},{"link_name":"Todd Lockwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Lockwood"},{"link_name":"David Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Martin"},{"link_name":"Raven Mimura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raven_Mimura"},{"link_name":"Wayne Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Scott Roller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Roller"},{"link_name":"Brian Snoddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Snoddy"},{"link_name":"Arnie Swekel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnie_Swekel"},{"link_name":"Sam Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Wood_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"The 3rd edition D&D Dungeon Master's Guide was published in September 2000.[19]Monte Cook, Jonathan Tweet, and Skip Williams all contributed to the 3rd edition Player's Handbook, Dungeon Master's Guide, and Monster Manual, and then each designer wrote one of the books based on those contributions.[20] Cook is credited with the book's design. Cover art is by Henry Higginbotham, with interior art by Lars Grant-West, Scott Fischer, John Foster, Todd Lockwood, David Martin, Arnie Swekel, Kevin Walker, Sam Wood, and Wayne Reynolds. Dungeon Master's Guide was republished in 2001 as a slightly revised edition, correcting a few errors in the first edition.In 2003, the Dungeon Master's Guide was revised for the 3.5 edition. David Noonan and Rich Redman are credited for the Dungeon Master's Guide 3.5 revision. Cover art is by Henry Higginbotham, with interior art by Matt Cavotta, Ed Cox, Lars Grant-West, Scott Fischer, John Foster, Jeremy Jarvis, John and Laura Lakey, Todd Lockwood, David Martin, Raven Mimura, Wayne Reynolds, Scott Roller, Brian Snoddy, Arnie Swekel, and Sam Wood.When asked about the changes from the previous Dungeon Master's Guide, Rich Redman said:[21]I think the most immediate, obvious, and dramatic change is the reorganization. When the 3rd Edition books came out, the adventure game was supposed to teach you about D&D (including both playing and DMing) and the adventure path modules were supposed to help you learn more about DMing. That meant that the DMG could be, more or less, a catalogue or encyclopedia of rules information, a reference book for DMs. With the demise of the adventure game (which had stopped printing long before we started on 3.5), we needed to focus the 3.5 books much more on introducing the game to players. That meant reorganizing the DMG in particular. Several years of published books that referred to pages and chapters in the DMG meant we could only reorganize so much, but the copies I've seen stayed pretty close to the way I reorganized it.The D&D Dungeon Master's Guide (v.3.5) was reproduced as a premium reprint on September 18, 2012.[22]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"SF Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SF_Site"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Envoyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envoyer"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Reviews","text":"Backstab #24[23]\nSF Site[24]\nEnvoyer[25]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James Wyatt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wyatt_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"Wayne Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Brian Hagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Hagan"},{"link_name":"Steve Argyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Argyle"},{"link_name":"Wayne England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_England"},{"link_name":"Jason Engle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Engle"},{"link_name":"David Griffith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Griffith_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Ralph Horsley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Horsley"},{"link_name":"Howard Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Lyon"},{"link_name":"Lee Moyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Moyer"},{"link_name":"William O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_O%27Connor_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Wayne Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Anne Stokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Stokes"},{"link_name":"Eva Widermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Widermann"},{"link_name":"Shannon Appelcline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_Appelcline"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Master's Guide 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master%27s_Guide_2"},{"link_name":"Bill Slavicsek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Slavicsek"},{"link_name":"Mike Mearls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Mearls"},{"link_name":"Robin D. Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_D._Laws"},{"link_name":"Planescape Campaign Setting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planescape_Campaign_Setting"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Dungeon Master's Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeon_Master%27s_Kit"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"The 4th edition D&D Dungeon Master's Guide was released on June 6, 2008, at the same time as its companion volumes. It is a 224-page hardcover written by James Wyatt. The front cover illustration was by Wayne Reynolds and the back cover illustration is by Brian Hagan, with interior illustrations by Rob Alexander, Steve Argyle, Wayne England, Jason Engle, David Griffith, Espen Grundetjern, Brian Hagan, Ralph Horsley, Howard Lyon, Lee Moyer, William O'Connor, Wayne Reynolds, Dan Scott, Ron Spears, Chris Stevens, Anne Stokes, and Eva Widermann. In addition to a comprehensive look at how to DM a 4th Edition campaign or adventure, it contains information on building encounters, aquatic and mounted combat, skill challenges, traps and hazards, rewards, NPC creation, artifacts, monster creation, and template, along with a sample town and short adventure so that DMs can start running their first 4th Edition adventure right away. Although it does contain artifacts, it is the first Dungeon Master's Guide not to contain standard magic items, which were moved into the Player's Handbook for 4th Edition.Shannon Appelcline, author of Designers & Dragons, highlighted that the book introduced mechanical changes such as a \"new style for adventure encounters\" and a \"skill challenge system\" which were part of the key design philosophies of 4th edition. Appelcline wrote \"besides revamping philosophies and rules, D&D 4e also revamped the game's standard world model and its cosmology\" and \"Wizards also introduced a new world setting that has become most popularly known as 'Nentir Vale' (though that just designates a small part of the world)\".[26]In September 2009, the Dungeon Master's Guide 2 was released. It was written by James Wyatt, with Bill Slavicsek, Mike Mearls, and Robin D. Laws. Appelcline wrote \"the original Dungeon Master's Guide had covered heroic adventuring (levels 1-10), so now the Dungeon Master's Guide 2 detailed paragon adventuring (levels 11-20). However, there is much more in the book too, including storytelling advice, skill challenge and monster customization, and the return of one of D&D's most beloved settings\". The \"fan-favorite setting of Sigil\" was last revisited in depth in the Planescape Campaign Setting (1994) for the 2nd edition.[27]As part of the Essentials line of products, which were intended as an easy entry point for new players, Wizards of the Coast released a Dungeon Master's Kit (2010) that included a digest-sized book for the Dungeon Master containing much of the same material as the 4th edition Dungeon Master's Guide along with a two-part adventure module and a set of cardboard tokens for monsters.[28]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pyramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Reviews","text":"Pyramid[29]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jeremy Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Crawford"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-30"},{"link_name":"Mike Mearls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Mearls"},{"link_name":"Fifth Edition of Dungeons & Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editions_of_Dungeons_%26_Dragons#Dungeons_&_Dragons_5th_edition"},{"link_name":"Polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon_(website)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-30"},{"link_name":"Escapist Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escapist_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The 5th edition Dungeons & Dragons Dungeon Master's Guide was released in 2014 as the last of three core rulebooks for the new edition. On the staggered release schedule, Jeremy Crawford wrote \"our small team couldn’t finish the books at the same time and also ensure their high quality. [...] We could either stagger their releases, or we could sit on the books until all three were finished\".[30] Crawford and Mike Mearls co-lead design for the Fifth Edition of Dungeons & Dragons. Polygon reported that the book \"is by far the densest of the rulebooks yet released, but shares the same cover price — $50 in the US\".[30]In an interview with Escapist Magazine, Mearls said:[31]Basic D&D hits core fantasy, it's stereotypical fantasy adventuring. If you're the DM and you want to do something more exotic, you say \"I want to add technology to my game\" or \"I want to have more detailed rules for a grim and grittier game, more of a horror game.\" That's where the DMG comes in, it's for really fine-tuning your campaign, and creating a different type of experience than your standard fantasy campaign. It's also for expanding the scope of the game. [...] The DMG also has a lot of utilities in it, like for dungeon creation, adventure creation, creating monsters, creating spells, even if you wanted to create a character class. [...] So it's really for getting under the hood of how the system works and building up your campaign.","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ENnie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENnie_Awards"},{"link_name":"Origins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origins_Award"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"SLUG Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLUG_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Black Gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Gate_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Reception","text":"The book won the 2015 ENnie \"Best Supplement\" Gold award and the 2015 Origins \"Best Role-Playing Game Supplement\" and \"Fan Favorite\" awards.[32][33]Henry Glasheen, for SLUG Magazine, wrote \"Fifth Edition, to my eyes, is the new gold standard for D20-based tabletop RPGs. It strips away the tedium of systems and statistics and replaces them with the true substance of role playing—deep, immersive stories. I’ve often found that the Dungeon Master’s Guide was the most vestigial of all the D&D manuals, but Fifth Edition has elevated this previously tertiary book into something far more important and useful\".[34]Jonathan Bolding, for Escapist Magazine, wrote \"however, on finishing the book it's clear that while many critics - myself included - thought that this system would hinge on the DMG, the DMG just confirmed what we already knew D&D 5th Edition to be. This is a living history of D&D, a collection of what the game has been so far. Perfection, not innovation. Options, not prescriptions\".[35]Chuck Francisco of mania.com commented: \"Miles of treasure tables escort a wealth of random adventure tables to the ball, where they're resplendent in all of their easy session crafting majesty. The versatility of this tome is nowhere more obvious than amongst the flavor filled side panels, which further detail the lower magical level of the main setting, before explaining all of the variable options a DM has in bringing to life a world of their own.\"[36]In a review of Dungeon Master's Guide in Black Gate, Scott Taylor said \"The 5E DMG devotes the first 127 pages to teaching a novice player how to [be] a Dungeon Master in this system. Where Gygax made the assumption that an aspiring DM needed to sit at a table as a player and learn the system from another, become inspired, and then extrapolate on what they'd learned firsthand, the folks [at] Wizards of the Coast have gone in the opposite direction and believe anyone buying this book has never really played D&D before and needs instruction on how to DM the game.\"[37]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Casus Belli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casus_Belli_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Reviews","text":"Casus Belli (v4, Issue 13 - Jan/Feb 2015)[38]","title":"Dungeons & Dragons 5th edition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"White Dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"The Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_(magazine)"}],"text":"\"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Combat Tables\", White Dwarf #13.\n\"Clerics Turning Undead\", Footprints #7.\n\"Expanded Secondary Skills\", Footprints #8.\n\"Master Encumbrance Guide: Lessening the Burden of Encumbrance\", Footprints #7.\n\"Sneak Preview: AD&D Dungeon Masters Guide\", The Dragon #22.\n\"The Complete Attack and Saving Throw Table\", Footprints #10.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Dungeons & Dragons FAQ\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on May 14, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100514204427/http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_FAQ.asp","url_text":"\"Dungeons & Dragons FAQ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_FAQ.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Turnbull, Don (December 1979 – January 1980). \"Open Box\". White Dwarf (review) (16). Games Workshop: 15.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)","url_text":"White Dwarf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_Workshop","url_text":"Games Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Livingstone, Ian (August–September 1979). \"White Dwarf Interviews Gary Gygax\". White Dwarf (Interview) (14). Games Workshop: 23–24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)","url_text":"White Dwarf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_Workshop","url_text":"Games Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Pulsipher, Lewis (April–May 1981). \"An Introduction to Dungeons & Dragons, Part II\". White Dwarf (Overview) (24). Games Workshop: 10–11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)","url_text":"White Dwarf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_Workshop","url_text":"Games Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Pulsipher, Lewis (February–March 1981). \"An Introduction to Dungeons & Dragons\". White Dwarf (Overview) (23). Games Workshop: 8–9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Dwarf_(magazine)","url_text":"White Dwarf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_Workshop","url_text":"Games Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Schick, Lawrence (1991). Heroic Worlds: A History and Guide to Role-Playing Games. Prometheus Books. p. 85. ISBN 0-87975-653-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-653-5","url_text":"0-87975-653-5"}]},{"reference":"\"The History of TSR\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on 2008-09-24. Retrieved 2005-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080924195557/http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_History.asp","url_text":"\"The History of TSR\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast","url_text":"Wizards of the Coast"},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_History.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Fogens, M. (August 1999). \"Classic AD&D books are back\". InQuest Gamer. No. 52. Wizard Entertainment. p. 20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InQuest_Gamer","url_text":"InQuest Gamer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizard_Entertainment","url_text":"Wizard Entertainment"}]},{"reference":"\"Dungeon Master's Guide\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 22, 2012. Retrieved June 24, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120122120442/http://www.wizards.com/dnd/Product.aspx?x=dnd/products/dndacc/02390000","url_text":"\"Dungeon Master's Guide\""},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/dnd/Product.aspx?x=dnd/products/dndacc/02390000","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Art of the Genre: The Old School Renaissance – Black Gate\". 28 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackgate.com/2012/08/28/art-of-the-genre-the-old-school-renaissance/","url_text":"\"Art of the Genre: The Old School Renaissance – Black Gate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Art of the Genre: The Top 10 TSR Cover Paintings of All Time – Black Gate\". 17 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackgate.com/2014/09/17/art-of-the-genre-the-top-10-tsr-cover-paintings-of-all-time/","url_text":"\"Art of the Genre: The Top 10 TSR Cover Paintings of All Time – Black Gate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Art of the Genre: Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers by Jeff Easley – Black Gate\". 14 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackgate.com/2016/09/14/art-of-the-genre-top-10-orange-spine-add-hardcovers-by-jeff-easley/","url_text":"\"Art of the Genre: Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers by Jeff Easley – Black Gate\""}]},{"reference":"Horvath, Stu (2023). Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 58. ISBN 9780262048224.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262048224","url_text":"9780262048224"}]},{"reference":"\"Casus Belli #005\". 1981.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/casus-belli-005/page/20/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Casus Belli #005\""}]},{"reference":"\"Têtes d'Affiche | Article | RPGGeek\". rpggeek.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://rpggeek.com/rpgissuearticle/138925/tetes-daffiche","url_text":"\"Têtes d'Affiche | Article | RPGGeek\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dungeon Master Guide\". Wizards of the Coast. Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved June 24, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130124132416/http://www.wizards.com/DnD/Product.aspx?x=dnd/products/dndacc/35760000","url_text":"\"Dungeon Master Guide\""},{"url":"http://www.wizards.com/dnd/Product.aspx?x=dnd/products/dndacc/35760000","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"My Youth Was Delivered Yesterday: AD&D 2nd Edition Re-Released – Black Gate\". 29 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackgate.com/2013/05/29/add2/","url_text":"\"My Youth Was Delivered Yesterday: AD&D 2nd Edition Re-Released – Black Gate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Magia I Miecz 1996 05\". May 1996.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/MagiaIMiecz199605/page/n7/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Magia I Miecz 1996 05\""}]},{"reference":"\"WotC Product Library: Dungeon Master's Guide\". wizards.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IB_affair | IB affair | ["1 History","2 Government response","3 Legal consequences and investigations","4 References"] | You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Swedish. (August 2021) Click for important translation instructions.
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Birger Elmér, director for IB 1965–1975
The IB affair (Swedish: IB-affären) was the exposure of illegal surveillance operations by the IB secret Swedish intelligence agency within the Swedish Armed Forces. The two main purposes of the agency were to handle liaison with foreign intelligence agencies and to gather information about communists and other individuals who were perceived to be a threat to the nation.
History
The meaning of the name IB is not known with certainty. It is often said to be an abbreviation of either Informationsbyrån (The Information Office, Information Bureau) or Insamling Birger (Gathering Birger, after its director Birger Elmér). This is, however, speculation, and neither name was in general use within the organization.
The key persons leading to the exposure of the IB were journalists Jan Guillou and Peter Bratt and their original main source Håkan Isacson. The two reporters revealed their findings in the leftist magazine Folket i Bild/Kulturfront on 3 May 1973. The story was immediately picked up by many leading Swedish dailies. Their revelations were that:
There was a secret intelligence agency in Sweden called IB, without official status. Its director Birger Elmér was reporting directly to select key persons at cabinet level, most likely defence minister Sven Andersson and Prime Minister Olof Palme.
The Riksdag was unaware of its activities.
People with far-left views had been monitored and registered.
IB agents had infiltrated Swedish left-wing organisations and sometimes tried to induce them into criminal acts.
There were Swedish spies operating abroad.
IB spies had broken into the Egyptian and Algerian embassies in Stockholm.
The IB co-operated extensively with the Central Intelligence Agency and Shin Bet, in contrast to the official Swedish foreign policy of neutrality.
See also: Office for Special Assignments
In the following issues of Folket i Bild/Kulturfront the two uncovered further activities of IB and interviewed a man who had infiltrated the Swedish movement supporting the FNL, Vietnamese National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam - at this time the FNL support network was a backbone of the radical opinion - and among other things, visited Palestinian guerilla camps in Jordan. The man worked for IB and had composed reports that, it was surmised, IB later passed on to the Israeli security services which resulted in the camps being bombed. The man, Gunnar Ekberg, claimed in his interview to have broken with IB, but in fact was still working for the organization. This was exposed in the following editions of FiB/Kulturfront, but by that time, Ekberg had gone underground. Swedish authorities claimed they were unable to locate him to stand trial. In 2009, he released an autobiography of his years in IB, attacking Guillou in particular for having misrepresented facts, been involved with Palestinian militant groups (particularly the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine), and worked for the KGB; and alleging widespread terrorist ties to the groups and persons monitored by IB. He also confirmed that he had been transferred from IB to the Mossad, an Israeli intelligence agency, immediately prior to his exposure.
Guillou had opened the first article by accusing the director of IB of murder on these grounds. The same issue exposed a Swedish naval captain who had passed reports about the harbor security of Alexandria (implying, again, that IB were exchanging information with the Israelis); also the story of a woman who had, on the orders of IB, spied out potential bombing targets in Egypt.
The magazine had information from a previous employee of IB, Håkan Isacson, who claimed that IB had broken into the offices of two political organizations: the FNL Groups, a pro-North Vietnamese organization, and the Communist Party of Sweden, a Maoist political party. This concerned a Jordanian citizen and a stateless citizen. A wiretap was installed in the latter case. After this uncovering, the defense minister did admit that IB engaged in espionage outside of Sweden and infiltrated organizations within Sweden, including wiretaps.
Evidence was put forth in 1974 that IB had built up a large network of agents in Finland, which included the Finnish foreign minister Väinö Leskinen. This network's main mission was to gather information regarding the Soviet Union. IB had no contacts with the Finnish Security Intelligence Service, since it was believed to have been infiltrated by Soviet agents.
Government response
In November 1973, Prime Minister Olof Palme denied any link between IB and the Social Democrats. However, according to the memoir of ex-security service chief P.G. Vinge, Birger Elmér had regular contact with Palme and made his reports regularly to the Social Democratic Party secretary, Sven Andersson.
Defence minister Sven Andersson denied that Sweden had spies abroad. He also denied that IB was involved in burglaries and documenting citizens' political opinions.
Legal consequences and investigations
Jan Guillou, Peter Bratt, Håkan Isacson and the photographer Ove Holmqvist were arrested 22 October 1973 by the Swedish Security Service on suspicion of espionage. On 4 January 1974 each was sentenced to 1 year in prison. Bratt and Guillou were both convicted of espionage; Isacson was convicted of espionage and accessory to espionage. After an appeal, Guillou's sentence was commuted to 10 months. The Swedish Supreme Court would not consider the case.
The Parliamentary Ombudsman investigated the IB organisation but came to the conclusion that they had not broken any laws. Concerning the break-ins to the leftists' organization, the Ombudsman stated that since the personnel of IB had entered the premises using a key or a lock-pick and had not stolen anything it could not be considered a crime.
In 2002 an extensive public report, named Rikets säkerhet och den personliga integriteten (Security of the Realm and personal integrity), was published on the operations of IB. This report clarified the details of the case, but it did not have any legal impact.
To date, no member of IB has ever been indicted, nor has any politician or government official, despite the revelation of widespread extra-constitutional and criminal activity.
References
^ Bratt, Peter (2007). Med rent uppsåt: memoarer (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier. p. 123ff. ISBN 978-91-0-011578-4.
^ a b Christian Holmén (3 May 2013). "40 år efter affären som skakade makten". Expressen (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
^ Bratt, Peter (2007). Med rent uppsåt: memoarer (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier. p. 143. ISBN 978-91-0-011578-4.
^ Martin Halldin (3 May 2013). "40 år efter IB-affären". ETC (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2013. | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Birger_Elm%C3%A9r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Birger Elmér","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birger_Elm%C3%A9r"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"intelligence agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_agency"},{"link_name":"Swedish Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"communists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism"}],"text":"Birger Elmér, director for IB 1965–1975The IB affair (Swedish: IB-affären) was the exposure of illegal surveillance operations by the IB secret Swedish intelligence agency within the Swedish Armed Forces. The two main purposes of the agency were to handle liaison with foreign intelligence agencies and to gather information about communists and other individuals who were perceived to be a threat to the nation.","title":"IB affair"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Birger Elmér","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birger_Elm%C3%A9r"},{"link_name":"Jan Guillou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Guillou"},{"link_name":"Peter Bratt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bratt"},{"link_name":"Håkan Isacson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5kan_Isacson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"leftist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leftist"},{"link_name":"Folket i Bild/Kulturfront","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folket_i_Bild/Kulturfront"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datum-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Birger Elmér","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birger_Elm%C3%A9r"},{"link_name":"Sven Andersson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sven_Andersson_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Olof Palme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Palme"},{"link_name":"Riksdag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riksdag"},{"link_name":"far-left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-left"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Algerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Central Intelligence Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"Shin Bet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shin_Bet"},{"link_name":"neutrality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrality_(international_relations)"},{"link_name":"Office for Special Assignments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_Special_Assignments"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"},{"link_name":"National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_South_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Palestinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_people"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Gunnar Ekberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gunnar_Ekberg&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Palestinian militant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_militant"},{"link_name":"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine"},{"link_name":"Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine"},{"link_name":"KGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB"},{"link_name":"terrorist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorist"},{"link_name":"Mossad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossad"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"North Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Sweden_(1967)"},{"link_name":"Maoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoism"},{"link_name":"stateless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statelessness"},{"link_name":"wiretap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiretap"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Väinö Leskinen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4in%C3%B6_Leskinen"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Finnish Security Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Security_Intelligence_Service"}],"text":"The meaning of the name IB is not known with certainty. It is often said to be an abbreviation of either Informationsbyrån (The Information Office, Information Bureau) or Insamling Birger ([Information-]Gathering Birger, after its director Birger Elmér). This is, however, speculation, and neither name was in general use within the organization.The key persons leading to the exposure of the IB were journalists Jan Guillou and Peter Bratt and their original main source Håkan Isacson.[1] The two reporters revealed their findings in the leftist magazine Folket i Bild/Kulturfront on 3 May 1973.[2] The story was immediately picked up by many leading Swedish dailies.[3] Their revelations were that:There was a secret intelligence agency in Sweden called IB, without official status. Its director Birger Elmér was reporting directly to select key persons at cabinet level, most likely defence minister Sven Andersson and Prime Minister Olof Palme.\nThe Riksdag was unaware of its activities.\nPeople with far-left views had been monitored and registered.\nIB agents had infiltrated Swedish left-wing organisations and sometimes tried to induce them into criminal acts.\nThere were Swedish spies operating abroad.\nIB spies had broken into the Egyptian and Algerian embassies in Stockholm.\nThe IB co-operated extensively with the Central Intelligence Agency and Shin Bet, in contrast to the official Swedish foreign policy of neutrality.See also: Office for Special AssignmentsIn the following issues of Folket i Bild/Kulturfront the two uncovered further activities of IB and interviewed a man who had infiltrated the Swedish movement supporting the FNL, Vietnamese National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam - at this time the FNL support network was a backbone of the radical opinion - and among other things, visited Palestinian guerilla camps in Jordan. The man worked for IB and had composed reports that, it was surmised, IB later passed on to the Israeli security services which resulted in the camps being bombed. The man, Gunnar Ekberg, claimed in his interview to have broken with IB, but in fact was still working for the organization. This was exposed in the following editions of FiB/Kulturfront, but by that time, Ekberg had gone underground. Swedish authorities claimed they were unable to locate him to stand trial. In 2009, he released an autobiography of his years in IB, attacking Guillou in particular for having misrepresented facts, been involved with Palestinian militant groups (particularly the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine), and worked for the KGB; and alleging widespread terrorist ties to the groups and persons monitored by IB. He also confirmed that he had been transferred from IB to the Mossad, an Israeli intelligence agency, immediately prior to his exposure.Guillou had opened the first article by accusing the director of IB of murder on these grounds. The same issue exposed a Swedish naval captain who had passed reports about the harbor security of Alexandria (implying, again, that IB were exchanging information with the Israelis); also the story of a woman who had, on the orders of IB, spied out potential bombing targets in Egypt.The magazine had information from a previous employee of IB, Håkan Isacson, who claimed that IB had broken into the offices of two political organizations: the FNL Groups, a pro-North Vietnamese organization, and the Communist Party of Sweden, a Maoist political party. This concerned a Jordanian citizen and a stateless citizen. A wiretap was installed in the latter case. After this uncovering, the defense minister did admit that IB engaged in espionage outside of Sweden and infiltrated organizations within Sweden, including wiretaps.Evidence was put forth in 1974 that IB had built up a large network of agents in Finland, which included the Finnish foreign minister Väinö Leskinen. This network's main mission was to gather information regarding the Soviet Union. IB had no contacts with the Finnish Security Intelligence Service, since it was believed to have been infiltrated by Soviet agents.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Olof Palme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof_Palme"},{"link_name":"Social Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Social_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"P.G. Vinge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P.G._Vinge&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Sven Andersson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sven_Andersson_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Defence minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_for_Defence_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Sven Andersson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sven_Andersson_(politician)"}],"text":"In November 1973, Prime Minister Olof Palme denied any link between IB and the Social Democrats. However, according to the memoir of ex-security service chief P.G. Vinge, Birger Elmér had regular contact with Palme and made his reports regularly to the Social Democratic Party secretary, Sven Andersson.Defence minister Sven Andersson denied that Sweden had spies abroad. He also denied that IB was involved in burglaries and documenting citizens' political opinions.","title":"Government response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jan Guillou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Guillou"},{"link_name":"Peter Bratt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bratt"},{"link_name":"Håkan Isacson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5kan_Isacson"},{"link_name":"Ove Holmqvist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ove_Holmqvist&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datum-2"},{"link_name":"Swedish Security Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Security_Service"},{"link_name":"espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage"},{"link_name":"Swedish Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prison-4"},{"link_name":"Parliamentary Ombudsman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_Ombudsman"}],"text":"Jan Guillou, Peter Bratt, Håkan Isacson and the photographer Ove Holmqvist were arrested 22 October 1973[2] by the Swedish Security Service on suspicion of espionage. On 4 January 1974 each was sentenced to 1 year in prison. Bratt and Guillou were both convicted of espionage; Isacson was convicted of espionage and accessory to espionage. After an appeal, Guillou's sentence was commuted to 10 months. The Swedish Supreme Court would not consider the case.[4]The Parliamentary Ombudsman investigated the IB organisation but came to the conclusion that they had not broken any laws. Concerning the break-ins to the leftists' organization, the Ombudsman stated that since the personnel of IB had entered the premises using a key or a lock-pick and had not stolen anything it could not be considered a crime.In 2002 an extensive public report, named Rikets säkerhet och den personliga integriteten (Security of the Realm and personal integrity), was published on the operations of IB. This report clarified the details of the case, but it did not have any legal impact.To date, no member of IB has ever been indicted, nor has any politician or government official, despite the revelation of widespread extra-constitutional and criminal activity.","title":"Legal consequences and investigations"}] | [{"image_text":"Birger Elmér, director for IB 1965–1975","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Birger_Elm%C3%A9r.jpg/220px-Birger_Elm%C3%A9r.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Bratt, Peter (2007). Med rent uppsåt: memoarer (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier. p. 123ff. ISBN 978-91-0-011578-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bratt","url_text":"Bratt, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-0-011578-4","url_text":"978-91-0-011578-4"}]},{"reference":"Christian Holmén (3 May 2013). \"40 år efter affären som skakade makten\". Expressen (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.expressen.se/nyheter/dokument/40-ar-efter-affaren-som-skakade-makten/","url_text":"\"40 år efter affären som skakade makten\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressen","url_text":"Expressen"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130702221449/http://www.expressen.se/nyheter/dokument/40-ar-efter-affaren-som-skakade-makten/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bratt, Peter (2007). Med rent uppsåt: memoarer (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier. p. 143. ISBN 978-91-0-011578-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bratt","url_text":"Bratt, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-0-011578-4","url_text":"978-91-0-011578-4"}]},{"reference":"Martin Halldin (3 May 2013). \"40 år efter IB-affären\". ETC (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130619211033/http://www.etc.se/intervju/40-ar-efter-ib-affaren","url_text":"\"40 år efter IB-affären\""},{"url":"http://www.etc.se/intervju/40-ar-efter-ib-affaren","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Fsv.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBirger_Elm%C3%A9r&sl=sv&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en","external_links_name":"View"},{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22IB+affair%22","external_links_name":"\"IB affair\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22IB+affair%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22IB+affair%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22IB+affair%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22IB+affair%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22IB+affair%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.expressen.se/nyheter/dokument/40-ar-efter-affaren-som-skakade-makten/","external_links_name":"\"40 år efter affären som skakade makten\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130702221449/http://www.expressen.se/nyheter/dokument/40-ar-efter-affaren-som-skakade-makten/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130619211033/http://www.etc.se/intervju/40-ar-efter-ib-affaren","external_links_name":"\"40 år efter IB-affären\""},{"Link":"http://www.etc.se/intervju/40-ar-efter-ib-affaren","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Forest_Song | The Forest Song | ["1 History of creation","2 Plot","3 Characters","3.1 Main characters","3.2 Minor characters","3.3 Mythical characters","4 Theater adaptations","5 Screen adaptations","6 Game adaptations","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | For the 2023 animated film, see Mavka: The Forest Song.
1911/1918 play by Lesya Ukrainka
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Forest Song AuthorLesya UkrainkaLanguageUkrainianGenreFéeriePublished1912Publication placeUkraine
The Forest Song (Ukrainian: Лісова пісня, romanized: Lisova pisnya, ALA-LC romanization: Lisova pisni︠a︡) is a poetic play in three acts by Lesya Ukrainka. The play was written in 1911 in the city of Kutaisi, and was first staged on 22 November 1918 at the Kyiv Drama Theater. The work is one of the first prototypes of fantasy in Ukrainian literature.
History of creation
The draft of the poetic play was written in the summer of 1911 in Kutaisi. The final revision and editing of it lasted until October. In a letter to her sister Olha, dated 27 November 1911, Lesya Ukrainka mentioned her hard work on the drama "Forest Song":
I wrote it during a very short period of time, 10–12 days, and I could not help writing. My mood was invincible, but after it I was sick and devastated… Then I started rewriting it, and I did not think that would take far more time than the writing itself, – just yesterday I finished this hassle and now my neck and shoulders ache as if I were carrying sacks.
In a letter to her mother, dated 2 January 1912, Lesya Ukrainka mentioned what had inspired her to write the play:
It seems to me, that I just remembered our forests and longed for them. And then I have always kept that Mavka in my mind, for a long time, ever since you told me something about Mavkas in Zhaborytsia when we were walking through a forest with small but very dense trees. Then in Kolodyazhne, on a moonlit night, I ran into the woods alone (you didn't know that) and there I waited for Mavka to appear. And over Nechimne, I imagined her, as we spent the night there — you remember — with my uncle Lev Skulinsky. Apparently, I already had to write it once, and now for some reason, the 'right time' has come — I myself do not understand why. I am fascinated by this image forever.
Numerous alterations and additions to the original draft of the manuscript demonstrate Lesya Ukrainka's hard and persistent work on it. The autograph consists of several text layers and reflects the various stages of its creation — from the initial to the final one.
The outline of the first Act is the most interesting. Sometimes it resembles a detailed plan, that includes the content of each individual scene and combines poetic text with prose, demonstrating the work of the writer's imagination.
Plot
Fairy Drama in Three Acts
Prologue
Old forest in Volyn, a wild and mysterious place. The beginning of spring. "He who rends the dikes" runs out of the forest. He talks to the Lost Babes and Rusalka, who reminds him of his love, reproaches him for betrayal. Water Goblin argues with Rusalka that she is dating a deceitful stranger. He only tempts Mermaids.
Act One
Uncle Lev and his nephew Lukash are going to build a house in the same area. Lev is an old man, kind. Lukash is still a young man. The old man tells the boy that he should be careful with the forest dwellers. The Forest Elf tells Rusalka that Lev will not offend them.
2020 stamp featuring Lesya Ukrainka, and the Forest Song character Lukash playing a flute for Mavka
Lukash makes a flute out of reeds, which is heard by Mavka, who previously talked to Forest Elf. Forest Elf warned the girl to avoid people, because they were only a disaster.
When Lukash is going to cut a birch with a knife, Mavka stops him and asks not to offend his sister. Lukash is surprised to have met such an unusually lush and beautiful young lady in the forest and asks who she is. Her name is Forest Mavka.
Lukash likes the girl for her changeable beauty, kind language, sensitivity to music and beauty. He says that people mate with each other when they love.
The boy also tells Mavka that they are going to build a house in the forest.
Mavka and Lukash fall in love with each other.
Act Two
The image of Lukash and Mavka on the reverse of the silver jubilee coin of the NBU.
Late summer, a house has already been built on the lawn, a garden has been planted. Lukash's mother scolds him for wasting time playing the flute. She shouts at Mavka, calling her useless and sloven. She reproaches her for her clothes and sends her to harvest wheat. But Mavka can't reap wheat, because it speaks to her.
Lukash explains to Mavka that his mother needs a daughter-in-law who would work in the fields and at home. Mavka tries to understand all these laws with her loving heart, but such small worries are alien to her, she lives in the world of beauty.
Widow Kylyna comes to the house. She takes a sickle from Mavka and begins to reap. She jokes with Lukash and then goes to the house. His mother kindly accepts her. Lukash accompanies Kylyna to the village.
Mavka suffers, and the Mermaid soothes her but warns against love, which can ruin a free soul. Lisovyk warns Mavka. He asks her to remember her freedom, the beauty of nature, and to free herself from the shackles of human love.
Mavka is going to become a forest princess again. She dresses in a crimson, silver haze. Perelesnyk begins to court her. They start dancing. But there comes Marishte, who wants to take Mavka away. She shouts that she is still alive.
Lukash treats Mavka rudely and shouts to his mother that he wants to send elders to Kylyna. Suffering from grief, Mavka goes to Marishte herself.
Act Three
On a cloudy autumn night, the figure of Mavka hangs out near Lukash's house. Lisovyk emerges from the forest. He explains that he ordered to turn Lukash into a werewolf. But Mavka hopes to turn him into a man by the power of her love. Lukash is scared of Mavka, runs away from her.
Kutz says that there is poverty in the Lukash's family, the mother-in-law, and the daughter-in-law are constantly arguing.
Mavka turns into a dry willow, from which Kylyna's boy cuts a flute. Flute says in Mavka's voice: "How sweet it plays, how deep it cuts, it cuts my chest, it takes my heart out…"
Kylyna wants to cut down a willow, but Perelesnyk saves her.
Kylyna asks her husband to return to the village. Lost Destiny comes, pointing to the flute. Lukash gave Mavka her soul but deprived her of her body. But she does not grieve for her body, her love is now eternal.
Mavka's last monologue, where she addresses Lukash is the culmination of the Act.
Lukash starts playing. Mavka flares up with her beauty, and he rushes to her. But she disappears. It's snowing. Lukash freezes with a smile on his face.
Characters
Main characters
Mavka
Lukash
Minor characters
Uncle Lev
Mother of Lukash
Kylyna
Children of Kylyna
Boy (Kylyna's son)
Mythical characters
Will-o'-the-wisp
He who dwells in rock (phantom signifying death and oblivion)
He who rends the dikes (destructive sprite dwelling in the freshets of spring)
Water Goblin (Vodianyk)
Field Sprite (nymph dwelling among the grain)
Rusalka
Lost Babes (Water nixies)
Kutz (Malicious imp)
Starvelings (based on Percival Cundy translation)
Fate (phantom — based on Percival Cundy translation)
Forest Elf (based on Percival Cundy translation)
Marishte
Theater adaptations
Mavka: (unfinished) based on Lesya Ukrainka's Forest Song, an opera by Stefania Turkewich, date unknown.
Forest Song: a ballet by Ukrainian composer Mykhailo Skorulsky created in 1936. It was first staged in 1946 in Kyiv.
Forest Song: an opera by Ukrainian composer Vitaliy Kyreiko (1957). Premieres in Lviv and the opera studio of the Kyiv Conservatory.
Forest Song: a ballet by composer Herman Zhukovsky (libretto by M. Gabovych, directed by O. Tarasov and O. Lapauri) at the Bolshoi Theater of the USSR — 1961.
Forest Song: an opera by Ukrainian composer Myroslav Volynsky. Premiere in Kamianets-Podilskyi at the Opera in Miniature Festival.
Forest Song: the play based on Percival Cundy's translation of the drama, performed by the Students` Theatre of the Applied Linguistics Department at the Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University.
Screen adaptations
Year
Title
Director
Mavka
Lukash
Film studio
Notes
1961
Forest Song
Viktor Ivchenko
Rayisa Nedashkivska
Vladimir Sidorchuk
Dovzhenko Film Studios
1976
Forest Song
Alla Hrachova
Halyna Ostapenko
Borys Romanov
Kievnauchfilm
Short animated film, (Ukrainian animation)
1980
Forest Song. Mavka
Yuri Ilyenko
Lyudmyla Yefymenko
Victor Kremliov
Dovzhenko Film Studios
2023
Mavka: The Forest Song
Oleksandra Ruban, Oleh Malamuzh
Natalka Denysenko
Artem Pyvovarov
Animagrad
Animated film (Ukrainian animation)
Game adaptations
The Forest Song: American video game.
See also
Mavka
Mavka: The Forest Song
Ukrainian literature
History of Ukrainian literature
Kutaisi
References
^ Світ фентезі: від Шевченка до Дяченків
^ Tkacz, Virlana; Phipps, Wanda (7 January 2024). "The Forest Song: A Fairy Play". Harvard University Press. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
^ a b c d e Tarnawsky, Maxim; Cundy, Percival; Ukrainka, Lesya (1950). "Lesia Ukrainka: Forest Song" (PDF). THE ELECTRONIC LIBRARY OF UKRAINIAN LITERATURE: An Internet Collection of Freely Accessible Literary Texts. New York: Bookman Associates. pp. 169–260. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
^ a b c d "Lesja Ukrainka – The forest song". l-ukrainka.name. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
^ "People of Kamyanets listened to the world premiere of "Forest Song"". kp.20minut.ua (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 10 March 2021.
^ "Лісова пісня" зазвучала англійською - кафедра прикладної лінгвістики ВНУ(Частина 3), retrieved 11 March 2021
^ "Animagrad".
External links
«Лісова пісня» на сайті «Леся Українка: енциклопедія життя і творчості»
Тамара Борисюк «Лісова Пісня» Лесі Українки і «Затоплений Дзвін» Гергарта Гауптмана
Ремарки в «Лісовій пісні»
«Лісова пісня» на сайті україномовної фантастики «Аргонавти всесвіту»
«Лісова пісня» на сайті «Чтиво»
Фрагменти з опери Мирослава Волинського «Лісова пісня» 1, 2, 3, 4
Л. Українка «Лісова пісня» — гімн чистим почуттям і нашій природі. Газ. «Волинь-нова», 6 серпня 2011 р., с. 6.
Portals: Books Speculative fiction Speculative fiction/Fantasy Ukraine | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mavka: The Forest Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka:_The_Forest_Song"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian"},{"link_name":"ALA-LC romanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALA-LC_romanization"},{"link_name":"Lesya Ukrainka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesya_Ukrainka"},{"link_name":"Kutaisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutaisi"},{"link_name":"Kyiv Drama Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Franko_National_Academic_Drama_Theater"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"For the 2023 animated film, see Mavka: The Forest Song.1911/1918 play by Lesya UkrainkaThe Forest Song (Ukrainian: Лісова пісня, romanized: Lisova pisnya, ALA-LC romanization: Lisova pisni︠a︡) is a poetic play in three acts by Lesya Ukrainka. The play was written in 1911 in the city of Kutaisi, and was first staged on 22 November 1918 at the Kyiv Drama Theater. The work is one of the first prototypes of fantasy in Ukrainian literature.[1]","title":"The Forest Song"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The draft of the poetic play was written in the summer of 1911 in Kutaisi. The final revision and editing of it lasted until October. In a letter to her sister Olha, dated 27 November 1911, Lesya Ukrainka mentioned her hard work on the drama \"Forest Song\":I wrote it during a very short period of time, 10–12 days, and I could not help writing. My mood was invincible, but after it I was sick and devastated… Then I started rewriting it, and I did not think that would take far more time than the writing itself, – just yesterday I finished this hassle and now my neck and shoulders ache as if I were carrying sacks.In a letter to her mother, dated 2 January 1912, Lesya Ukrainka mentioned what had inspired her to write the play:It seems to me, that I just remembered our forests and longed for them. And then I have always kept that Mavka in my mind, for a long time, ever since you told me something about Mavkas in Zhaborytsia when we were walking through a forest with small but very dense trees. Then in Kolodyazhne, on a moonlit night, I ran into the woods alone (you didn't know that) and there I waited for Mavka to appear. And over Nechimne, I imagined her, as we spent the night there — you remember — with my uncle Lev Skulinsky. Apparently, I already had to write it once, and now for some reason, the 'right time' has come — I myself do not understand why. I am fascinated by this image forever.Numerous alterations and additions to the original draft of the manuscript demonstrate Lesya Ukrainka's hard and persistent work on it. The autograph consists of several text layers and reflects the various stages of its creation — from the initial to the final one.The outline of the first Act is the most interesting. Sometimes it resembles a detailed plan, that includes the content of each individual scene and combines poetic text with prose, demonstrating the work of the writer's imagination.","title":"History of creation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Ukraine_s1817.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lesya Ukrainka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesya_Ukrainka"},{"link_name":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"},{"link_name":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"},{"link_name":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"},{"link_name":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81.jpeg"},{"link_name":"NBU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bank_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"text":"Fairy Drama in Three Acts[2]PrologueOld forest in Volyn, a wild and mysterious place. The beginning of spring. \"He who rends the dikes\" runs out of the forest. He talks to the Lost Babes and Rusalka, who reminds him of his love, reproaches him for betrayal. Water Goblin argues with Rusalka that she is dating a deceitful stranger. He only tempts Mermaids.[3][4]Act OneUncle Lev and his nephew Lukash are going to build a house in the same area. Lev is an old man, kind. Lukash is still a young man. The old man tells the boy that he should be careful with the forest dwellers. The Forest Elf tells Rusalka that Lev will not offend them.2020 stamp featuring Lesya Ukrainka, and the Forest Song character Lukash playing a flute for MavkaLukash makes a flute out of reeds, which is heard by Mavka, who previously talked to Forest Elf. Forest Elf warned the girl to avoid people, because they were only a disaster.When Lukash is going to cut a birch with a knife, Mavka stops him and asks not to offend his sister. Lukash is surprised to have met such an unusually lush and beautiful young lady in the forest and asks who she is. Her name is Forest Mavka.Lukash likes the girl for her changeable beauty, kind language, sensitivity to music and beauty. He says that people mate with each other when they love.The boy also tells Mavka that they are going to build a house in the forest.Mavka and Lukash fall in love with each other.[3][4]Act TwoThe image of Lukash and Mavka on the reverse of the silver jubilee coin of the NBU.Late summer, a house has already been built on the lawn, a garden has been planted. Lukash's mother scolds him for wasting time playing the flute. She shouts at Mavka, calling her useless and sloven. She reproaches her for her clothes and sends her to harvest wheat. But Mavka can't reap wheat, because it speaks to her.Lukash explains to Mavka that his mother needs a daughter-in-law who would work in the fields and at home. Mavka tries to understand all these laws with her loving heart, but such small worries are alien to her, she lives in the world of beauty.Widow Kylyna comes to the house. She takes a sickle from Mavka and begins to reap. She jokes with Lukash and then goes to the house. His mother kindly accepts her. Lukash accompanies Kylyna to the village.Mavka suffers, and the Mermaid soothes her but warns against love, which can ruin a free soul. Lisovyk warns Mavka. He asks her to remember her freedom, the beauty of nature, and to free herself from the shackles of human love.Mavka is going to become a forest princess again. She dresses in a crimson, silver haze. Perelesnyk begins to court her. They start dancing. But there comes Marishte, who wants to take Mavka away. She shouts that she is still alive.Lukash treats Mavka rudely and shouts to his mother that he wants to send elders to Kylyna. Suffering from grief, Mavka goes to Marishte herself.[3][4]Act ThreeOn a cloudy autumn night, the figure of Mavka hangs out near Lukash's house. Lisovyk emerges from the forest. He explains that he ordered to turn Lukash into a werewolf. But Mavka hopes to turn him into a man by the power of her love. Lukash is scared of Mavka, runs away from her.Kutz says that there is poverty in the Lukash's family, the mother-in-law, and the daughter-in-law are constantly arguing.Mavka turns into a dry willow, from which Kylyna's boy cuts a flute. Flute says in Mavka's voice: \"How sweet it plays, how deep it cuts, it cuts my chest, it takes my heart out…\"Kylyna wants to cut down a willow, but Perelesnyk saves her.Kylyna asks her husband to return to the village. Lost Destiny comes, pointing to the flute. Lukash gave Mavka her soul but deprived her of her body. But she does not grieve for her body, her love is now eternal.Mavka's last monologue, where she addresses Lukash is the culmination of the Act.Lukash starts playing. Mavka flares up with her beauty, and he rushes to her. But she disappears. It's snowing. Lukash freezes with a smile on his face.[3][4]","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"}],"sub_title":"Main characters","text":"Mavka\nLukash","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Minor characters","text":"Uncle Lev\nMother of Lukash\nKylyna\nChildren of Kylyna\nBoy (Kylyna's son)","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Will-o'-the-wisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will-o%27-the-wisp"},{"link_name":"Vodianyk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodyanoy"},{"link_name":"Rusalka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusalka"},{"link_name":"nixies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixie_(water_spirit)"},{"link_name":"Starvelings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlydzens"},{"link_name":"Percival Cundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Percival_Cundy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny"},{"link_name":"Percival Cundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Percival_Cundy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Percival Cundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Percival_Cundy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Marishte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morana_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"sub_title":"Mythical characters","text":"Will-o'-the-wisp\nHe who dwells in rock (phantom signifying death and oblivion)\nHe who rends the dikes (destructive sprite dwelling in the freshets of spring)\nWater Goblin (Vodianyk)\nField Sprite (nymph dwelling among the grain)\nRusalka\nLost Babes (Water nixies)\nKutz (Malicious imp)\nStarvelings (based on Percival Cundy translation)\nFate (phantom — based on Percival Cundy translation)\nForest Elf (based on Percival Cundy translation)\nMarishte[3]","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stefania Turkewich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefania_Turkewich"},{"link_name":"Mykhailo Skorulsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykhailo_Skorulskyi"},{"link_name":"Kyiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv"},{"link_name":"Forest Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Song_(opera)"},{"link_name":"Vitaliy Kyreiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaliy_Kyreiko"},{"link_name":"Lviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lviv"},{"link_name":"Kyiv Conservatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Conservatory"},{"link_name":"Herman Zhukovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herman_Zhukovsky&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bolshoi Theater of the USSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Myroslav Volynsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myroslav_Volynsky&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kamianets-Podilskyi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesya_Ukrainka_East_European_National_University"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Mavka: (unfinished) based on Lesya Ukrainka's Forest Song, an opera by Stefania Turkewich, date unknown.\nForest Song: a ballet by Ukrainian composer Mykhailo Skorulsky created in 1936. It was first staged in 1946 in Kyiv.\nForest Song: an opera by Ukrainian composer Vitaliy Kyreiko (1957). Premieres in Lviv and the opera studio of the Kyiv Conservatory.\nForest Song: a ballet by composer Herman Zhukovsky (libretto by M. Gabovych, directed by O. Tarasov and O. Lapauri) at the Bolshoi Theater of the USSR — 1961.\nForest Song: an opera by Ukrainian composer Myroslav Volynsky. Premiere in Kamianets-Podilskyi at the Opera in Miniature Festival.[5]\nForest Song: the play based on Percival Cundy's translation of the drama, performed by the Students` Theatre of the Applied Linguistics Department at the Lesya Ukrainka Volyn National University.[6]","title":"Theater adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Screen adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Forest Song: American video game.[citation needed]","title":"Game adaptations"}] | [{"image_text":"2020 stamp featuring Lesya Ukrainka, and the Forest Song character Lukash playing a flute for Mavka","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Stamp_of_Ukraine_s1817.jpg/220px-Stamp_of_Ukraine_s1817.jpg"},{"image_text":"The image of Lukash and Mavka on the reverse of the silver jubilee coin of the NBU.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81.jpeg"}] | [{"title":"Mavka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka"},{"title":"Mavka: The Forest Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavka:_The_Forest_Song"},{"title":"Ukrainian literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_literature"},{"title":"History of Ukrainian literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ukrainian_literature"},{"title":"Kutaisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutaisi"}] | [{"reference":"Tkacz, Virlana; Phipps, Wanda (7 January 2024). \"The Forest Song: A Fairy Play\". Harvard University Press. Retrieved 7 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674291874","url_text":"\"The Forest Song: A Fairy Play\""}]},{"reference":"Tarnawsky, Maxim; Cundy, Percival; Ukrainka, Lesya (1950). \"Lesia Ukrainka: Forest Song\" (PDF). THE ELECTRONIC LIBRARY OF UKRAINIAN LITERATURE: An Internet Collection of Freely Accessible Literary Texts. New York: Bookman Associates. pp. 169–260. Retrieved 7 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://tarnawsky.artsci.utoronto.ca/elul/English/Ukrainka/Ukrainka-ForestSong.pdf","url_text":"\"Lesia Ukrainka: Forest Song\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lesja Ukrainka – The forest song\". l-ukrainka.name. Retrieved 7 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://l-ukrainka.name/en/dramas/lisovapisnja.html","url_text":"\"Lesja Ukrainka – The forest song\""}]},{"reference":"\"People of Kamyanets listened to the world premiere of \"Forest Song\"\". kp.20minut.ua (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 10 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://kp.20minut.ua/Podii/kamyanchani-sluhali-svitovu-premru-lisova-pisnya-foto-10621797.html","url_text":"\"People of Kamyanets listened to the world premiere of \"Forest Song\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Лісова пісня\" зазвучала англійською - кафедра прикладної лінгвістики ВНУ(Частина 3), retrieved 11 March 2021","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwHEAyaqfrw","url_text":"\"Лісова пісня\" зазвучала англійською - кафедра прикладної лінгвістики ВНУ(Частина 3)"}]},{"reference":"\"Animagrad\".","urls":[{"url":"https://animagrad.com/en/","url_text":"\"Animagrad\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22The+Forest+Song%22","external_links_name":"\"The Forest Song\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22The+Forest+Song%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22The+Forest+Song%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22The+Forest+Song%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22The+Forest+Song%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22The+Forest+Song%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://svitfantasy.com.ua/articles/2017/ukrajinske-fentezi-dlya-knyhoturystiv.html","external_links_name":"Світ фентезі: від Шевченка до Дяченків"},{"Link":"https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674291874","external_links_name":"\"The Forest Song: A Fairy Play\""},{"Link":"https://tarnawsky.artsci.utoronto.ca/elul/English/Ukrainka/Ukrainka-ForestSong.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Lesia Ukrainka: Forest Song\""},{"Link":"https://l-ukrainka.name/en/dramas/lisovapisnja.html","external_links_name":"\"Lesja Ukrainka – The forest song\""},{"Link":"https://kp.20minut.ua/Podii/kamyanchani-sluhali-svitovu-premru-lisova-pisnya-foto-10621797.html","external_links_name":"\"People of Kamyanets listened to the world premiere of \"Forest Song\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwHEAyaqfrw","external_links_name":"\"Лісова пісня\" зазвучала англійською - кафедра прикладної лінгвістики ВНУ(Частина 3)"},{"Link":"https://animagrad.com/en/","external_links_name":"\"Animagrad\""},{"Link":"http://myslenedrevo.com.ua/studies/lesja/works/dramas/lp0.html","external_links_name":"«Лісова пісня» на сайті «Леся Українка: енциклопедія життя і творчості»"},{"Link":"http://litmisto.org.ua/?p=3035","external_links_name":"Тамара Борисюк «Лісова Пісня» Лесі Українки і «Затоплений Дзвін» Гергарта Гауптмана"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130318005709/http://www.ukr-writer.com.ua/%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8-%D0%B2-%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9-%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%96/","external_links_name":"Ремарки в «Лісовій пісні»"},{"Link":"http://argo-unf.at.ua/load/kozlov_ivan/ukrajinka_lesja/648","external_links_name":"«Лісова пісня» на сайті україномовної фантастики «Аргонавти всесвіту»"},{"Link":"http://chtyvo.org.ua/authors/Ukrainka/Lisova_pisnia_vyd_2007/","external_links_name":"«Лісова пісня» на сайті «Чтиво»"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oalpNKlkXo","external_links_name":"1"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fq_A695dWoo","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9L4Kem9m8Qg","external_links_name":"3"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHyObNWfs4Y","external_links_name":"4"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_SEC_Championship_Game | 2001 SEC Championship Game | ["1 References","2 External links"] | For the SEC men's basketball championship, see 2001 SEC men's basketball tournament.
College football game2001 SEC Championship GameConference Championship2001 SEC Championship logo.
Tennessee Volunteers
LSU Tigers
(10–1)
(8–3)
20
31
Head coach: Phillip Fulmer
Head coach: Nick Saban
APCoachesBCS
222
APCoachesBCS
2120NR
1234
Total
Tennessee
01703
20
LSU
73615
31
DateDecember 8, 2001Season2001StadiumGeorgia DomeLocationAtlanta, GeorgiaMVPQB Matt Mauck, LSUFavoriteTennessee by 7RefereeSteve ShawAttendance74,843United States TV coverageNetworkCBSAnnouncersVerne Lundquist play-by-playTodd Blackledge colorJill Arrington sideline
SEC Championship Game
< 2000
2002 >
2001 Southeastern Conference football standings
vte
Conf
Overall
Team
W
L
W
L
Eastern Division
No. 4 Tennessee x
7
–
1
11
–
2
No. 3 Florida %
6
–
2
10
–
2
No. 13 South Carolina
5
–
3
9
–
3
No. 22 Georgia
5
–
3
8
–
4
Kentucky
1
–
7
2
–
9
Vanderbilt
0
–
8
2
–
9
Western Division
No. 7 LSU xy$
5
–
3
10
–
3
Auburn x
5
–
3
7
–
5
Ole Miss
4
–
4
7
–
4
Alabama
4
–
4
7
–
5
Arkansas
4
–
4
7
–
5
Mississippi State
2
–
6
3
–
8
Championship: LSU 31, Tennessee 20
$ – BCS representative as conference champion% – BCS at-large representativex – Division champion/co-championsy – Championship game participantRankings from AP Poll
The 2001 SEC Championship Game was won by the LSU Tigers 31–20 over the Tennessee Volunteers. The game was played in the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia on December 8, 2001 and was televised to a national audience on CBS. The loss kept Tennessee from a second appearance in the BCS National Championship Game.
References
^ "SEC Championship History". Retrieved November 27, 2012.
External links
Recap of the game from SECsports.com
vte2001 NCAA football conference championship gamesDivision I-A
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vteLSU Tigers footballVenues
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National championship seasons in bold
This college football-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2001 SEC men's basketball tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_SEC_men%27s_basketball_tournament"},{"link_name":"SEC Championship Game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEC_Championship_Game"},{"link_name":"LSU Tigers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_LSU_Tigers_football_team"},{"link_name":"Tennessee Volunteers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Tennessee_Volunteers_football_team"},{"link_name":"Georgia Dome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Dome"},{"link_name":"Atlanta, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"}],"text":"For the SEC men's basketball championship, see 2001 SEC men's basketball tournament.College football gameThe 2001 SEC Championship Game was won by the LSU Tigers 31–20 over the Tennessee Volunteers. The game was played in the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia on December 8, 2001 and was televised to a national audience on CBS. The loss kept Tennessee from a second appearance in the BCS National Championship Game.","title":"2001 SEC Championship Game"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"SEC Championship History\". Retrieved November 27, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vegasinsider.com/college-football/history/championship/sec/","url_text":"\"SEC Championship History\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.vegasinsider.com/college-football/history/championship/sec/","external_links_name":"\"SEC Championship History\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060214002307/http://secsports.com/index.php?s=&url_channel_id=0&url_subchannel_id=&url_article_id=2734&change_well_id=2","external_links_name":"Recap of the game from SECsports.com"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2001_SEC_Championship_Game&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empresa_de_Ferrocarriles_Ecuatorianos | Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos | ["1 Construction","2 Other public former railways","3 Operation","4 Demise","5 Restoration","6 Route information","6.1 Southern Division (Division Sur)","6.2 Northern Division (Division Norte)","6.3 Sibambe - Cuenca","7 Services prior to closure","8 Closure and liquidation","9 Transfer and suggested reopening","10 Proposals","11 Gallery","12 Books","13 See also","14 References","15 External links"] | Railway line in Ecuador
Railways in Ecuador: Routes with passenger traffic Routes in usable state Unusable or dismantled routes
The Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública (Ecuadorian Railways Company) is the national railway of Ecuador. The railway system was devised to connect the Pacific coast with the Andean highlands. After many decades of service the railway was severely damaged by heavy rainfall during the El Niño in 1997 and 1998 and from general neglect as the Pan-American Highway siphoned off passengers.
In 2008 the president Rafael Correa named the railroad a "national cultural patrimony" and indicated that it would be restored. The government of Ecuador started to rehabilitate the railway and service was restored between Guayaquil and Quito by 2013.
An extensive range of services, primarily for leisure travellers, were operated by steam and diesel-electric locomotive hauled trains and by autoferros (bus bodies mounted on rail chassis).
All railway services ceased in 2020 and by presidential decree the liquidation of the railway company commenced.
Construction
Baldwin 2-8-0 of the G&Q Line
1908, during the construction
The project of an Ecuadorian railway was started by President Gabriel García Moreno in 1861. The first section was opened between Yaguachi and Milagro in 1873, and Bucay was reached by 1888.
The push into the Andes was made under President Eloy Alfaro who planned to link Quito in the highlands to Guayaquil on the coast of Ecuador. For advice, Alfaro turned to Col. William Findlay Shunk, a well-known North American engineer who designed the New York El, and who had mapped a route of the InterContinental Railway (which was to connect North and South America) through Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama in 1892. The InterContinental Railway was never built. However, in 1897, Eloy Alfaro commissioned a contract with Archer Harman and a team of investors for the newly created New Jersey corporation, the Guayaquil and Quito Railway Company," or the G&Q, to rehabilitate and complete the railroad from Guayaquil to Quito. Archer Harman and his brother, Major John A. Harman (Col. Shunk's son-in-law) were from Staunton, Virginia. Together, Archer (G&Q financier) and John (G&Q Chief Engineer) helped Alfaro to (1) realize his dream of connecting disparate parts of Ecuador, (2) break the hold of the Catholic Church, and (3) usher the 20th Century and modernity into Ecuador.
The G&Q line was built between 1897 and 1908, when the line reached Quito amidst celebration that lasted for days, and shortened the often lengthy trip from Quito to Guayaquil to two days.
The G&Q Railway evolved into the Southern Division (Division Sur) of Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos.
The northern line, continuing from Quito to San Lorenzo was completed in 1957.
A branch from the G&Q at Sibambe to Cuenca was completed in 1965.
Other public former railways
Ferrocarril Ambato - Cururay. Commenced from Ambato (on the G&Q Southern Division), reached Pelileo (35 km) and was intended to continue to Baños de Agua Santa, located on the banks of the Pastaza River then intended to extend until it crossed the Arajuno River and reached a navigable point on the Curaray, a total length of 117 km. Construction commenced in 1912 and the company ceased operating in February 1936.
Ferrocarril de Bahia a Chone. Commenced at Bahia de Caraquez and ran to Chone (79 km). Construction commenced in 1909 and was completed in 1912. The line ceased 'in the mid 1960's'.
Ferrocarril Central de Ecuador. Commenced at Manta and ran to Santa Ana. Construction commenced in 1911 and was completed in 1913. Services ceased in 1946.
Ferrocarril de Guayacil a Salinas. Commenced at Guyaquil and ran to Salinas (152 km). Construction was completed in 1936. Services ceased in 1954.
Ferrocarril de el Oro. Commenced at Puerto Bolivar and ran to Piedras (75 km) with Loja as the intended terminus. The line had two branches from Machala (6 km from Puerto Bolivar), one to Pasaje with Cuenca as the intended terminus, and one to La Iberia with Duran as the intended terminus. Construction commenced around 1893. Services ceased for certain by 1971, probably earlier in reality.
Operation
Tourist train, in Alausí, to the "Nariz del Diablo", 2008
The railway represents the largest infrastructure of the country a total length of 965.5 kilometres (600 mi). Its single track uses a gauge of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm). The 446.7 kilometres (277.6 mi) Southern Division (Division Sur) starts at the harbour of Guayaquil with a track to Duran and then heads east into the Andean mountains where a more than 2.5 kilometres (8,200 ft) difference in altitude has to be overcome to reach Riobamba at 2,754 metres (9,035 ft). A major gain in altitude is made at the Devil's Nose (Nariz del Diablo) where the train shunts back and forth along the rocky promontory. From Riobamba the train heads north passing its highest point at Urbina an altitude of 3,609 metres (11,841 ft) to reach Quito at an altitude of 2,850 metres (9,350 ft).
The 373.4 kilometres (232.0 mi) Northern Division (Division Norte) was completed in 1957. It connects Quito to the northern sea port of San Lorenzo over Ibarra, Primer Paso and Cachavi.
The Cuenca line branches off near Sibambe and represents the 145.4 kilometres (90.3 mi) Subdivision Sur. It was constructed between 1915 and 1965.
A converted bus serving as a self-propelled passenger car
The railway used to be of general economic significance for many decades. Initially steam engines were obtained from the Baldwin Locomotive Works. The last set of 2-8-0 steam engines were obtained in 1953. In 1957 five Alstom diesel-electric locomotives were delivered for the San Lorenzo line, Ten Alco diesel-electric locomotives were delivered in 1968 and nine GEC-Alstom locomotives were delivered in 1992. Few steam and diesel locomotives were in an operational mode, the exact numbers subject to conflicting information. There were also a number of railbuses (autoferros) in operation.
At the point of liquidation the railway had 12 diesel-electric locomotives, 7 steam locomotives and 11 autoferro, not all operational.
Demise
Since the 1997/98 disruptions no continuous service has been conducted and further degradation had made the railway almost useless. Road services have taken over passenger and freight transportation in Ecuador. At the 2008 centennial only 10 percent of the railway was open only tourist trains remain active.
Restoration
In 2008 the president Rafael Correa named the railroad a "national cultural patrimony" and indicated that it would be restored. The EFE was transformed in a public corporation: Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Publica (FEEP). FEEP publicised details of the restoration work in a series of publications 'Guardavia', commencing with issue 1 in May 2010 and concluding with issue 11 in December 2014.
The first section of line to be inaugurated was that between Quito (Chimbacalle) and Latacunga on 30 December 2008.
Following this a short section (3.5 km) of the former Sibambe to Cuenca line, that between El Tambo and Coyoctor / Baños del Inca was inaugurated on 24 April 2009.
The line from the coast at Duran (near Guayaquil) to Yaguachi was inaugurated on 29 June 2010.
Two sections of line were inaugurated in 2011. The section between Alausí and Sibambe which includes the switchback at the Devil's Nose was inaugurated on 16 February and that between Ibarra and Salinas on 13 December.
The section from Colta via Riobamba to Urbina was inaugurated on 3 October 2012.
The first phase of the rehabilitation project, the 271 km between Quito and Guamote, was inaugurated on December 27 and 28, 2012.
The second phase of the rehabilitation project, the 181 km between Guamote and Duran, was inaugurated on January 28 and 29, 2013. Thus by 2013 the entire Guayaquil/Duran - Quito railway was restored and open to the public.
The section of line between Ibarra and Otavalo was inaugurated in 2014.
Route information
Southern Division (Division Sur)
Guayaquil <> Quito; 1897-1908; 446.7 km (277.6 mi)
Location
Date reached
Date restored
Notes
Co-ordinates
Other comments
Guayaquil
n/a
n/a
Opposite bank of river to railway terminus
Durán a
1888
n/a
Original terminus
2°10′11″S 79°51′10″W / 2.169854°S 79.852652°W / -2.169854; -79.852652
Durán b
1887
2010
Workshops and terminus in recent years
2°09′57″S 79°50′50″W / 2.165862°S 79.847311°W / -2.165862; -79.847311
Yaguachi
1873-1875
2010
Milagro
1873-1875
2013
Bucay
1888
2013
Workshops
2°12′06″S 79°08′11″W / 2.201622°S 79.136402°W / -2.201622; -79.136402
Sibambe
1902
2011
Devil's Nose 'zig-zag', junction for Cuenca
2°14′35″S 78°52′41″W / 2.243087°S 78.877978°W / -2.243087; -78.877978
Alausí
1902
2011
Riobamba
1905
2012
Workshops
1°40′01″S 78°39′57″W / 1.667083°S 78.665759°W / -1.667083; -78.665759 (workshops)
1°40′11″S 78°39′13″W / 1.669850°S 78.653688°W / -1.669850; -78.653688 (station)
Urbina
1906
2012
highest point ( 1°30′01″S 78°43′59″W / 1.500321°S 78.733177°W / -1.500321; -78.733177 (Urbina) )
Ambato
1907
2012
Original station (1905) built in what is now Av. 12 de Octubre, where the Central Market now occupies the old station grounds.
Current station (2012) located in Ingahurco next to the interprovincial bus terminal.
Latacunga
1907
2008
Machachi
1907
2008
Quito
1908
2008
Workshops
0°14′50″S 78°31′00″W / 0.247188°S 78.516645°W / -0.247188; -78.516645 (workshops)
0°14′18″S 78°30′56″W / 0.238321°S 78.515425°W / -0.238321; -78.515425 (station)
The line was officially opened on President Alfaro's birthday, June 25, 1908
Northern Division (Division Norte)
Quito <> San Lorenzo; > 1957; 373.4 km (232.0 mi)
Location
Date reached
Date restored
Notes
Co-ordinates
Other comments
Quito
n/a
construction commenced 1916
0°14′18″S 78°30′56″W / 0.238321°S 78.515425°W / -0.238321; -78.515425 (station)
Cayambe
1928
n/a
Otavalo
1928
2014
0°13′28″N 78°15′40″W / 0.224431°N 78.260975°W / 0.224431; -78.260975
Service suspended between Otavalo and San Roque before FEEP liquidation.
San Roque
1928
2014
0°18′01″N 78°13′52″W / 0.300173°N 78.231108°W / 0.300173; -78.231108
Ibarra
1929
2011
Workshops and museum
0°20′45″N 78°07′27″W / 0.345756°N 78.124222°W / 0.345756; -78.124222 (workshops)
0°20′52″N 78°07′18″W / 0.347767°N 78.121563°W / 0.347767; -78.121563 (station)
Salinas
1945
2011
0°29′38″N 78°07′57″W / 0.493915°N 78.132427°W / 0.493915; -78.132427
Tourist service between Ibarra and Salinas until FEEP liquidation.
Primera Paso
n/a
0°34′25″N 78°07′36″W / 0.573630°N 78.126641°W / 0.573630; -78.126641
Tourist service between Ibarra and Primera Paso until early 2000s (at least 2005). Thomas Cook International Timetable for 2003 shows a service.
Lita
n/a
0°52′31″N 78°27′13″W / 0.875224°N 78.453689°W / 0.875224; -78.453689
Alto Tambo
n/a
0°54′44″N 78°32′50″W / 0.912155°N 78.547216°W / 0.912155; -78.547216
An unofficial 'jeep-train' operates north from here (towards San Lorenzo) to Venturas (location km318).
El Progresso
n/a
A service operated between El Progresso and San Lorenzo until around 2014. Thomas Cook International Timetable for 2010 shows a service.
Cachavi
n/a
San Javier de Cachavi
1°02′35″N 78°46′01″W / 1.043018°N 78.767034°W / 1.043018; -78.767034
San Lorenzo
1957
n/a
Workshops
1°17′10″N 78°50′05″W / 1.286165°N 78.834634°W / 1.286165; -78.834634 (station)
1°17′19″N 78°50′23″W / 1.288495°N 78.839797°W / 1.288495; -78.839797 (workshops)
Sibambe - Cuenca
Sibambe <> Cuenca: > 1965: 145.4 km
Location
Date reached
Date restored
Notes
Co-ordinates
Sibambe
junction with Duran - Quito line
2°14′35″S 78°52′41″W / 2.243087°S 78.877978°W / -2.243087; -78.877978
Chunchi
1921
Tipococha
1927
El Tambo
1930
2009
2°30′45″S 78°55′29″W / 2.512517°S 78.924623°W / -2.512517; -78.924623
Coyoctor
2009
Baños del Inca
2°31′33″S 78°54′51″W / 2.525936°S 78.914251°W / -2.525936; -78.914251
Biblian
1945
Azogues
1948
2°44′13″S 78°51′08″W / 2.736838°S 78.852143°W / -2.736838; -78.852143
Cuenca
1965
2°54′57″S 78°59′39″W / 2.915928°S 78.994282°W / -2.915928; -78.994282
Comprehensive details of the lines, their stations and distances have been compiled and published by Jim Fergusson and have now been made available through The Branch Line Society in the United Kingdom.
Services prior to closure
A number of leisure orientated services operated, including from Quito to Latacunga via Cotopaxi National Park, between Alausi and Sibambe (Devil's Nose / Nariz del Diablo), between El Tambo and Baños del Inca, between Duran and Yaguachi and between Ibarra and Salinas. A premium service 'Tren Crucero' operated the whole length of the Southern Division from Duran to Quito.
Closure and liquidation
Due to the impacts of the coronavirus pandemic upon the national economy, all trains were suspended in March 2020.
"All trains have been cancelled from March 17, 2020 on until further notice." Source: Volta o Trem 24-2 via Friends of Latin American Railways
Subsequent to this the company entered liquidation.
"Through Executive Decree No. 1057 of May 19, 2020, amended through executive decreess No. 1096 of July 17, 2020, No. 1123 of August 6, 2020, No. 1243 of February 2021 and No. 1288 of April 13, 2021, the Constitutional President of the Republic, ordered the extinction of Railways of Ecuador, Public Company-FEEP" .
The official liquidator's progress report provides information on the condition of the line (operational, non-operational, abandoned) at the time of liquidation.
Transfer and suggested reopening
On 5 January 2022 the railway assets were transferred to the Ecuadorian State.
Today Minister @MarceloHCabrera signed the transfer of the National Railway Infrastructure to @ObrasPublicasEc with which this patrimonial asset passes into the hands of the Ecuadorian State and marks a new stage.
@MarceloHCabrera highlighted that this system will contribute to tourism, passenger transport and sustainable mobility since there is the possibility of implementing electric trains.
After this signing, the legal and administrative processes will be carried out so that the railway system is concessioned through a Public-Private Alliance, which will allow repowering and rehabilitating the Ecuadorian train.
Proposals
There are plans to expand the services further to Colombia and Venezuela.
Gallery
On the Malecón in Guayaquil
Switchback at the Devil's Nose
Riobamba railway station
Railway poster, Riobamba station
Books
Elizabeth Harman Brainard and Katharine Robinson Brainard. Railroad in the Sky: the Guayaquil & Quito Railway in Ecuador 1897-1925. Publisher: Marion, MA: Atlantis Ltd. Partnership, 2003. ISBN 0-615-12411-9 ISBN 9780615124117
Marcelo Meneses-Jurado: Tren al Sol. Train to the Sun. Journey on Board the Most Difficult Train in the World.
Sandra Naranjo, Pabel Muñoz, Paola Carvajal, Richard Espinosa, Jorge Eduardo Carrera, Francisco Mosquera, Mayra Prado T. Construcción y Rehabilitación del Tren de Alfaro. Publisher: Directorio Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, 2014. ISBN 978-9942-07-742-4
See also
Tren Crucero Ecuador
References
^ a b "Plan para rehabilitar ferrocarril". El Universo. June 30, 2005. Retrieved March 23, 2009.
^ a b c d e f g Mark Holston. "Remnants of an intercontinental railway: considered one of the most difficult engineering tasks in the world, the Guayaquil-Quito Railroad continues to inspire awe and admiration 100 years after its completion". Retrieved March 23, 2009.
^ a b c Haines, Gavin, "Ecuador’s long-neglected railway system chugs back to life; its founder Eloy Alfaro would be proud," Cuenca High Life, 3 June 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
^ De Quito a Durán, en tren desde el 2012, promete EFE, El Universo, December 23rd 2009.
^ a b "Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas". Official Liquidator's Progress Report. 31 December 2021. p. 4. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p ferrolatino. "Aus der Geschichte der Eisenbahn in Ecuador". Archived from the original on March 19, 2012. Retrieved March 23, 2009.
^ CHRISTIAN ANDRÉS NIEVES CASTRO (2012). PLAN DE DESARROLLO TURÍSTICO – CULTURAL A TRAVÉS DE LA IMPLEMENTACIÓN DE ACTIVIDADES LÚDICAS EN LA RUTA DEL TREN CHIMBACALLE – EL BOLICHE (in Spanish). Quito, Ecuador: UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA EQUINOCCIAL. p. 27.
^ Vélez, Bernardo Avellán (19 May 2017). "Historia del ferrocarril en Manabí (I)". El Diario. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ Vélez, Bernardo Avellán (8 June 2017). "Historia del ferrocarril en Manabí- (II)". El Diario. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ Carrera, Jorge Eduardo (June 2012). "ELOY ALFARO INICIÓ LA CONSTRUCCIÓN DEL TREN EN MANABÍ". Guardavia (5): 8.
^ Ramírez, Guido Patricio Yagual (2014). "Estrategias Comunicacionales de la Historia del Ferrocarril Guayaquil Salinas, y su incidencia en la recuperación de la memoria social y cultural de los habitantes de la provincia de Santa Elena, año 2014" (PDF). Universidad Estatal “Peninsula de Santa Elena”. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ Machuca, Félix López (22 February 2017). "Pasado de Los Ferrocarriles de El Oro". Mashall Historica. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ "Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas". Official Liquidator's progress report. 31 December 2021. p. 26. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Carrera, Jorge Eduardo (December 2013). "Hitos de la Rehabilitacion del Ferrocarril 2008-2013". Guardavia (8): 12.
^ http://www.elcomerciodelecuador.es/component/content/article/71/834-el-tren-quito-latacunga-vuelve-por-la-avenida-de-los-volcanes.html Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine El Comercio November 26th 2010
^ a b c http://www.eluniverso.com/2009/04/18/1/1447/7EDE4067B8F140409EDE18B4C55646F6.html El Universo, April 18th 2009.
^ a b c http://www4.elcomercio.com/2010-07-01/Noticias/Pais/Noticias-Secundarias/EC100701P15PAPA.aspx Archived 2010-07-05 at the Wayback Machine El Comercio, July 1st 2010.
^ "Ecuador by Train". Archived from the original on 2014-04-07. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Ines del Pino Martinez (2013). Arquitectura Ferrovia en Los Andes del Ecuador (in Spanish). Ecuador: Consejo Nacional de Cultura. pp. 95–97 (Quito), 111–112 (San Lorenzo), 131 (Cuenca). ISBN 9789942074645.
^ http://www.diariolosandes.com.ec/content/view/23926/36/ Diaro Del Los Andes, December 23rd 2010
^ "El tren llegó a Ambato — la Hora".
^ "ECUADOR RAILWAYS — PASSENGER STATIONS AND STOPS" (PDF). The Branch Line Society.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rail transport in Ecuador.
New official website
Railroad in the Sky website
Ecuador's railway in the sky (The Daily Telegraph)
Official site (in Spanish)
2003 travel pictures from the Devil's Nose by Peter & Jackie Main
2005 pictures, Riobamba to Mocha
Train stations and altitude profile between Guayaquil and Quito
Full tour pictures 2005
UN Map
vteRail transport in South America Sovereign states
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Colombia
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Dependencies andother territories
Falkland Islands
French Guiana
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Railways_in_Ecuador.svg"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"El Niño","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eluniverso-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holston-2"},{"link_name":"Pan-American Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-American_Highway"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"Rafael Correa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Correa"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holston-2"},{"link_name":"Guayaquil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil"},{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotive"},{"link_name":"diesel-electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_locomotive"},{"link_name":"autoferros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railbus"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"}],"text":"Railways in Ecuador: Routes with passenger traffic Routes in usable state Unusable or dismantled routesThe Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública (Ecuadorian Railways Company) is the national railway of Ecuador. The railway system was devised to connect the Pacific coast with the Andean highlands. After many decades of service the railway was severely damaged by heavy rainfall during the El Niño in 1997 and 1998[1][2] and from general neglect as the Pan-American Highway siphoned off passengers.[3]In 2008 the president Rafael Correa named the railroad a \"national cultural patrimony\" and indicated that it would be restored.[2] The government of Ecuador started to rehabilitate the railway and service was restored between Guayaquil and Quito by 2013.[3][4]An extensive range of services, primarily for leisure travellers, were operated by steam and diesel-electric locomotive hauled trains and by autoferros (bus bodies mounted on rail chassis).All railway services ceased in 2020 and by presidential decree the liquidation of the railway company commenced.[5]","title":"Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GandQ.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Llegada_ferrocarril_Quito.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gabriel García Moreno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Garc%C3%ADa_Moreno"},{"link_name":"Yaguachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaguachi"},{"link_name":"Milagro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milagro,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Bucay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucay,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"Eloy Alfaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eloy_Alfaro"},{"link_name":"New York El","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRT_Ninth_Avenue_Line"},{"link_name":"InterContinental Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterContinental_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holston-2"},{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"Cuenca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuenca,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"}],"text":"Baldwin 2-8-0 of the G&Q Line1908, during the constructionThe project of an Ecuadorian railway was started by President Gabriel García Moreno in 1861. The first section was opened between Yaguachi and Milagro in 1873, and Bucay was reached by 1888.[6]The push into the Andes was made under President Eloy Alfaro who planned to link Quito in the highlands to Guayaquil on the coast of Ecuador. For advice, Alfaro turned to Col. William Findlay Shunk, a well-known North American engineer who designed the New York El, and who had mapped a route of the InterContinental Railway (which was to connect North and South America) through Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama in 1892. The InterContinental Railway was never built. However, in 1897, Eloy Alfaro commissioned a contract with Archer Harman and a team of investors for the newly created New Jersey corporation, the Guayaquil and Quito Railway Company,\" or the G&Q, to rehabilitate and complete the railroad from Guayaquil to Quito. Archer Harman and his brother, Major John A. Harman (Col. Shunk's son-in-law) were from Staunton, Virginia. Together, Archer (G&Q financier) and John (G&Q Chief Engineer) helped Alfaro to (1) realize his dream of connecting disparate parts of Ecuador, (2) break the hold of the Catholic Church, and (3) usher the 20th Century and modernity into Ecuador.The G&Q line was built between 1897 and 1908,[2] when the line reached Quito amidst celebration that lasted for days, and shortened the often lengthy trip from Quito to Guayaquil to two days.The G&Q Railway evolved into the Southern Division (Division Sur) of Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos.The northern line, continuing from Quito to San Lorenzo was completed in 1957.[6]A branch from the G&Q at Sibambe to Cuenca was completed in 1965.[6]","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ambato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambato,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Pelileo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelileo_Canton"},{"link_name":"Baños de Agua Santa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C3%B1os_de_Agua_Santa"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Bahia de Caraquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%ADa_de_Car%C3%A1quez"},{"link_name":"Chone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chone,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Manta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manta,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Guyaquil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil"},{"link_name":"Salinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinas,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Puerto Bolivar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Bol%C3%ADvar"},{"link_name":"Loja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loja,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Machala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machala"},{"link_name":"Puerto Bolivar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Bol%C3%ADvar"},{"link_name":"Cuenca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuenca,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Ferrocarril Ambato - Cururay. Commenced from Ambato (on the G&Q Southern Division), reached Pelileo (35 km) and was intended to continue to Baños de Agua Santa, located on the banks of the Pastaza River then intended to extend until it crossed the Arajuno River and reached a navigable point on the Curaray, a total length of 117 km. Construction commenced in 1912 and the company ceased operating in February 1936.[7]Ferrocarril de Bahia a Chone. Commenced at Bahia de Caraquez and ran to Chone (79 km). Construction commenced in 1909 and was completed in 1912. The line ceased 'in the mid 1960's'.[8][9]Ferrocarril Central de Ecuador. Commenced at Manta and ran to Santa Ana. Construction commenced in 1911 and was completed in 1913. Services ceased in 1946.[10]Ferrocarril de Guayacil a Salinas. Commenced at Guyaquil and ran to Salinas (152 km). Construction was completed in 1936. Services ceased in 1954.[11]Ferrocarril de el Oro. Commenced at Puerto Bolivar and ran to Piedras (75 km) with Loja as the intended terminus. The line had two branches from Machala (6 km from Puerto Bolivar), one to Pasaje with Cuenca as the intended terminus, and one to La Iberia with Duran as the intended terminus. Construction commenced around 1893. Services ceased for certain by 1971, probably earlier in reality.[12]","title":"Other public former railways"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alausi_tourist_train.jpg"},{"link_name":"gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_gauge"},{"link_name":"3 ft 6 in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3_ft_6_in_gauge_railways"},{"link_name":"Guayaquil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil"},{"link_name":"Duran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dur%C3%A1n,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Andean mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Riobamba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riobamba"},{"link_name":"shunts back and forth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig_zag_(railway)"},{"link_name":"Urbina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urbina,_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"San Lorenzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Lorenzo,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Ibarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibarra,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Primer Paso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primer_Paso,_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cachavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cachavi,_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cuenca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuenca,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AUTOCARRIL,_ECUADOR.jpg"},{"link_name":"Baldwin Locomotive Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_Locomotive_Works"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"Alstom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alstom"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"Alco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Locomotive_Company"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"GEC-Alstom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC-Alstom"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eluniverso-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ferrolat-6"},{"link_name":"railbuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railbus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Tourist train, in Alausí, to the \"Nariz del Diablo\", 2008The railway represents the largest infrastructure of the country a total length of 965.5 kilometres (600 mi). Its single track uses a gauge of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm). The 446.7 kilometres (277.6 mi) Southern Division (Division Sur) starts at the harbour of Guayaquil with a track to Duran and then heads east into the Andean mountains where a more than 2.5 kilometres (8,200 ft) difference in altitude has to be overcome to reach Riobamba at 2,754 metres (9,035 ft). A major gain in altitude is made at the Devil's Nose (Nariz del Diablo) where the train shunts back and forth along the rocky promontory. From Riobamba the train heads north passing its highest point at Urbina an altitude of 3,609 metres (11,841 ft) to reach Quito at an altitude of 2,850 metres (9,350 ft).The 373.4 kilometres (232.0 mi) Northern Division (Division Norte) was completed in 1957.[6] It connects Quito to the northern sea port of San Lorenzo over Ibarra, Primer Paso and Cachavi.The Cuenca line branches off near Sibambe and represents the 145.4 kilometres (90.3 mi) Subdivision Sur. It was constructed between 1915 and 1965.[6]A converted bus serving as a self-propelled passenger carThe railway used to be of general economic significance for many decades. Initially steam engines were obtained from the Baldwin Locomotive Works. The last set of 2-8-0 steam engines were obtained in 1953.[6] In 1957 five Alstom diesel-electric locomotives were delivered for the San Lorenzo line,[6] Ten Alco diesel-electric locomotives were delivered in 1968[6] and nine GEC-Alstom locomotives were delivered in 1992.[6] Few steam and diesel locomotives were in an operational mode, the exact numbers subject to conflicting information.[1][6] There were also a number of railbuses (autoferros) in operation.At the point of liquidation the railway had 12 diesel-electric locomotives, 7 steam locomotives and 11 autoferro, not all operational.[13]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holston-2"},{"link_name":"tourist trains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_train"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"}],"text":"Since the 1997/98 disruptions no continuous service has been conducted and further degradation had made the railway almost useless. Road services have taken over passenger and freight transportation in Ecuador. At the 2008 centennial only 10 percent of the railway was open [2] only tourist trains remain active.[3]","title":"Demise"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rafael Correa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Correa"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holston-2"},{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"Latacunga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latacunga"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-15"},{"link_name":"Cuenca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuenca,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-16"},{"link_name":"Guayaquil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil"},{"link_name":"Yaguachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaguachi"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-17"},{"link_name":"Alausí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaus%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Sibambe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibambe"},{"link_name":"switchback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig_zag_(railway)"},{"link_name":"Ibarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibarra,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"Riobamba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riobamba"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"Guamote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guamote"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"Guamote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guamote"},{"link_name":"Duran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dur%C3%A1n,_Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-14"}],"text":"In 2008 the president Rafael Correa named the railroad a \"national cultural patrimony\"[2] and indicated that it would be restored. The EFE was transformed in a public corporation: Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Publica (FEEP). FEEP publicised details of the restoration work in a series of publications 'Guardavia', commencing with issue 1 in May 2010 and concluding with issue 11 in December 2014.The first section of line to be inaugurated was that between Quito (Chimbacalle) and Latacunga on 30 December 2008.[14][15]Following this a short section (3.5 km) of the former Sibambe to Cuenca line, that between El Tambo and Coyoctor / Baños del Inca was inaugurated on 24 April 2009.[14][16]The line from the coast at Duran (near Guayaquil) to Yaguachi was inaugurated on 29 June 2010.[14][17]Two sections of line were inaugurated in 2011. The section between Alausí and Sibambe which includes the switchback at the Devil's Nose was inaugurated on 16 February and that between Ibarra and Salinas on 13 December.[14]The section from Colta via Riobamba to Urbina was inaugurated on 3 October 2012.[14]The first phase of the rehabilitation project, the 271 km between Quito and Guamote, was inaugurated on December 27 and 28, 2012.[14]The second phase of the rehabilitation project, the 181 km between Guamote and Duran, was inaugurated on January 28 and 29, 2013.[14] Thus by 2013 the entire Guayaquil/Duran - Quito railway was restored and open to the public.[18]The section of line between Ibarra and Otavalo was inaugurated in 2014.[14]","title":"Restoration"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Route information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Southern Division (Division Sur)","text":"Guayaquil <> Quito; 1897-1908; 446.7 km (277.6 mi)","title":"Route information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Northern Division (Division Norte)","text":"Quito <> San Lorenzo; > 1957; 373.4 km (232.0 mi)","title":"Route information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Sibambe - Cuenca","text":"Sibambe <> Cuenca: > 1965: 145.4 kmComprehensive details of the lines, their stations and distances have been compiled and published by Jim Fergusson and have now been made available through The Branch Line Society in the United Kingdom.[22]","title":"Route information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito"},{"link_name":"Latacunga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latacunga"},{"link_name":"Cotopaxi National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotopaxi_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Alausi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alausi"},{"link_name":"Ibarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibarra,_Ecuador"}],"text":"A number of leisure orientated services operated, including from Quito to Latacunga via Cotopaxi National Park, between Alausi and Sibambe (Devil's Nose / Nariz del Diablo), between El Tambo and Baños del Inca, between Duran and Yaguachi and between Ibarra and Salinas. A premium service 'Tren Crucero' operated the whole length of the Southern Division from Duran to Quito.","title":"Services prior to closure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ferrolatino.ch/en/news/ecuador/"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ferrocarrilesdelecuador.gob.ec/informe-de-rendicion-de-cuentas-2021/"}],"text":"Due to the impacts of the coronavirus pandemic upon the national economy, all trains were suspended in March 2020.\"All trains have been cancelled from March 17, 2020 on until further notice.\" Source: Volta o Trem 24-2 via Friends of Latin American Railways [1]Subsequent to this the company entered liquidation.\"Through Executive Decree No. 1057 of May 19, 2020, amended through executive decreess No. 1096 of July 17, 2020, No. 1123 of August 6, 2020, No. 1243 of February 2021 and No. 1288 of April 13, 2021, the Constitutional President of the Republic, ordered the extinction of Railways of Ecuador, Public Company-FEEP\" [translated from original without amendment: extinction = liquidation].[5][2]The official liquidator's progress report provides information on the condition of the line (operational, non-operational, abandoned) at the time of liquidation.","title":"Closure and liquidation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ferrocarrilesdelecuador.gob.ec/traspaso-de-infraestructura-ferroviaria-nacional-a-obraspublicasec/"}],"text":"On 5 January 2022 the railway assets were transferred to the Ecuadorian State. [3]Today Minister @MarceloHCabrera signed the transfer of the National Railway Infrastructure to @ObrasPublicasEc with which this patrimonial asset passes into the hands of the Ecuadorian State and marks a new stage.@MarceloHCabrera highlighted that this system will contribute to tourism, passenger transport and sustainable mobility since there is the possibility of implementing electric trains.After this signing, the legal and administrative processes will be carried out so that the railway system is concessioned through a Public-Private Alliance, which will allow repowering and rehabilitating the Ecuadorian train.[translated from original without amendment]","title":"Transfer and suggested reopening"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Colombia"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Venezuela"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"There are plans to expand the services further to Colombia and Venezuela.[citation needed]","title":"Proposals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferroecuador2.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nariz_del_Diablo_(284925909).jpg"},{"link_name":"Switchback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig_zag_(railway)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riobamba.station.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riobamba.station3.JPG"}],"text":"On the Malecón in Guayaquil\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSwitchback at the Devil's Nose\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRiobamba railway station\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRailway poster, Riobamba station","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-615-12411-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-615-12411-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780615124117","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780615124117"}],"text":"Elizabeth Harman Brainard and Katharine Robinson Brainard. Railroad in the Sky: the Guayaquil & Quito Railway in Ecuador 1897-1925. Publisher: Marion, MA: Atlantis Ltd. Partnership, 2003. ISBN 0-615-12411-9 ISBN 9780615124117\nMarcelo Meneses-Jurado: Tren al Sol. Train to the Sun. Journey on Board the Most Difficult Train in the World.\nSandra Naranjo, Pabel Muñoz, Paola Carvajal, Richard Espinosa, Jorge Eduardo Carrera, Francisco Mosquera, Mayra Prado T. Construcción y Rehabilitación del Tren de Alfaro. Publisher: Directorio Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, 2014. ISBN 978-9942-07-742-4","title":"Books"}] | [{"image_text":"Railways in Ecuador: Routes with passenger traffic Routes in usable state Unusable or dismantled routes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Railways_in_Ecuador.svg/220px-Railways_in_Ecuador.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Baldwin 2-8-0 of the G&Q Line","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/GandQ.JPG/400px-GandQ.JPG"},{"image_text":"1908, during the construction","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Llegada_ferrocarril_Quito.jpg/220px-Llegada_ferrocarril_Quito.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tourist train, in Alausí, to the \"Nariz del Diablo\", 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Alausi_tourist_train.jpg/260px-Alausi_tourist_train.jpg"},{"image_text":"A converted bus serving as a self-propelled passenger car","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/AUTOCARRIL%2C_ECUADOR.jpg/260px-AUTOCARRIL%2C_ECUADOR.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Tren Crucero Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tren_Crucero_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1"}] | [{"reference":"\"Plan para rehabilitar ferrocarril\". El Universo. June 30, 2005. Retrieved March 23, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://archivo.eluniverso.com/2005/06/30/0001/12/BE6E0CB46FAF4EDFA3FF5F84804CF75E.aspx","url_text":"\"Plan para rehabilitar ferrocarril\""}]},{"reference":"Mark Holston. \"Remnants of an intercontinental railway: considered one of the most difficult engineering tasks in the world, the Guayaquil-Quito Railroad continues to inspire awe and admiration 100 years after its completion\". Retrieved March 23, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Remnants+of+an+intercontinental+railway:+considered+one+of+the+most...-a0194963283","url_text":"\"Remnants of an intercontinental railway: considered one of the most difficult engineering tasks in the world, the Guayaquil-Quito Railroad continues to inspire awe and admiration 100 years after its completion\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas\". Official Liquidator's Progress Report. 31 December 2021. p. 4. Retrieved 16 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ferrocarrilesdelecuador.gob.ec/informe-de-rendicion-de-cuentas-2021/","url_text":"\"Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas\""}]},{"reference":"ferrolatino. \"Aus der Geschichte der Eisenbahn in Ecuador\". Archived from the original on March 19, 2012. Retrieved March 23, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120319214921/http://www.ferrolatino.ch/FLBEcuadGeschichte.htm","url_text":"\"Aus der Geschichte der Eisenbahn in Ecuador\""},{"url":"http://www.ferrolatino.ch/FLBEcuadGeschichte.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"CHRISTIAN ANDRÉS NIEVES CASTRO (2012). PLAN DE DESARROLLO TURÍSTICO – CULTURAL A TRAVÉS DE LA IMPLEMENTACIÓN DE ACTIVIDADES LÚDICAS EN LA RUTA DEL TREN CHIMBACALLE – EL BOLICHE (in Spanish). 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Retrieved 16 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://sites.google.com/site/mashallhistorica/artculos-de-historiadores/pasadodelosferrocarrilesdeeloro","url_text":"\"Pasado de Los Ferrocarriles de El Oro\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas\". Official Liquidator's progress report. 31 December 2021. p. 26. Retrieved 16 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ferrocarrilesdelecuador.gob.ec/informe-de-rendicion-de-cuentas-2021/","url_text":"\"Ferrocarriles del Ecuador Empresa Pública, En Liquidación: Informe de Rendición de Cuentas\""}]},{"reference":"Carrera, Jorge Eduardo (December 2013). \"Hitos de la Rehabilitacion del Ferrocarril 2008-2013\". Guardavia (8): 12.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Ecuador by Train\". Archived from the original on 2014-04-07. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajia | Lajia | ["1 Background","2 Finds","3 Destruction","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 35°49′40″N 102°51′15″E / 35.82778°N 102.85417°E / 35.82778; 102.85417Archaeological site in Qinghai, China
Lajia喇家Location within Qinghai provinceShow map of Continental AsiaLajia (Qinghai)Show map of QinghaiAlternative nameLajia RuinsLocationChinaRegionQinghaiCoordinates35°51′51″N 102°48′37″E / 35.86405°N 102.81025°E / 35.86405; 102.81025HistoryCulturesQijiaEventsEarthquakeMudslideFloodSite notesExcavation dates1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004ManagementLajia Site Museum
An ancient Chinese pot similar to those found at the Lajia site and those of the Qijia culture
Lajia (Chinese: 喇家; pinyin: Lǎjiā) is a Bronze Age archaeological site in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, on the border between the Chinese provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. As at other sites of the Qijia culture (c. 2300–1500 BCE), the people of Lajia had an agricultural economy based primarily on millet cultivation and sheep herding. They also kept pigs for use in ritual activities, including making oracle bones, and experimented with a high temperature-fired pottery described as proto-porcelain. The world's oldest known noodles were discovered at the site in 2005.
A natural disaster buried the site and killed many of its inhabitants in around 1920 BCE, but archaeologists continue to debate the exact cause of the catastrophe.
Background
Lajia is associated with the Qijia culture, an archaeological culture of northwestern China dated to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age periods (c. 2300–1500 BCE). Excavations at the site have unearthed various Qijia artifacts, including pottery, rings, stone, weapons and jade flakes. Its moat is also typical of Qijia sites. Some metal artifacts from Qijia sites are similar in style to finds from Central Asia and Siberia, suggesting frequent contact and cultural interactions.
For most of the Qijia period, the Guanting Basin was relatively warm and moist. The staple cereal crop of the Qijia culture was millet, which requires high rainfall and temperature to grow. A significant decrease in mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature occurred between 1800 and 1400 BCE. This coincided with the demise of the Qijia culture, perhaps because their reliance on millet cultivation meant they could not adapt to the changing climate.
Finds
The world's oldest known noodles have been found at Lajia. The thin yellow strands were found in an upturned pot in 2005 and radiocarbon dated to around 4,000 years ago (c. 2000 BCE). They were originally thought to be made from a combination of foxtail and broomcorn millet, but subsequent experiments have showed millet alone could not have formed noodles, and that the Lajia noodles must have incorporated other starches, perhaps barley or wheat. Remnants of grains, including foxtail and broomcorn millet, and stems of Hordeum and Triticum species, have also been found at the site. The inhabitants used stone knives to process, peel, and cut them.
The inhabitants of Lajia kept domesticated sheep, pigs and cattle. Sheep were primarily used for their milk and wool, but were also the main source of meat. Pigs were not slaughtered for their meat, but used in ritual activities. Pig scapulae were modified for use as oracle bones for divination and, as is frequently seen at Qijia sites, deposited in burials. Wild deer remains have also been found at the site; they must have been hunted by the people of Lajia, or traded from elsewhere.
The pottery used at Lajia included pieces fired at extremely high temperatures to produce a glassy surface, a kind of proto-porcelain. Clays rich in flux were selected for their ability to vitrify at these temperatures. However, the technique used by the Lajia potters was unreliable and required large amounts of fuel, which is perhaps why the use of this proto-porcelain remained uncommon.
Destruction
Main article: Jishi Gorge outburst flood
Lajia was destroyed by a natural disaster at Jishi Gorge that buried the site in mud and killed many of its inhabitants. The cause of this catastrophe is debated. The excavators of the site originally proposed a combination of simultaneous earthquakes and flooding of the Yellow River and mountain gullies. More recent research has pointed to localised flash flooding and severe mudflows, which are known to occur in the area and could have been exacerbated by human activity. A controversial 2016 study proposed that an earthquake in 1920 BCE triggered a catastrophic outburst flood of the Yellow River, which the authors incorrectly linked to the legendary Great Flood that, according to traditional Chinese historiography, led to the rise of the Xia dynasty. Other researchers considered this implausible, pointing out that the Lajia disaster took place over a hundred years after the 1920 earthquake, and that the lake that is supposed to have burst to produce this flood ceased to exist nearly 2000 years prior.
The simultaneous deaths of many people at Lajia provides a rare opportunity to study family relationships within prehistoric households. Analysis of ancient DNA from the remains of twelve people in one house showed that they belonged to multiple maternal lineages, ruling out a matrilineal social structure.
References
^ Ye, Maolin (28 April 2005). "Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province". Chinese Archaeology. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
^ Dittmar, Jenna M.; Berger, Elizabeth; Zhan, Xiaoya; Mao, Ruilin; Wang, Hui; Yeh, Hui-Yuan (December 2019). "Skeletal evidence for violent trauma from the bronze age Qijia culture (2,300-1,500 BCE), Gansu Province, China". International Journal of Paleopathology. 27: 66–79. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.08.002. hdl:2164/23411. ISSN 1879-9817. PMID 31606648.
^ a b c "Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province". www.kaogu.cn. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ "Prehistoric catastrophic remains found again at Lajia Site, Qinghai". kaogu.cn. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ a b Di Cosmo, Nicola (13 March 1999), "The Northern Frontier in Pre–Imperial China", The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 885–966, doi:10.1017/chol9780521470308.015, ISBN 978-1-139-05370-9
^ a b Zhao, Hui; Huang, Chun Chang; Wang, Huanye; Liu, Weiguo; Qiang, Xiaoke; Xu, Xinwen; et al. (October 2018). "Mid-late Holocene temperature and precipitation variations in the Guanting Basin, upper reaches of the Yellow River". Quaternary International. 490: 74–81. Bibcode:2018QuInt.490...74Z. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2018.05.009. ISSN 1040-6182.
^ Dong, Guanghui; Jia, Xin; An, Chengbang; Chen, Fahu; Zhao, Yan; Tao, Shichen; Ma, Minmin (January 2012). "Mid-Holocene climate change and its effect on prehistoric cultural evolution in eastern Qinghai Province, China". Quaternary Research. 77 (1): 23–30. Bibcode:2012QuRes..77...23D. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2011.10.004. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 128679698.
^ Song, Jixiang; Zhao, Zhijun; Fuller, Dorian Q. (7 July 2012). "The archaeobotanical significance of immature millet grains: an experimental case study of Chinese millet crop processing". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 22 (2): 141–152. doi:10.1007/s00334-012-0366-y. ISSN 0939-6314. S2CID 129911109.
^ An, Cheng-Bang; Tang, Lingyu; Barton, Loukas; Chen, Fa-Hu (May 2005). "Climate change and cultural response around 4000 cal yr B.P. in the western part of Chinese Loess Plateau". Quaternary Research. 63 (3): 347–352. Bibcode:2005QuRes..63..347A. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2005.02.004. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 128546916.
^ a b "Oldest noodles unearthed in China". BBC News. 12 October 2005. Archived from the original on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ "4,000-Year-Old Noodles Found in China". National Geographic. 12 October 2005. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
^ Ge, W.; Liu, L.; Chen, X.; Jin, Z. (2011). "Can noodles be made from millet? An experimental investigation of noodle manufacture together with starch grain analyses". Archaeometry. 53: 194–204. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2010.00539.x.
^ Ma, Zhikun; Li, Quan; Huan, Xiujia; Yang, Xiaoyan; Zheng, Jingyun; Ye, Maolin (22 February 2014). "Plant microremains provide direct evidence for the functions of stone knives from the Lajia site, northwestern China". Chinese Science Bulletin. 59 (11): 1151–1158. Bibcode:2014ChSBu..59.1151M. doi:10.1007/s11434-014-0174-0. ISSN 1001-6538. S2CID 95717366.
^ a b c Fargo, David. Early Bronze Age Animal Use at Lajia, a Qijia Culture Site in Qinghai Province, China. OCLC 894364629.
^ Honghai, Chen (15 March 2013), "The Qijia Culture of the Upper Yellow River Valley", A Companion to Chinese Archaeology, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 103–124, doi:10.1002/9781118325698.ch6, ISBN 978-1-118-32569-8
^ Zhou, X. Q.; Cui, J. F.; Ren, X. Y.; Wang, Q. Q.; Du, W.; Du, Z. W.; Liu, X. Y. (6 December 2018). "The Earliest High‐Fired Glazed Ceramic in China: Evidence from a Glazed Ceramic Sample from the Lajia Site, Qinghai Province". Archaeometry. 61 (3): 588–599. doi:10.1111/arcm.12447. ISSN 0003-813X.
^ a b Yang, Xiaoyan; Xia, Zhengkai; Ye, Maolin (1 September 2003). "Prehistoric disasters at Lajia Site, Qinghai, China". Chinese Science Bulletin. 48 (17): 1877–1881. Bibcode:2003ChSBu..48.1877Y. doi:10.1007/BF03184071. ISSN 1861-9541. S2CID 96531032.
^ Zhao, Hui; Huang, Chun Chang; Zheng, Zixing; Hu, Ying; Zhang, Yuzhu; Guo, Yongqiang; Zhou, Qiang (September 2017). "New evidence for the catastrophic demise of a prehistoric settlement (the Lajia Ruins) in the Guanting Basin, upper Yellow River, NW China". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 146: 134–141. Bibcode:2017JAESc.146..134Z. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.05.019. ISSN 1367-9120.
^ Wang, Haiyan; Huang, Chun Chang; Pang, Jiangli; Zhou, Yali; Cuan, Yuda; Guo, Yongqiang; et al. (January 2021). "Catastrophic flashflood and mudflow events in the pre-historical Lajia Ruins at the northeast margin of the Chinese Tibetan Plateau". Quaternary Science Reviews. 251: 106737. Bibcode:2021QSRv..25106737W. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106737. ISSN 0277-3791.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Wu, Qinglong; Zhao, Zhijun; Liu, Li; Granger, Darryl E.; Wang, Hui; Cohen, David J.; Wu, Xiaohong; Ye, Maolin; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Lu, Bin; Zhang, Jin (31 March 2017). "Response to Comments on "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty"". Science. 355 (6332): 1382–1382. doi:10.1126/science.aal1325. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28360294.
^ Wu, Qinglong; Zhao, Zhijun; Liu, Li; Granger, Darryl E.; Wang, Hui; Cohen, David J.; Wu, Xiaohong; Ye, Maolin; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Lu, Bin; Zhang, Jin (5 August 2016). "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty". Science. 353 (6299): 579–582. doi:10.1126/science.aaf0842. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27493183.
^ Li, Le; Chen, Jun; Hedding, David William; Fu, Yuanhe; Ye, Maolin; Li, Gaojun (16 October 2019). "Uranium isotopic constraints on the nature of the prehistoric flood at the Lajia site, China". Geology. 48 (1): 15–18. doi:10.1130/g46306.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
^ Wu, Wenxiang; Dai, Junhu; Zhou, Yang; Ge, Quansheng (31 March 2017). "Comment on "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty"". Science. 355 (6332): 1382–1382. doi:10.1126/science.aal1278. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28360291.
^ a b Han, Jian-Chiu (30 March 2017). "Comment on "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty"". Science. 355 (6332): 1382.3–1382. Bibcode:2017Sci...355Q1382H. doi:10.1126/science.aal1369. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28360292.
^ Huang, Chun Chang; Zhou, Yali; Zhang, Yuzhu; Guo, Yongqiang; Pang, Jiangli; Zhou, Qiang; Liu, Tao; Zha, Xiaochun (31 March 2017). "Comment on "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty"". Science. 355 (6332): 1382–1382. doi:10.1126/science.aak9657. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28360293.
^ Dong, GuangHui; Zhang, FanYu; Liu, FengWen; Zhang, DongJu; Zhou, AiFeng; Yang, YiShi; Wang, GongHui (18 July 2017). "Multiple evidences indicate no relationship between prehistoric disasters in Lajia site and outburst flood in upper Yellow River valley, China". Science China Earth Sciences. 61 (4): 441–449. doi:10.1007/s11430-017-9079-3. ISSN 1674-7313. S2CID 134330532.
^ Gao, Shi-Zhu; Yang, Yi-Dai; Xu, Yue; Zhang, Quan-Chao; Zhu, Hong; Zhou, Hui (2007). "Tracing the genetic history of the Chinese people: Mitochondrial DNA analysis of aneolithic population from the Lajia site". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 133 (4): 1128–1136. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20623. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 17506489.
External links
Ancient sites in China
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History
Archaeology
History | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Chinese_Pot.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"archaeological site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site"},{"link_name":"Yellow River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River"},{"link_name":"Gansu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu"},{"link_name":"Qinghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qinghai"},{"link_name":"Qijia culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qijia_culture"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"sheep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep"},{"link_name":"oracle bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone"},{"link_name":"porcelain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain"},{"link_name":"noodles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noodle"},{"link_name":"natural disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jishi_Gorge_outburst_flood"}],"text":"Archaeological site in Qinghai, ChinaAn ancient Chinese pot similar to those found at the Lajia site and those of the Qijia cultureLajia (Chinese: 喇家; pinyin: Lǎjiā) is a Bronze Age archaeological site in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, on the border between the Chinese provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. As at other sites of the Qijia culture (c. 2300–1500 BCE), the people of Lajia had an agricultural economy based primarily on millet cultivation and sheep herding. They also kept pigs for use in ritual activities, including making oracle bones, and experimented with a high temperature-fired pottery described as proto-porcelain. The world's oldest known noodles were discovered at the site in 2005.A natural disaster buried the site and killed many of its inhabitants in around 1920 BCE, but archaeologists continue to debate the exact cause of the catastrophe.","title":"Lajia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qijia culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qijia_culture"},{"link_name":"archaeological culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_culture"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaogu.cn-3"},{"link_name":"jade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaogu.cn-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"moat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moat"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaogu.cn-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Di_Cosmo_885%E2%80%93966-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhao_74%E2%80%9381-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"cereal crop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhao_74%E2%80%9381-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Lajia is associated with the Qijia culture, an archaeological culture of northwestern China dated to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age periods (c. 2300–1500 BCE).[2][3] Excavations at the site have unearthed various Qijia artifacts, including pottery, rings, stone, weapons and jade flakes.[3][4] Its moat is also typical of Qijia sites.[3] Some metal artifacts from Qijia sites are similar in style to finds from Central Asia and Siberia, suggesting frequent contact and cultural interactions.[5]For most of the Qijia period, the Guanting Basin was relatively warm and moist.[6][7] The staple cereal crop of the Qijia culture was millet, which requires high rainfall and temperature to grow.[8] A significant decrease in mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature occurred between 1800 and 1400 BCE.[6] This coincided with the demise of the Qijia culture, perhaps because their reliance on millet cultivation meant they could not adapt to the changing climate.[9]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"noodles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noodle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oldest_noodles_unearthed_in_China-10"},{"link_name":"radiocarbon dated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oldest_noodles_unearthed_in_China-10"},{"link_name":"foxtail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtail_millet"},{"link_name":"broomcorn millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broomcorn_millet"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nationalgeographic.com-11"},{"link_name":"barley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley"},{"link_name":"wheat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-exp-star-12"},{"link_name":"Hordeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordeum"},{"link_name":"Triticum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triticum"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ma_1151%E2%80%931158-13"},{"link_name":"domesticated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-author-14"},{"link_name":"oracle bones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Di_Cosmo_885%E2%80%93966-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-author-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-author-14"},{"link_name":"porcelain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcelain"},{"link_name":"flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_flux"},{"link_name":"vitrify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrify"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dx.doi.org-16"}],"text":"The world's oldest known noodles have been found at Lajia.[10] The thin yellow strands were found in an upturned pot in 2005 and radiocarbon dated to around 4,000 years ago (c. 2000 BCE).[10] They were originally thought to be made from a combination of foxtail and broomcorn millet,[11] but subsequent experiments have showed millet alone could not have formed noodles, and that the Lajia noodles must have incorporated other starches, perhaps barley or wheat.[12] Remnants of grains, including foxtail and broomcorn millet, and stems of Hordeum and Triticum species, have also been found at the site. The inhabitants used stone knives to process, peel, and cut them.[13]The inhabitants of Lajia kept domesticated sheep, pigs and cattle. Sheep were primarily used for their milk and wool, but were also the main source of meat. Pigs were not slaughtered for their meat, but used in ritual activities.[14] Pig scapulae were modified for use as oracle bones for divination and, as is frequently seen at Qijia sites, deposited in burials.[5][14][15] Wild deer remains have also been found at the site; they must have been hunted by the people of Lajia, or traded from elsewhere.[14]The pottery used at Lajia included pieces fired at extremely high temperatures to produce a glassy surface, a kind of proto-porcelain. Clays rich in flux were selected for their ability to vitrify at these temperatures. However, the technique used by the Lajia potters was unreliable and required large amounts of fuel, which is perhaps why the use of this proto-porcelain remained uncommon.[16]","title":"Finds"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural disaster at Jishi Gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jishi_Gorge_outburst_flood"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yang_1877%E2%80%931881-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yang_1877%E2%80%931881-17"},{"link_name":"flash flooding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_flood"},{"link_name":"mudflows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudflow"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guanting_Basin_2017-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"outburst flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outburst_flood"},{"link_name":"legendary Great Flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Flood_(China)"},{"link_name":"Chinese historiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_historiography"},{"link_name":"Xia dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dong_441%E2%80%93449-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-24"},{"link_name":"ancient DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_DNA"},{"link_name":"matrilineal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilineal"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-27"}],"text":"Lajia was destroyed by a natural disaster at Jishi Gorge that buried the site in mud and killed many of its inhabitants.[17] The cause of this catastrophe is debated. The excavators of the site originally proposed a combination of simultaneous earthquakes and flooding of the Yellow River and mountain gullies.[17] More recent research has pointed to localised flash flooding and severe mudflows, which are known to occur in the area and could have been exacerbated by human activity.[18][19] A controversial[20] 2016 study proposed that an earthquake in 1920 BCE triggered a catastrophic outburst flood of the Yellow River, which the authors incorrectly linked to the legendary Great Flood that, according to traditional Chinese historiography, led to the rise of the Xia dynasty.[21][22] Other researchers considered this implausible,[23][24][25] pointing out that the Lajia disaster took place over a hundred years after the 1920 earthquake,[26] and that the lake that is supposed to have burst to produce this flood ceased to exist nearly 2000 years prior.[24]The simultaneous deaths of many people at Lajia provides a rare opportunity to study family relationships within prehistoric households. Analysis of ancient DNA from the remains of twelve people in one house showed that they belonged to multiple maternal lineages, ruling out a matrilineal social structure.[27]","title":"Destruction"}] | [{"image_text":"An ancient Chinese pot similar to those found at the Lajia site and those of the Qijia culture","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Ancient_Chinese_Pot.jpg/220px-Ancient_Chinese_Pot.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Ye, Maolin (28 April 2005). \"Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province\". Chinese Archaeology. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42230.html","url_text":"\"Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190625003140/http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42230.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dittmar, Jenna M.; Berger, Elizabeth; Zhan, Xiaoya; Mao, Ruilin; Wang, Hui; Yeh, Hui-Yuan (December 2019). \"Skeletal evidence for violent trauma from the bronze age Qijia culture (2,300-1,500 BCE), Gansu Province, China\". International Journal of Paleopathology. 27: 66–79. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.08.002. hdl:2164/23411. ISSN 1879-9817. PMID 31606648.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpp.2019.08.002","url_text":"\"Skeletal evidence for violent trauma from the bronze age Qijia culture (2,300-1,500 BCE), Gansu Province, China\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpp.2019.08.002","url_text":"10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.08.002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2164%2F23411","url_text":"2164/23411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1879-9817","url_text":"1879-9817"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31606648","url_text":"31606648"}]},{"reference":"\"Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province\". www.kaogu.cn. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42230.html","url_text":"\"Archaeological discoveries at the Lajia site, Minhe County, Qinghai Province\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210724043629/http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42230.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Prehistoric catastrophic remains found again at Lajia Site, Qinghai\". kaogu.cn. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kaogu.cn/en/News/New_discoveries/2017/0808/59178.html","url_text":"\"Prehistoric catastrophic remains found again at Lajia Site, Qinghai\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190402203809/http://www.kaogu.cn/en/News/New_discoveries/2017/0808/59178.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Di Cosmo, Nicola (13 March 1999), \"The Northern Frontier in Pre–Imperial China\", The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 885–966, doi:10.1017/chol9780521470308.015, ISBN 978-1-139-05370-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521470308.015","url_text":"10.1017/chol9780521470308.015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05370-9","url_text":"978-1-139-05370-9"}]},{"reference":"Zhao, Hui; Huang, Chun Chang; Wang, Huanye; Liu, Weiguo; Qiang, Xiaoke; Xu, Xinwen; et al. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_Achievement_Medal | Aerial Achievement Medal | ["1 References","2 See also"] | AwardAerial Achievement MedalTypeMedalAwarded forsustained meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flightPresented byDepartment of the Air ForceEligibilityUS military and civilian personnelStatusCurrently awardedEstablishedSecretary of the Air Force - Feb. 3, 1988Service ribbon
PrecedenceNext (higher)Air MedalNext (lower)Joint Service Commendation Medal
The Aerial Achievement Medal (AAM) is a decoration of the United States Air Force and United States Space Force which was established in 1988. The decoration is intended to recognize the contributions of aircrew members who would, otherwise, not be qualified for the award of the Air Medal.
The decoration is awarded in the name of the Secretary of the Air Force and is presented to members of the United States military or civilian personnel, while serving in a capacity with the U.S. Air Force, who distinguish themselves by sustained meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight. The achievements must be accomplished with distinction above and beyond that normally expected of professional airmen.
Pilots/sensors of Unmanned aerial vehicles may also receive this award. One was given in 1997 for successfully flying a disabled UAV back to its base. According to a report based on Air Force statistics, from January 2009 to mid-2010 3497 medals were granted to operators, while 1408 more were given to pilots.
The Aerial Achievement Medal may be approved by local commanders; however, the missions for which the decoration is authorized must be approved by a Major Air Force Command.
Minimum requirements for an Aerial Achievement Medal are 20 flights of at least 2 hours with one flight per theater per day. For the basic Aerial Achievement medal, 14 flights may be used. However, if this is the case, then 26 flights must be used for the first Oak Leaf Cluster.
Enlisted personnel receive three (3) promotion points per award.
The Aerial Achievement Medal service ribbon bears a resemblance to the Air Crew Europe Star ribbon.
References
^ "Production publication" (PDF). static.e-publishing.af.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2018-01-10.
^ Air Force Personnel Center Aerial Achievement Medal Archived 2011-07-15 at the Wayback Machine
^ "UAV 'pilot' receives air medal".
^ Harper's Magazine, October 2010, p. 11.
See also
Combat Readiness Medal
Awards and decorations of the United States military
vteAwards and decorations of the United States Department of the Air ForceDecorations
Medal of Honor
Air Force Cross
Distinguished Service
Silver Star Medal
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Flying Cross
Airman's Medal
Bronze Star Medal
Purple Heart
Meritorious Service Medal
Air Medal
Aerial Achievement
Air and Space Commendation
Air and Space Achievement
Unit awards
Presidential Unit Citation
Gallant Unit Citation
Meritorious Unit
Air and Space Outstanding Unit
Air and Space Organizational Excellence
Service medals
Combat Action Medal
Combat Readiness
Air Force Good Conduct
Space Force Good Conduct
Remote Combat Effects Campaign Medal
Air and Space Campaign
Nuclear Deterrence Operations Service Medal
Service ribbons
Outstanding Airman of the Year
Air and Space Recognition
Overseas Service Short Tour
Overseas Service Long Tour
Air and Space Expeditionary Service
Air and Space Longevity
Developmental Special Duty
NCO PME Graduate
Basic Training Honor Graduate
Marksmanship
Air and Space Training | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United States Space Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Force"},{"link_name":"Air Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Medal"},{"link_name":"Secretary of the Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_the_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United States military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Unmanned aerial vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_theater"},{"link_name":"Oak Leaf Cluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_leaf_cluster"},{"link_name":"promotion points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_Airman_Promotion_System"},{"link_name":"Air Crew Europe Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Crew_Europe_Star"}],"text":"The Aerial Achievement Medal (AAM) is a decoration of the United States Air Force and United States Space Force which was established in 1988. The decoration is intended to recognize the contributions of aircrew members who would, otherwise, not be qualified for the award of the Air Medal.The decoration is awarded in the name of the Secretary of the Air Force and is presented to members of the United States military or civilian personnel, while serving in a capacity with the U.S. Air Force, who distinguish themselves by sustained meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight. The achievements must be accomplished with distinction above and beyond that normally expected of professional airmen.[2]Pilots/sensors of Unmanned aerial vehicles may also receive this award. One was given in 1997 for successfully flying a disabled UAV back to its base.[3] According to a report based on Air Force statistics, from January 2009 to mid-2010 3497 medals were granted to operators, while 1408 more were given to pilots.[4]The Aerial Achievement Medal may be approved by local commanders; however, the missions for which the decoration is authorized must be approved by a Major Air Force Command.Minimum requirements for an Aerial Achievement Medal are 20 flights of at least 2 hours with one flight per theater per day. For the basic Aerial Achievement medal, 14 flights may be used. However, if this is the case, then 26 flights must be used for the first Oak Leaf Cluster.Enlisted personnel receive three (3) promotion points per award.The Aerial Achievement Medal service ribbon bears a resemblance to the Air Crew Europe Star ribbon.","title":"Aerial Achievement Medal"}] | [] | [{"title":"Combat Readiness Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Readiness_Medal"},{"title":"Awards and decorations of the United States military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awards_and_decorations_of_the_United_States_military"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force_decorations"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force_decorations"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Department_of_the_Air_Force_decorations"},{"title":"Awards and decorations of the United States Department of the Air 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_national_du_patronat_fran%C3%A7ais | Conseil national du patronat français | ["1 Origins","2 History","3 Notes","4 Sources"] | The Conseil national du patronat français (CNPF; National Council of French Employers) was an employers' organization created in December 1945 on request of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, which wanted a representative organization of all of the employers.
Origins
On 27 July 1944 the Free French government in Algiers annulled the Vichy decrees, dissolved the Peasant Corporation (Corporation paysanne) and reestablished all the syndicates of 1939 apart from the Confédération générale du patronat français (CGPF), which represented employers.
The Centre des jeunes patrons (CJP) helped organize the CNPF in 1944, as did various leading employers with modern and civic-minded views.
Henri Lafond worked with Pierre Ricard and Henri Davezac to form the CNPF.
Georges Villiers was the first president.
History
A division soon appeared between those such as Lafond who felt employers deserved certain rights, which should be regulated by law, and those who were opposed to any diminution of the absolute authority of the patron.
The latter group included Marcel Meunier (1893–1971), a declared paternalist who became head of the CNPF social commission.
Under the initiative of Ernest-Antoine Seillière, the CNPF transformed itself in 1998 into the MEDEF (Mouvement des Entreprises de France).
Notes
^ Chronologie : histoire des relations du travail ...
^ a b Zølner 2009, p. 97.
^ Mahl.
Sources
"Chronologie : histoire des relations du travail depuis la loi Le Chapelier de 1791", Vie Publique, Direction de l'Information Légale et Administrative, archived from the original on 2011-01-13, retrieved 2017-07-13
Mahl, R., "Henri LAFOND (1894–1963)", Annales des Mines (in French), retrieved 2017-09-27
Zølner, Mette (2009), Young Business Leaders: Between Utility and Utopia, Peter Lang, ISBN 978-90-5201-541-5, retrieved 2017-09-28
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
France
BnF data
Israel
United States
Academics
CiNii
People
Trove
Other
IdRef
This article about an organization in France is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Conseil national du patronat français"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Algiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers"},{"link_name":"Peasant Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Confédération générale du patronat français","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_du_patronat_fran%C3%A7ais"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChronologie_:_histoire_des_relations_du_travail_...-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZ%C3%B8lner200997-2"},{"link_name":"Henri Lafond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Lafond"},{"link_name":"Georges Villiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Villiers"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahl-3"}],"text":"On 27 July 1944 the Free French government in Algiers annulled 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who were opposed to any diminution of the absolute authority of the patron.\nThe latter group included Marcel Meunier (1893–1971), a declared paternalist who became head of the CNPF social commission.[2]\nUnder the initiative of Ernest-Antoine Seillière, the CNPF transformed itself in 1998 into the MEDEF (Mouvement des Entreprises de France).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChronologie_:_histoire_des_relations_du_travail_..._1-0"},{"link_name":"Chronologie : histoire des relations du travail ..","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFChronologie_:_histoire_des_relations_du_travail_..."},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZ%C3%B8lner200997_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZ%C3%B8lner200997_2-1"},{"link_name":"Zølner 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States\nAcademics\nCiNii\nPeople\nTrove\nOther\nIdRefThis article about an organization in France is a stub. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Aviles | Pedro Avilés | ["1 Novels","2 External links"] | Spanish novelist
Pedro Avilés Gutiérrez (Ceuta, 23 January 1956) is a Spanish novelist from Madrid.
Avilés was born in Ceuta, Spain where his father, Pedro, from Madrid, was following his military career in 1956. The mother of Pedro Aviles, Africa, was born in Ceuta though her family proceed from Tarifa, Cadiz. The family moved very soon to Madrid, when Pedro Avilés was three years old. For this reason Pedro considers himself to be from Madrid.
From his childhood, Avilés felt a very deep need to write so before beginning primary school he wrote a lot of stories. He initiated his primary school and university studies in Madrid. At twenty, he wrote his first novel, “Corpore Insepulto”, a play that "I never try to publish", say Pedro Avilés. That was continued for another novel also unpublished; “La Inercia”.
Avilés began his professional activity as a war reporter. He covered the bread war in Morocco, the Sandinista war in Nicaragua, guerra de Nicaragua, and the Yugoslav Croatian war in 1991
Later he was dedicated to be a full crime reporter in several Spanish national media just like “El Caso” and the Interviú Archived 2009-01-16 at the Wayback Machine magazine. He said he wrote 1,000 stories covering the most important issues of Spanish history between 1987 and 2006. He was responsible in “Tele Cinco” for a Unresolved Crime section between 1996 and 2000. Actually, some television Nets call him to offer his opinions about several criminal cases.
Nowadays, Avilés is fully dedicated to writing crime novels Las mariposas sobre la tumba and El whisky del muerto, are the first of a series of two starring a Crime Reporter that hates journalism. In his novels, Pedro Avilés he makes a very exact portrait and a terrible critic of the journalism world, an area he knows quite well. His long experience as a crime reporter gave him the right background for his writing.
Novels
Corpore Insepulto, 1976
La Inercia, 1978
Mata al presidente, 1986
Las mariposas sobre la tumba, 2006
El whisky del muerto, 2007
Katoucha, Ediciones Libralia 2014
External links
Pedro Avilés Official Site
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus_kelloggi | Great seahorse | ["1 Habitat","2 Description","3 Reproduction","4 Population structure and size","5 Captivity and use","6 Naming","7 References"] | Species of fish
Great seahorse
Conservation status
Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)
CITES Appendix II (CITES)
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Actinopterygii
Order:
Syngnathiformes
Family:
Syngnathidae
Genus:
Hippocampus
Species:
H. kelloggi
Binomial name
Hippocampus kelloggiD. S. Jordan & Snyder, 1901
The great seahorse (Hippocampus kelloggi), also known as Kellogg's seahorse is a species of fish in the family Syngnathidae. It is one of the largest of the 54 species of seahorse.
Habitat
It is found in the Indo-pacific region, specifically documented from the coast of East Africa to Japan. It was also recently identified around both northern and southern Australia. They frequent areas with an abundance of coral so they can latch on to something. Though often found in shallow waters, they have been recorded in depths of over 100 meters, with the deepest recorded seahorse at 152 meters below the surface.
.
Description
The head of the seahorse resembles a crown. Its spine is very prevalent, but has a rounded shape, especially above its eye. It is often confused for other species, and some great seahorses have even been thought to be an entirely new species, but gene sequencing has disproved this. They can be identified through their abnormally high tail rings on their comparatively slightly longer tails, which account for about 57% of their bodies. It is pale in color and smooth to the touch. They live for two to four years in the wild.
Reproduction
Males breed the eggs in sacks. Gestation lasts a few weeks, then males will release the eggs without caring for them. Generally, males are ready to breed again almost immediately after giving birth. Though little is known about the great seahorse's specific breeding habits, many related seahorses have been studied and were found to occasionally be monogamous. Their mating ritual involves twisting their tails and head nods, until they find a partner. Though the males carry the unborn young, they are also the main competitors for mates, which may have to do with an uneven ratio of males to females in a population.
Population structure and size
Because the occurrence of the seahorse spans such a wide area, there is little data available regarding the size of the population, but it has been observed less in recent years, leading scientists to believe that the population is declining. There was a 50-60% decline in population size around Asia. It is generally found alone or in very sparse groups. It is considered vulnerable, which is one classification away from endangerment.
Captivity and use
Like many other species of seahorse, the great seahorse is used both medicinally and for aquariums. It's one of the harder types to purchase and care for, as it is large and does not compete well with others for food, often resulting in early death. One of the major reasons the great seahorse is removed from captivity is due to its medicinal effects in China and other east Asian countries. It is said to help with problems such as impotence, and its prevalence on the market has increased in recent years. Aside from personal aquariums and medicine, the great seahorse is also used as a souvenir, often available dried for people to take home. The combination of these three has led the great seahorse to be labeled as vulnerable.
Naming
The specific name honours the American entomologist and evolutionary biologist Vernon Lyman Kellogg 1867-1937.
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hippocampus kelloggi.
Wikispecies has information related to Hippocampus kelloggi.
^ a b Pollom, R. (2017). "Hippocampus kelloggi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T41010A54908593. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
^ "Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names. H". Hans G. Hansson. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
Harasti, D. (2017). Southwards range extension of the great seahorse ( Hippocampus kelloggi Jordan & Snyder, 1901) in Australia. Journal of Applied Ichthyology Zeitschrift Für Angewandte Ichthyology., 33(5), 1018-1020
Pritchard, JC, Casey, SP, Truong, SK, Hall, HJ, Lourie, Sara A, Pritchard, Janet C, . . . Vincent, Amanda C J. (1999). The taxonomy of Vietnam's exploited seahorses (family Syngnathidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society.,66(2), 231-256.
Chris M. C. Woods. (2005) Reproductive output of male seahorses, Hippocampus abdominalis, from Wellington Harbour, New Zealand: Implications for conservation. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39:4, pages 881-888.
Thangaraj, M. (2011) Morphological characterization of four selected seahorse species(Genus: Hippocampus) from India. Annals of Biological Research, 2011, 2 (4):159-167
Taxon identifiersHippocampus kelloggi
Wikidata: Q2633511
Wikispecies: Hippocampus kelloggi
AFD: Hippocampus_kelloggi
ARKive: hippocampus-kelloggi
BOLD: 66242
CoL: 3LZMG
FishBase: 53815
GBIF: 5201145
iNaturalist: 102826
IRMNG: 11169721
ITIS: 645023
IUCN: 41010
NCBI: 109286
Observation.org: 804946
OBIS: 212236
Open Tree of Life: 630151
Species+: 4719
WoRMS: 212236 | [{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The great seahorse (Hippocampus kelloggi), also known as Kellogg's seahorse is a species of fish in the family Syngnathidae. It is one of the largest of the 54 species of seahorse.","title":"Great seahorse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africa"}],"text":"It is found in the Indo-pacific region, specifically documented from the coast of East Africa to Japan. It was also recently identified around both northern and southern Australia. They frequent areas with an abundance of coral so they can latch on to something. Though often found in shallow waters, they have been recorded in depths of over 100 meters, with the deepest recorded seahorse at 152 meters below the surface. \n.","title":"Habitat"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The head of the seahorse resembles a crown. Its spine is very prevalent, but has a rounded shape, especially above its eye. It is often confused for other species, and some great seahorses have even been thought to be an entirely new species, but gene sequencing has disproved this. They can be identified through their abnormally high tail rings on their comparatively slightly longer tails, which account for about 57% of their bodies. It is pale in color and smooth to the touch. They live for two to four years in the wild.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Males breed the eggs in sacks. Gestation lasts a few weeks, then males will release the eggs without caring for them. Generally, males are ready to breed again almost immediately after giving birth. Though little is known about the great seahorse's specific breeding habits, many related seahorses have been studied and were found to occasionally be monogamous. Their mating ritual involves twisting their tails and head nods, until they find a partner. Though the males carry the unborn young, they are also the main competitors for mates, which may have to do with an uneven ratio of males to females in a population.","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Because the occurrence of the seahorse spans such a wide area, there is little data available regarding the size of the population, but it has been observed less in recent years, leading scientists to believe that the population is declining. There was a 50-60% decline in population size around Asia. It is generally found alone or in very sparse groups. It is considered vulnerable, which is one classification away from endangerment.","title":"Population structure and size"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn_status_15_November_2021-1"}],"text":"Like many other species of seahorse, the great seahorse is used both medicinally and for aquariums. It's one of the harder types to purchase and care for, as it is large and does not compete well with others for food, often resulting in early death. One of the major reasons the great seahorse is removed from captivity is due to its medicinal effects in China and other east Asian countries. It is said to help with problems such as impotence, and its prevalence on the market has increased in recent years. Aside from personal aquariums and medicine, the great seahorse is also used as a souvenir, often available dried for people to take home. The combination of these three has led the great seahorse to be labeled as vulnerable.[1]","title":"Captivity and use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"specific name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_name_(zoology)"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"entomologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomology"},{"link_name":"evolutionary biologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology"},{"link_name":"Vernon Lyman Kellogg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon_Lyman_Kellogg"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bemon-3"}],"text":"The specific name honours the American entomologist and evolutionary biologist Vernon Lyman Kellogg 1867-1937.[3]","title":"Naming"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Pollom, R. (2017). \"Hippocampus kelloggi\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T41010A54908593. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41010/54908593","url_text":"\"Hippocampus kelloggi\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List","url_text":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en","url_text":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en"}]},{"reference":"\"Appendices | CITES\". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php","url_text":"\"Appendices | CITES\""}]},{"reference":"\"Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names. H\". Hans G. Hansson. Retrieved 19 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bemon.loven.gu.se/petymol.h.html","url_text":"\"Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names. H\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41010/54908593","external_links_name":"\"Hippocampus kelloggi\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en","external_links_name":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41010A54908593.en"},{"Link":"https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php","external_links_name":"\"Appendices | CITES\""},{"Link":"http://www.bemon.loven.gu.se/petymol.h.html","external_links_name":"\"Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names. H\""},{"Link":"https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Hippocampus_kelloggi","external_links_name":"Hippocampus_kelloggi"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.arkive.org/wd/hippocampus-kelloggi/","external_links_name":"hippocampus-kelloggi"},{"Link":"http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=66242","external_links_name":"66242"},{"Link":"https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/3LZMG","external_links_name":"3LZMG"},{"Link":"https://www.fishbase.ca/summary/53815","external_links_name":"53815"},{"Link":"https://www.gbif.org/species/5201145","external_links_name":"5201145"},{"Link":"https://inaturalist.org/taxa/102826","external_links_name":"102826"},{"Link":"https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11169721","external_links_name":"11169721"},{"Link":"https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=645023","external_links_name":"645023"},{"Link":"https://apiv3.iucnredlist.org/api/v3/taxonredirect/41010","external_links_name":"41010"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=109286","external_links_name":"109286"},{"Link":"https://observation.org/species/804946/","external_links_name":"804946"},{"Link":"https://obis.org/taxon/212236","external_links_name":"212236"},{"Link":"https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=630151","external_links_name":"630151"},{"Link":"https://speciesplus.net/#/taxon_concepts/4719","external_links_name":"4719"},{"Link":"https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=212236","external_links_name":"212236"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemia_(typeface) | Euphemia (typeface) | ["1 Usage","2 Unicode ranges","3 References"] | For other uses, see Euphemia (disambiguation).
Sans-Serif typefaceEuphemiaCategorySans-SerifDesigner(s)Ross MillsFoundryTiro TypeworksDate released2005
Euphemia (syllabics: ᐅᕓᒥᐊ) is a sans-serif typeface for Unified Canadian Syllabics. However, it does not display the Eastern Cree syllables sha and shu properly.
Usage
Various versions of "Euphemia" have been supplied in Windows Server 2008, Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8. OS X also supplies a version called "Euphemia UCAS".
Unicode ranges
Euphemia has support for the following Unicode ranges:
Basic Latin
Latin-1 Supplement
Latin Extended-A
Latin Extended-B
Spacing Modifier Letters
Combining Diacritical Marks
General Punctuation
Currency Symbols
Letterlike Symbols
Mathematical Operators
Supplemental Mathematical Operators
Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A
Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B
Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics
References
^ a b c Microsoft Typography - Euphemia Version 5.00
^ "Syllabics Resources". www.tiro.com. Retrieved 2020-12-04.
^ Microsoft Typography - Euphemia
^ "Syllabic font orientation |".
vteMicrosoft Windows typefacesLatin, Greek,CyrillicSans-serif
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System
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Cambria Math
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Euphemia
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Symbol
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List of typefaces included with Microsoft Windows
vtemacOS typefacesLatin, Greek, CyrillicSerif
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Avenir, Avenir Next
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Euphemia UCAS
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Graphik
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Impact
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This digital typography article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euphemia (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemia_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"syllabics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"sans-serif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sans-serif"},{"link_name":"typeface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface"},{"link_name":"Unified Canadian Syllabics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Canadian_Syllabics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MicTyp1-3"},{"link_name":"Eastern Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Cree"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"For other uses, see Euphemia (disambiguation).Sans-Serif typefaceEuphemia (syllabics: ᐅᕓᒥᐊ)[2] is a sans-serif typeface for Unified Canadian Syllabics.[3] However, it does not display the Eastern Cree syllables sha and shu properly.[4]","title":"Euphemia (typeface)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows Server 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Server_2008"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"Windows 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MicTyp2-1"},{"link_name":"OS X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS_X"}],"text":"Various versions of \"Euphemia\" have been supplied in Windows Server 2008, Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8.[1] OS X also supplies a version called \"Euphemia UCAS\".","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MicTyp2-1"},{"link_name":"Basic Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Latin_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Latin-1 Supplement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin-1_Supplement_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Latin Extended-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Extended-A_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Latin Extended-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Extended-B_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Spacing Modifier Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacing_Modifier_Letters_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Combining Diacritical Marks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combining_Diacritical_Marks_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"General Punctuation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Punctuation_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Currency Symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency_Symbols_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Letterlike Symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letterlike_Symbols_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Mathematical Operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Operators_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Supplemental Mathematical Operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplemental_Mathematical_Operators_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscellaneous_Mathematical_Symbols-A_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscellaneous_Mathematical_Symbols-B_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Canadian_Aboriginal_Syllabics_(Unicode_block)"}],"text":"Euphemia has support for the following Unicode ranges:[1]Basic Latin\nLatin-1 Supplement\nLatin Extended-A\nLatin Extended-B\nSpacing Modifier Letters\nCombining Diacritical Marks\nGeneral Punctuation\nCurrency Symbols\nLetterlike Symbols\nMathematical Operators\nSupplemental Mathematical Operators\nMiscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A\nMiscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B\nUnified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics","title":"Unicode ranges"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Syllabics Resources\". www.tiro.com. Retrieved 2020-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tiro.com/syllabics/resources/index.html","url_text":"\"Syllabics Resources\""}]},{"reference":"\"Syllabic font orientation |\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eastcree.org/cree/en/resources/how-to/cree-fonts/syllabic-font-orientation/","url_text":"\"Syllabic font orientation |\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.microsoft.com/typography/fonts/font.aspx?FMID=2116","external_links_name":"Microsoft Typography - Euphemia Version 5.00"},{"Link":"https://www.tiro.com/syllabics/resources/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Syllabics Resources\""},{"Link":"http://www.microsoft.com/typography/fonts/family.aspx?FID=316","external_links_name":"Microsoft Typography - Euphemia"},{"Link":"https://www.eastcree.org/cree/en/resources/how-to/cree-fonts/syllabic-font-orientation/","external_links_name":"\"Syllabic font orientation |\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euphemia_(typeface)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regierungsbezirk_Posen | Reichsgau Wartheland | ["1 Establishment and administration","2 Nazi crimes and German colonization","3 Polish resistance","4 End of war","5 See also","6 Notes","7 Sources","8 Further reading"] | Coordinates: 52°24′00″N 16°55′00″E / 52.400000°N 16.916667°E / 52.400000; 16.916667Nazi administrative subdivision
Reichsgau WarthelandWarthegauReichsgau of Nazi Germany1939–1945
Flag
Coat of arms
Map of Nazi conquest showing administrative subdivisions (Gaue and Reichsgaue) with Warthegau area (bright yellow, right). Reichsgau Wartheland (burgundy) on the map of occupied PolandCapitalPosenGovernmentGauleiter • 1939–1945 Arthur Greiser
History • Establishment 8 October 1939• Disestablishment 1 August 1945
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Second Polish Republic
Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland
Today part ofPoland
The Reichsgau Wartheland (initially Reichsgau Posen, also Warthegau) was a Nazi German Reichsgau formed from parts of Polish territory annexed in 1939 during World War II. It comprised the region of Greater Poland and adjacent areas. Parts of Warthegau matched the similarly named pre-Versailles Prussian province of Posen. The name was initially derived from the capital city, Posen (Poznań), and later from the main river, Warthe (Warta).
During the Partitions of Poland from 1793, the bulk of the area had been annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia until 1807 as South Prussia. From 1815 to 1849, the territory was within the autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen, which was the Province of Posen until Poland was re-established in 1918–1919 following World War I. The area is currently the Greater Poland Voivodeship.
Establishment and administration
Counties (Regierungsbezirk) and districts (Kreis), 1944
Main articles: Gleiwitz incident and Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany
After the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland in September 1939, the German Reich occupied the whole of the Greater Poland area - the erstwhile Polish Poznań Voivodeship - and split the territory between four Reichsgaue and the General Government area (further east). The Militärbezirk Posen was created in September 1939; in accordance with a decree of 8 October 1939, Germany annexed it on 26 October 1939 as the Reichsgau Posen.
SS Obergruppenfuhrer Arthur Greiser became Gauleiter on 21 October. He would remain in this post until the end of the war in 1945. Reichsgau Posen was renamed "Reichsgau Wartheland" on 29 January 1940.
In the new Reichsgau Posen the Wehrmacht established Wehrkreis XXI, based at Poznań (German: Posen), under the command of General der Artillerie Walter Petzel. Its primary operational unit was the 48th Panzer Korps, covering so-called Militärische Unterregion-Hauptsitze including Posen (Polish: Poznań), Lissa (Polish: Leszno), Hohensalza (Polish: Inowrocław), Leslau (Polish: Włocławek), Kalisch (Polish: Kalisz), and Litzmannstadt (Polish: Łódź). It maintained training areas at Sieradz and Biedrusko. It also maintained the four main prisoner-of-war camps in the province, i.e. Stalag XXI-A in Ostrzeszów, Stalag XXI-B in Szubin, Stalag XXI-C in Wolsztyn and Stalag XXI-D in Poznań, which housed Polish, French, British, Dutch, Belgian, Serbian, Italian, Soviet, American, Norwegian, Moroccan, Algerian and French Sudanese prisoners of war.
Nazi crimes and German colonization
Mass execution of Poles in Leszno, 21 October 1939
The territory of the Reichsgau was inhabited predominantly by ethnic Poles, by Germans (a minority of 16.7% in 1921), and by Polish Jews. The Polish population was subjected to various crimes, including the Intelligenzaktion genocidal campaign. On 20–23 October 1939 alone, the German police and Einsatzgruppe VI carried out mass public executions of some 300 Poles in various towns in the region, i.e. Gostyń, Kostrzyn, Kościan, Kórnik, Krobia, Książ Wielkopolski, Leszno, Mosina, Osieczna, Poniec, Śmigiel, Śrem, Środa and Włoszakowice, to terrorize and pacify the Poles. During Aktion T4, the SS-Sonderkommandos gassed over 2,700 mentally ill people from the psychiatric hospitals in Owińska, Dziekanka and Kościan.
Most of the Jewish residents were eventually imprisoned at the Łódź Ghetto (officially established in December 1939) and exterminated at Chełmno extermination camp (German: Vernichtungslager Kulmhof, operational from December 1941 onwards). From 1940, the occupiers also operated several forced labour camps for Jews in the region. Due to poor feeding and sanitary conditions, epidemics spread in those camps, which, combined with frequent executions, led to a high mortality rate. On the order of Heinrich Himmler, most of the camps were dissolved in 1943, and its surviving prisoners were sent to ghettos and death camps.
Poles being led to trains under German Army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of the areas of western Poland annexed to the Reich immediately following the invasion of 1939
The Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Reichsgau Wartheland, native-born Arthur Greiser, embarked on a program of complete removal of the formerly Polish citizenry upon his nomination by Heinrich Himmler. The plan also entailed the re-settling of ethnic Germans from the Baltic and other regions into farms and homes formerly owned by Poles and Jews. He also authorized the clandestine operation of exterminating 100,000 Polish Jews (about one-third of the total Jewish population of Wartheland), in the process of the region's complete "Germanization". In the first year of World War II, some 630,000 Poles and Jews were forcibly removed from Wartheland and transported to the occupied General Government (more than 70,000 from Poznań alone) in a series of operations called the Kleine Planung covering most Polish territories annexed by Germany at about the same time.
Both Poles and Jews had their property confiscated.
By the end of 1940, some 325,000 Poles and Jews from the Wartheland and the so-called Polish Corridor were expelled to General Government, often forced to abandon most of their belongings. Fatalities were numerous. Many Poles were also enslaved as forced labour and either sent to forced labour camps or German colonists in the region or deported to Germany and other German-occupied countries. In 1941, the Nazis expelled a further 45,000 people, and from autumn of that year, they began killing Jews by shooting and in gas vans, at first spasmodically and experimentally. Reichsgau Wartheland had the population: 4,693,700 by 1941. Greiser wrote in November 1942: "I myself do not believe that the Führer needs to be asked again in this matter, especially since at our last discussion with regard to the Jews he told me that I could proceed with these according to my own judgement."
Bunker no. 16 in Fort VII in Poznań, used by the German occupiers as an improvised gas chamber
There were numerous camps and prisons in the province, including a subcamp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Owińska, and a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp in Obrzycko. Particularly notorious camps and prisons included the Fort VII concentration camp in Poznań, the Radogoszcz prison in Łódź, a prison camp in Żabikowo, where mostly Poles were imprisoned, but also Luxembourgers, Dutch, Hungarians, Slovaks, Americans, Russians and deserters from the Wehrmacht, and many were tortured and executed, and the prison in Sieradz, whose mostly Polish and Jewish prisoners were subjected to insults, beatings, forced labour, tortures, executions, and were even given meals prepared from rotten vegetables, spoiled fish and dead dogs, thus often dying of exhaustion, starvation or torture.
Over 270,000 Polish children aged 10–18 were subjected to forced labour in the region of Greater Poland, which, in addition to German profits of 500 million marks, was aimed at the children's biological destruction. In Łódź, the occupiers operated a racial research camp for expelled Poles, and a concentration camp for kidnapped Polish children of two to 16 years of age from various parts of occupied Poland. In the racial research camp, Poles were subjected to racial selection before deportation to forced labour in Germany, and Polish children were taken from their parents and sent to Germanisation camps. The camp for kidnapped children served as a forced labour, penal and internment camp and racial research center, with the children subjected to starvation, exhausting labour, beating even up to death and diseases, and the camp was nicknamed "little Auschwitz" due to its conditions. Germanisation camps for Polish children taken away from their parents were operated in Kalisz, Poznań, Puszczykowo and Zaniemyśl. The children were given new German names and surnames, and were punished for any use of the Polish language, even with death. After their stay in the camps, the children were deported to Germany; only some returned to Poland after the war, while the fate of many remains unknown to this day.
Heim ins Reich re-settlement in Warthegau. Map of the Third Reich in 1939 (dark grey) after the conquest of Poland; with pockets of German colonists brought into Reichsgau Wartheland from the Soviet "sphere of influence" – superimposed with the red outline of Poland missing entirely from the original print.
Polish resistance
The Polish resistance movement was active in the region, including the Union of Armed Struggle, Bataliony Chłopskie, Gray Ranks and Home Army. The Polish Underground State was organized, and in July 1940, even an underground Polish parliament was established in Poznań. Activities included secret Polish schooling, secret Catholic services, printing and distribution of Polish underground press, sabotage actions, espionage of German activity, military trainings, production of false documents, preparations for a planned uprising, and even secret football games. The Polish resistance provided aid to people in need, including prisoners, escapees from camps and ghettos and deserters from the German army, rescued Polish children kidnapped by the Germans, and facilitated escapes of Allied prisoners of war from German POW camps. The Germans cracked down on the resistance several times, and even kidnapped children of the resistance members and sent them to the camp for Polish children in Łódź.
End of war
From August 1944 to January 1945, the Germans used hundreds of thousands of Poles as forced labour to build fortifications in the region ahead of the advancing Eastern Front. In January 1945, before and during their retreat, the Germans committed several further massacres of Polish civilians, prisoners and Polish and other Allied POWs, including at Ostrzeszów, Pleszew, Marchwacz, Żabikowo and Łomnica and perpetrated several death marches.
By 1945 nearly half a million Germanic Volksdeutsche had been resettled in the Warthegau alone among the areas annexed by Germany while the Soviet forces began to push the retreating German forces back through the Polish lands. Most German residents along with over a million colonists fled westward. Some did not, due to restrictions by Germany's own government and the quickly advancing Red Army. An estimated 50,000 refugees died from the severe winter conditions, others as war atrocities committed by the Soviet military. The remaining ethnically German population was expelled to Allied-occupied Germany after the war ended in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.
See also
History of Poland (1939–1945)
World War II atrocities in Poland
Special Prosecution Book-Poland
Intelligenzaktion
Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz
Notes
^
Neuburger, Otto (1944) . "Gazettes of the Länder and Reichsgaue". Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 82. Retrieved 5 April 2024. Reincorporated into Germany on October 26, 1939 as Reichsgau Posen by decree of October 8, 1939 (RGBl,I, p 2041).
^ Michael D. Miller and Andreas Schulz (2012). Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925-1945, Vol. 1. R. James Bender Publishing. p. 360. ISBN 978-1-932970-21-0.
^ Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. p. 393. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.
^ Wardzyńska 2009, pp. 193–198, 191–192, 199, 205–206, 211.
^ Grochowina, Sylwia (2017). Cultural policy of the Nazi occupying forces in the Reich district Gdańsk–West Prussia, the Reich district Wartheland, and the Reich district of Katowice in the years 1939–1945. Toruń. p. 87. ISBN 978-83-88693-73-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Wardzyńska 2009, pp. 216–217.
^ HolocaustHistory.org: "ninety-seven thousand have been processed, using three vans, without any defects showing up in the vehicles." Postwar testimony Obersturmbannführer August Becker, the gas-van inspector. See: Ernst Klee; Willi Dressen; Volker Riess (1991). "A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans". The Good Old Days: The Holocaust As Seen by Its Perpetrators and Bystanders. Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Konecky & Konecky. pp. 69–70. ISBN 1-56852-133-2. Also in: Christopher Browning (2000), Evidence for the Implementation of the Final Solution with archives of the RSHA.
^ a b c d e Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. pp. 394–395. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.
^ Ian Kershaw (2013). Hitler 1936-1945. Penguin UK. p. vi. ISBN 978-0-14-190959-2.
^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web pp. 207-9, ISBN 0-679-77663-X.
^ "Special treatment" (Sonderbehandlung)". The Holocaust History Project. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28.
^ Main Commission for Investigation of German Crimes in Poland, German Crimes in Poland (Warsaw: 1946, 1947); Archive of Jewish Gombin Genealogy, with introduction by Leon Zamosc. Note: The Main (or Central) Commission for Investigation of German Crimes in Poland (Polish: Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Niemieckich w Polsce, GKBZNwP) founded in 1945 was the predecessor of the Institute of National Remembrance (see also the "Archived copy". Archived from the original on February 12, 1997. Retrieved 2017-01-12.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)). Quote: "The creation of the Main Commission... was preceded by work done in London since 1943 by the Polish Government in Exile."
^ Agency for the East that oversaw the registration, administration and eventual sale of all property confiscated from Poles and Jews (virtually all Polish and Jewish property was confiscated)Heimat, Region, and Empire: Spatial Identities under National Socialism
Claus-Christian W. Szejnmann, Maiken Umbach
^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web pp. 213-214, ISBN 0-679-77663-X.
^ Max Hastings, "The Most Evil Emperor," NYRB October 23, 2008, p. 48.
^ Ian Kershaw, Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution (Yale University Press, 2008), p. 75.
^ "Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen". Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ "Anlage zu § 1. Verzeichnis der Konzentrationslager und ihrer Außenkommandos gemäß § 42 Abs. 2 BEG" (in German). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ Wardzyńska 2009, p. 203.
^ "68 lat temu zlikwidowano obóz hitlerowski w Żabikowie". Poznań Nasze Miasto (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ Studnicka-Mariańczyk, Karolina (2018). "Zakład Karny w Sieradzu w okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej 1939–1945". Zeszyty Historyczne (in Polish). 17: 187–192.
^ Kołakowski, Andrzej (2020). "Zbrodnia bez kary: eksterminacja dzieci polskich w okresie okupacji niemieckiej w latach 1939–1945". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 74.
^ a b c Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). "Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 147–149.
^ a b c d Krystyna Dobak-Splitt; Jerzy Aleksander Splitt. ""Dom wychowawczy" dla polskich dzieci w Kaliszu". Kalisz.info (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ R. M. Douglas (2012). Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-300-18376-4. In a keynote address to the Reichstag to mark the end of the 'Polish campaign', on October 6, 1939, Hitler announced the Heim ins Reich (Back to the Reich) program. The prospect of being uprooted from their homes to face an uncertain future not even in Germany proper, but in the considerably less salubrious environment of western Poland, was greeted with a deep sense of betrayal.
^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 28–33.
^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 34, 36.
^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 23–26, 31–32.
^ Graf, Władysław (1994). "Wojskowa konspiracja AK 1940–1944. Część 1". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 38. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 4, 7–8.
^ Pietrowicz 2011, p. 23.
^ Aleksandra Pietrowicz. ""Dorsze" z Poznania". Przystanek Historia (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ Graf, Władysław (1992). "Ostrzeszów: obozy jenieckie okresu 1940–1942". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 17. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 9–10, 16–18.
^ Pietrowicz 2011, p. 26.
^ Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). "Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 158–159.
^ Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945. p. 147.
^ Anna Czuchra (30 January 2016). "71. rocznica mordu na mieszkańcach Marchwacza". Wielkopolski Urząd Wojewódzki w Poznaniu (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ "75. rocznica likwidacji i ewakuacji więźniów obozu karno-śledczego w Żabikowie". Muzeum Martyrologiczne w Żabikowie (in Polish). 19 January 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
^ Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany. p. 75. ISBN 0674784057.
Sources
Shoa.de - List of Gaue and Gauleiter (in German)
Die NS Gaue at the Deutsches Historisches Museum website (in German)
Die Gaue der NSDAP (in German)
Further reading
Huener, Jonathan (University of Vermont) (March 2014). "Nazi Kirchenpolitik and Polish Catholicism in the Reichsgau Wartheland, 1939–1941". Central European History. 47 (1). Central European History Society of the American Historical Association: 105–137. doi:10.1017/S0008938914000648. S2CID 145194931. - DOI 10.1017/S0008938914000648, online publication on 15 May 2014
Pietrowicz, Aleksandra (2011). "Konspiracja wielkopolska 1939–1945". Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). No. 5–6 (126–127). IPN. ISSN 1641-9561.
Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN.
vteHistorical administrative divisions of Greater Poland
12–13th century
Duchy of Greater Poland
until 1768
Poznań / Kalisz Voivodeships
until 1793
Poznań / Kalisz / Gniezno Voivodeships
Netze District
until 1806
South Prussia
until 1815
Poznań / Kalisz / Bydgoszcz Departments
until 18371848
Kalisz
Grand Duchy of Posen
until 1918
Province of Posen
Kalisz / Warsaw Governorates
until 1939
Poznań / Łódź Voivodeships
Posen-West Prussia
until 1945
Reichsgau Wartheland
until 1975
Poznań Voivodeship
until 1998
Poznań / Kalisz / Leszno / Konin / Piła Voivodeships
since 1999
Greater Poland Voivodeship
vteAdministrative divisions in Nazi Germany and German occupationsAdministrativedivisions ofNazi GermanyGaus (Altreich)Founded
Baden-Alsace
Bayreuth
Berlin
Cologne–Aachen
Düsseldorf
Eastern Hanover
East Prussia
Electoral Hesse
Essen
Franconia
Halle-Merseburg
Hamburg
Hesse-Nassau
Lower Silesia
Magdeburg-Anhalt
Main Franconia
March of Brandenburg
Mecklenburg
Moselland
Munich–Upper Bavaria
NSDAP/AO
Pomerania
Saxony
Schleswig-Holstein
Silesia
Swabia
Southern Hanover–Brunswick
Thuringia
Upper Silesia
Weser-Ems
Westphalia-North
Westphalia-South
Westmark
Württemberg-Hohenzollern
Proposed
Prinz-Eugen (Reichsfestung Belgrad)
Holland
ReichsgausFounded
Danzig–West Prussia
Sudetenland
Wartheland
Austria
Carinthia
Lower Danube
Upper Danube
Salzburg
Styria
Tyrol–Vorarlberg
Vienna
Proposed
Banat
Beskidland
Brabant
Burgundy
Flanders
Galicia
Gothland
Nordmark
Vandalland
Venice
Vistulaland
Wallonia
Westland
Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe
Gelderland and Overijssel
North Holland and Utrecht
South Holland and Zeeland
North Brabant and Limburg
Partial annexationsFounded
Bohemia and Moravia
General Government
Galicia
Kraków
Lublin
Radom
Warsaw
Proposed
Burgundy (SS)
Holland (SS)
Lombardy
GermanoccupationsCivil Administration Areas
Alsace
Carinthia and Carniola
Gebiet Bialystok
Lorraine
Lower Styria
Luxembourg
Posen
Sudetenland
West Prussia
Zichenau
DistrictsFounded
Bialystok
Proposed
Brussels
Military administrations
Army Group Rear Area Command
Belgium and Northern France
Croatia
France (Atlantic Wall ‧ zone réservée)
Slovakia
Greece
Luxembourg
Poland
Serbia
Banat
Operational Zones
Adriatic Littoral
Ljubljana
Alpine Foothills
Puppet administrationsFounded
Albania
Asch
Austria
Belarus
Chechnya-Ingushetia
Croatia
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Flanders
France
Greece
Hungary
Italy
Lithuania
Lepel
Lokot
Netherlands
Nias
Norway (Quisling I)
Norway (Administrative Council)
Norway (Quisling II)
Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia (Commissioner Government)
Serbia (Council of Ministers)
Slovakia
Ukraine
Wallonia
Zuyev Republic
Exiled
Belarus
Bulgaria
Cossackia
France
Greece
Hungary
Montenegro
Romania
Russia (ODNR)
Russia (KONR)
Serbia
Slovakia
Turkestan
Ukraine
Wallonia
Proposed
Brittany
ReichskommissariatsFounded
Belgium and Northern France
Netherlands
Norway
Ostland
Ukraine
Proposed
Caucasia
Don-Volga
Muscovy
Turkestan
Ural
Other occupations
Finland
Monaco
San Marino
Tunisia
OtherFounded
New Swabia
Weather Station Kurt
Schatzgräber
Holzauge
Bassgeiger
Edelweiss
Proposed
Nordstern
Strength Through Joy holiday resorts
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Germany
Czech Republic
52°24′00″N 16°55′00″E / 52.400000°N 16.916667°E / 52.400000; 16.916667 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nazi German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Reichsgau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic"},{"link_name":"annexed in 1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Greater Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Poland"},{"link_name":"pre-Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"Prussian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"province of Posen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Posen"},{"link_name":"Posen (Poznań)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84"},{"link_name":"Warthe (Warta)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warta_River"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia"},{"link_name":"South Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Posen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Posen"},{"link_name":"Province of Posen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Posen"},{"link_name":"Poland was re-established","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Greater Poland Voivodeship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodeship"}],"text":"Nazi administrative subdivisionThe Reichsgau Wartheland (initially Reichsgau Posen, also Warthegau) was a Nazi German Reichsgau formed from parts of Polish territory annexed in 1939 during World War II. It comprised the region of Greater Poland and adjacent areas. Parts of Warthegau matched the similarly named pre-Versailles Prussian province of Posen. The name was initially derived from the capital city, Posen (Poznań), and later from the main river, Warthe (Warta).During the Partitions of Poland from 1793, the bulk of the area had been annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia until 1807 as South Prussia. From 1815 to 1849, the territory was within the autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen, which was the Province of Posen until Poland was re-established in 1918–1919 following World War I. The area is currently the Greater Poland Voivodeship.","title":"Reichsgau Wartheland"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wartheland_Reichsgau_1944_ENG.png"},{"link_name":"Regierungsbezirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regierungsbezirk"},{"link_name":"Kreis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Wehrmacht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrmacht"},{"link_name":"invaded Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Poznań Voivodeship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozna%C5%84_Voivodeship_(1919%E2%80%931939)"},{"link_name":"the territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"Reichsgaue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsgau"},{"link_name":"General Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Government"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"SS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schutzstaffel"},{"link_name":"Obergruppenfuhrer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obergruppenfuhrer"},{"link_name":"Arthur Greiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Greiser"},{"link_name":"Gauleiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauleiter"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Wehrkreis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrkreis"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Walter Petzel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Petzel"},{"link_name":"Panzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Lissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leszno"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Hohensalza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inowroc%C5%82aw"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Leslau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Kalisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalisz"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Litzmannstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Sieradz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieradz"},{"link_name":"Biedrusko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biedrusko"},{"link_name":"prisoner-of-war camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Stalag XXI-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag_XXI-A"},{"link_name":"Ostrzeszów","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrzesz%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"Stalag XXI-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oflag_XXI-B"},{"link_name":"Szubin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szubin"},{"link_name":"Stalag XXI-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag_XXI-C"},{"link_name":"Wolsztyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolsztyn"},{"link_name":"Stalag XXI-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalag_XXI-D"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_prisoners_of_war_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Military_Internees"},{"link_name":"French Sudanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Sudan"}],"text":"Counties (Regierungsbezirk) and districts (Kreis), 1944After the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland in September 1939, the German Reich occupied the whole of the Greater Poland area - the erstwhile Polish Poznań Voivodeship - and split the territory between four Reichsgaue and the General Government area (further east). The Militärbezirk Posen was created in September 1939; in accordance with a decree of 8 October 1939, Germany annexed it on 26 October 1939 as the Reichsgau Posen.[1]\nSS Obergruppenfuhrer Arthur Greiser became Gauleiter on 21 October.[2] He would remain in this post until the end of the war in 1945. Reichsgau Posen was renamed \"Reichsgau Wartheland\" on 29 January 1940.In the new Reichsgau Posen the Wehrmacht established Wehrkreis XXI, based at Poznań (German: Posen), under the command of General der Artillerie Walter Petzel. Its primary operational unit was the 48th Panzer Korps, covering so-called Militärische Unterregion-Hauptsitze including Posen (Polish: Poznań), Lissa (Polish: Leszno), Hohensalza (Polish: Inowrocław), Leslau (Polish: Włocławek), Kalisch (Polish: Kalisz), and Litzmannstadt (Polish: Łódź). It maintained training areas at Sieradz and Biedrusko. It also maintained the four main prisoner-of-war camps in the province, i.e. Stalag XXI-A in Ostrzeszów, Stalag XXI-B in Szubin, Stalag XXI-C in Wolsztyn and Stalag XXI-D in Poznań,[3] which housed Polish, French, British, Dutch, Belgian, Serbian, Italian, Soviet, American, Norwegian, Moroccan, Algerian and French Sudanese prisoners of war.","title":"Establishment and administration"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Execution_of_Poles_by_German_Einsatzkommando_Oktober_1939.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leszno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leszno"},{"link_name":"crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_crimes_against_the_Polish_nation"},{"link_name":"Intelligenzaktion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligenzaktion"},{"link_name":"Einsatzgruppe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsatzgruppe"},{"link_name":"Gostyń","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosty%C5%84"},{"link_name":"Kostrzyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostrzyn,_Greater_Poland_Voivodeship"},{"link_name":"Kościan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian"},{"link_name":"Kórnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3rnik"},{"link_name":"Krobia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krobia"},{"link_name":"Książ Wielkopolski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ksi%C4%85%C5%BC_Wielkopolski"},{"link_name":"Leszno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leszno"},{"link_name":"Mosina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosina"},{"link_name":"Osieczna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osieczna"},{"link_name":"Poniec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poniec"},{"link_name":"Śmigiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Amigiel"},{"link_name":"Śrem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Arem"},{"link_name":"Środa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aroda_Wielkopolska"},{"link_name":"Włoszakowice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82oszakowice"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardzy%C5%84ska2009193%E2%80%93198,_191%E2%80%93192,_199,_205%E2%80%93206,_211-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Aktion T4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktion_T4"},{"link_name":"SS-Sonderkommandos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-Sonderkommandos"},{"link_name":"Owińska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owi%C5%84ska"},{"link_name":"Dziekanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dziekanka"},{"link_name":"Kościan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardzy%C5%84ska2009216%E2%80%93217-6"},{"link_name":"Łódź Ghetto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto"},{"link_name":"Chełmno extermination camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klee-Dressen-Riess-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ekw394-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ekw394-8"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Himmler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ekw394-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131,_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg"},{"link_name":"ethnic cleansing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing"},{"link_name":"Reich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reich"},{"link_name":"invasion of 1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Reichsstatthalter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsstatthalter"},{"link_name":"Arthur Greiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Greiser"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kershaw-9"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Himmler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Himmler"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ushmm-10"},{"link_name":"Baltic and other regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi-Soviet_population_transfers"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Polish Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Jews"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thhpsb-12"},{"link_name":"Germanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanization"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IPN-13"},{"link_name":"General Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Government"},{"link_name":"Polish territories annexed by Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_territories_annexed_by_Germany"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Polish Corridor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Corridor"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"forced labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ekw394-8"},{"link_name":"gas vans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_gas_van"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fort_VII_Pozna%C5%84_RB10.JPG"},{"link_name":"Fort VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_VII"},{"link_name":"gas chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chamber"},{"link_name":"subcamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subcamps_of_Gross-Rosen"},{"link_name":"Gross-Rosen concentration camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross-Rosen_concentration_camp"},{"link_name":"Owińska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owi%C5%84ska"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Stutthof concentration camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp"},{"link_name":"Obrzycko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obrzycko"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Fort VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_VII"},{"link_name":"Radogoszcz prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radogoszcz_prison"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardzy%C5%84ska2009203-20"},{"link_name":"Żabikowo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBabikowo,_Lubo%C5%84"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Sieradz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieradz"},{"link_name":"starvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Greater Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Poland"},{"link_name":"marks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Mark"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"racial research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"kidnapped Polish children","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping_of_children_by_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klbg-24"},{"link_name":"Germanisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanisation_in_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klbg-24"},{"link_name":"Auschwitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klbg-24"},{"link_name":"Puszczykowo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puszczykowo"},{"link_name":"Zaniemyśl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaniemy%C5%9Bl"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dom-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dom-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dom-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Die_%27gro%C3%9Fz%C3%BCgigste_Umsiedlungsaktion%27_with_Poland_superimposed,_1939.jpg"},{"link_name":"Heim ins Reich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heim_ins_Reich"},{"link_name":"conquest of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Reichsgau Wartheland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Douglas-26"}],"text":"Mass execution of Poles in Leszno, 21 October 1939The territory of the Reichsgau was inhabited predominantly by ethnic Poles, by Germans (a minority of 16.7% in 1921), and by Polish Jews. The Polish population was subjected to various crimes, including the Intelligenzaktion genocidal campaign. On 20–23 October 1939 alone, the German police and Einsatzgruppe VI carried out mass public executions of some 300 Poles in various towns in the region, i.e. Gostyń, Kostrzyn, Kościan, Kórnik, Krobia, Książ Wielkopolski, Leszno, Mosina, Osieczna, Poniec, Śmigiel, Śrem, Środa and Włoszakowice, to terrorize and pacify the Poles.[4][5] During Aktion T4, the SS-Sonderkommandos gassed over 2,700 mentally ill people from the psychiatric hospitals in Owińska, Dziekanka and Kościan.[6]Most of the Jewish residents were eventually imprisoned at the Łódź Ghetto (officially established in December 1939) and exterminated at Chełmno extermination camp (German: Vernichtungslager Kulmhof, operational from December 1941 onwards).[7] From 1940, the occupiers also operated several forced labour camps for Jews in the region.[8] Due to poor feeding and sanitary conditions, epidemics spread in those camps, which, combined with frequent executions, led to a high mortality rate.[8] On the order of Heinrich Himmler, most of the camps were dissolved in 1943, and its surviving prisoners were sent to ghettos and death camps.[8]Poles being led to trains under German Army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of the areas of western Poland annexed to the Reich immediately following the invasion of 1939The Gauleiter and Reichsstatthalter of Reichsgau Wartheland, native-born Arthur Greiser,[9] embarked on a program of complete removal of the formerly Polish citizenry upon his nomination by Heinrich Himmler.[10] The plan also entailed the re-settling of ethnic Germans from the Baltic and other regions into farms and homes formerly owned by Poles and Jews.[11] He also authorized the clandestine operation of exterminating 100,000 Polish Jews (about one-third of the total Jewish population of Wartheland),[12] in the process of the region's complete \"Germanization\".[13] In the first year of World War II, some 630,000 Poles and Jews were forcibly removed from Wartheland and transported to the occupied General Government (more than 70,000 from Poznań alone) in a series of operations called the Kleine Planung covering most Polish territories annexed by Germany at about the same time.\nBoth Poles and Jews had their property confiscated.[14]By the end of 1940, some 325,000 Poles and Jews from the Wartheland and the so-called Polish Corridor were expelled to General Government, often forced to abandon most of their belongings.[15] Fatalities were numerous. Many Poles were also enslaved as forced labour and either sent to forced labour camps or German colonists in the region or deported to Germany and other German-occupied countries.[8] In 1941, the Nazis expelled a further 45,000 people, and from autumn of that year, they began killing Jews by shooting and in gas vans, at first spasmodically and experimentally.[16] Reichsgau Wartheland had the population: 4,693,700 by 1941. Greiser wrote in November 1942: \"I myself do not believe that the Führer needs to be asked again in this matter, especially since at our last discussion with regard to the Jews he told me that I could proceed with these according to my own judgement.\"[17]Bunker no. 16 in Fort VII in Poznań, used by the German occupiers as an improvised gas chamberThere were numerous camps and prisons in the province, including a subcamp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Owińska,[18] and a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp in Obrzycko.[19] Particularly notorious camps and prisons included the Fort VII concentration camp in Poznań, the Radogoszcz prison in Łódź,[20] a prison camp in Żabikowo, where mostly Poles were imprisoned, but also Luxembourgers, Dutch, Hungarians, Slovaks, Americans, Russians and deserters from the Wehrmacht, and many were tortured and executed,[21] and the prison in Sieradz, whose mostly Polish and Jewish prisoners were subjected to insults, beatings, forced labour, tortures, executions, and were even given meals prepared from rotten vegetables, spoiled fish and dead dogs, thus often dying of exhaustion, starvation or torture.[22]Over 270,000 Polish children aged 10–18 were subjected to forced labour in the region of Greater Poland, which, in addition to German profits of 500 million marks, was aimed at the children's biological destruction.[23] In Łódź, the occupiers operated a racial research camp for expelled Poles, and a concentration camp for kidnapped Polish children of two to 16 years of age from various parts of occupied Poland.[24] In the racial research camp, Poles were subjected to racial selection before deportation to forced labour in Germany, and Polish children were taken from their parents and sent to Germanisation camps.[24] The camp for kidnapped children served as a forced labour, penal and internment camp and racial research center, with the children subjected to starvation, exhausting labour, beating even up to death and diseases, and the camp was nicknamed \"little Auschwitz\" due to its conditions.[24] Germanisation camps for Polish children taken away from their parents were operated in Kalisz, Poznań, Puszczykowo and Zaniemyśl.[25] The children were given new German names and surnames, and were punished for any use of the Polish language, even with death.[25] After their stay in the camps, the children were deported to Germany; only some returned to Poland after the war, while the fate of many remains unknown to this day.[25]Heim ins Reich re-settlement in Warthegau. Map of the Third Reich in 1939 (dark grey) after the conquest of Poland; with pockets of German colonists brought into Reichsgau Wartheland from the Soviet \"sphere of influence\" – superimposed with the red outline of Poland missing entirely from the original print.[26]","title":"Nazi crimes and German colonization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polish resistance movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Union of Armed Struggle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Armed_Struggle"},{"link_name":"Bataliony Chłopskie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataliony_Ch%C5%82opskie"},{"link_name":"Gray Ranks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_Ranks"},{"link_name":"Home Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Army"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrowicz201128%E2%80%9333-27"},{"link_name":"Polish Underground State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Underground_State"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrowicz201134,_36-28"},{"link_name":"secret Polish schooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Poland_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Polish underground press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_underground_press"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrowicz201123%E2%80%9326,_31%E2%80%9332-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dom-25"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrowicz201123-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietrowicz201126-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"The Polish resistance movement was active in the region, including the Union of Armed Struggle, Bataliony Chłopskie, Gray Ranks and Home Army.[27] The Polish Underground State was organized, and in July 1940, even an underground Polish parliament was established in Poznań.[28] Activities included secret Polish schooling, secret Catholic services, printing and distribution of Polish underground press, sabotage actions, espionage of German activity, military trainings, production of false documents, preparations for a planned uprising, and even secret football games.[29][30] The Polish resistance provided aid to people in need, including prisoners, escapees from camps and ghettos and deserters from the German army, rescued Polish children kidnapped by the Germans,[25] and facilitated escapes of Allied prisoners of war from German POW camps.[31][32][33] The Germans cracked down on the resistance several times,[34] and even kidnapped children of the resistance members and sent them to the camp for Polish children in Łódź.[35]","title":"Polish resistance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eastern Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ekw394-8"},{"link_name":"Ostrzeszów","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrzesz%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"Pleszew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleszew"},{"link_name":"Marchwacz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchwacz"},{"link_name":"Łomnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81omnica,_Nowy_Tomy%C5%9Bl_County"},{"link_name":"death marches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_marches_during_the_Holocaust"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Volksdeutsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksdeutsche"},{"link_name":"areas annexed by Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areas_annexed_by_Germany"},{"link_name":"Soviet forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"Most German residents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_evacuation_and_expulsion"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"remaining ethnically German population was expelled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_from_Poland_during_and_after_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Potsdam Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"From August 1944 to January 1945, the Germans used hundreds of thousands of Poles as forced labour to build fortifications in the region ahead of the advancing Eastern Front.[8] In January 1945, before and during their retreat, the Germans committed several further massacres of Polish civilians, prisoners and Polish and other Allied POWs, including at Ostrzeszów, Pleszew, Marchwacz, Żabikowo and Łomnica and perpetrated several death marches.[36][37][38]By 1945 nearly half a million Germanic Volksdeutsche had been resettled in the Warthegau alone among the areas annexed by Germany while the Soviet forces began to push the retreating German forces back through the Polish lands. Most German residents along with over a million colonists fled westward. Some did not, due to restrictions by Germany's own government and the quickly advancing Red Army. An estimated 50,000 refugees died from the severe winter conditions, others as war atrocities committed by the Soviet military.[citation needed] The remaining ethnically German population was expelled to Allied-occupied Germany after the war ended in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.[39]","title":"End of war"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=3edKAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-932970-21-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932970-21-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"83-85003-97-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-85003-97-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardzy%C5%84ska2009193%E2%80%93198,_191%E2%80%93192,_199,_205%E2%80%93206,_211_4-0"},{"link_name":"Wardzyńska 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWardzy%C5%84ska2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-83-88693-73-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-88693-73-1"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWardzy%C5%84ska2009216%E2%80%93217_6-0"},{"link_name":"Wardzyńska 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWardzy%C5%84ska2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Klee-Dressen-Riess_7-0"},{"link_name":"\"ninety-seven thousand have been processed, using three vans, without any defects showing up in the vehicles.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.holocaust-history.org/19420605-rauff-spezialwagen/"},{"link_name":"August Becker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Becker"},{"link_name":"gas-van","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_van"},{"link_name":"Ernst Klee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Klee"},{"link_name":"\"A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ACWKeRF49UYC&q=%22gas-vans+in+operation:+the+Opel-Blitz%22+%22Saurerwagen%22&pg=PA69"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56852-133-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56852-133-2"},{"link_name":"Christopher Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Browning"},{"link_name":"Evidence for the Implementation of the Final 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Naimark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_M._Naimark"},{"link_name":"The Russians in Germany.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=MVSjHNKUKoEC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0674784057","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674784057"}],"text":"^ \nNeuburger, Otto (1944) [1943]. \"Gazettes of the Länder and Reichsgaue\". Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 82. Retrieved 5 April 2024. Reincorporated into Germany on October 26, 1939 as Reichsgau Posen by decree of October 8, 1939 (RGBl,I, p 2041). \n\n^ Michael D. Miller and Andreas Schulz (2012). Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925-1945, Vol. 1. R. James Bender Publishing. p. 360. ISBN 978-1-932970-21-0.\n\n^ Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. p. 393. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.\n\n^ Wardzyńska 2009, pp. 193–198, 191–192, 199, 205–206, 211.\n\n^ Grochowina, Sylwia (2017). Cultural policy of the Nazi occupying forces in the Reich district Gdańsk–West Prussia, the Reich district Wartheland, and the Reich district of Katowice in the years 1939–1945. Toruń. p. 87. ISBN 978-83-88693-73-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Wardzyńska 2009, pp. 216–217.\n\n^ HolocaustHistory.org: \"ninety-seven thousand have been processed, using three vans, without any defects showing up in the vehicles.\" Postwar testimony Obersturmbannführer August Becker, the gas-van inspector. See: Ernst Klee; Willi Dressen; Volker Riess (1991). \"A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans\". The Good Old Days: The Holocaust As Seen by Its Perpetrators and Bystanders. Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Konecky & Konecky. pp. 69–70. ISBN 1-56852-133-2. Also in: Christopher Browning (2000), Evidence for the Implementation of the Final Solution with archives of the RSHA.\n\n^ a b c d e Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. pp. 394–395. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.\n\n^ Ian Kershaw (2013). Hitler 1936-1945. Penguin UK. p. vi. ISBN 978-0-14-190959-2.\n\n^ \"Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era\". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 24 May 2013.\n\n^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web pp. 207-9, ISBN 0-679-77663-X.\n\n^ \"Special treatment\" (Sonderbehandlung)\". The Holocaust History Project. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28.\n\n^ Main Commission for Investigation of German Crimes in Poland, German Crimes in Poland (Warsaw: 1946, 1947); Archive of Jewish Gombin Genealogy, with introduction by Leon Zamosc. Note: The Main (or Central) Commission for Investigation of German Crimes in Poland (Polish: Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Niemieckich w Polsce, GKBZNwP) founded in 1945 was the predecessor of the Institute of National Remembrance (see also the \"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on February 12, 1997. Retrieved 2017-01-12.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)). Quote: \"The creation of the Main Commission... was preceded by work done in London since 1943 by the Polish Government in Exile.\"\n\n^ Agency for the East that oversaw the registration, administration and eventual sale of all property confiscated from Poles and Jews (virtually all Polish and Jewish property was confiscated)Heimat, Region, and Empire: Spatial Identities under National Socialism\n Claus-Christian W. Szejnmann, Maiken Umbach\n\n^ Lynn H. Nicholas, Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web pp. 213-214, ISBN 0-679-77663-X.\n\n^ Max Hastings, \"The Most Evil Emperor,\" NYRB October 23, 2008, p. 48.\n\n^ Ian Kershaw, Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution (Yale University Press, 2008), p. 75.\n\n^ \"Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen\". Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica. Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ \"Anlage zu § 1. Verzeichnis der Konzentrationslager und ihrer Außenkommandos gemäß § 42 Abs. 2 BEG\" (in German). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ Wardzyńska 2009, p. 203.\n\n^ \"68 lat temu zlikwidowano obóz hitlerowski w Żabikowie\". Poznań Nasze Miasto (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ Studnicka-Mariańczyk, Karolina (2018). \"Zakład Karny w Sieradzu w okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej 1939–1945\". Zeszyty Historyczne (in Polish). 17: 187–192.\n\n^ Kołakowski, Andrzej (2020). \"Zbrodnia bez kary: eksterminacja dzieci polskich w okresie okupacji niemieckiej w latach 1939–1945\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 74.\n\n^ a b c Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). \"Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 147–149.\n\n^ a b c d Krystyna Dobak-Splitt; Jerzy Aleksander Splitt. \"\"Dom wychowawczy\" dla polskich dzieci w Kaliszu\". Kalisz.info (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ R. M. Douglas (2012). Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-300-18376-4. In a keynote address to the Reichstag to mark the end of the 'Polish campaign', on October 6, 1939, Hitler announced the Heim ins Reich (Back to the Reich) program. The prospect of being uprooted from their homes to face an uncertain future not even in Germany proper, but in the considerably less salubrious environment of western Poland, was greeted with a deep sense of betrayal.\n\n^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 28–33.\n\n^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 34, 36.\n\n^ Pietrowicz 2011, pp. 23–26, 31–32.\n\n^ Graf, Władysław (1994). \"Wojskowa konspiracja AK 1940–1944. Część 1\". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 38. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 4, 7–8.\n\n^ Pietrowicz 2011, p. 23.\n\n^ Aleksandra Pietrowicz. \"\"Dorsze\" z Poznania\". Przystanek Historia (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ Graf, Władysław (1992). \"Ostrzeszów: obozy jenieckie okresu 1940–1942\". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 17. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 9–10, 16–18.\n\n^ Pietrowicz 2011, p. 26.\n\n^ Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). \"Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 158–159.\n\n^ Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945. p. 147.\n\n^ Anna Czuchra (30 January 2016). \"71. rocznica mordu na mieszkańcach Marchwacza\". Wielkopolski Urząd Wojewódzki w Poznaniu (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ \"75. rocznica likwidacji i ewakuacji więźniów obozu karno-śledczego w Żabikowie\". Muzeum Martyrologiczne w Żabikowie (in Polish). 19 January 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2024.\n\n^ Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany. p. 75. ISBN 0674784057.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shoa.de - List of Gaue and Gauleiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.shoa.de/content/view/544/41/"},{"link_name":"Die NS Gaue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/gaue/"},{"link_name":"Deutsches Historisches Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsches_Historisches_Museum"},{"link_name":"Die Gaue der NSDAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.verwaltungsgeschichte.de/gau_abc.html"}],"text":"Shoa.de - List of Gaue and Gauleiter (in German)\nDie NS Gaue at the Deutsches Historisches Museum website (in German)\nDie Gaue der NSDAP (in German)","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vermont"},{"link_name":"Central European History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_History"},{"link_name":"American Historical 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resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_the_Channel_Islands"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q694187#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/146000476"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4107585-7"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge406059&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"52°24′00″N 16°55′00″E / 52.400000°N 16.916667°E / 52.400000; 16.916667","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Reichsgau_Wartheland¶ms=52.4_N_16.916667_E_type:landmark"}],"text":"Huener, Jonathan (University of Vermont) (March 2014). \"Nazi Kirchenpolitik and Polish Catholicism in the Reichsgau Wartheland, 1939–1941\". Central European History. 47 (1). Central European History Society of the American Historical Association: 105–137. doi:10.1017/S0008938914000648. S2CID 145194931. - DOI 10.1017/S0008938914000648, online publication on 15 May 2014\nPietrowicz, Aleksandra (2011). \"Konspiracja wielkopolska 1939–1945\". Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). No. 5–6 (126–127). IPN. ISSN 1641-9561.\nWardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN.vteHistorical administrative divisions of Greater Poland\n12–13th century\nDuchy of Greater Poland\nuntil 1768\nPoznań / Kalisz Voivodeships\nuntil 1793\nPoznań / Kalisz / Gniezno Voivodeships\nNetze District\nuntil 1806\nSouth Prussia\nuntil 1815\nPoznań / Kalisz / Bydgoszcz Departments\nuntil 18371848\nKalisz\nGrand Duchy of Posen\n\n\nuntil 1918\nProvince of Posen\nKalisz / Warsaw Governorates\nuntil 1939\nPoznań / Łódź Voivodeships\nPosen-West Prussia\nuntil 1945\nReichsgau Wartheland\nuntil 1975\nPoznań Voivodeship\nuntil 1998\nPoznań / Kalisz / Leszno / Konin / Piła Voivodeships\nsince 1999\nGreater Poland VoivodeshipvteAdministrative divisions in Nazi Germany and German occupationsAdministrativedivisions ofNazi GermanyGaus (Altreich)Founded\nBaden-Alsace\nBayreuth\nBerlin\nCologne–Aachen\nDüsseldorf\nEastern Hanover\nEast Prussia\nElectoral Hesse\nEssen\nFranconia\nHalle-Merseburg\nHamburg\nHesse-Nassau\nLower Silesia\nMagdeburg-Anhalt\nMain Franconia\nMarch of Brandenburg\nMecklenburg\nMoselland\nMunich–Upper Bavaria\nNSDAP/AO\nPomerania\nSaxony\nSchleswig-Holstein\nSilesia\nSwabia\nSouthern Hanover–Brunswick\nThuringia\nUpper Silesia\nWeser-Ems\nWestphalia-North\nWestphalia-South\nWestmark\nWürttemberg-Hohenzollern\nProposed\nPrinz-Eugen (Reichsfestung Belgrad)\nHolland\nReichsgausFounded\nDanzig–West Prussia\nSudetenland\nWartheland\n Austria\nCarinthia\nLower Danube\nUpper Danube\nSalzburg\nStyria\nTyrol–Vorarlberg\nVienna\n\nProposed\nBanat\nBeskidland\nBrabant\nBurgundy\nFlanders\nGalicia\nGothland\nNordmark\nVandalland\nVenice\nVistulaland\nWallonia\n Westland\nFriesland, Groningen, and Drenthe\nGelderland and Overijssel\nNorth Holland and Utrecht\nSouth Holland and Zeeland\nNorth Brabant and Limburg\n\nPartial annexationsFounded\nBohemia and Moravia\n General Government\nGalicia\nKraków\nLublin\nRadom\nWarsaw\n\nProposed\nBurgundy (SS)\nHolland (SS)\nLombardy\nGermanoccupationsCivil Administration Areas\nAlsace\nCarinthia and Carniola\nGebiet Bialystok\nLorraine\nLower Styria\nLuxembourg\nPosen\nSudetenland\nWest Prussia\nZichenau\nDistrictsFounded\nBialystok\nProposed\nBrussels\nMilitary administrations\nArmy Group Rear Area Command\nBelgium and Northern France\nCroatia\nFrance (Atlantic Wall ‧ zone réservée)\nSlovakia\nGreece\nLuxembourg\nPoland\nSerbia\nBanat\nOperational Zones\nAdriatic Littoral\nLjubljana\nAlpine Foothills\nPuppet administrationsFounded\nAlbania\nAsch\nAustria\nBelarus\nChechnya-Ingushetia\nCroatia\nCzechoslovakia\nDenmark\nFlanders\nFrance\nGreece\nHungary\nItaly\nLithuania\nLepel\nLokot\nNetherlands\nNias\nNorway (Quisling I)\nNorway (Administrative Council)\nNorway (Quisling II)\nMacedonia\nMontenegro\nSerbia (Commissioner Government)\nSerbia (Council of Ministers)\nSlovakia\nUkraine\nWallonia\nZuyev Republic\nExiled\nBelarus\nBulgaria\nCossackia\nFrance\nGreece\nHungary\nMontenegro\nRomania\nRussia (ODNR)\nRussia (KONR)\nSerbia\nSlovakia\nTurkestan\nUkraine\nWallonia\nProposed\nBrittany\nReichskommissariatsFounded\nBelgium and Northern France\nNetherlands\nNorway\nOstland\nUkraine\nProposed\nCaucasia\nDon-Volga\nMuscovy\nTurkestan\nUral\nOther occupations\nFinland\nMonaco\nSan Marino\nTunisia\nOtherFounded\nNew Swabia\nWeather Station Kurt\nSchatzgräber\nHolzauge\nBassgeiger\nEdelweiss\nProposed\nNordstern\nStrength Through Joy holiday resortsAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\nNational\nGermany\nCzech Republic52°24′00″N 16°55′00″E / 52.400000°N 16.916667°E / 52.400000; 16.916667","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Counties (Regierungsbezirk) and districts (Kreis), 1944","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Wartheland_Reichsgau_1944_ENG.png/220px-Wartheland_Reichsgau_1944_ENG.png"},{"image_text":"Mass execution of Poles in Leszno, 21 October 1939","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Execution_of_Poles_by_German_Einsatzkommando_Oktober_1939.jpg/220px-Execution_of_Poles_by_German_Einsatzkommando_Oktober_1939.jpg"},{"image_text":"Poles being led to trains under German Army escort, as part of the ethnic cleansing of the areas of western Poland annexed to the Reich immediately following the invasion of 1939","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131%2C_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_R_49_Bild-0131%2C_Aussiedlung_von_Polen_im_Wartheland.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bunker no. 16 in Fort VII in Poznań, used by the German occupiers as an improvised gas chamber","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Fort_VII_Pozna%C5%84_RB10.JPG/220px-Fort_VII_Pozna%C5%84_RB10.JPG"},{"image_text":"Heim ins Reich re-settlement in Warthegau. Map of the Third Reich in 1939 (dark grey) after the conquest of Poland; with pockets of German colonists brought into Reichsgau Wartheland from the Soviet \"sphere of influence\" – superimposed with the red outline of Poland missing entirely from the original print.[26]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Die_%27gro%C3%9Fz%C3%BCgigste_Umsiedlungsaktion%27_with_Poland_superimposed%2C_1939.jpg/280px-Die_%27gro%C3%9Fz%C3%BCgigste_Umsiedlungsaktion%27_with_Poland_superimposed%2C_1939.jpg"}] | [{"title":"History of Poland (1939–1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)"},{"title":"World War II atrocities in Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_atrocities_in_Poland"},{"title":"Special Prosecution Book-Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Prosecution_Book-Poland"},{"title":"Intelligenzaktion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligenzaktion"},{"title":"Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksdeutscher_Selbstschutz"}] | [{"reference":"Neuburger, Otto (1944) [1943]. \"Gazettes of the Länder and Reichsgaue\". Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 82. Retrieved 5 April 2024. Reincorporated into Germany on October 26, 1939 as Reichsgau Posen by decree of October 8, 1939 (RGBl,I, p 2041).","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3edKAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany"}]},{"reference":"Michael D. Miller and Andreas Schulz (2012). Gauleiter: The Regional Leaders of the Nazi Party and Their Deputies, 1925-1945, Vol. 1. R. James Bender Publishing. p. 360. ISBN 978-1-932970-21-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932970-21-0","url_text":"978-1-932970-21-0"}]},{"reference":"Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. p. 393. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-85003-97-5","url_text":"83-85003-97-5"}]},{"reference":"Grochowina, Sylwia (2017). Cultural policy of the Nazi occupying forces in the Reich district Gdańsk–West Prussia, the Reich district Wartheland, and the Reich district of Katowice in the years 1939–1945. Toruń. p. 87. ISBN 978-83-88693-73-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-88693-73-1","url_text":"978-83-88693-73-1"}]},{"reference":"Ernst Klee; Willi Dressen; Volker Riess (1991). \"A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans\". The Good Old Days: The Holocaust As Seen by Its Perpetrators and Bystanders. Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Konecky & Konecky. pp. 69–70. ISBN 1-56852-133-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Klee","url_text":"Ernst Klee"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ACWKeRF49UYC&q=%22gas-vans+in+operation:+the+Opel-Blitz%22+%22Saurerwagen%22&pg=PA69","url_text":"\"A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56852-133-2","url_text":"1-56852-133-2"}]},{"reference":"Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945 (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. 1998. pp. 394–395. ISBN 83-85003-97-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-85003-97-5","url_text":"83-85003-97-5"}]},{"reference":"Ian Kershaw (2013). Hitler 1936-1945. Penguin UK. p. vi. ISBN 978-0-14-190959-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Clu5vSF3IIYC&q=60%2C000","url_text":"Hitler 1936-1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-190959-2","url_text":"978-0-14-190959-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era\". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 24 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ushmm.org/learn/students/learning-materials-and-resources/poles-victims-of-the-nazi-era","url_text":"\"Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era\""}]},{"reference":"\"Special treatment\" (Sonderbehandlung)\". The Holocaust History Project. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130528142643/http://www.holocaust-history.org/quick-facts/special-treatment.shtml","url_text":"\"Special treatment\" (Sonderbehandlung)\""},{"url":"http://www.holocaust-history.org/quick-facts/special-treatment.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on February 12, 1997. Retrieved 2017-01-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/19970212065543/http://biwww.urm.gov.pl/ms/gkbzpnpe.html","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://biwww.urm.gov.pl/ms/gkbzpnpe.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen\". Gross-Rosen Museum in Rogoźnica. Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.gross-rosen.eu/historia-kl-gross-rosen/filie-obozu-gross-rosen/","url_text":"\"Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anlage zu § 1. Verzeichnis der Konzentrationslager und ihrer Außenkommandos gemäß § 42 Abs. 2 BEG\" (in German). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090423004151/http://bundesrecht.juris.de/begdv_6/anlage_6.html","url_text":"\"Anlage zu § 1. Verzeichnis der Konzentrationslager und ihrer Außenkommandos gemäß § 42 Abs. 2 BEG\""},{"url":"http://bundesrecht.juris.de/begdv_6/anlage_6.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"68 lat temu zlikwidowano obóz hitlerowski w Żabikowie\". Poznań Nasze Miasto (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://poznan.naszemiasto.pl/68-lat-temu-zlikwidowano-oboz-hitlerowski-w-zabikowie/ar/c1-1700137","url_text":"\"68 lat temu zlikwidowano obóz hitlerowski w Żabikowie\""}]},{"reference":"Studnicka-Mariańczyk, Karolina (2018). \"Zakład Karny w Sieradzu w okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej 1939–1945\". Zeszyty Historyczne (in Polish). 17: 187–192.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kołakowski, Andrzej (2020). \"Zbrodnia bez kary: eksterminacja dzieci polskich w okresie okupacji niemieckiej w latach 1939–1945\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 74.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonian_University","url_text":"Uniwersytet Jagielloński"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteka_Jagiello%C5%84ska","url_text":"Biblioteka Jagiellońska"}]},{"reference":"Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). \"Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 147–149.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagiellonian_University","url_text":"Uniwersytet Jagielloński"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteka_Jagiello%C5%84ska","url_text":"Biblioteka Jagiellońska"}]},{"reference":"Krystyna Dobak-Splitt; Jerzy Aleksander Splitt. \"\"Dom wychowawczy\" dla polskich dzieci w Kaliszu\". Kalisz.info (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kalisz.info/dom-wychowawczy.html","url_text":"\"\"Dom wychowawczy\" dla polskich dzieci w Kaliszu\""}]},{"reference":"R. M. Douglas (2012). Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-300-18376-4. In a keynote address to the Reichstag to mark the end of the 'Polish campaign', on October 6, 1939, Hitler announced the Heim ins Reich (Back to the Reich) program. The prospect of being uprooted from their homes to face an uncertain future not even in Germany proper, but in the considerably less salubrious environment of western Poland, was greeted with a deep sense of betrayal.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DeOzUL-HXb0C&q=Reichstag+Heim","url_text":"Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-18376-4","url_text":"978-0-300-18376-4"}]},{"reference":"Graf, Władysław (1994). \"Wojskowa konspiracja AK 1940–1944. Część 1\". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 38. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 4, 7–8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Aleksandra Pietrowicz. \"\"Dorsze\" z Poznania\". Przystanek Historia (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://przystanekhistoria.pl/pa2/teksty/69438,Dorsze-z-Poznania.html","url_text":"\"\"Dorsze\" z Poznania\""}]},{"reference":"Graf, Władysław (1992). \"Ostrzeszów: obozy jenieckie okresu 1940–1942\". Zeszyty Ostrzeszowskie (in Polish). No. 17. Ostrzeszowskie Centrum Kultury. pp. 9–10, 16–18.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ledniowski, Krzysztof; Gola, Beata (2020). \"Niemiecki obóz dla małoletnich Polaków w Łodzi przy ul. Przemysłowej\". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.). Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 158–159.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945. p. 147.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Anna Czuchra (30 January 2016). \"71. rocznica mordu na mieszkańcach Marchwacza\". Wielkopolski Urząd Wojewódzki w Poznaniu (in Polish). Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.poznan.uw.gov.pl/wydarzenia-archiwalne/71-rocznica-mordu-na-mieszkancach-marchwacza","url_text":"\"71. rocznica mordu na mieszkańcach Marchwacza\""}]},{"reference":"\"75. rocznica likwidacji i ewakuacji więźniów obozu karno-śledczego w Żabikowie\". Muzeum Martyrologiczne w Żabikowie (in Polish). 19 January 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zabikowo.eu/75-rocznica-likwidacji-i-ewakuacji-wiezniow-obozu-karno-sledczego-w-zabikowie","url_text":"\"75. rocznica likwidacji i ewakuacji więźniów obozu karno-śledczego w Żabikowie\""}]},{"reference":"Huener, Jonathan (University of Vermont) (March 2014). \"Nazi Kirchenpolitik and Polish Catholicism in the Reichsgau Wartheland, 1939–1941\". Central European History. 47 (1). Central European History Society of the American Historical Association: 105–137. doi:10.1017/S0008938914000648. S2CID 145194931.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vermont","url_text":"University of Vermont"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_European_History","url_text":"Central European History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Association","url_text":"American Historical Association"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008938914000648","url_text":"10.1017/S0008938914000648"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145194931","url_text":"145194931"}]},{"reference":"Pietrowicz, Aleksandra (2011). \"Konspiracja wielkopolska 1939–1945\". Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). No. 5–6 (126–127). IPN. ISSN 1641-9561.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance","url_text":"IPN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1641-9561","url_text":"1641-9561"}]},{"reference":"Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance","url_text":"IPN"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Reichsgau_Wartheland¶ms=52.4_N_16.916667_E_type:landmark","external_links_name":"52°24′00″N 16°55′00″E / 52.400000°N 16.916667°E / 52.400000; 16.916667"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3edKAQAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Official Publications of Present-day Germany: Government, Corporate Organizations and National Socialist Party, with an Outline of the Governmental Structure of Germany"},{"Link":"http://www.holocaust-history.org/19420605-rauff-spezialwagen/","external_links_name":"\"ninety-seven thousand have been processed, using three vans, without any defects showing up in the vehicles.\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ACWKeRF49UYC&q=%22gas-vans+in+operation:+the+Opel-Blitz%22+%22Saurerwagen%22&pg=PA69","external_links_name":"\"A new and better method of killing had to be found: The gas-vans\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120812211113/http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/browning3.htm","external_links_name":"Evidence for the Implementation of the Final Solution"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Clu5vSF3IIYC&q=60%2C000","external_links_name":"Hitler 1936-1945"},{"Link":"http://www.ushmm.org/learn/students/learning-materials-and-resources/poles-victims-of-the-nazi-era","external_links_name":"\"Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130528142643/http://www.holocaust-history.org/quick-facts/special-treatment.shtml","external_links_name":"\"Special treatment\" (Sonderbehandlung)\""},{"Link":"http://www.holocaust-history.org/quick-facts/special-treatment.shtml","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://weber.ucsd.edu/~lzamosc/gchelmno.html","external_links_name":"German Crimes in Poland (Warsaw: 1946, 1947)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19970212065543/http://biwww.urm.gov.pl/ms/gkbzpnpe.html","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://biwww.urm.gov.pl/ms/gkbzpnpe.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=21971","external_links_name":"The Most Evil Emperor"},{"Link":"https://en.gross-rosen.eu/historia-kl-gross-rosen/filie-obozu-gross-rosen/","external_links_name":"\"Subcamps of KL Gross-Rosen\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090423004151/http://bundesrecht.juris.de/begdv_6/anlage_6.html","external_links_name":"\"Anlage zu § 1. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788_United_States_Senate_elections_in_Pennsylvania | 1788 United States Senate elections in Pennsylvania | ["1 Results","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"] | First U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania
1788 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania
September 30, 1788
Class I (1793) ⟶Class III (1795) →
Nominee
William MaclayClass I
Robert MorrisClass III
Party
Anti-Administration
Federalist
Elected U.S. Senators
William Maclay (Class I)Robert Morris (Class III)
Elections in Pennsylvania
Federal government
U.S. President
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U.S. Senate
1788
1791
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U.S. House of Representatives
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1943
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2020
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State government
Governor
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2026
Lieutenant Governor
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2010
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2022
Attorney General
1980
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1996
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2024
Auditor General
2000
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State Treasurer
2000
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2008
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Philadelphia
Mayoral elections
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Governmentvte
The 1788 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania, held on September 30, 1788, was the first United States Senate election held in Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, elected Pennsylvania's first two United States Senators, William Maclay and Robert Morris.
Results
Anti-Federalist William Maclay was elected to the two-year staggered term of the Class I seat, while Federalist and American Founding Father Robert Morris was elected to the full six-year term of the Class III seat. While no official results of the votes were recorded, the State House recorded minutes of its election:
Agreeably to the order of the day, the House proceeded to the election of Senators to represent this state in the Congress of the United States, agreeably to the constitution adopted for the government of the said states; and the ballots being taken, it appeared that the Honorable William Maclay and Robert Morris, Esquires, were duly elected.
Upon the expiration of Senator Maclay's term in 1791, the State House of Representatives would not be able to elect a new United States Senator due to a dispute regarding the rules and procedures of the election. The seat was finally filled in a 1793 election.
See also
1788–89 United States Senate elections
References
^ a b c "U.S. Senate Election - 30 September 1788" (PDF). Wilkes University. Retrieved December 21, 2012.
External links
Pennsylvania Election Statistics: 1682-2006 from the Wilkes University Election Statistics Project
Preceded byNone
U.S. Senate elections in Pennsylvania (Class I) 1788
Succeeded by1793
Preceded byNone
U.S. Senate elections in Pennsylvania (Class III) 1788
Succeeded by1795
vteRobert Morris
United States Senator, Pennsylvania, 1789–1795
Superintendent of Finance of the United States, 1781–1784
Second Continental Congress, 1775–1778
United StatesFounding events
Financier of the American Revolution
Signed, Declaration of Independence
Signed, Articles of Confederation
Signed, United States Constitution
1776 Model Treaty
Committee of Secret Correspondence, Second Continental Congress
Chairman, Pennsylvania Committee of Safety
U.S. Superintendent of Finance
Agent of the Marine
Bank of North America
Nova Constellatio
Philadelphia as U.S. capital city, 1790–1800
Residence Act
President's House
Other events
Willing, Morris & Co. (Slavery)
Use of the dollar sign
Newburgh Conspiracy
Empress of China merchant ship
Old China Trade
Phelps and Gorham Purchase
Life
Early life
Summerseat home
1788 U.S. Senate election
Panic of 1796–97
Christ Church, Philadelphia, burial site
Legacy
Robert Morris University, Pennsylvania
Robert Morris University, Illinois
Robert Morris statue, Philadelphia
Depicted in The Apotheosis of Washington
Heald Square Monument, Chicago
Mount Morris, New York
village
dam
Morrisville, Pennsylvania
USS Morris
Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence
Related
Thomas Morris (son)
Founding Fathers
Thomas Willing
Haym Salomon
Betsy Ross flag
USS Alfred
vte(1787 ←) 1788 United States elections (→ 1789)U.S.President
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Virginia
U.S.Senate
Connecticut
Delaware
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Virginia
U.S.House
Connecticut
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Statelegislative
Massachusetts Senate
States
Connecticut
Delaware
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Virginia | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania General Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_General_Assembly"},{"link_name":"House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_Senate"},{"link_name":"William Maclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Maclay_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Robert Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-results-1"}],"text":"The 1788 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania, held on September 30, 1788, was the first United States Senate election held in Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania General Assembly, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, elected Pennsylvania's first two United States Senators, William Maclay and Robert Morris.[1]","title":"1788 United States Senate elections in Pennsylvania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anti-Federalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Federalism"},{"link_name":"William Maclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Maclay_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Class I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classes_of_United_States_Senators"},{"link_name":"Federalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Party"},{"link_name":"American Founding Father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Robert Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)"},{"link_name":"minutes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minutes"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-results-1"},{"link_name":"Congress of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"Esquires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquire"},{"link_name":"1791","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1790%E2%80%9391_United_States_Senate_elections"},{"link_name":"1793 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1793_United_States_Senate_special_election_in_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-results-1"}],"text":"Anti-Federalist William Maclay was elected to the two-year staggered term of the Class I seat, while Federalist and American Founding Father Robert Morris was elected to the full six-year term of the Class III seat. While no official results of the votes were recorded, the State House recorded minutes of its election:[1]Agreeably to the order of the day, the House proceeded to the election of Senators to represent this state in the Congress of the United States, agreeably to the constitution adopted for the government of the said states; and the ballots being taken, it appeared that the Honorable William Maclay and Robert Morris, Esquires, were duly elected.Upon the expiration of Senator Maclay's term in 1791, the State House of Representatives would not be able to elect a new United States Senator due to a dispute regarding the rules and procedures of the election. The seat was finally filled in a 1793 election.[1]","title":"Results"}] | [] | [{"title":"1788–89 United States Senate elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_Senate_elections"}] | [{"reference":"\"U.S. Senate Election - 30 September 1788\" (PDF). Wilkes University. Retrieved December 21, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://staffweb.wilkes.edu/harold.cox/sen/PaSen1788.pdf","url_text":"\"U.S. Senate Election - 30 September 1788\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://staffweb.wilkes.edu/harold.cox/sen/PaSen1788.pdf","external_links_name":"\"U.S. Senate Election - 30 September 1788\""},{"Link":"http://staffweb.wilkes.edu/harold.cox/","external_links_name":"Pennsylvania Election Statistics: 1682-2006"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasa_sahitya | Dasa sahitya | ["1 Composers","2 External links"] | Literature of bhakti movement
Dasa Sahitya (Kannada: ದಾಸ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) is a genre of literature of the bhakti movement composed by devotees in honor of Vishnu or one of his avatars. Dasa is literally servant in Kannada and sahitya is literature. Haridasas ("servants of God") were preachers of bhakti to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The bhakti literature of these Haridasas is collectively referred to as Dasa Sahitya. It is in the Kannada language. Dasas are Dvaita scholars and poets.
The Haridasas contributed to the rich heritage of Karnataka music. They made an indelible impression on the religious and cultural life of Karnataka. They spread the didactic teachings in a musical form to the hearts of the common man. Like other doyens of Indian classical music, these scholars offered pooja to Vishnu through music, called naadopasana. Vishnu is described as Samagana priya; bhakti through music is the most preferred path to 'reach' him.
The Haridasa compositions are popularly known as Devaranamas. Compositions like Venkatachala Nilayam, Jagadoddharana, Tamboori meetidava, Krishna Nee Begane Baaro are some of the many examples of their scholarly work.
Although the association of the Dasas is with Vishnu, they composed songs on other forms of Hindu Gods, also known as Saguna Brahma Svarupa(s). Purandaradasa for example, has composed songs in praise of Ganesha (Gajavadana Beduve), Shiva (Chandra chuda Shiva Shankara), and Saraswati (Kodubega Divyamati Saraswati).
Composers
Naraharitirtha (Direct Shishya of Madhvacharya and founder of Yakshagana art)
Sripadaraja
Vyasatirtha.
Vadirajatirtha
Raghavendra Tirtha
Purandaradasa, popularly known as Karnataka sangeeta pitamaha or " Grand Father of Carnatic music"
Kanakadasa.
Vijaya Dasa.
Gopaladasaru.
Jagannathadasaru
Mahipati Dasa
Surapurada Ananda Dasa (Kamalesha Vithala Dasu)
Helavanakatte Giriyamma
Pandurangi Huchacharya (Indiresha Dasa)
Shyama Sundara Dasa
Harappanahalli Bheemavva
Karjagi Dasaru (Srida Vithala)
and many more
External links
Complete Dasa sahitya Archived 15 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Dasa Sahitya or Slave Literature by Dr. Jyotnsa Kamat
Android App with more than 15000 dasara padagalu
This article about the music of India is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kannada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_language"},{"link_name":"bhakti movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti_movement"},{"link_name":"Vishnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu"},{"link_name":"avatars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar"},{"link_name":"Kannada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_language"},{"link_name":"Dvaita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvaita"},{"link_name":"Karnataka music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_music"},{"link_name":"Karnataka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnataka"},{"link_name":"Indian classical music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music"},{"link_name":"naadopasana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naadopasana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Samagana priya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samagana_priya&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"bhakti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhakti"},{"link_name":"Devaranamas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Devaranama&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Krishna Nee Begane Baaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Nee_Begane_Baaro"},{"link_name":"Ganesha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganapathi"},{"link_name":"Shiva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva"},{"link_name":"Saraswati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswathi"}],"text":"Dasa Sahitya (Kannada: ದಾಸ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) is a genre of literature of the bhakti movement composed by devotees in honor of Vishnu or one of his avatars. Dasa is literally servant in Kannada and sahitya is literature. Haridasas (\"servants of God\") were preachers of bhakti to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The bhakti literature of these Haridasas is collectively referred to as Dasa Sahitya. It is in the Kannada language. Dasas are Dvaita scholars and poets.The Haridasas contributed to the rich heritage of Karnataka music. They made an indelible impression on the religious and cultural life of Karnataka. They spread the didactic teachings in a musical form to the hearts of the common man. Like other doyens of Indian classical music, these scholars offered pooja to Vishnu through music, called naadopasana. Vishnu is described as Samagana priya; bhakti through music is the most preferred path to 'reach' him.The Haridasa compositions are popularly known as Devaranamas. Compositions like Venkatachala Nilayam, Jagadoddharana, Tamboori meetidava, Krishna Nee Begane Baaro are some of the many examples of their scholarly work.Although the association of the Dasas is with Vishnu, they composed songs on other forms of Hindu Gods, also known as Saguna Brahma Svarupa(s). Purandaradasa for example, has composed songs in praise of Ganesha (Gajavadana Beduve), Shiva (Chandra chuda Shiva Shankara), and Saraswati (Kodubega Divyamati Saraswati).","title":"Dasa sahitya"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Naraharitirtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naraharitirtha"},{"link_name":"Madhvacharya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhvacharya"},{"link_name":"Yakshagana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshagana"},{"link_name":"Sripadaraja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sripadaraja"},{"link_name":"Vyasatirtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyasatirtha"},{"link_name":"Vadirajatirtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadirajatirtha"},{"link_name":"Raghavendra Tirtha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raghavendra_Tirtha"},{"link_name":"Purandaradasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purandaradasa"},{"link_name":"Carnatic music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_music"},{"link_name":"Kanakadasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanakadasa"},{"link_name":"Vijaya Dasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijaya_Dasa"},{"link_name":"Gopaladasaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopala_Dasa"},{"link_name":"Jagannathadasaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagannatha_Dasa_(Kannada_poet)"},{"link_name":"Mahipati Dasa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahipati_Dasa"}],"text":"Naraharitirtha (Direct Shishya of Madhvacharya and founder of Yakshagana art)\nSripadaraja\nVyasatirtha.\nVadirajatirtha\nRaghavendra Tirtha\nPurandaradasa, popularly known as Karnataka sangeeta pitamaha or \" Grand Father of Carnatic music\"\nKanakadasa.\nVijaya Dasa.\nGopaladasaru.\nJagannathadasaru\nMahipati Dasa\nSurapurada Ananda Dasa (Kamalesha Vithala Dasu)\nHelavanakatte Giriyamma\nPandurangi Huchacharya (Indiresha Dasa)\nShyama Sundara Dasa\nHarappanahalli Bheemavva\nKarjagi Dasaru (Srida Vithala)and many more","title":"Composers"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.dasasahitya.gov.in/","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180115140322/http://www.dasasahitya.gov.in/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/dasa.htm","external_links_name":"Dasa Sahitya or Slave Literature"},{"Link":"https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=pro.pada.android.haridasa","external_links_name":"Android App with more than 15000 dasara padagalu"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dasa_sahitya&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoin_McNamee | Eoin McNamee | ["1 Career","2 Works","2.1 Screenwriting","3 Critical reception","4 Awards","5 References","6 External links"] | Irish writer
This article is about the writer. For the Irish Republican, see Eoin McNamee (Irish Republican).
Eoin McNameeBorn1961Kilkeel, Northern IrelandOccupationNovelist, screenwriter, professorLanguageEnglishEducationTrinity College DublinGenreCrime, ThrillerNotable worksResurrection Man; The Blue TangoNotable awardsKerry Group Irish Fiction AwardWebsiteEoin McNamee
Eoin McNamee (1961 in Kilkeel, County Down, Northern Ireland) is a writer of novels and screenplays.
Career
McNamee studied Law at Trinity College Dublin and then worked in various occupations besides being a full-time writer. He has taught at the Sligo Institute of Technology and at Maynooth University. He is Director of the Trinity Oscar Wilde Centre and Director of the M.Phil. in Creative Writing at Trinity College Dublin. He lives in County Sligo.
Works
McNamee has written nineteen novels and six Young Adult novels. He has also written three thrillers under the John Creed pseudonym and several screenplays.
His novels include:
Resurrection Man (London, Picador, 1994) - detailed the bloodletting of the Ulster Volunteer Force gang, the Shankill Butchers
The Blue Tango (London, Faber & Faber, 2001) - examined the murder of Lancelot Curran's 19-year-old daughter, Patricia Curran; nominated for Booker
The Ultras (Faber & Faber, 2004) - about the killing of Robert Nairac
12:23 (Faber & Faber, 2008) - based on the final days of Diana, Princess of Wales (Faber & Faber, June 2007)
Orchid Blue (Faber & Faber, 2010) - looked at the last hanging in Ireland, in Crumlin Road gaol, of Robert McGladdery for the murder of 19-year-old Pearl Gamble, near Newry, in 1961
Blue Is the Night (Faber & Faber, 2014) - deals with the involvement of Lancelot Curran in a murder trial in the Northern Ireland of the late 1940s. Blue Is the Night won the 2015 Kerry Group Irish Novel of the Year.
The Vogue (2019)
He has written two novellas:
The Last of Deeds (Dublin, Raven Arts Press, 1989), which was shortlisted for the 1989 Irish Times/Aer Lingus Award for Irish Literature,
Love in History (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992).
He has also written the Navigator trilogy, for children, The Navigator, City of Time and The Frost Child. McNamee commenced writing another series for children, the first book of which is The Ring of Five, and the second of which is The Unknown Spy, both of which are based on plotting and espionage.
He has also written a series under the pseudonym John Creed:
The Sirius Crossing (Faber & Faber, 2003)
The Day of the Dead (Faber & Faber, 2004)
Black Cat Black Dog (Faber & Faber, 2007)
These feature the character of intelligence officer Jack Valentine.
Screenwriting
The film version of Resurrection Man, for which he wrote the script, was released in 1998. That same year, McNamee also wrote the script for I Want You, a crime film directed by Michael Winterbottom.
He has written for the television series An Bronntanas, Red Rock, Hinterland and the Netflix series Vikings: Valhalla.
Critical reception
Fellow crime writer Liam McIlvanney described his wring as having the cadenced majesty of McCarthy or DeLillo, but the vision it enacts is all his own. Mark Lawson described his work as having a distinctive prose tone, its signature the omission, for purposes of staccato rhythm, of verbs.
Awards
He was awarded the Macauley Fellowship for Irish Literature in 1990. In 2010, he won the Richard Imison Award for radio drama. In 2015, he won the Kerry Group Irish Fiction Award for Blue is the Night. In 2002, writing as John Creed he won the CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger award for The Sirius Crossing. The Vogue (2019) was longlisted for the Gordon Burn Prize in 2019.
He was elected a member of Aosdána - the academy of artists in Ireland.
In 2023 he was elected to the inaugural Charlotte Maxeke-Mary Robinson Chair at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa.
References
^ Philip Casey. "McNamee, Eoin - Irish Writers Online". Irish Writers Online. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
^ "Eoin McNamee B.A. (T.C.D.)". Trinity College Dublin. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
^ Martin Doyle (27 May 2015). "Eoin McNamee's Blue is the Night wins €15,000 Kerry Group Irish Novel of Year Award". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
^ Bruce Stewart. "Eoin McNamee – Life Works Criticism Commentary Quotations References Notes". Ricorso: A Knowledge of Irish Literature. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
^ "John Creed". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
^ "Netflix's 'Vikings' Sequel Spinoff Confirms its Cast". 26 January 2021.
^ Doyle, Martin (26 June 2015). "Eoin McNamee: a capital crime writer". The Irish Times. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
^ Lawson, Mark (10 November 2018). "The Vogue by Eoin McNamee review – a Northern Irish mystery". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
^ "Eoin McNamee B.A. (T.C.D.)". Trinity College Dublin. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
^ "Trinity's Eoin McNamee takes up inaugural Charlotte Maxeke-Mary Robinson Chair". Trinity College Dublin. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
External links
Eoin McNamee at IMDb
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
United States
Sweden
Czech Republic
Australia
Netherlands
Portugal
People
Deutsche Biographie
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eoin McNamee (Irish Republican)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eoin_McNamee_(Irish_Republican)"},{"link_name":"Kilkeel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilkeel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"This article is about the writer. For the Irish Republican, see Eoin McNamee (Irish Republican).Eoin McNamee (1961 in Kilkeel, County Down, Northern Ireland) is a writer of novels and screenplays.[1]","title":"Eoin McNamee"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trinity College Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin"},{"link_name":"Sligo Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sligo_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Maynooth University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth_University"},{"link_name":"Trinity College Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"County Sligo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Sligo"}],"text":"McNamee studied Law at Trinity College Dublin and then worked in various occupations besides being a full-time writer. He has taught at the Sligo Institute of Technology and at Maynooth University. He is Director of the Trinity Oscar Wilde Centre and Director of the M.Phil. in Creative Writing at Trinity College Dublin.[2] He lives in County Sligo.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ulster Volunteer Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Volunteer_Force"},{"link_name":"Shankill Butchers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shankill_Butchers"},{"link_name":"Lancelot Curran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelot_Curran"},{"link_name":"Booker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booker_Prize"},{"link_name":"Robert Nairac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nairac"},{"link_name":"Diana, Princess of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales"},{"link_name":"Crumlin Road gaol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crumlin_Road_(HM_Prison)"},{"link_name":"Robert McGladdery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_McGladdery"},{"link_name":"Newry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newry"},{"link_name":"Kerry Group Irish Novel of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerry_Group_Irish_Novel_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"novellas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ricorso-4"},{"link_name":"The Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Navigator_(children%27s_novel)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"McNamee has written nineteen novels and six Young Adult novels. He has also written three thrillers under the John Creed pseudonym and several screenplays.His novels include:Resurrection Man (London, Picador, 1994) - detailed the bloodletting of the Ulster Volunteer Force gang, the Shankill Butchers\nThe Blue Tango (London, Faber & Faber, 2001) - examined the murder of Lancelot Curran's 19-year-old daughter, Patricia Curran; nominated for Booker\nThe Ultras (Faber & Faber, 2004) - about the killing of Robert Nairac\n12:23 (Faber & Faber, 2008) - based on the final days of Diana, Princess of Wales (Faber & Faber, June 2007)\nOrchid Blue (Faber & Faber, 2010) - looked at the last hanging in Ireland, in Crumlin Road gaol, of Robert McGladdery for the murder of 19-year-old Pearl Gamble, near Newry, in 1961\nBlue Is the Night (Faber & Faber, 2014) - deals with the involvement of Lancelot Curran in a murder trial in the Northern Ireland of the late 1940s. Blue Is the Night won the 2015 Kerry Group Irish Novel of the Year.[3]\nThe Vogue (2019)He has written two novellas:The Last of Deeds (Dublin, Raven Arts Press, 1989), which was shortlisted for the 1989 Irish Times/Aer Lingus Award for Irish Literature,\nLove in History (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1992).[4]He has also written the Navigator trilogy, for children, The Navigator, City of Time and The Frost Child. McNamee commenced writing another series for children, the first book of which is The Ring of Five, and the second of which is The Unknown Spy, both of which are based on plotting and espionage.He has also written a series under the pseudonym John Creed:[5]The Sirius Crossing (Faber & Faber, 2003)\nThe Day of the Dead (Faber & Faber, 2004)\nBlack Cat Black Dog (Faber & Faber, 2007)These feature the character of intelligence officer Jack Valentine.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Resurrection Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_Man_(film)"},{"link_name":"I Want You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_You_(1998_film)"},{"link_name":"Michael Winterbottom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Winterbottom"},{"link_name":"An Bronntanas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Bronntanas"},{"link_name":"Red Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Rock_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Hinterland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Vikings: Valhalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings:_Valhalla"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Screenwriting","text":"The film version of Resurrection Man, for which he wrote the script, was released in 1998. That same year, McNamee also wrote the script for I Want You, a crime film directed by Michael Winterbottom.He has written for the television series An Bronntanas, Red Rock, Hinterland and the Netflix series Vikings: Valhalla.[6]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liam McIlvanney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam_McIlvanney"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Mark Lawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lawson"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Fellow crime writer Liam McIlvanney described his wring as having the cadenced majesty of McCarthy or DeLillo, but the vision it enacts is all his own.[7] Mark Lawson described his work as having a distinctive prose tone, its signature the omission, for purposes of staccato rhythm, of verbs.[8]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Imison Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Imison_Award"},{"link_name":"Kerry Group Irish Fiction Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerry_Group_Irish_Fiction_Award"},{"link_name":"CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CWA_Ian_Fleming_Steel_Dagger"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Gordon Burn Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Burn_Prize"},{"link_name":"Aosdána","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_Aosd%C3%A1na"},{"link_name":"University of the Western Cape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Western_Cape"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"He was awarded the Macauley Fellowship for Irish Literature in 1990. In 2010, he won the Richard Imison Award for radio drama. In 2015, he won the Kerry Group Irish Fiction Award for Blue is the Night. In 2002, writing as John Creed he won the CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger award for The Sirius Crossing.[9] The Vogue (2019) was longlisted for the Gordon Burn Prize in 2019.He was elected a member of Aosdána - the academy of artists in Ireland.In 2023 he was elected to the inaugural Charlotte Maxeke-Mary Robinson Chair at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa.[10]","title":"Awards"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Philip Casey. \"McNamee, Eoin - Irish Writers Online\". Irish Writers Online. Retrieved 2 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.irishwriters-online.com/mcnamee-eoin/","url_text":"\"McNamee, Eoin - Irish Writers Online\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eoin McNamee B.A. (T.C.D.)\". Trinity College Dublin. Retrieved 16 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tcd.ie/OWC/staff/academic-staff/eoin_mcnamee.php","url_text":"\"Eoin McNamee B.A. (T.C.D.)\""}]},{"reference":"Martin Doyle (27 May 2015). \"Eoin McNamee's Blue is the Night wins €15,000 Kerry Group Irish Novel of Year Award\". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/eoin-mcnamee-s-blue-is-the-night-wins-15-000-kerry-group-irish-novel-of-year-award-1.2227901","url_text":"\"Eoin McNamee's Blue is the Night wins €15,000 Kerry Group Irish Novel of Year Award\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Times","url_text":"The Irish Times"}]},{"reference":"Bruce Stewart. \"Eoin McNamee – Life Works Criticism Commentary Quotations References Notes\". Ricorso: A Knowledge of Irish Literature. Retrieved 2 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ricorso.net/rx/az-data/authors/Mc/McNamee_E/life.htm","url_text":"\"Eoin McNamee – Life Works Criticism Commentary Quotations References Notes\""}]},{"reference":"\"John Creed\". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 2 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130620091341/http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/c/john-creed/","url_text":"\"John Creed\""},{"url":"http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/c/john-creed/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Netflix's 'Vikings' Sequel Spinoff Confirms its Cast\". 26 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2021/tv/news/netflix-vikings-sequel-spinoff-valhalla-cast-1234892568/","url_text":"\"Netflix's 'Vikings' Sequel Spinoff Confirms its Cast\""}]},{"reference":"Doyle, Martin (26 June 2015). \"Eoin McNamee: a capital crime writer\". The Irish Times. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citerna | Citerna | ["1 References","2 External links"] | Coordinates: 43°29′53″N 12°06′57″E / 43.49806°N 12.11583°E / 43.49806; 12.11583Comune in Umbria, ItalyCiternaComuneComune di Citerna
Coat of armsLocation of Citerna
CiternaLocation of Citerna in ItalyShow map of ItalyCiternaCiterna (Umbria)Show map of UmbriaCoordinates: 43°29′53″N 12°06′57″E / 43.49806°N 12.11583°E / 43.49806; 12.11583CountryItalyRegionUmbriaProvincePerugiaFrazioniFighille, Pistrino, Atena, Ca' de Conte, Canciolo, Fontanelle, La Fornace, Mancino, Petriolo, Pistrino di Mezzo, Pistrino di Sopra, Quartiere, San Romano, Sant'AntonioGovernment • MayorGiuliana FalaschiArea • Total24.20 km2 (9.34 sq mi)Elevation480 m (1,570 ft)Population (2007) • Total3,332 • Density140/km2 (360/sq mi)DemonymCiternesiTime zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Postal code06010Dialing code075Patron saintArchangel MichaelSaint dayMay 8WebsiteOfficial website
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Citerna.
Citerna is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Perugia in the Italian region Umbria, located about 50 km northwest of Perugia.
It is one of I Borghi più belli d'Italia ("The most beautiful villages of Italy").
References
^ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
^ All demographics and other statistics: Italian statistical institute Istat.
^ "Umbria" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 August 2023.
External links
www.citerna.net/
vteUmbria · Comuni of the Province of Perugia
Assisi
Bastia Umbra
Bettona
Bevagna
Campello sul Clitunno
Cannara
Cascia
Castel Ritaldi
Castiglione del Lago
Cerreto di Spoleto
Citerna
Città della Pieve
Città di Castello
Collazzone
Corciano
Costacciaro
Deruta
Foligno
Fossato di Vico
Fratta Todina
Giano dell'Umbria
Gualdo Cattaneo
Gualdo Tadino
Gubbio
Lisciano Niccone
Magione
Marsciano
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Monte Santa Maria Tiberina
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Montone
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Paciano
Panicale
Passignano sul Trasimeno
Perugia
Piegaro
Pietralunga
Poggiodomo
Preci
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Sant'Anatolia di Narco
Scheggia e Pascelupo
Scheggino
Sellano
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Umbertide
Valfabbrica
Vallo di Nera
Valtopina
Authority control databases International
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National
Germany
This Umbria location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Citerna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Citerna"},{"link_name":"comune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comune"},{"link_name":"Province of Perugia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Perugia"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Umbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria"},{"link_name":"Perugia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perugia"},{"link_name":"I Borghi più belli d'Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Borghi_pi%C3%B9_belli_d%27Italia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Comune in Umbria, ItalyWikimedia Commons has media related to Citerna.Citerna is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Perugia in the Italian region Umbria, located about 50 km northwest of Perugia.It is one of I Borghi più belli d'Italia (\"The most beautiful villages of Italy\").[3]","title":"Citerna"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/156224","url_text":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\""}]},{"reference":"\"Umbria\" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://borghipiubelliditalia.it/umbria/","url_text":"\"Umbria\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Citerna¶ms=43_29_53_N_12_06_57_E_region:IT_type:city(3332)","external_links_name":"43°29′53″N 12°06′57″E / 43.49806°N 12.11583°E / 43.49806; 12.11583"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Citerna¶ms=43_29_53_N_12_06_57_E_region:IT_type:city(3332)","external_links_name":"43°29′53″N 12°06′57″E / 43.49806°N 12.11583°E / 43.49806; 12.11583"},{"Link":"http://www.citerna.net/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/156224","external_links_name":"\"Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011\""},{"Link":"https://borghipiubelliditalia.it/umbria/","external_links_name":"\"Umbria\""},{"Link":"http://www.citerna.net/","external_links_name":"www.citerna.net/"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/133866794","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4454200-8","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citerna&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruben_A._Valdez | Ruben A. Valdez | ["1 References"] | American politician (1937–2019)
Ruben A. ValdezMember of the Colorado House of RepresentativesIn office1970–1978Speaker of the Colorado House of RepresentativesIn office1975–1976Preceded byJohn FuhrSucceeded byRonald H. Strahle
Personal detailsBorn(1937-01-27)January 27, 1937Trinidad, Colorado, U.S.DiedOctober 1, 2019(2019-10-01) (aged 82)Denver, Colorado, U.S.Political partyDemocraticAlma materRed Rocks Community CollegeColorado Heights University
Ruben A. Valdez (January 27, 1937 – October 1, 2019) was an American politician in the state of Colorado. He was a member of the Colorado House of Representatives from 1970 to 1978. During his term he served as Speaker of the House from 1975 to 1976, and as House Minority Leader from 1977 to 1978. He was the first Hispanic person to serve as Speaker of the Colorado House of Representatives. Born in Trinidad, Colorado, he was the youngest of nine children. He died at the age of 82 in 2019.
References
^ "PRESIDENTS AND SPEAKERS OF THE COLORADO GENERAL ASSEMBLY" (PDF). leg.colorado.gov. 2016.
^ Lynn Bartels (2015-06-19). "Denver names school after former Speaker Ruben Valdez". Blogs.denverpost.com. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
^ Hernandez, Lance (20 September 2015). "Honoring Colorado's first Hispanic House Speaker". KMGH.
^ Goodland, Marianne (2 October 2019). "Former Colorado House Speaker, Denver representative Ruben Valdez dead at 82". Colorado Politics. Retrieved 2 October 2019.
This article about a Colorado politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Colorado House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Trinidad, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Ruben A. Valdez (January 27, 1937 – October 1, 2019) was an American politician in the state of Colorado.[1] He was a member of the Colorado House of Representatives from 1970 to 1978. During his term he served as Speaker of the House from 1975 to 1976, and as House Minority Leader from 1977 to 1978. He was the first Hispanic person to serve as Speaker of the Colorado House of Representatives.[2] Born in Trinidad, Colorado, he was the youngest of nine children.[3] He died at the age of 82 in 2019.[4]","title":"Ruben A. Valdez"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"PRESIDENTS AND SPEAKERS OF THE COLORADO GENERAL ASSEMBLY\" (PDF). leg.colorado.gov. 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leg.colorado.gov/sites/default/files/legislators_biographies_oct_2016_0.pdf","url_text":"\"PRESIDENTS AND SPEAKERS OF THE COLORADO GENERAL ASSEMBLY\""}]},{"reference":"Lynn Bartels (2015-06-19). \"Denver names school after former Speaker Ruben Valdez\". Blogs.denverpost.com. Retrieved 2019-01-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/06/19/dps-names-school-after-ruben-valdez-1st-hispanic-house-speaker/121311/","url_text":"\"Denver names school after former Speaker Ruben Valdez\""}]},{"reference":"Hernandez, Lance (20 September 2015). \"Honoring Colorado's first Hispanic House Speaker\". KMGH.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/local-news/colorados-first-hispanic-house-speaker-still-fighting-for-the-people-of-west-denver","url_text":"\"Honoring Colorado's first Hispanic House Speaker\""}]},{"reference":"Goodland, Marianne (2 October 2019). \"Former Colorado House Speaker, Denver representative Ruben Valdez dead at 82\". Colorado Politics. Retrieved 2 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.coloradopolitics.com/news/premium/former-colorado-house-speaker-denver-representative-ruben-valdez-dead-at/article_7a602a48-e532-11e9-811f-db58f1772ca0.html","url_text":"\"Former Colorado House Speaker, Denver representative Ruben Valdez dead at 82\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.leg.colorado.gov/sites/default/files/legislators_biographies_oct_2016_0.pdf","external_links_name":"\"PRESIDENTS AND SPEAKERS OF THE COLORADO GENERAL ASSEMBLY\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.denverpost.com/thespot/2015/06/19/dps-names-school-after-ruben-valdez-1st-hispanic-house-speaker/121311/","external_links_name":"\"Denver names school after former Speaker Ruben Valdez\""},{"Link":"https://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/local-news/colorados-first-hispanic-house-speaker-still-fighting-for-the-people-of-west-denver","external_links_name":"\"Honoring Colorado's first Hispanic House Speaker\""},{"Link":"https://www.coloradopolitics.com/news/premium/former-colorado-house-speaker-denver-representative-ruben-valdez-dead-at/article_7a602a48-e532-11e9-811f-db58f1772ca0.html","external_links_name":"\"Former Colorado House Speaker, Denver representative Ruben Valdez dead at 82\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ruben_A._Valdez&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenaeum_Portrait | Athenaeum Portrait | ["1 Name","2 The painting","3 Use as a model for other works","4 Provenance","5 References","6 External links"] | 1796 unfinished portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart
Athenaeum PortraitArtistGilbert StuartYear1796; 228 years ago (1796)Catalogue1980.1MediumOil on canvasSubjectGeorge WashingtonDimensions121.9 cm × 94 cm (48.0 in × 37 in)LocationMuseum of Fine Arts, BostonOwnerMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Portrait Gallery jointlyWebsitewww.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341
The Athenaeum Portrait, also known as The Athenaeum, is an unfinished painting by Gilbert Stuart of United States President George Washington. Created in 1796, it is Stuart's most notable work. The painting depicts Washington at age 64, about three years before his death, on a brown background. It served as the model for the engraving that would be used for Washington's portrait on the United States one-dollar bill.
A corresponding portrait of Martha Washington is also known as the Athenaeum Portrait, and is exhibited near the painting of her husband at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Name
The painting is called the "Athenaeum" as, after the death of Stuart, the portrait was sent to the Boston Athenaeum.
The painting
The Athenaeum is Stuart's most famous work. He started painting the portrait in 1796, in Germantown, Pennsylvania (now a neighborhood within Philadelphia).
The painting is oil on canvas, and depicts only Washington's head and neck, painted when he was 65 years old (about three years before his death in 1799) on a brown background. The rest of the painting is unfinished. The frame was made by a frame maker, picture dealer, and entrepreneur named John Doggett.
Use as a model for other works
Comparison with the image on the obverse of the United States one-dollar bill (flipped horizontally for ease of comparison.)
12-cent 1851 stamp
The painting was never delivered to Washington. Instead, Stuart used it as a model for many replicas, capitalizing on Washington's fame. After Washington's death, he used it to paint 130 copies which he sold for $100 each. More than 60 of these copies still exist.
The Athenaeum Portrait was also used to produce a number of U.S. postage stamps of the 19th century and early 20th century.
Most notably, the Athenaeum Portrait served as the model for the engraving that would be used (in mirror image) for the United States one-dollar bill.
Provenance
George Washington, 1825, one of Stuart's many copies of the Athenaeum Portrait, Walters Art Museum
The painting was owned by Stuart until he died in 1828. It was then owned by his daughter, Jane Stuart. It was then purchased in May 1831 for US$1,500 (equivalent to $42,919 in 2023) by the Trustees of the Boston Athenaeum, with money raised via subscription from the Washington Monument Association and 22 other subscribers. It was then given to the Boston Athenaeum by them. In 1876 the Boston Athenaeum deposited the painting at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 1980 it was bought by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Portrait Gallery jointly from the Boston Athenaeum. As of 2023, it splits its time between the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, DC.
References
^ "George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)". npg.si.edu.
^ National Portrait Gallery
^ National Portrait Gallery article
^ "George Washington". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 20 March 2019.
^ "10-cent Washington". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Archived from the original on April 27, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2015.
^ "George Washington". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 2 December 2019.
^ "George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)". npg.si.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
External links
Media related to The Athenaeum Portrait of George Washington at Wikimedia Commons
Webpage for the Athenaeum Portrait at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
vteGilbert StuartPaintings
The Skater (1782)
Catherine Brass Yates (1793–1794)
Lansdowne portrait of George Washington (1796)
Athenaeum Portrait (1796, unfinished)
George Washington (Constable-Hamilton Portrait) (1797)
Museums
Gilbert Stuart Birthplace and Museum
Related
Cosmo Alexander (master)
Jane Stuart (daughter)
United States one-dollar bill
vteGeorge Washington
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Eleanor Parke Custis (step-granddaughter, adopted daughter)
Augustine Washington (father)
Mary Ball Washington (mother)
Lawrence Washington (half-brother)
Augustine Washington Jr. (half-brother)
Betty Washington Lewis (sister)
Samuel Washington (brother)
John A. Washington (brother)
Charles Washington (brother)
Lawrence Washington (grandfather)
John Washington (great-grandfather)
George Reade (2nd great-grandfather)
Bushrod Washington (nephew)
John Adams →
Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unfinished painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished_creative_work"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart"},{"link_name":"United States President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"George Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"engraving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engraving"},{"link_name":"United States one-dollar bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill"},{"link_name":"Martha Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Washington"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Boston Museum of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Museum_of_Fine_Arts"}],"text":"The Athenaeum Portrait, also known as The Athenaeum, is an unfinished painting by Gilbert Stuart of United States President George Washington. Created in 1796, it is Stuart's most notable work. The painting depicts Washington at age 64, about three years before his death, on a brown background.[1] It served as the model for the engraving that would be used for Washington's portrait on the United States one-dollar bill.A corresponding portrait of Martha Washington is also known as the Athenaeum Portrait,[2][3] and is exhibited near the painting of her husband at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.","title":"Athenaeum Portrait"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boston Athenaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Athenaeum"}],"text":"The painting is called the \"Athenaeum\" as, after the death of Stuart, the portrait was sent to the Boston Athenaeum.","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germantown, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germantown,_Philadelphia"}],"text":"The Athenaeum is Stuart's most famous work. He started painting the portrait in 1796, in Germantown, Pennsylvania (now a neighborhood within Philadelphia).The painting is oil on canvas, and depicts only Washington's head and neck, painted when he was 65 years old (about three years before his death in 1799) on a brown background. The rest of the painting is unfinished. The frame was made by a frame maker, picture dealer, and entrepreneur named John Doggett.","title":"The painting"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparison_between_Athenaeum_Portrait_and_United_States_one-dollar_bill.jpg"},{"link_name":"obverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obverse"},{"link_name":"United States one-dollar bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Washington_1851_Issue-12c.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"U.S. postage stamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"United States one-dollar bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one-dollar_bill"}],"text":"Comparison with the image on the obverse of the United States one-dollar bill (flipped horizontally for ease of comparison.)12-cent 1851 stampThe painting was never delivered to Washington. Instead, Stuart used it as a model for many replicas, capitalizing on Washington's fame.[4] After Washington's death, he used it to paint 130 copies which he sold for $100 each. More than 60 of these copies still exist.The Athenaeum Portrait was also used to produce a number of U.S. postage stamps of the 19th century and early 20th century.[5]Most notably, the Athenaeum Portrait served as the model for the engraving that would be used (in mirror image) for the United States one-dollar bill.","title":"Use as a model for other works"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg"},{"link_name":"Walters Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"Jane Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Stuart"},{"link_name":"Museum of Fine Arts, Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston"},{"link_name":"National Portrait Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"George Washington, 1825, one of Stuart's many copies of the Athenaeum Portrait, Walters Art MuseumThe painting was owned by Stuart until he died in 1828. It was then owned by his daughter, Jane Stuart. It was then purchased in May 1831 for US$1,500 (equivalent to $42,919 in 2023) by the Trustees of the Boston Athenaeum, with money raised via subscription from the Washington Monument Association and 22 other subscribers. It was then given to the Boston Athenaeum by them. In 1876 the Boston Athenaeum deposited the painting at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 1980 it was bought by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Portrait Gallery jointly from the Boston Athenaeum. As of 2023, it splits its time between the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, DC.[6][7]","title":"Provenance"}] | [{"image_text":"Comparison with the image on the obverse of the United States one-dollar bill (flipped horizontally for ease of comparison.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Comparison_between_Athenaeum_Portrait_and_United_States_one-dollar_bill.jpg/220px-Comparison_between_Athenaeum_Portrait_and_United_States_one-dollar_bill.jpg"},{"image_text":"12-cent 1851 stamp","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Washington_1851_Issue-12c.jpg/220px-Washington_1851_Issue-12c.jpg"},{"image_text":"George Washington, 1825, one of Stuart's many copies of the Athenaeum Portrait, Walters Art Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg/170px-Gilbert_Stuart_Williamstown_Portrait_of_George_Washington.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\". npg.si.edu.","urls":[{"url":"https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.80.115","url_text":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\""}]},{"reference":"\"George Washington\". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 20 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341","url_text":"\"George Washington\""}]},{"reference":"\"10-cent Washington\". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Archived from the original on April 27, 2011. Retrieved August 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110427163724/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2027665","url_text":"\"10-cent Washington\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_National_Postal_Museum","url_text":"Smithsonian National Postal Museum"},{"url":"http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2027665","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"George Washington\". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 2 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://collections.mfa.org/objects/34341","url_text":"\"George Washington\""}]},{"reference":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\". npg.si.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.80.115","url_text":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341","external_links_name":"www.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341"},{"Link":"https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.80.115","external_links_name":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\""},{"Link":"https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.80.116","external_links_name":"National Portrait Gallery"},{"Link":"https://npg.si.edu/exh/gw/athens.htm","external_links_name":"National Portrait Gallery article"},{"Link":"https://www.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341","external_links_name":"\"George Washington\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110427163724/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2027665","external_links_name":"\"10-cent Washington\""},{"Link":"http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2027665","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://collections.mfa.org/objects/34341","external_links_name":"\"George Washington\""},{"Link":"https://npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.80.115","external_links_name":"\"George Washington (The Athenaeum Portrait)\""},{"Link":"https://www.mfa.org/collections/object/george-washington-34341","external_links_name":"Webpage"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Hauser_(art_historian) | Arnold Hauser (art historian) | ["1 Life and Main Works","2 Criticism","3 Writings","4 References","5 References","6 External links"] | Hungarian art historian
Arnold HauserBorn(1892-05-08)8 May 1892Timișoara, Austria-HungaryDied28 January 1978(1978-01-28) (aged 85)Budapest, HungaryOccupationArt historian, sociologistCitizenshipHungarian and German
Arnold Hauser (8 May 1892 – 28 January 1978) was a Hungarian-German art historian and sociologist who was perhaps the leading Marxist in the field. He wrote on the influence of change in social structures on art.
Life and Main Works
Hauser studied history of art and literature in Budapest, Vienna, Berlin and Paris. Among his teachers were Max Dvořák in Vienna, Georg Simmel in Berlin, Henri Bergson and Gustave Lanson in Paris. After World War I he spent two years in Italy, familiarizing himself with Italian art. In 1921, he moved to Berlin, and in 1924 to Vienna. By that time he had concluded, in his own words, that “the problem of art and literature, in the solution of which our time is most eagerly engaged, are fundamentally sociological problems.”
Another crucial influence on Hauser was Hungarian philosopher Bernhard Alexander, which transmitted to Hauser an interest for both William Shakespeare and Immanuel Kant. This led to Hauser's systematic study of theater and, later, cinema as parts of the larger world of art.
He embraced Marxism by first reading the writings of György Lukács, then meeting him and becoming part of his Sonntagskreis in Budapest. It was in Budapest that Hauser published his first writings, between 1911 and 1918, including his doctoral dissertation about the problem of creating a systematic aesthetics, which appeared in the journal Athenaeum in 1918. He published very little in the next 33 years, devoting himself to research and travel.
His The Social History of Art (1951) argued that art—which, after a paleolithic period of naturalism, began as "flat, symbolic, formalized, abstract and concerned with spiritual beings"—became more realistic and naturalistic as societies became less hierarchical and authoritarian, and more mercantile and bourgeois (Harrington).
Criticism
Hauser's Marxist approach was criticized by Ernst Gombrich as “social determinism” going too far. Gombrich wrote in his review of The Social History of Art that Hauser's “theoretical prejudices may have thwarted his sympathies. For to some extent they deny the very existence of what we call the ’humanities’. If all human beings, including ourselves, are completely conditioned by the economic and social circumstances of their existence then we really cannot understand the past by ordinary sympathy.”
Some scholars have argued that Gombrich saw Hauser as a typical exponent of Marxism, without appreciating his nuances and subtle critique of the most rigid forms of social determinism.
Writings
1951: Sozialgeschichte der Kunst und Literatur (The Social History of Art and Literature)
1958: Philosophie der Kunstgeschichte (The Philosophy of Art History)
1964: Der Manierismus. Die Krise der Renaissance und der Ursprung der modernen Kunst (Mannerism: The Crisis of the Renaissance and the Origin of Modern Art)
1974: Soziologie der Kunst (The Sociology of Art)
1978: Im Gespräch mit Georg Lukács kleiner Sammelband mit drei Interviews und dem Essay „Variationen über das tertium datur bei Georg Lukács“
References
Harrington, Austin (2004). Art and social theory: sociological arguments in aesthetics. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 64–68. ISBN 0-7456-3038-3
(in French) Alberto Tenenti: Hauser, Arnold: Art, histoire sociale et méthode sociologique. In: Annales. Economies, Societes, civilisations. Paris: 12(1957)3, S. 474–481.
Zoltán Halász: In Arnold Hauser’s workshop. In: The new Hungarian quarterly. Budapest: 16(1975)58, p. 90–96.
(in German) Ekkehard Mai: Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft und Soziologie. Zur Theorie und Methodendiskussion in Arnold Hausers „Soziologie der Kunst“. In: Das Kunstwerk. 1/1976, S. 3–10.
(in German) Jürgen Scharfschwerdt: Arnold Hauser. In: Alphons Silbermann (Hrsg.): Klassiker der Kunstsoziologie. Beck, München 1979. S. 200–222.
(in German) K.-J. Lebus: Eine sozialhistorische Sicht auf Kunst und Gesellschaft. (Annotation zur Herausgabe der Sozialgeschichte... im Verlag der Kunst, Dresden, 1987). In: Bildende Kunst. Berlin: 35(1988)12, p. 572.
(in German) K.-J. Lebus: Zum Kunstkonzept Arnold Hausers. In: Weimarer Beiträge. Berlin 36 (1990) 6, p. 210–228. (online)
Jim Berryman, “Gombrich’s Critique of Hauser’s Social History of Art,” History of European Ideas, vol. 43, no. 5, 2017, 494–506.
Csilla Markója, “The young Arnold Hauser and the Sunday Circle - The publication of Hauser’s estate”, Journal of Art Historiography, 21, 2019, 1–20.
References
^ Csilla Markója (2019), “The young Arnold Hauser and the Sunday Circle - The publication of Hauser’s estate”, Journal of Art Historiography 21, 1–20.
^ Markója (2019), 15–17.
^ Markója (2019), 7–9.
^ Ernst Gombrich (1953),“The Social History of Art by Arnold Hauser”, Art Bulletin 35, 81.
^ Jim Berryman (2017), “Gombrich’s Critique of Hauser’s Social History of Art,” History of European Ideas, vol. 43, no. 5, 494-506.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Arnold Hauser (art historian).
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"art historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_historian"},{"link_name":"Marxist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist"},{"link_name":"social structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure"}],"text":"Arnold Hauser (8 May 1892 – 28 January 1978) was a Hungarian-German art historian and sociologist who was perhaps the leading Marxist in the field. He wrote on the influence of change in social structures on art.","title":"Arnold Hauser (art historian)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Max Dvořák","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k"},{"link_name":"Georg Simmel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel"},{"link_name":"Henri Bergson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson"},{"link_name":"Gustave Lanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Lanson"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Bernhard Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Alexander"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Kant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"György Lukács","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs"},{"link_name":"Sonntagskreis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonntagskreis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"realistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)"},{"link_name":"naturalistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(arts)"},{"link_name":"mercantile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercantile"},{"link_name":"bourgeois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois"}],"text":"Hauser studied history of art and literature in Budapest, Vienna, Berlin and Paris. Among his teachers were Max Dvořák in Vienna, Georg Simmel in Berlin, Henri Bergson and Gustave Lanson in Paris. After World War I he spent two years in Italy, familiarizing himself with Italian art. In 1921, he moved to Berlin, and in 1924 to Vienna. By that time he had concluded, in his own words, that “the problem of art and literature, in the solution of which our time is most eagerly engaged, are fundamentally sociological problems.”[1]Another crucial influence on Hauser was Hungarian philosopher Bernhard Alexander, which transmitted to Hauser an interest for both William Shakespeare and Immanuel Kant. This led to Hauser's systematic study of theater and, later, cinema as parts of the larger world of art.[2]He embraced Marxism by first reading the writings of György Lukács, then meeting him and becoming part of his Sonntagskreis in Budapest. It was in Budapest that Hauser published his first writings, between 1911 and 1918, including his doctoral dissertation about the problem of creating a systematic aesthetics, which appeared in the journal Athenaeum in 1918. 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For to some extent they deny the very existence of what we call the ’humanities’. If all human beings, including ourselves, are completely conditioned by the economic and social circumstances of their existence then we really cannot understand the past by ordinary sympathy.”[4]Some scholars have argued that Gombrich saw Hauser as a typical exponent of Marxism, without appreciating his nuances and subtle critique of the most rigid forms of social determinism.[5]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"1951: Sozialgeschichte der Kunst und Literatur (The Social History of Art and Literature)\n1958: Philosophie der Kunstgeschichte (The Philosophy of Art History)\n1964: Der Manierismus. 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