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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltzar_von_Platen_(inventor)
|
Baltzar von Platen (inventor)
|
["1 Biography","2 References","3 External links"]
|
Swedish engineer and inventor (1898–1984)
Baltzar von PlatenBaltzar von Platen in his office, in 1960Born24 February 1898Malmö, SwedenDied29 April 1984(1984-04-29) (aged 86)Ystad, Skåne, SwedenAlma materKTH Royal Institute of TechnologyKnown forInvention of the gas absorption refrigeratorAwards
John Price Wetherill Medal
Adelsköld Medal
Polhem Prize
Adelsköld Medal
This prototype cooling device invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters in 1922 became the basis for a lot of refrigerators produced in Sweden and elsewhere.
Baltzar von Platen (24 February 1898 – 29 April 1984) was a Swedish engineer and inventor.
Biography
Baltzar von Platen born in Malmö, Sweden. He was the son of Philip Ludvig von Platen and Eva Hedvig Ingeborg Ehrenborg. He first studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy at Lund University.
Together with inventor and entrepreneur Carl Munters (1897–1989), he was the inventor of the gas absorption refrigerator in 1922 while they were both Swedish engineering students at the KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden. The Platen-Munters design could operate without a pump. The technique produced "cold" from a heat source such as propane, electricity, or kerosene. In 1923, production by AB Arctic began. In 1925, AB Arctic was purchased by Electrolux, which began selling them worldwide. In 1925, American manufacturer Servel purchased the rights to the Swedish patent for a continuous absorption refrigerator and started to focus on the gas refrigeration market. The company manufactured refrigerators and was the only U.S. manufacturer for many years.
Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters both received the Polhem Prize (Polhemspriset) awarded by Swedish Association of Graduate Engineers in 1925. Baltzar von Platen was awarded the Franklin Institute John Price Wetherill Medal in 1932. He was awarded the Adelsköld Medal (Adelsköldska medaljen) in gold from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences during 1940. Von Platen also worked with ASEA, Sweden's major electrical company, on the development of a process which used heat and pressure to produce diamonds. Von Platen left the project before it succeeded in producing the first synthetic diamonds in 1953.
References
^ "von Platen, Baltzar (1898 - 1984)". KulturNav. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Baltzar C Platen, von". Svenskt biografiskt lexikon. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Carl Munters (1897-1989)". munters.com. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Electrolux Servel". roburcorp.com. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Baltzar von Platen – Kylskåpet". Tekniska museet. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Om Polhemspriset". polhemspriset.se. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
^ "Adelsköldska medaljen". Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
External links
The Gas Model Refrigerator Alex Imholtz
von Platen, Baltzar (1898 - 1984) at DigitaltMuseum
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Sweden
Artists
KulturNav
|
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|
[{"image_text":"This prototype cooling device invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters in 1922 became the basis for a lot of refrigerators produced in Sweden and elsewhere.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Platen-Munters_cooling_machine_prototype.jpg/220px-Platen-Munters_cooling_machine_prototype.jpg"}]
| null |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_allocation
|
Resource allocation
|
["1 Economics","2 Strategic planning","3 Algorithms","4 See also","5 References"]
|
Assignment of resources among possible uses
In economics, resource allocation is the assignment of available resources to various uses. In the context of an entire economy, resources can be allocated by various means, such as markets, or planning.
In project management, resource allocation or resource management is the scheduling of activities and the resources required by those activities while taking into consideration both the resource availability and the project time.
Economics
In economics, the field of public finance deals with three broad areas: microeconomic stabilization, the distribution of income and wealth, and the allocation of resources. Much of the study of the allocation of resources is devoted to finding the conditions under which particular mechanisms of resource allocation lead to Pareto efficient outcomes, in which no party's situation can be improved without hurting that of another party.
Strategic planning
In strategic planning, resource allocation is a plan for using available resources, for example human resources, especially in the near term, to achieve goals for the future. It is the process of allocating scarce resources among the various projects or business units.
There are a number of approaches to solving resource allocation problems e.g. resources can be allocated using a manual approach, an algorithmic approach (see below), or a combination of both.
There may be contingency mechanisms such as a priority ranking of items excluded from the plan, showing which items to fund if more resources should become available and a priority ranking of some items included in the plan, showing which items should be sacrificed if total funding must be reduced.
Algorithms
Resource allocation may be decided by using computer programs applied to a specific domain to automatically and dynamically distribute resources to applicants.
This is especially common in electronic devices dedicated to routing and communication. For example, channel allocation in wireless communication may be decided by a base transceiver station using an appropriate algorithm.
One class of resource whereby applicants bid for the best resource(s) according to their balance of "money", as in an online auction business model (see also auction theory).
In one paper on CPU time slice allocation
an auction algorithm is compared to proportional share scheduling.
See also
Allocative efficiency – When production relates to consumer preferences in an economy
Collective problem solving – Approaches to problem solvingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Corruption
Earned value management – Project management technique
Fair division
Prioritization – Arranging things in order of importance
Project management – Practice of leading the work of a team to achieve goals and criteria at a specified time
Project planning – Aspect of project management which uses schedules to plan and report progress
Resource planning (disambiguation)
Stochastic scheduling – Problems involving random attributes
References
^ "PMO and Project Management Dictionary". Pmhut.com. 2007-08-20. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
^ "Production planning". Archived from the original on 7 Jun 2014. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
^ Inteng "Planning manual and algorithm" Inteng Retrieved on 3 June 2014
^ Samuel90 (2013-01-25). "Resource allocation". Slideshare.net. Retrieved 2014-06-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Wireless Channel Allocation Using An Auction Algorithm" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-06-24.
^ "Tycoon: A Distributed Market-based Resource Allocation System". Citeulike.org. 2004-04-05. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
vtePopulationMajor topics
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|
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Much of the study of the allocation of resources is devoted to finding the conditions under which particular mechanisms of resource allocation lead to Pareto efficient outcomes, in which no party's situation can be improved without hurting that of another party.","title":"Economics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"strategic planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_planning"},{"link_name":"plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource"},{"link_name":"human resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources"},{"link_name":"projects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In strategic planning, resource allocation is a plan for using available resources, for example human resources, especially in the near term, to achieve goals for the future. It is the process of allocating scarce resources among the various projects or business units.\nThere are a number of approaches to solving resource allocation problems e.g. resources can be allocated using a manual approach, an algorithmic approach (see below),[2] or a combination of both.[3]There may be contingency mechanisms such as a priority ranking of items excluded from the plan, showing which items to fund if more resources should become available and a priority ranking of some items included in the plan, showing which items should be sacrificed if total funding must be reduced.[4]","title":"Strategic planning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programs"},{"link_name":"wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless"},{"link_name":"base transceiver station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_transceiver_station"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"online auction business model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_auction_business_model"},{"link_name":"auction theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction_theory"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"time slice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_slice"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"proportional share scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportional_share_scheduling"}],"text":"Resource allocation may be decided by using computer programs applied to a specific domain to automatically and dynamically distribute resources to applicants.This is especially common in electronic devices dedicated to routing and communication. For example, channel allocation in wireless communication may be decided by a base transceiver station using an appropriate algorithm.[5]One class of resource whereby applicants bid for the best resource(s) according to their balance of \"money\", as in an online auction business model (see also auction theory).In one paper on CPU time slice allocation[6]\nan auction algorithm is compared to proportional share scheduling.","title":"Algorithms"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"Allocative efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocative_efficiency"},{"title":"Collective problem solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_problem_solving"},{"title":"Corruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption"},{"title":"Earned value management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earned_value_management"},{"title":"Fair division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_division"},{"title":"Prioritization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prioritization"},{"title":"Project management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management"},{"title":"Project planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_planning"},{"title":"Resource planning (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_planning_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"Stochastic scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_scheduling"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yod_dropping
|
Phonological history of English consonant clusters
|
["1 H-cluster reductions","1.1 Reductions of /hw/","1.2 Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/","1.3 Reduction of /hj/","2 Y-cluster reductions","2.1 Yod-dropping","2.2 Yod-coalescence","3 Other initial cluster reductions","3.1 Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/","3.2 Reduction of /kn/","3.3 Reduction of /ɡn/","3.4 S-cluster reductions","4 Final cluster reductions","4.1 NG-coalescence","4.2 G-dropping","4.3 Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/","4.4 Generalized final cluster reduction","5 Medial cluster reductions","6 Consonant insertions","6.1 Prince–prints merger","6.2 Other insertions","7 Alterations of clusters","7.1 Assimilation","7.2 Glottalization","7.3 S-cluster metathesis","7.4 Merger of /str/ and /skr/","7.5 Yod-rhotacization","8 See also","9 References"]
|
Sound changes
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2020)
History and description ofEnglish pronunciation
Historical stages
Old English
Middle English
General development
In Old English
In Scots
Development of vowels
A
Close back
Close front
Diphthongs
Great Vowel Shift
Open back
Pre-L
Pre-R
Development of consonants
Single consonants
Clusters
Variable features
Cot–caught merger
Drawl
Flapping
H-dropping
L-vocalization
NG
R
Rhoticity
T-glottalization
TH
WH
Related topics
History of English
Spelling
vte
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
The phonological history of English includes various changes in the phonology of consonant clusters.
H-cluster reductions
See also: H-dropping
The H-cluster reductions are various consonant reductions that have occurred in the history of English, involving consonant clusters beginning with /h/ that have lost the /h/ (or become reduced to /h/) in some or all dialects.
Reductions of /hw/
Main article: Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩
The cluster /hw/ (spelled ⟨wh⟩ since Middle English) has been subject to two kinds of reduction:
Reduction to /h/ before rounded vowels (due to /hw/ being perceived as a /h/ with the labialization characteristic of that environment). This occurred with the word how in the Old English period, and with who, whom and whose in Middle English (the latter words having had an unrounded vowel in Old English).
Reduction to /w/, a development that has affected the speech of the great majority of English speakers, causing them to pronounce ⟨wh-⟩ the same as ⟨w-⟩ (sometimes called the wine–whine merger or glide cluster reduction). The distinction is maintained, however, in Scotland, most of Ireland, and some Southern American English.
Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/
The Old English consonant clusters /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ were reduced to /l/, /r/, and /n/ in Middle English. For example, Old English hlāf, hring and hnutu become loaf, ring and nut in Modern English.
Reduction of /hj/
In some dialects of English the cluster /hj/ is reduced to /j/, leading to pronunciations like /juːdʒ/ for huge and /ˈjuːmən/ for human, and making hew, hue, and Hugh homophones of ewe, yew, and you. This is sometimes considered a type of glide cluster reduction, but it is much less widespread than wh-reduction, and is generally stigmatized where it is found. Aside from accents with general H-dropping, in the United States this reduction is mostly found in accents of Philadelphia and New York City; it also occurs in Cork accents of Irish English. In other dialects of English, hew and yew remain distinct; however, the cluster /hj/ of hew, human, etc. is often reduced from to just (a voiceless palatal fricative).
Y-cluster reductions
See also: § Yod-rhotacization
Y-cluster reductions are reductions of clusters ending with the palatal approximant /j/, which is the sound of ⟨y⟩ in yes, and is sometimes referred to as "yod", from the Hebrew letter yod(h), which has the sound . Many such clusters arose in dialects in which the falling diphthong /ɪu/ (the product of the merger of several Middle English vowel sequences) became the rising diphthong /juː/. (For more information, see Phonological history of English high back vowels.) They were thus often found before the vowel /uː/, as in cube /kjuːb/ – which was in some cases modified to /ʊə/ or /ʊ/ before (historical) /r/, as in cure, or weakened to /ʊ/ or /ə/ as in argument. They also occurred in words ending in -ion and -ious, such as nation and precious.
This change from /ɪu/ to /juː/, which had occurred in London by the end of the 17th century, did not take place in all dialects. A few dialects, notably in Wales, as well as in some parts of northern England, New England, and the American South, still retain a (falling) /ɪu/ diphthong where standard English has /juː/ – these dialects therefore lack the clusters with /j/ and have not been subject to the reductions described here.
The diphthongs /juː/ or /ɪʊ̯/ are most commonly indicated by the spellings eu, ew, uCV (where C is any consonant and V is any vowel), ue and ui, as in feud, few, mute, cue and suit, while the historical monophthong /uː/ is commonly indicated by the spellings oo and ou, as in moon and soup.
Yod-dropping
Yod-dropping is the elision of the /j/ from certain syllable-initial clusters of the type described above. Particular cases of yod-dropping may affect all or some of the dialects that have the relevant clusters.
The change of to in these positions (as described above) produced some clusters which would have been difficult or impossible to pronounce, which led to what John Wells calls Early Yod Dropping in which the was elided in the following environments:
After /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/, for example chute /ʃuːt/, chew /tʃuː/, juice /dʒuːs/
After /j/, for example yew /juː/ (compare in some conservative dialects)
After /r/, for example rude /ruːd/
After stop+/l/ clusters, for example blue /bluː/
The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping
you, yew
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The previously mentioned accents that did not have the → change were not subject to this process. Thus, for example, in much Welsh English pairs like chews/choose, yew/you and threw/through remain distinct: the first member of each pair has the diphthong /ɪʊ̯/, while the second member has /uː/:
chews /tʃɪʊ̯z/, choose /tʃuːz/
yew /jɪʊ̯/, you /juː/
threw /θrɪʊ̯/, through /θruː/
Conversely, an initial /j/ does not appear in Welsh English before /iː/ in words such as yeast and yield.
Many varieties of English have extended yod-dropping to the following environments if the /j/ is in the same syllable as the preceding consonant:
After /s/, for example suit /suːt/
After /l/, for example lute /ˈluːt/
After /z/, for example Zeus /ˈzuːs/
After /θ/, for example enthuse /ɛnˈθuːz/
Yod-dropping in the above environments used to be considered nonstandard in England but now also occurs by educated RP-speakers. (The /j/ after /s/ is not normally dropped in RP in medial positions, however: compare pursuit /pəˈsjuːt/.) In General American, yod-dropping is found not only in the above environments but also after /t/, /d/ and /n/, for example tune /ˈtuːn/, dew /ˈduː/, new /ˈnuː/
The lack of yod-dropping in those contexts has occasionally been held to be a shibboleth distinguishing Canadians from Americans. However, in a survey conducted in the Golden Horseshoe area of Southern Ontario in 1994, over 80% of respondents under the age of 40 pronounced student and news without yod.
The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made.
General American thus undergoes yod-dropping after all alveolar consonants. A few accents of American English, such as working-class Southern American English, however, preserve the distinction in pairs like do/dew because, like in the Welsh English dialects discussed above, they retain a diphthong /ɪʊ̯/ in words in which RP has /juː/: /lut~lɪʊ̯t/, /du~dɪʊ̯/, etc.
However, in words like annual, menu, volume, Matthew, continue, etc., with a syllable break before the /j/, there is no yod-dropping. The same applies accordingly to British and other accents; the yod is often dropped after initial /l/, for example, but it is not dropped in words like volume or value. (British speakers omit the /j/ in figure, but most Americans retain it.)
Additionally, there is no /j/ in British pronunciations of coupon and Pulitzer, /ˈkuːpɒn/ and /ˈpʊlɪtsə/ respectively, but many American speakers keep the yod, realizing them as /ˈkjuːpɒn/ and /ˈpjuːlɪtsər/, although Pulitzer with the pew sound is widely incorrect.
In New Zealand and to some extent Australian English, debut is mainly pronounced without the yod as /ˈdæebʉː/.
Yod-dropping after /t/, /d/, and /n/ was also a traditional feature of Cockney speech, which continues to be the case after /n/, but now, after /t/ and /d/, yod-coalescence is now more common.
Some East Anglian accents such as Norfolk dialect extend yod-dropping not only to the position after /t/, /d/ or /n/ but also to the position after nonalveolar consonants as well: pairs like beauty/booty, mute/moot, cute/coot can then be homophonous. A well-known series of British television advertisements beginning in the 1980s featured Bernard Matthews, who was from Norfolk and described his turkeys as "bootiful" (for beautiful). Such accents pronounce a /j/ in words like "use", "unit", etc. only if there is no consonant before the /j/.
Homophonous pairs after j, r, ʃ, and tʃ
/ɪʊ̯/
/uː/
IPA
Notes
brewed
brood
ˈbruːd
brume
broom
ˈbruːm
chews
choose
ˈtʃuːz
chute
shoot
ˈʃuːt
drupe
droop
ˈdruːp
rheum
room
ˈruːm
rude
rood
ˈruːd
rue
roo
ˈruː
ruse
roos
ˈruːz
threw
through
ˈθruː
yew
you
ˈjuː
yule
you'll
ˈjuːl
Homophonous pairs after l and s
/ɪʊ̯/
/uː/
IPA
Notes
Blume
bloom
ˈbluːm
glume
gloom
ˈgluːm
Lewis
Louis
ˈluːɪs
lieu
loo
ˈluː
lieu
Lou
ˈluː
Luke
look
ˈluːk
With foot–goose merger.
lune
loon
ˈluːn
lute
loot
ˈluːt
slew
slough
ˈsluː
slue
slough
ˈsluː
sue
Sioux
ˈsuː
suit
soot
ˈsuːt
With foot–goose merger.
Homophonous pairs after d, n, and t
/ɪʊ̯/
/uː/
IPA
Notes
adieu
ado
əˈduː
dew
do
ˈduː
Dewar
doer
ˈduːər
due
do
ˈduː
dune
Doon
ˈduːn
knew
nu
ˈnuː
new
nu
ˈnuː
tune
toon
ˈtuːn
Homophonous pairs after other consonants
/ɪʊ̯/
/uː/
IPA
Notes
beaut
boot
ˈbuːt
beauty
booty
ˈbuːti
butte
boot
ˈbuːt
cue
coo
ˈkuː
cute
coot
ˈkuːt
feud
food
ˈfuːd
few
foo
ˈfuː
fuel
fool
ˈfuːl
With vile–vial merger.
hew
who
ˈhuː
hews
who's
ˈhuːz
hews
whose
ˈhuːz
hue
who
ˈhuː
hues
who's
ˈhuːz
hues
whose
ˈhuːz
Hugh
who
ˈhuː
Hughes
who's
ˈhuːz
Hughes
whose
ˈhuːz
Kew
coo
ˈkuː
kyu
coo
ˈkuː
mew
moo
ˈmuː
mew
moue
ˈmuː
mewed
mood
ˈmuːd
muse
moos
ˈmuːz
muse
moues
ˈmuːz
mute
moot
ˈmuːt
pew
poo
ˈpuː
pule
pool
ˈpuːl
pure
poor
ˈpʊə(r)
Q; cue
coo
ˈkuː
que
coo
ˈkuː
queue
coo
ˈkuː
Yod-coalescence
Yod-coalescence is a process that fuses the clusters /dj, tj, sj, zj/ into the sibilants respectively (for the meanings of those symbols, see English phonology). The first two are examples of affrication.
Unlike yod-dropping, yod-coalescence frequently occurs with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary and so commonly occurs before unstressed syllables. For example, in educate, the /dj/ cluster would not usually be subject to yod-dropping in General American, as the /d/ is assigned to the previous syllable, but it commonly coalesces to . Here are a few examples of yod-coalescence universal in all English dialects:
/tj/ → in most words ending -ture, such as nature
/dj/ → in soldier
/sj/ → in words ending with -ssure such as pressure (also in words ending with consonant+sure, consonant+sion, -tion)
/zj/ → in words ending vowel+sure such as measure (also vowel+sion)
In some other words, the coalesced pronunciation is common in English dialects around the world, but an older non-coalesced form still exists among some speakers of standard British English:
educate (also in standard RP: )
azure (also in RP )
issue (also in RP ), the intermediate form being also common
Coalescence can even occur across word boundaries, as in the colloquial "gotcha" /ˈɡɒtʃə/ (for got you /ˈɡɒtju/) and "whatcha" /ˈwɒtʃə/ (for what're you /ˈwɒtərjə/).
In certain English accents, yod-coalescence also occurs in stressed syllables, as in tune and dune. That occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Zimbabwean English, some speakers of Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent in New Zealand English, RP, many speakers in Scottish English, and even some varieties of English in Asia, like Philippine English (many speakers because of the influence by the phonology of their mother languages). That results in pronunciations such as the following:
dew/due (RP: )
tune (RP: )
In certain varieties such as Australian, Ugandan, and some RP, stressed can also coalesce:
resume (RP: )
assume (RP: )
That can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew.
Yod-coalescence has traditionally been resisted in Received Pronunciation. It has certainly become established in words of the first group listed above (nature, soldier, pressure etc.), but it is not yet universal in those of the second group (educate etc.), and it does not generally occur in those of the third group (dew, tune etc.).
Homophonous pairs
/ɪu/
/juː/
IPA
Notes
deuce
juice
ˈdʒuːs
dew
Jew
ˈdʒuː
dewed
Jude
ˈdʒuːd
dual
jewel
ˈdʒuːəl
due
Jew
ˈdʒuː
duel
jewel
ˈdʒuːəl
duke
juke
ˈdʒuːk
duly
Julie
ˈdʒuːli
dune
June
ˈdʒuːn
duty
Judy
ˈdʒuːɾi
With intervocalic alveolar flapping.
sue
shoe
ˈʃuː
sue
shoo
ˈʃuː
suit
chute
ˈʃuːt
suit
shoot
ˈʃuːt
'tude
chewed
ˈtʃuːd
See also
List of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones on Wiktionary.
Other initial cluster reductions
Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/
Old and Middle English had an initial /wr/ cluster (note that /r/ does not denote here), hence the spelling of words like write and wrong. This was reduced to just /r/, apparently during the 17th century. An intermediate stage may have been an with lip rounding.
As a result of this reduction, pairs of words like rap and wrap, rite and write, etc. are homophones in practically all varieties of Modern English. They remain distinct in the Doric dialect of Scots, where the wr- cluster is pronounced /vr/. Alexander John Ellis reported distinctions between wr and r in Cumbria and in several varieties of Scots in the nineteenth century.
Old English also had a cluster /wl/, which reduced to /l/ during Middle English. For example, the word lisp derives from Old English wlisp(ian).
Reduction of /kn/
Middle English initial /kn/ is reduced in modern English to /n/, making pairs like knot/not and knight/night homophones.
The /kn/ cluster was spelled cn- in Old English; this changed to kn- in Middle English, and this spelling survives in Modern English, despite the loss of the /k/ sound. Cognates in other Germanic languages usually still sound the initial /k/. For example, the Old English ancestor of knee was cnēo, pronounced /kneːo̯/, and the cognate word in Modern German is Knie, pronounced /kniː/.
Most dialects of English reduced the initial cluster /kn/ to /n/ relatively recently; the change seems to have taken place in educated English during the 17th century. Several German-language grammars of English from the late 17th and early 18th centuries transcribed English kn- as tn-, dn-, implying that a stage of assimilation (or perhaps debuccalization to /ʔn/) preceded that of complete reduction.
The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects, and Alexander John Ellis recorded it in parts of the Northern English counties of Cumbria and Northumberland in the late nineteenth century.
Reduction of /ɡn/
The Middle English initial cluster /ɡn/ is reduced to /n/ in Modern English. Like the reduction of /kn/, this seems to have taken place during the seventeenth century. The change affected words like gnat, gnostic, gnome, etc., the spelling with gn- being retained despite the loss of the /ɡ/ sound. The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects.
The song The Gnu jokes about this silent g and other silent letters in English. In fact the g in gnu may always have been silent in English, since this loanword did not enter the language until the late 18th century. The trumpeter Kenny Wheeler wrote a composition titled Gnu High, a pun on "new high".
S-cluster reductions
In some types of Caribbean English, the initial clusters /sp/, /st/, and /sk/ are reduced by the loss of /s/. The following stop is then subject to regular aspiration (or devoicing of the following approximant) in its new word-initial environment. Some examples of such pronunciations are:
spit
→ 'pit
→
stomach
→ 'tomach
→
spend
→ 'pen
→ (also affected by final cluster reduction)
squeeze
→ 'queeze
→
According to Wells, these reductions occur only in the broadest creole.
Final cluster reductions
NG-coalescence
NG-coalescence is a historical sound change by which the final cluster /nɡ/, pronounced (the /n/ being realized as a velar nasal by assimilation with the velar /ɡ/), came to be pronounced as just – that is, the final was dropped, but the velar quality of the nasal remained. The change took place in educated London speech around the end of the 16th century, and explains why there is no sound at the end of words like fang, sing, wrong and tongue in the standard varieties of Modern English.
The change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the is pronounced in most accents. The pronunciation with is thus possible only before a vowel; before a consonant, the only possibility is a bare .
In other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not show the effects of coalescence, and the pronunciation is retained, as in finger and angle. This means that the words finger and singer do not rhyme in most modern varieties of English, although they did in Middle English. The process of NG-coalescence might therefore be referred to as the singer–finger split.
Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of England
Some accents, however, do not show the full effects of NG-coalescence as described above. In these accents, sing may be found with , and singer may rhyme with finger. This is particularly associated with English English accents in areas such as Lancashire, the West Midlands and Derbyshire, and is also present in north-east varieties of Welsh English. This includes the cities of Birmingham (see Brummie), Manchester (see Manchester dialect), Liverpool (see Scouse), Sheffield and Stoke-on-Trent (see Potteries dialect). This also occurs in a small area of Kent. As this occurs around the mining area of Kent, it might be a result of large-scale migration by miners from other more northerly coalfields to Kent in the 1920s.
It is also associated with some American English accents in the New York City area.
On the other hand, in some accents of the west of Scotland and Ulster, NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, so that finger is pronounced /ˈfɪŋər/ (cf. Dutch vinger /ˈvɪŋər/), thus rhyming with singer (although the is not dropped before a stressed syllable, as in engage).
It is because of NG-coalescence that /ŋ/ is now normally regarded one of the phonemes of standard English. In Middle English, the can be regarded as an allophone of /n/, occurring before velar consonants, but in Modern English, in view of minimal pairs such as pan–pang and sin–sing, that analysis no longer appears to hold. Nevertheless, some linguists (particularly generativists) do regard a word like sing as being underlyingly /sɪnɡ/, positing a rule that deletes after a nasal before a morpheme boundary, after the nasal has undergone assimilation. A problem with this view is that there are a few words in which is followed neither by a velar nor a morpheme boundary (such as gingham, dinghy, orangutan and Singapore for those speakers who pronounce them without ), and some in which the is not deleted before a morpheme boundary (longer etc., as noted above).
The above-mentioned accents which lack NG-coalescence may more easily be analyzed as lacking a phoneme /ŋ/. The same may apply to those where NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, since here a more consistent -deletion rule can be formulated.
G-dropping
Main article: G-dropping
G-dropping is a popular name for the feature of speech whereby /n/ is used in place of the standard /ŋ/ in weak syllables. This applies especially to the -ing ending of verbs, but also in other words such as morning, nothing, ceiling, Buckingham, etc. G-dropping speakers may pronounce this syllable as or (reducing to a syllabic in some cases), while non-G-dropping speakers have /ɪŋ/ (/əŋ/ with the weak vowel merger) or /iŋ/.
Relative to the great majority of modern dialects, which have NG-coalescence, G-dropping does not involve the dropping of any sound, simply the replacement of the velar nasal with the alveolar nasal. The name derives from the apparent orthographic consequence of replacing the sound written ⟨ng⟩ with that normally written ⟨n⟩. The spelling -in' is sometimes used to indicate that a speaker uses the G-dropping pronunciation, as in makin' for making.
The pronunciation with /n/ rather than /ŋ/ is a long-established one. Old English verbs had a present participle in -ende and a verbal noun (gerund) form in -ing(e). These merged into a single form, written -ing, but not necessarily spoken as such – the /n/ pronunciation may be inherited from the former distinct present participle form. The /n/ variant appears to have been fashionable generally during the 18th century, with the alternative /ɪŋ/ being adopted in educated speech around the 1820s, possibly as a spelling pronunciation.
Today, G-dropping is a feature of colloquial and non-standard speech of all regions, including stereotypically of Cockney, Southern American English and African American Vernacular English. Its use is highly correlated with the socioeconomic class of the speaker, with speakers of lower classes using /n/ with greater frequency. It has also been found to be more common among men than women, and less common in more formal styles of speech.
The fact that the /n/ pronunciation was formerly associated with certain upper-class speech is reflected in the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ (used in referring to country gentry who frequently engaged in such field sports). Further evidence that this pronunciation was once standard comes from old rhymes, as in this couplet from John Gay's 1732 pastoral Acis and Galatea, set to music by Handel:
Shepherd, what art thou pursuing,
Heedless running to thy ruin?
which was presumably pronounced "shepherd, what art thou pursuin', heedless runnin' to thy ruin", although this would sound very odd in an opera today. Similarly, in the poetry of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), -ing forms consistently rhyme with words ending in /ɪn/, as in this verse of A Ballad on the Game of Traffic, where "lining" rhymes with "fine in":
But Weston has a new-cast gown
On Sundays to be fine in,
And, if she can but win a crown,
'Twill just new dye the lining.
Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/
In later Middle English, the final cluster /mb/ was reduced to just /m/ (the plum-plumb merger). This affects words such as lamb and plumb, as well as derived forms with suffixes, such as lambs, lambing, plumbed, plumber.
By analogy with words like these, certain other words ending in /m/, which had no historical /b/ sound, had a silent letter ⟨b⟩ added to their spelling by way of hypercorrection. Such words include limb and crumb.
Where the final cluster /mn/ occurred, this was reduced to /m/ (the him-hymn merger), as in column, autumn, damn, solemn. (Compare French automne, where the cluster has been reduced to /n/.) Both sounds are nonetheless still pronounced before vowels in certain derivatives, such as columnar, autumnal, damnation, solemnity.
Generalized final cluster reduction
General reduction of final consonant clusters occurs in African American Vernacular English and Caribbean English. The new final consonant may be slightly lengthened as an effect.
Examples are:
test
→ tes'
→
desk
→ des'
→
hand
→ han'
→
send
→ sen'
→
left
→ lef'
→
wasp
→ was'
→
The plurals of test and desk may become tesses and desses by the same rule that gives plural messes from singular mess.
Medial cluster reductions
When a consonant cluster ending in a stop is followed by another consonant or cluster in the next syllable, the final stop in the first syllable is often elided. This may happen within words or across word boundaries. Examples of stops that will often be elided in this way include the in postman and the in cold cuts or band saw.
Historically, similar reductions have taken place before syllabic consonants in certain words, leading to the silent ⟨t⟩ in words like castle and listen. This change took place around the 17th century. In the word often, the sound later came to be re-inserted by some speakers as a spelling pronunciation.
An earlier reduction that took place in early Middle English was the change of /ts/ to /s/ (the sent-cent merger). This led to the modern sound of soft ⟨c⟩.
Consonant insertions
Prince–prints merger
For many speakers, an epenthetic is inserted in the final cluster /ns/, making it identical or very similar to the cluster /nts/. For example, the words prince and prints have come to be homophones or nearly so.
The epenthesis is a natural consequence of the transition from the nasal to the fricative ; if the raising of the soft palate (which converts a nasal to an oral sound) is completed before the release of the tongue tip (which enables a fricative sound), an intervening stop naturally results. The merger of /ns/ and /nts/ is not necessarily complete, however; the duration of the epenthetic in /ns/ has been found to be often shorter (and the longer) than in the underlying cluster /nts/. Some speakers preserve a clearer distinction, with prince having , and prints having or . The epenthesis does not occur between syllables, in words like consider.
Other insertions
The merger of /nz/ and /ndz/ is also possible, making bans and pens sound like bands and pends. However, this is less common than the merger of /ns/ and /nts/ described above, and in rapid speech may involve the elision of the /d/ from /ndz/ rather than epenthesis in /nz/.
Epenthesis of a stop between a nasal and a fricative can also occur in other environments, for example:
/nʃ/ may become /ntʃ/ (so pinscher is often pronounced like pincher)
/ms/ may become /mps/ (so Samson becomes "Sampson", hamster becomes "hampster")
/ŋs/ may become /ŋks/ (so Kingston becomes "kinkston")
Epenthesis may also happen in the cluster /ls/, which then becomes /lts/, so else rhymes with belts.
An epenthetic often intervenes in the cluster /mt/ in the word dreamt, making it rhyme with attempt.
Some originally epenthetic consonants have become part of the established pronunciation of words. This applies, for instance, to the /b/ in words like thimble, grumble and scramble.
For the insertion of glottal stops before certain consonants, see Glottalization below.
Homophonous pairs
fricative
affricate
IPA
Notes
Aaron's
errands
ˈɛrən(d)z
With Mary-marry-merry merger.
-ance
-ants
-ən(t)s
ANSI
antsy
ˈæn(t)si
bans
bands
ˈbæn(d)z
Ben's
bends
ˈbɛn(d)z
bines
binds
ˈbaɪn(d)z
brans
brands
ˈbræn(d)z
bunce
bunts
ˈbʌn(t)s
Bynes
binds
ˈbaɪn(d)z
chance
chants
ˈtʃæn(t)s, ˈtʃɑːn(t)s
dense
dents
ˈdɛn(t)s
dense
dints
ˈdɛn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
-ence
-ents
-ən(t)s
Erin's
errands
ˈɛrən(d)z
With weak vowel merger.
fines
finds
ˈfaɪn(d)z
fens
fends
ˈfɛn(d)z
Finns
fends
ˈfɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
fins
fends
ˈfɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
glans
glands
ˈɡlæn(d)z
Hans
hands
ˈhæn(d)z
Hans may also be pronounced /ˈhɑːnz/ or /ˈhɑːns/.
Heinz
hinds
ˈhaɪn(d)z
Heinz may also be pronounced /ˈhaɪnts/.
hence
hints
ˈhɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
Hines
hinds
ˈhaɪn(d)z
inns
ends
ˈɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
ins
ends
ˈɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
intense
intents
ɪnˈtɛn(t)s
Kines
kinds
ˈkaɪn(d)z
LANs
lands
ˈlæn(d)z
lens
lends
ˈlɛn(d)z
men's
mends
ˈmɛn(d)z
mince
mints
ˈmɪn(t)s
mines
minds
ˈmaɪn(d)z
N's; ens
ends
ˈɛn(d)z
patience
patients
ˈpeɪʃən(t)s
pawns
ponds
ˈpɑn(d)z
With cot-caught merger.
pens
pends
ˈpɛn(d)z
pins
pends
ˈpɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
ponce
ponts
ˈpɑn(t)s
pons
ponds
ˈpɑn(d)z
presence
presents
ˈprɛzən(t)s
prince
prints
ˈprɪn(t)s
rinse
rents
ˈrɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
sans
sands
ˈsæn(d)z
sense
cents
ˈsɛn(t)s
sense
scents
ˈsɛn(t)s
since
cents
ˈsɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
since
scents
ˈsɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
spins
spends
ˈspɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
Stan's
stands
ˈstæn(d)z
tens
tends
ˈtɛn(d)z
tense
tents
ˈtɛn(t)s
tense
tints
ˈtɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
tins
tends
ˈtɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
Vince
vents
ˈvɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
wans
wands
ˈwɑn(d)z
wens
wends
ˈwɛn(d)z
wens
winds (n.)
ˈwɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
wince
Wentz
ˈwɪn(t)s
With pen-pin merger.
whence
Wentz
ˈwɪn(t)s
With wine-whine merger.
whines
winds (v.)
ˈwaɪn(d)z
With wine-whine merger.
wines
winds (v.)
ˈwaɪn(d)z
wins
wends
ˈwɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
wins
winds (n.)
ˈwɪn(d)z
wyns, wynns
wends
ˈwɪn(d)z
With pen-pin merger.
wyns, wynns
winds (n.)
ˈwɪn(d)z
Alterations of clusters
Assimilation
In English as in other languages, assimilation of adjacent consonants is common, particularly of a nasal with a following consonant. This can occur within or between words. For example, the /n/ in encase is often pronounced (becoming a velar nasal by way of assimilation with the following velar stop /k/), and the /n/ in ten men likely becomes , assimilating with the following bilabial nasal /m/. Other cases of assimilation also occur, such as pronunciation of the /d/ in bad boy as . Voicing assimilation determines the sound of the endings -s (as in plurals, possessives and verb forms) and -ed (in verb forms): these are voiced (, ) following a voiced consonant (or vowel), but voiceless (, ) after a voiceless consonant, as in gets, knocked.
Glottalization
While there are many accents (such as Cockney) in which syllable-final /t/ is frequently glottalized (realized as a glottal stop, ) regardless of what follows it, the glottaling of /t/ in clusters is a feature even of standard accents, such as RP. There, may be heard for /t/ in such words and phrases as quite good, quite nice, nights. More precisely, it occurs in RP when /t/ appears in the syllable coda, is preceded by a vowel, liquid or nasal, and it is followed by another consonant except (normally) a liquid or semivowel in the same word, as in mattress.
Another possibility is pre-glottalization (or glottal reinforcement), where a glottal stop is inserted before a syllable-final stop, rather than replacing it. That can happen before /p/, /t/ and /k/ or also before the affricate /tʃ/. It can occur in RP in the same environments as those mentioned above, without the final restriction so a glottal stop may appear before the /t/, as in mattress. It can also occur before a pause as in quite! spoken alone but not in quite easy. In the case of /tʃ/, pre-glottalization is common even before a vowel, as in teacher.
According to Wells, this pre-glottalization originated in the 20th century (at least, it was not recorded until then). Glottalization of /t/ spread rapidly during the 20th century.
S-cluster metathesis
Final consonant clusters starting with /s/ sometimes undergo metathesis, meaning that the order of the consonants is switched. For example, the word ask may be pronounced like "ax", with the /k/ and the /s/ switched.
This example has a long history: the Old English verb áscian also appeared as acsian, and both forms continued into Middle English, the latter, metathesizing to "ask". The form axe appears in Chaucer: "I axe, why the fyfte man Was nought housband to the Samaritan?" (Wife of Bath's Prologue, 1386), and was considered acceptable in literary English until about 1600. It persists in some dialects of rural England as well as in Ulster Scots as /ˈaks/, and in Jamaican English as /ˈaːks/, from where it has entered London English as /ˈɑːks/.
S-cluster metathesis has been observed in some forms of African American Vernacular English, although it is not universal, one of the most stigmatized features of AAVE and often commented on by teachers. Examples of possible AAVE pronunciations include:
ask
→ /ˈæks/
grasp
→ /ˈɡræps/
wasp
→ /ˈwɑps/
gasp
→ /ˈɡæps/
Merger of /str/ and /skr/
For some speakers of African American Vernacular English, the consonant cluster /str/ is pronounced as /skr/. For example, the word street may be pronounced as /skrit/.
The form has been found to occur in Gullah and in the speech of some young African Americans born in the Southern United States. It is reported to be a highly stigmatized feature, with children who use it often being referred to speech pathologists.
Yod-rhotacization
Yod-rhotacization is a process that occurs for some Memphis AAVE speakers, where /j/ is rhotacized to in consonant clusters, causing pronunciations like:
beautiful
→
cute
→
music
→
Compare yod-dropping and yod-coalescence, described above (and also the coil–curl merger, which features the reverse process, /r/ → /j/).
See also
Phonological history of English
Phonological history of English consonants
Phonological history of English fricatives and affricates
H-dropping
References
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-03-20. Retrieved 2005-06-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ Gimson, A. C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold Publishers. ISBN 0-7131-6287-2.
^ Ladefoged, Peter (2001). A Course in Phonetics (4th ed.). Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-15-507319-2.
^ Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-521-22919-7.
^ Wells (1982), p. 207.
^ Wells (1982), p. 385.
^ Mees, Inger M.; Collins, Beverley (1999). "Cardiff: A Real-time Study of Glottalisation". In Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard (eds.). Urban Voices. Arnold. p. 192. ISBN 0-340-70608-2.
^ Wells (1982), p. 206.
^ "Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping". CHASS.UToronto.ca. University of Toronto. Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2010. Excerpts from: Chambers, J. K. (1998). "Social embedding of changes in progress". Journal of English Linguistics. 26: 5–36. doi:10.1177/007542429802600102. S2CID 144942447.
^ a b Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.
^ Duryee, Tricia (6 November 2011). "A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word "Coupon"". All Things D. Dow Jones & Company Inc.
^ "FAQ". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. 24. How is 'Pulitzer' pronounced? The correct pronunciation is 'PULL it sir.'
^ Laurie Bauer; Paul Warren (2008). "New Zealand English: phonology". In Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd (eds.). Varieties of English 3: The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 60. ISBN 9783110208412.
^ Wells (1982), p. 330.
^ Wells (1982), p. 338.
^ Bauer, L.; Warren, P. (2005). "New Zealand English: Phonology". In Schneider, E. W. (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Vol. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110175325.
^ a b Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB, retrieved 2023-05-04
^ Wells (1982), p. 247.
^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.81-82.
^ "Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.
^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.71.
^ Vietor, Wilhelm: Elemente der Phonetik und Orthoepie des Deutschen, Englischen und Französischen, 2nd ed., Heilbronn, 1887, p. 171
^ a b "Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots". Scots Online. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
^ "Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.
^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.72.
^ The first recorded use of the word gnu in English dates back to 1777, according to Merriam-Webster's dictionary.
^ Wells (1982), p. 567.
^ Wells (1982), p. 188.
^ Bailey, George (15 December 2020). "Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes". Journal of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
^ Wells (1982), pp. 189, 366.
^ Wells (1982), pp. 60–64.
^ Wells (1982), p. 262.
^ Wyld, H.C., A History of Modern Colloquial English, Blackwell 1936, cited in Wells (1982), p. 262.
^ Wells (1982), pp. 17, 19, 26.
^ a b Liberman, Anatoly (21 October 2009). "The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things". OUP. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
^ a b c "Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)". www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca. March 17, 2001.
^ HLW: Word Forms: Processes: English Accents
^ List of AAVE features contrasting with MUSE Archived 2006-06-22 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ebonics Notes and Discussion
^ Denham, K., Lobeck, A., Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction, Cengage Learning 2012, p. 162.
^ Algeo, J., Butcher, C. The Origins and Development of the English Language, Cengage Learning 2013, p. 49.
^ Wells (1982), p. 95.
^ Yu, A.C.L., in The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, Wiley 2011, p. 1906.
^ Wells, J.C., "Some day my prints will come", John Wells's Phonetic Blog, 25 August 2010.
^ a b Alan Cruttenden, Gimson's Pronunciation of English, Routledge 2013, p. 99.
^ Nathan, G.S., Phonology: A Cognitive Grammar Introduction, John Benjamins Publishing 2008, pp. 77–78.
^ a b Wells (1982), p. 261.
^ Wells (1982), p. 260.
^ Online Etymology Dictionary - Ask
^ Kperogi, Farooq A. (2015). Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World. Peter Lang. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-4331-2926-1.
^ Green, Lisa J. (2002). African American English : a linguistic introduction (1. publ., 4. print. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0521891387.
^ Dandy, E.B., Black Communications: Breaking Down the Barriers, African American Images, 1991, p. 44.
vteHistory of English
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Germanic
Proto-West-Germanic
Anglo-Frisian languages
Old English
Kentish
Mercian
Northumbrian
West Saxon
Anglo-Norman language
Middle English
Early Modern English
Modern English
Phonological historyVowels
A
Changes before historic /l/
Changes before historic /r/
Close back vowels
Close front vowels
Diphthongs
Great Vowel Shift
Open back vowels
Trisyllabic laxing
Consonants
Clusters
Flapping
H-dropping
L-vocalization
Ng
Rhoticity
T-glottalization
Th
fronting
stopping
Wh
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonetic transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_transcription"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"Help:IPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA"},{"link_name":"IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters"},{"link_name":"phonological history of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"consonant clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_clusters"}],"text":"This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.The phonological history of English includes various changes in the phonology of consonant clusters.","title":"Phonological history of English consonant clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"},{"link_name":"consonant reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_reduction"}],"text":"See also: H-droppingThe H-cluster reductions are various consonant reductions that have occurred in the history of English, involving consonant clusters beginning with /h/ that have lost the /h/ (or become reduced to /h/) in some or all dialects.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"rounded vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounded_vowel"},{"link_name":"labialization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialization"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"glide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glide_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_English"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_English"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"}],"sub_title":"Reductions of /hw/","text":"The cluster /hw/ (spelled ⟨wh⟩ since Middle English) has been subject to two kinds of reduction:Reduction to /h/ before rounded vowels (due to /hw/ being perceived as a /h/ with the labialization characteristic of that environment). This occurred with the word how in the Old English period, and with who, whom and whose in Middle English (the latter words having had an unrounded vowel in Old English).\nReduction to /w/, a development that has affected the speech of the great majority of English speakers, causing them to pronounce ⟨wh-⟩ the same as ⟨w-⟩ (sometimes called the wine–whine merger or glide cluster reduction). The distinction is maintained, however, in Scotland, most of Ireland, and some Southern American English.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/","text":"The Old English consonant clusters /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ were reduced to /l/, /r/, and /n/ in Middle English. For example, Old English hlāf, hring and hnutu become loaf, ring and nut in Modern English.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophones"},{"link_name":"glide cluster reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glide_cluster_reduction"},{"link_name":"stigmatized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma"},{"link_name":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Cork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork"},{"link_name":"Irish English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_English"},{"link_name":"voiceless palatal fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /hj/","text":"In some dialects of English the cluster /hj/ is reduced to /j/,[1] leading to pronunciations like /juːdʒ/ for huge and /ˈjuːmən/ for human, and making hew, hue, and Hugh homophones of ewe, yew, and you. This is sometimes considered a type of glide cluster reduction, but it is much less widespread than wh-reduction, and is generally stigmatized where it is found. Aside from accents with general H-dropping, in the United States this reduction is mostly found in accents of Philadelphia and New York City; it also occurs in Cork accents of Irish English. In other dialects of English, hew and yew remain distinct; however, the cluster /hj/ of hew, human, etc. is often reduced from [çj] to just [ç] (a voiceless palatal fricative).[2][3]","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"§ Yod-rhotacization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-rhotacization"},{"link_name":"palatal approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet"},{"link_name":"yod(h)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yodh"},{"link_name":"Phonological history of English high back vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_high_back_vowels#ju"},{"link_name":"modified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_English"},{"link_name":"American South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"falling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_diphthong"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"See also: § Yod-rhotacizationY-cluster reductions are reductions of clusters ending with the palatal approximant /j/, which is the sound of ⟨y⟩ in yes, and is sometimes referred to as \"yod\", from the Hebrew letter yod(h), which has the sound [j]. Many such clusters arose in dialects in which the falling diphthong /ɪu/ (the product of the merger of several Middle English vowel sequences) became the rising diphthong /juː/. (For more information, see Phonological history of English high back vowels.) They were thus often found before the vowel /uː/, as in cube /kjuːb/ – which was in some cases modified to /ʊə/ or /ʊ/ before (historical) /r/, as in cure, or weakened to /ʊ/ or /ə/ as in argument. They also occurred in words ending in -ion and -ious, such as nation and precious.This change from /ɪu/ to /juː/, which had occurred in London by the end of the 17th century, did not take place in all dialects. A few dialects, notably in Wales, as well as in some parts of northern England, New England, and the American South, still retain a (falling) /ɪu/ diphthong where standard English has /juː/ – these dialects therefore lack the clusters with /j/ and have not been subject to the reductions described here.[4]The diphthongs /juː/ or /ɪʊ̯/ are most commonly indicated by the spellings eu, ew, uCV (where C is any consonant and V is any vowel), ue and ui, as in feud, few, mute, cue and suit, while the historical monophthong /uː/ is commonly indicated by the spellings oo and ou, as in moon and soup.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"elision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"John Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-ne-you_yew.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"Welsh English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"General American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_American"},{"link_name":"shibboleth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibboleth"},{"link_name":"Golden Horseshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horseshoe"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iw-uw_merger.svg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANAE-10"},{"link_name":"alveolar consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"do","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/do"},{"link_name":"dew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dew"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANAE-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_English"},{"link_name":"Australian English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"yod-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-coalescence"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"East Anglian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglian"},{"link_name":"Norfolk dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_dialect"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Bernard Matthews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Matthews"}],"sub_title":"Yod-dropping","text":"Yod-dropping is the elision of the /j/ from certain syllable-initial clusters of the type described above. Particular cases of yod-dropping may affect all or some of the dialects that have the relevant clusters.The change of [ɪ] to [j] in these positions (as described above) produced some clusters which would have been difficult or impossible to pronounce, which led to what John Wells calls Early Yod Dropping in which the [j] was elided in the following environments:[5]After /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/, for example chute /ʃuːt/, chew /tʃuː/, juice /dʒuːs/\nAfter /j/, for example yew /juː/ (compare [jɪʊ̯] in some conservative dialects)\nAfter /r/, for example rude /ruːd/\nAfter stop+/l/ clusters, for example blue /bluː/The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping\n\nyou, yew[ju jɪʊ̯]\nProblems playing this file? See media help.The previously mentioned accents that did not have the [ɪ]→[j] change were not subject to this process. Thus, for example, in much Welsh English pairs like chews/choose, yew/you and threw/through remain distinct: the first member of each pair has the diphthong /ɪʊ̯/, while the second member has /uː/:[6]chews /tʃɪʊ̯z/, choose /tʃuːz/\nyew /jɪʊ̯/, you /juː/\nthrew /θrɪʊ̯/, through /θruː/Conversely, an initial /j/ does not appear in Welsh English before /iː/ in words such as yeast and yield.[7]Many varieties of English have extended yod-dropping to the following environments if the /j/ is in the same syllable as the preceding consonant:After /s/, for example suit /suːt/\nAfter /l/, for example lute /ˈluːt/\nAfter /z/, for example Zeus /ˈzuːs/\nAfter /θ/, for example enthuse /ɛnˈθuːz/Yod-dropping in the above environments used to be considered nonstandard in England but now also occurs by educated RP-speakers.[8] (The /j/ after /s/ is not normally dropped in RP in medial positions, however: compare pursuit /pəˈsjuːt/.) In General American, yod-dropping is found not only in the above environments but also after /t/, /d/ and /n/, for example tune /ˈtuːn/, dew /ˈduː/, new /ˈnuː/The lack of yod-dropping in those contexts has occasionally been held to be a shibboleth distinguishing Canadians from Americans. However, in a survey conducted in the Golden Horseshoe area of Southern Ontario in 1994, over 80% of respondents under the age of 40 pronounced student and news without yod.[9]The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made.[10]General American thus undergoes yod-dropping after all alveolar consonants. A few accents of American English, such as working-class Southern American English, however, preserve the distinction in pairs like do/dew because, like in the Welsh English dialects discussed above, they retain a diphthong /ɪʊ̯/ in words in which RP has /juː/: /lut~lɪʊ̯t/, /du~dɪʊ̯/, etc.[10]However, in words like annual, menu, volume, Matthew, continue, etc., with a syllable break before the /j/, there is no yod-dropping. The same applies accordingly to British and other accents; the yod is often dropped after initial /l/, for example, but it is not dropped in words like volume or value. (British speakers omit the /j/ in figure, but most Americans retain it.)Additionally, there is no /j/ in British pronunciations of coupon and Pulitzer, /ˈkuːpɒn/ and /ˈpʊlɪtsə/ respectively, but many American speakers keep the yod, realizing them as /ˈkjuːpɒn/ and /ˈpjuːlɪtsər/, although Pulitzer with the pew sound is widely incorrect.[11][12]In New Zealand and to some extent Australian English, debut is mainly pronounced without the yod as /ˈdæebʉː/.[13]Yod-dropping after /t/, /d/, and /n/ was also a traditional feature of Cockney speech, which continues to be the case after /n/, but now, after /t/ and /d/, yod-coalescence is now more common.[14]Some East Anglian accents such as Norfolk dialect extend yod-dropping not only to the position after /t/, /d/ or /n/ but also to the position after nonalveolar consonants as well: pairs like beauty/booty, mute/moot, cute/coot can then be homophonous.[15] A well-known series of British television advertisements beginning in the 1980s featured Bernard Matthews, who was from Norfolk and described his turkeys as \"bootiful\" (for beautiful). Such accents pronounce a /j/ in words like \"use\", \"unit\", etc. only if there is no consonant before the /j/.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"sibilants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilant"},{"link_name":"English phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology"},{"link_name":"affrication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affrication"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"gotcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotcha_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈɡɒtʃə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈɡɒtju/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈwɒtʃə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈwɒtərjə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English_phonology"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney#Cockney_speech"},{"link_name":"Estuary English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary_English"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwean_English"},{"link_name":"Hiberno-English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English"},{"link_name":"Newfoundland English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_English"},{"link_name":"South African English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_English"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider-16"},{"link_name":"New Zealand English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"Scottish English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_English"},{"link_name":"Philippine English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_English"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"Received Pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"List of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_dialect-dependent_homophones#Yod-dropping_and_coalescence"},{"link_name":"Wiktionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionary"}],"sub_title":"Yod-coalescence","text":"Yod-coalescence is a process that fuses the clusters /dj, tj, sj, zj/ into the sibilants [dʒ, tʃ, ʃ, ʒ] respectively (for the meanings of those symbols, see English phonology). The first two are examples of affrication.Unlike yod-dropping, yod-coalescence frequently occurs with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary and so commonly occurs before unstressed syllables. For example, in educate, the /dj/ cluster would not usually be subject to yod-dropping in General American, as the /d/ is assigned to the previous syllable, but it commonly coalesces to [dʒ]. Here are a few examples of yod-coalescence universal in all English dialects:/tj/ → [tʃ] in most words ending -ture, such as nature [ˈneɪtʃəɹ]\n/dj/ → [dʒ] in soldier [ˈsoʊldʒəɹ]\n/sj/ → [ʃ] in words ending with -ssure such as pressure [ˈpɹɛʃəɹ] (also in words ending with consonant+sure, consonant+sion, -tion)\n/zj/ → [ʒ] in words ending vowel+sure such as measure [ˈmɛʒəɹ] (also vowel+sion)In some other words, the coalesced pronunciation is common in English dialects around the world, but an older non-coalesced form still exists among some speakers of standard British English:educate [ˈɛdʒʊkeɪt] (also in standard RP: [ˈɛdjʊkeɪt])\nazure [ˈæʒɚ] (also in RP [ˈæzjə])\nissue [ˈɪʃuː] (also in RP [ˈɪsjuː]), the intermediate form [ˈɪʃjuː] being also commonCoalescence can even occur across word boundaries, as in the colloquial \"gotcha\" /ˈɡɒtʃə/ (for got you /ˈɡɒtju/) and \"whatcha\" /ˈwɒtʃə/ (for what're you /ˈwɒtərjə/).In certain English accents, yod-coalescence also occurs in stressed syllables, as in tune and dune. That occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Zimbabwean English, some speakers of Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent[16] in New Zealand English, RP,[17] many speakers in Scottish English, and even some varieties of English in Asia, like Philippine English (many speakers because of the influence by the phonology of their mother languages). That results in pronunciations such as the following:dew/due [dʒuː] (RP: [djuː])\ntune [tʃuːn] (RP: [tjuːn])In certain varieties such as Australian, Ugandan, and some RP,[17] stressed [sj, zj] can also coalesce:resume [ɹəˈʒuːm] (RP: [ɹɪˈzjuːm])\nassume [əˈʃuːm] (RP: [əˈsjuːm])That can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew.Yod-coalescence has traditionally been resisted in Received Pronunciation. It has certainly become established in words of the first group listed above (nature, soldier, pressure etc.), but it is not yet universal in those of the second group (educate etc.), and it does not generally occur in those of the third group (dew, tune etc.).[18]See alsoList of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones on Wiktionary.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ɹ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant"},{"link_name":"lip rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_rounding"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophones"},{"link_name":"Doric dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_dialect_(Scotland)"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"Alexander John Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/","text":"Old and Middle English had an initial /wr/ cluster (note that /r/ does not denote [ɹ] here), hence the spelling of words like write and wrong. This was reduced to just /r/, apparently during the 17th century. An intermediate stage may have been an [r] with lip rounding.[19]As a result of this reduction, pairs of words like rap and wrap, rite and write, etc. are homophones in practically all varieties of Modern English. They remain distinct in the Doric dialect of Scots, where the wr- cluster is pronounced /vr/. Alexander John Ellis reported distinctions between wr and r in Cumbria and in several varieties of Scots in the nineteenth century.[20]Old English also had a cluster /wl/, which reduced to /l/ during Middle English. For example, the word lisp derives from Old English wlisp(ian).","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germanic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"debuccalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuccalization"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scots-online.org-23"},{"link_name":"Alexander John Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /kn/","text":"Middle English initial /kn/ is reduced in modern English to /n/, making pairs like knot/not and knight/night homophones.The /kn/ cluster was spelled cn- in Old English; this changed to kn- in Middle English, and this spelling survives in Modern English, despite the loss of the /k/ sound. Cognates in other Germanic languages usually still sound the initial /k/. For example, the Old English ancestor of knee was cnēo, pronounced /kneːo̯/, and the cognate word in Modern German is Knie, pronounced /kniː/.Most dialects of English reduced the initial cluster /kn/ to /n/ relatively recently; the change seems to have taken place in educated English during the 17th century.[21] Several German-language grammars of English from the late 17th and early 18th centuries transcribed English kn- as tn-, dn-, implying that a stage of assimilation (or perhaps debuccalization to /ʔn/) preceded that of complete reduction.[22]The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects,[23] and Alexander John Ellis recorded it in parts of the Northern English counties of Cumbria and Northumberland in the late nineteenth century.[24]","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scots-online.org-23"},{"link_name":"The Gnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gnu"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Kenny Wheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Wheeler"},{"link_name":"Gnu High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnu_High"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /ɡn/","text":"The Middle English initial cluster /ɡn/ is reduced to /n/ in Modern English. Like the reduction of /kn/, this seems to have taken place during the seventeenth century.[25] The change affected words like gnat, gnostic, gnome, etc., the spelling with gn- being retained despite the loss of the /ɡ/ sound. The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects.[23]The song The Gnu jokes about this silent g and other silent letters in English. In fact the g in gnu may always have been silent in English, since this loanword did not enter the language until the late 18th century.[26] The trumpeter Kenny Wheeler wrote a composition titled Gnu High, a pun on \"new high\".","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caribbean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_English"},{"link_name":"stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"aspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells"},{"link_name":"creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"S-cluster reductions","text":"In some types of Caribbean English, the initial clusters /sp/, /st/, and /sk/ are reduced by the loss of /s/. The following stop is then subject to regular aspiration (or devoicing of the following approximant) in its new word-initial environment. Some examples of such pronunciations are:According to Wells, these reductions occur only in the broadest creole.[27]","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"velar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal"},{"link_name":"assimilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"morpheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme"},{"link_name":"suffix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix"},{"link_name":"comparative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative"},{"link_name":"superlative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlative"},{"link_name":"split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_split"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ng-coalescence.svg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G.Bailey-29"},{"link_name":"English English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_English"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire_dialect"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_English"},{"link_name":"Derbyshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire"},{"link_name":"Welsh English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Brummie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brummie_dialect"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"Manchester dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_dialect"},{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool"},{"link_name":"Scouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouse"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield"},{"link_name":"Stoke-on-Trent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent"},{"link_name":"Potteries dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potteries_dialect"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"phonemes of standard English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology"},{"link_name":"allophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone"},{"link_name":"velar consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"minimal pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_pair"},{"link_name":"generativists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativist"},{"link_name":"underlyingly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underlying_representation"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"NG-coalescence","text":"NG-coalescence is a historical sound change by which the final cluster /nɡ/, pronounced [ŋɡ] (the /n/ being realized as a velar nasal by assimilation with the velar /ɡ/), came to be pronounced as just [ŋ] – that is, the final [ɡ] was dropped, but the velar quality of the nasal remained. The change took place in educated London speech around the end of the 16th century, and explains why there is no [ɡ] sound at the end of words like fang, sing, wrong and tongue in the standard varieties of Modern English.[28]The change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the [ŋ] pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no [ɡ] sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the [ɡ] is pronounced in most accents. The pronunciation with [ɡ] is thus possible only before a vowel; before a consonant, the only possibility is a bare [ŋ].In other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not show the effects of coalescence, and the pronunciation [ŋɡ] is retained, as in finger and angle. This means that the words finger and singer do not rhyme in most modern varieties of English, although they did in Middle English. The process of NG-coalescence might therefore be referred to as the singer–finger split.Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of EnglandSome accents, however, do not show the full effects of NG-coalescence as described above. In these accents, sing may be found with [ŋɡ], and singer may rhyme with finger.[29] This is particularly associated with English English accents in areas such as Lancashire, the West Midlands and Derbyshire, and is also present in north-east varieties of Welsh English. This includes the cities of Birmingham (see Brummie), Manchester (see Manchester dialect), Liverpool (see Scouse), Sheffield and Stoke-on-Trent (see Potteries dialect). This also occurs in a small area of Kent. As this occurs around the mining area of Kent, it might be a result of large-scale migration by miners from other more northerly coalfields to Kent in the 1920s.It is also associated with some American English accents in the New York City area.[30]On the other hand, in some accents of the west of Scotland and Ulster, NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, so that finger is pronounced /ˈfɪŋər/ (cf. Dutch vinger /ˈvɪŋər/), thus rhyming with singer (although the [ɡ] is not dropped before a stressed syllable, as in engage).It is because of NG-coalescence that /ŋ/ is now normally regarded one of the phonemes of standard English. In Middle English, the [ŋ] can be regarded as an allophone of /n/, occurring before velar consonants, but in Modern English, in view of minimal pairs such as pan–pang and sin–sing, that analysis no longer appears to hold. Nevertheless, some linguists (particularly generativists) do regard a word like sing as being underlyingly /sɪnɡ/, positing a rule that deletes [ɡ] after a nasal before a morpheme boundary, after the nasal has undergone assimilation. A problem with this view is that there are a few words in which [ŋ] is followed neither by a velar nor a morpheme boundary (such as gingham, dinghy, orangutan and Singapore for those speakers who pronounce them without [ɡ]), and some in which the [ɡ] is not deleted before a morpheme boundary (longer etc., as noted above).The above-mentioned accents which lack NG-coalescence may more easily be analyzed as lacking a phoneme /ŋ/. The same may apply to those where NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, since here a more consistent [ɡ]-deletion rule can be formulated.[31]","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weak syllables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English"},{"link_name":"-ing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-ing"},{"link_name":"syllabic [n]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant"},{"link_name":"weak vowel merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"NG-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NG-coalescence"},{"link_name":"velar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal"},{"link_name":"alveolar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_nasal"},{"link_name":"orthographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography"},{"link_name":"present participle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participle"},{"link_name":"gerund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund"},{"link_name":"spelling pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"socioeconomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"gentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentry"},{"link_name":"field sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_sports"},{"link_name":"John Gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gay"},{"link_name":"Acis and Galatea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acis_and_Galatea_(Handel)"},{"link_name":"Handel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handel"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Swift"}],"sub_title":"G-dropping","text":"G-dropping is a popular name for the feature of speech whereby /n/ is used in place of the standard /ŋ/ in weak syllables. This applies especially to the -ing ending of verbs, but also in other words such as morning, nothing, ceiling, Buckingham, etc. G-dropping speakers may pronounce this syllable as [ɪn] or [ən] (reducing to a syllabic [n] in some cases), while non-G-dropping speakers have /ɪŋ/ (/əŋ/ with the weak vowel merger) or /iŋ/.[32]Relative to the great majority of modern dialects, which have NG-coalescence, G-dropping does not involve the dropping of any sound, simply the replacement of the velar nasal with the alveolar nasal. The name derives from the apparent orthographic consequence of replacing the sound written ⟨ng⟩ with that normally written ⟨n⟩. The spelling -in' is sometimes used to indicate that a speaker uses the G-dropping pronunciation, as in makin' for making.The pronunciation with /n/ rather than /ŋ/ is a long-established one. Old English verbs had a present participle in -ende and a verbal noun (gerund) form in -ing(e). These merged into a single form, written -ing, but not necessarily spoken as such – the /n/ pronunciation may be inherited from the former distinct present participle form. The /n/ variant appears to have been fashionable generally during the 18th century, with the alternative /ɪŋ/ being adopted in educated speech around the 1820s, possibly as a spelling pronunciation.[33]Today, G-dropping is a feature of colloquial and non-standard speech of all regions, including stereotypically of Cockney, Southern American English and African American Vernacular English. Its use is highly correlated with the socioeconomic class of the speaker, with speakers of lower classes using /n/ with greater frequency. It has also been found to be more common among men than women, and less common in more formal styles of speech.[34]The fact that the /n/ pronunciation was formerly associated with certain upper-class speech is reflected in the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ (used in referring to country gentry who frequently engaged in such field sports). Further evidence that this pronunciation was once standard comes from old rhymes, as in this couplet from John Gay's 1732 pastoral Acis and Galatea, set to music by Handel:Shepherd, what art thou pursuing,\nHeedless running to thy ruin?which was presumably pronounced \"shepherd, what art thou pursuin', heedless runnin' to thy ruin\", although this would sound very odd in an opera today. Similarly, in the poetry of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), -ing forms consistently rhyme with words ending in /ɪn/, as in this verse of A Ballad on the Game of Traffic, where \"lining\" rhymes with \"fine in\":But Weston has a new-cast gown\nOn Sundays to be fine in,\nAnd, if she can but win a crown,\n'Twill just new dye the lining.","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hypercorrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercorrection"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odd-35"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/","text":"In later Middle English, the final cluster /mb/ was reduced to just /m/ (the plum-plumb merger). This affects words such as lamb and plumb, as well as derived forms with suffixes, such as lambs, lambing, plumbed, plumber.By analogy with words like these, certain other words ending in /m/, which had no historical /b/ sound, had a silent letter ⟨b⟩ added to their spelling by way of hypercorrection. Such words include limb and crumb.[35]Where the final cluster /mn/ occurred, this was reduced to /m/ (the him-hymn merger), as in column, autumn, damn, solemn. (Compare French automne, where the cluster has been reduced to /n/.) Both sounds are nonetheless still pronounced before vowels in certain derivatives, such as columnar, autumnal, damnation, solemnity.","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"Caribbean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_English"},{"link_name":"plurals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_plurals"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Generalized final cluster reduction","text":"General reduction of final consonant clusters occurs in African American Vernacular English and Caribbean English. The new final consonant may be slightly lengthened as an effect.Examples are:The plurals of test and desk may become tesses and desses by the same rule that gives plural messes from singular mess.[36][37][38][39]","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"elided","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"syllabic consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant"},{"link_name":"spelling pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"change of /ts/ to /s/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C#Later_use"},{"link_name":"soft ⟨c⟩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_C"}],"text":"When a consonant cluster ending in a stop is followed by another consonant or cluster in the next syllable, the final stop in the first syllable is often elided. This may happen within words or across word boundaries. Examples of stops that will often be elided in this way include the [t] in postman and the [d] in cold cuts or band saw.[40]Historically, similar reductions have taken place before syllabic consonants in certain words, leading to the silent ⟨t⟩ in words like castle and listen. This change took place around the 17th century. In the word often, the [t] sound later came to be re-inserted by some speakers as a spelling pronunciation.[41]An earlier reduction that took place in early Middle English was the change of /ts/ to /s/ (the sent-cent merger). This led to the modern sound of soft ⟨c⟩.","title":"Medial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epenthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthetic"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Prince–prints merger","text":"For many speakers, an epenthetic [t] is inserted in the final cluster /ns/, making it identical or very similar to the cluster /nts/. For example, the words prince and prints have come to be homophones or nearly so.The epenthesis is a natural consequence of the transition from the nasal [n] to the fricative [s]; if the raising of the soft palate (which converts a nasal to an oral sound) is completed before the release of the tongue tip (which enables a fricative sound), an intervening stop [t] naturally results.[42] The merger of /ns/ and /nts/ is not necessarily complete, however; the duration of the epenthetic [t] in /ns/ has been found to be often shorter (and the [n] longer) than in the underlying cluster /nts/.[43] Some speakers preserve a clearer distinction, with prince having [ns], and prints having [nts] or [nʔs]. The epenthesis does not occur between syllables, in words like consider.[44]","title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"elision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gim99-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gim99-45"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odd-35"},{"link_name":"Glottalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Glottalization"}],"sub_title":"Other insertions","text":"The merger of /nz/ and /ndz/ is also possible, making bans and pens sound like bands and pends. However, this is less common than the merger of /ns/ and /nts/ described above, and in rapid speech may involve the elision of the /d/ from /ndz/ rather than epenthesis in /nz/.[45]Epenthesis of a stop between a nasal and a fricative can also occur in other environments, for example:/nʃ/ may become /ntʃ/ (so pinscher is often pronounced like pincher)\n/ms/ may become /mps/ (so Samson becomes \"Sampson\", hamster becomes \"hampster\")\n/ŋs/ may become /ŋks/ (so Kingston becomes \"kinkston\")[45]Epenthesis may also happen in the cluster /ls/, which then becomes /lts/, so else rhymes with belts.An epenthetic [p] often intervenes in the cluster /mt/ in the word dreamt, making it rhyme with attempt.Some originally epenthetic consonants have become part of the established pronunciation of words. This applies, for instance, to the /b/ in words like thimble, grumble and scramble.[35]For the insertion of glottal stops before certain consonants, see Glottalization below.","title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assimilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"bilabial nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_nasal"},{"link_name":"plurals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_plurals"},{"link_name":"possessives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_possessive"},{"link_name":"verb forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_verbs"},{"link_name":"voiced consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_consonant"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Assimilation","text":"In English as in other languages, assimilation of adjacent consonants is common, particularly of a nasal with a following consonant. This can occur within or between words. For example, the /n/ in encase is often pronounced [ŋ] (becoming a velar nasal by way of assimilation with the following velar stop /k/), and the /n/ in ten men likely becomes [m], assimilating with the following bilabial nasal /m/. Other cases of assimilation also occur, such as pronunciation of the /d/ in bad boy as [b]. Voicing assimilation determines the sound of the endings -s (as in plurals, possessives and verb forms) and -ed (in verb forms): these are voiced ([z], [d]) following a voiced consonant (or vowel), but voiceless ([s], [t]) after a voiceless consonant, as in gets, knocked.[46]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"glottalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization"},{"link_name":"glottal stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stop"},{"link_name":"syllable coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda"},{"link_name":"liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"semivowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W121-47"},{"link_name":"affricate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W121-47"}],"sub_title":"Glottalization","text":"While there are many accents (such as Cockney) in which syllable-final /t/ is frequently glottalized (realized as a glottal stop, [ʔ]) regardless of what follows it, the glottaling of /t/ in clusters is a feature even of standard accents, such as RP. There, [ʔ] may be heard for /t/ in such words and phrases as quite good, quite nice, nights. More precisely, it occurs in RP when /t/ appears in the syllable coda, is preceded by a vowel, liquid or nasal, and it is followed by another consonant except (normally) a liquid or semivowel in the same word, as in mattress.[47]Another possibility is pre-glottalization (or glottal reinforcement), where a glottal stop is inserted before a syllable-final stop, rather than replacing it. That can happen before /p/, /t/ and /k/ or also before the affricate /tʃ/. It can occur in RP in the same environments as those mentioned above, without the final restriction so a glottal stop may appear before the /t/, as in mattress. It can also occur before a pause as in quite! spoken alone but not in quite easy. In the case of /tʃ/, pre-glottalization is common even before a vowel, as in teacher.[48]According to Wells, this pre-glottalization originated in the 20th century (at least, it was not recorded until then). Glottalization of /t/ spread rapidly during the 20th century.[47]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metathesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Wife of Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wife_of_Bath"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Ulster Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kperogi-50"},{"link_name":"Jamaican English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_English_language"},{"link_name":"London English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicultural_London_English"},{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"sub_title":"S-cluster metathesis","text":"Final consonant clusters starting with /s/ sometimes undergo metathesis, meaning that the order of the consonants is switched. For example, the word ask may be pronounced like \"ax\", with the /k/ and the /s/ switched.This example has a long history: the Old English verb áscian also appeared as acsian, and both forms continued into Middle English, the latter, metathesizing to \"ask\". The form axe appears in Chaucer: \"I axe, why the fyfte man Was nought housband to the Samaritan?\" (Wife of Bath's Prologue, 1386), and was considered acceptable in literary English until about 1600.[49][failed verification] It persists in some dialects of rural England as well as in Ulster Scots[50] as /ˈaks/, and in Jamaican English as /ˈaːks/, from where it has entered London English as /ˈɑːks/.S-cluster metathesis has been observed in some forms of African American Vernacular English, although it is not universal, one of the most stigmatized features of AAVE and often commented on by teachers.[36][failed verification] Examples of possible AAVE pronunciations include:","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"consonant cluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_cluster"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Gullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_language"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Merger of /str/ and /skr/","text":"For some speakers of African American Vernacular English, the consonant cluster /str/ is pronounced as /skr/. For example, the word street may be pronounced as /skrit/.[51]The form has been found to occur in Gullah and in the speech of some young African Americans born in the Southern United States. It is reported to be a highly stigmatized feature, with children who use it often being referred to speech pathologists.[52]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"AAVE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAVE"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"yod-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-dropping"},{"link_name":"yod-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-coalescence"},{"link_name":"coil–curl merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Coil%E2%80%93curl_merger"}],"sub_title":"Yod-rhotacization","text":"Yod-rhotacization is a process that occurs for some Memphis AAVE[36] speakers, where /j/ is rhotacized to [r] in consonant clusters, causing pronunciations like:Compare yod-dropping and yod-coalescence, described above (and also the coil–curl merger, which features the reverse process, /r/ → /j/).","title":"Alterations of clusters"}]
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[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made.[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Iw-uw_merger.svg/220px-Iw-uw_merger.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of England","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Ng-coalescence.svg/220px-Ng-coalescence.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Phonological history of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English"},{"title":"Phonological history of English consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants"},{"title":"Phonological history of English fricatives and affricates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_fricatives_and_affricates"},{"title":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 2005-03-20. Retrieved 2005-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050320125620/http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gimson, A. C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold Publishers. ISBN 0-7131-6287-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._C._Gimson","url_text":"Gimson, A. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London","url_text":"London"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6287-2","url_text":"0-7131-6287-2"}]},{"reference":"Ladefoged, Peter (2001). A Course in Phonetics (4th ed.). Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-15-507319-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged","url_text":"Ladefoged, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth,_Texas","url_text":"Fort Worth, Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-507319-2","url_text":"0-15-507319-2"}]},{"reference":"Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-521-22919-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells","url_text":"Wells, John C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22919-7","url_text":"0-521-22919-7"}]},{"reference":"Mees, Inger M.; Collins, Beverley (1999). \"Cardiff: A Real-time Study of Glottalisation\". In Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard (eds.). Urban Voices. Arnold. p. 192. ISBN 0-340-70608-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-70608-2","url_text":"0-340-70608-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping\". CHASS.UToronto.ca. University of Toronto. Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080229080412/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","url_text":"\"Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping\""},{"url":"http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, J. K. (1998). \"Social embedding of changes in progress\". Journal of English Linguistics. 26: 5–36. doi:10.1177/007542429802600102. S2CID 144942447.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007542429802600102","url_text":"10.1177/007542429802600102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144942447","url_text":"144942447"}]},{"reference":"Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Labov","url_text":"Labov, William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter","url_text":"Mouton de Gruyter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016746-8","url_text":"3-11-016746-8"}]},{"reference":"Duryee, Tricia (6 November 2011). \"A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word \"Coupon\"\". All Things D. Dow Jones & Company Inc.","urls":[{"url":"http://allthingsd.com/20111106/a-nation-divided-on-how-to-say-the-word-coupon/","url_text":"\"A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word \"Coupon\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"FAQ\". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. 24. How is 'Pulitzer' pronounced? The correct pronunciation is 'PULL it sir.'","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pulitzer.org/faq#q24","url_text":"\"FAQ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University","url_text":"Columbia University"}]},{"reference":"Laurie Bauer; Paul Warren (2008). \"New Zealand English: phonology\". In Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd (eds.). Varieties of English 3: The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 60. ISBN 9783110208412.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zNNCKcMml8MC&pg=PA60","url_text":"\"New Zealand English: phonology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110208412","url_text":"9783110208412"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, L.; Warren, P. (2005). \"New Zealand English: Phonology\". In Schneider, E. W. (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Vol. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110175325.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mtd3a-56ysUC&pg=PA596","url_text":"\"New Zealand English: Phonology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter","url_text":"Mouton de Gruyter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110175325","url_text":"9783110175325"}]},{"reference":"Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB, retrieved 2023-05-04","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRs103ETh2Q","url_text":"Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB"}]},{"reference":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-\". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/wr.html","url_text":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots\". Scots Online. Retrieved 21 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scots-online.org/grammar/mn_scots.php","url_text":"\"Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-\". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/kn.html","url_text":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-\""}]},{"reference":"Bailey, George (15 December 2020). \"Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes\". Journal of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-linguistics/article/abs/insertion-and-deletion-in-northern-english-ng-interacting-innovations-in-the-life-cycle-of-phonological-processes/1916323B9E65DDDAE8C272BBACEC91CA","url_text":"\"Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes\""}]},{"reference":"Liberman, Anatoly (21 October 2009). \"The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things\". OUP. Retrieved 28 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.oup.com/2009/10/dumbest_english_spellings/","url_text":"\"The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)\". www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca. March 17, 2001.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/phonology/features.htm","url_text":"\"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)\""}]},{"reference":"Kperogi, Farooq A. (2015). Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World. Peter Lang. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-4331-2926-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=opRVCwAAQBAJ&q=ax+ask","url_text":"Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-2926-1","url_text":"978-1-4331-2926-1"}]},{"reference":"Green, Lisa J. (2002). African American English : a linguistic introduction (1. publ., 4. print. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0521891387.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387","url_text":"African American English : a linguistic introduction"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387/page/122","url_text":"122"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521891387","url_text":"978-0521891387"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050320125620/http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080229080412/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","external_links_name":"\"Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping\""},{"Link":"http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007542429802600102","external_links_name":"10.1177/007542429802600102"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144942447","external_links_name":"144942447"},{"Link":"http://allthingsd.com/20111106/a-nation-divided-on-how-to-say-the-word-coupon/","external_links_name":"\"A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word \"Coupon\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.pulitzer.org/faq#q24","external_links_name":"\"FAQ\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zNNCKcMml8MC&pg=PA60","external_links_name":"\"New Zealand English: phonology\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mtd3a-56ysUC&pg=PA596","external_links_name":"\"New Zealand English: Phonology\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRs103ETh2Q","external_links_name":"Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB"},{"Link":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/wr.html","external_links_name":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-\""},{"Link":"https://www.scots-online.org/grammar/mn_scots.php","external_links_name":"\"Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots\""},{"Link":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/kn.html","external_links_name":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-\""},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gnu","external_links_name":"Merriam-Webster's dictionary"},{"Link":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-linguistics/article/abs/insertion-and-deletion-in-northern-english-ng-interacting-innovations-in-the-life-cycle-of-phonological-processes/1916323B9E65DDDAE8C272BBACEC91CA","external_links_name":"\"Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes\""},{"Link":"http://blog.oup.com/2009/10/dumbest_english_spellings/","external_links_name":"\"The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things\""},{"Link":"http://www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/phonology/features.htm","external_links_name":"\"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)\""},{"Link":"http://www.indiana.edu/~hlw/PhonProcess/accents.html","external_links_name":"HLW: Word Forms: Processes: English Accents"},{"Link":"http://courses.essex.ac.uk/lg/lg449/AAVEfeatureList.htm","external_links_name":"List of AAVE features contrasting with MUSE"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060622200047/http://courses.essex.ac.uk/lg/lg449/AAVEfeatureList.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/ebonics/EbonicsExamples.html","external_links_name":"Ebonics Notes and Discussion"},{"Link":"http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/08/some-day-my-prints-will-come.html","external_links_name":"\"Some day my prints will come\""},{"Link":"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ask&allowed_in_frame=0","external_links_name":"Ask"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=opRVCwAAQBAJ&q=ax+ask","external_links_name":"Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387","external_links_name":"African American English : a linguistic introduction"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387/page/122","external_links_name":"122"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ship_missile
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Anti-ship missile
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["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Comparison","4 Threat posed","4.1 Current threats and vulnerabilities","5 Countermeasures","6 References","7 External links"]
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Missile used to attack ships
RGM-84 Harpoon firing from USS Leahy in 1983
Martel guided anti-ship missile
The MBDA Exocet anti-ship missile under a Dassault Rafale
BrahMos, a supersonic cruise missile, capable of being launched from multiple platforms.
An anti-ship missile (AShM or ASM) is a guided missile that is designed for use against ships and large boats. Most anti-ship missiles are of the sea-skimming variety, and many use a combination of inertial guidance and active radar homing. A large number of other anti-ship missiles use infrared homing to follow the heat that is emitted by a ship; it is also possible for anti-ship missiles to be guided by radio command all the way.
The first anti-ship missiles, which were developed and built by Nazi Germany, used radio command guidance. These saw some success in the Mediterranean Theatre during 1943–44, sinking or heavily damaging at least 31 ships with the Henschel Hs 293 and more than seven with the Fritz X, including the Italian battleship Roma and the light cruiser USS Savannah. A variant of the HS 293 had a TV camera/transmitter on board. The bomber carrying it could then fly outside the range of naval anti-aircraft guns and use visual guidance via the bombardier to lead the missile to its target by radio control.
Many anti-ship missiles can be launched from a variety of weapons systems including surface warships (also referred to as ship-to-ship missiles), submarines, bombers, fighter planes, patrol planes, helicopters, shore batteries, land vehicles, and, conceivably, even infantrymen firing shoulder-launched missiles. The term surface-to-surface missile (SSM) is used when appropriate. The longer-range anti-ship missiles are often called anti-ship cruise missiles.
Etymology
Both "AShM" and “ASM” are utilized interchangeably as an acronym for "anti-ship missile." "AShM" may be the preferred acronym when confusion with "air-to-surface missile" (commonly abbreviated as "ASM") may occur.
History
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Anti-ship missiles were among the first instances of short-range guided weapons during the Second World War in 1943–1944. The German Luftwaffe used the Hs 293, the Fritz X, as well as others missiles, launched from its bombers, with deadly effect against some Allied ships. The first ship sunk by a guided missile was HMS Egret on 27 August 1943, at the Bay of Biscay, other ships targeted were the British troop carrier HMT Rohna, sunk with heavy loss of life and the United States Navy light cruiser USS Savannah off Salerno, Italy, being seriously damaged. These all used radio command-guidance from the bombardiers of the warplanes that launched them. Some of these hit and either sank or damaged a number of ships, including warships offshore of amphibious landings on western Italy. These radio-controlled missiles were used successfully until the Allied navies developed missile countermeasures—principally radio jamming. The Allies also developed some of their own similar radio-guided AShMs, starting with the US Navy's SWOD-9 Bat – the first autonomously guided, radar-homing anti-ship weapon deployed worldwide, being deployed against the Japanese in April 1945 – but the Bat saw little use in combat, partly from its own late-war deployment date leaving few Axis ships remaining as targets.
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union turned to a sea-denial strategy concentrating on submarines, naval mines and the AShM. One of the first products of the decision was the SS-N-2 Styx missile. Further products were to follow, and they were soon loaded onto the Soviet Air Force's Tu-95 Bear and Tu-22 Blinder bombers, in the case of the air-launched KS-1 Komet.
P-15 unloaded from missile tube aboard the USNS Hiddensee
In 1967, the Israeli Navy's destroyer Eilat was the first ship to be sunk by a ship-launched missile—a number of Styx missiles launched by Egyptian Komar-class missile boats off the Sinai Peninsula.
In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 the Indian Navy conducted two raids using Osa-class missile boats employing the Styx on the Pakistani naval base at Karachi. These raids resulted in the destruction or crippling of approximately two thirds of the Pakistani Navy. Major losses included two destroyers, a fleet oiler, an ammunition ship, approximately a dozen merchant ships, and numerous smaller craft. Major shore-based facilities, including fuel storage tanks and naval installations were also destroyed. The Osas returned to base without loss.
The Battle of Latakia in 1973 (during the Yom Kippur/Ramadan War) was the scene of the world's first combat between missile boats. In this battle, the Israeli Navy destroyed Syrian warships without suffering any damage, using electronic countermeasures and ruses for defense. After defeating the Syrian Navy the Israeli missile boats also sank a number of Egyptian warships, again without suffering any damage in return, thus achieving total naval supremacy for the rest of the war.
Anti-ship missiles were used in the 1982 Falklands War. The British warship HMS Sheffield, a Type 42 destroyer, was struck by a single air-launched Exocet and later sank as a result of the damage. The container ship Atlantic Conveyor was hit by two Exocets and burnt out and subsequently sank while under tow. HMS Glamorgan was damaged when she was struck by an MM38, a ship-launched version of the Exocet, fired from a launcher taken from the Argentine Navy destroyer ARA Comodoro Seguí and mounted on a trailer by Navy technicians, but she had taken evasive action that limited the damage.
In 1987, a US Navy guided-missile frigate, USS Stark, was hit by an Exocet anti-ship missile fired by an Iraqi Mirage F-1 fighter plane. Stark was damaged, but she was able to steam to a friendly port for temporary repairs.
In October 1987, Sungari, an American-owned tanker steaming under the Liberian flag, and Sea Isle City, a Kuwaiti tanker steaming under the American flag, were hit by Iranian HY-2 missiles.
In 1988 AShMs were fired by both American and Iranian forces in Operation Praying Mantis in the Persian Gulf. During this naval battle, several Iranian warships were hit by American AShMs (and by the US Navy's Standard missiles—surface-to-air missiles which were doing double-duty in the anti-ship role). The US Navy hit the Iranian Navy frigate Sahand with three Harpoon missiles, four AGM-123 Skipper rocket-propelled bombs, a Walleye TV-guided bomb, and several 1,000 lb (454 kg) "iron bombs". Despite the large number of munitions and successful hits, Sahand did not sink until fire reached her ammunition magazine, causing it to detonate, sinking the vessel. In the same engagement, American warships fired three Standard missiles at an Iranian Navy corvette. This corvette had such a low profile above the water that a Harpoon missile that arrived several minutes later could not lock onto it with its targeting radars.
In 2006, Lebanese Hezbollah fighters fired an AShM at the Israeli corvette INS Hanit, inflicting battle damage, but this warship managed to return to Israel in one piece and under its own power. A second missile in this same salvo struck and sank an Egyptian merchant ship.
R-360 Neptune guided anti-ship missile
On 13 April 2022, the Ukrainian government claimed to have hit the Russian cruiser Moskva with two R-360 Neptune missiles, resulting in the sinking of the Moskva. The Russian government did not confirm the attack, but admitted that the ship sank after a fire. If Ukrainian claims are true, Moskva might be the largest warship ever disabled or destroyed by a missile, according to Carl Schuster, a retired US Navy captain and former director of operations at the US Pacific Command's Joint Intelligence Center.
Comparison
See also: List of anti-ship missiles
Name
Year
Weight
Warhead
Range
Speed
Propulsion
Launch platform
Guidance
Force
Comments
Zircon
Expected for (2018- 2020)
Size 4 pcs instead of 1 P-700 for 1 launcher
300–400 kg(660–880 lb)conventional or nuclear
400 km(220 nmi) (export) >1,000 km(540 nmi) (domestic)
Minimum 4700 km/h (Mach 5 to 6) potentially up to Mach 8
Liquid fuel scramjet
Surface, submarine
?
Russia
3M-54E Klub (SS-N-27 "Sizzler")
2006
2,300 kg(5,100 lb)
200 kg(440 lb)
220 km(120 nmi)
0.8 M, 2.5/2.9M
Turbojet
Surface, sub, shipping container
Inertial, active radar
Russia
3M-54E1 Klub (SS-N-27 "Sizzler")
2006
1,780 kg(3,920 lb)
400 kg(880 lb)
300 km(160 nmi)
0.8 M, 2.5/2.9M
Turbojet
Surface, sub, shipping container
Inertial, active radar
Russia
3M-54 Kalibr (SS-N-27 "Sizzler")
1993
1,300 kg(2,900 lb)
200 kg(440 lb)
660 km(360 nmi)
0.8 M, 2.5/2.9M
Turbojet
Surface, sub, shipping container
Inertial, active radar
Russia
Used in combat
P-1000 Vulkan
1985
6,300 kg(13,900 lb)
500 kg(1,100 lb)
700 and 1000 (appx.) km (or 800 km)
3,825 km/h (2,065 kn)
Solid-fuel ramjet
Surface
Inertial, active radar homing/anti radar, mid course correction
USSR/Russia
P-800 Oniks (SS-N-26)
1983
3,000 kg(6,600 lb)
250 kg(550 lb)
800 km(430 nmi) (Oniks-M) 600 km (320 nmi) (Domestic version for Russia)
3,600 km/h (1,900 kn)
Ramjet
Surface, air
Active-passive, radar
Russia
P-700 Granit
1980
7,000 kg(15,000 lb)
750 kg(1,650 lb)
625 km(337 nmi)
2,550 km/h (1,380 kn)
Solid-fuel ramjet
Surface
Inertial, active radar homing/anti radar, mid course correction
USSR/Russia
P-500 Bazalt (SS-N-12 SANDBOX)
1975
4,500 kg(9,900 lb)
1000 kg / 350 kt nuclear
550 km(300 nmi)
3,060 km/h (1,650 kn)
Liquid fuel rocket
Surface, submarine
Semi-active, terminal active radar
USSR
P-270 Moskit (SS-N-22 SUNBURN)
1970
4,500 kg(9,900 lb)
320 kg(710 lb)
120 km(65 nmi)
3,600 km/h (1,900 kn)
Ramjet
Surface, air
Active radar, infrarred
USSR
P-120 Malakhit (SS-N-9 SIREN)
1972
2,953 kg(6,510 lb)
500 kg(1,100 lb)
110 km(59 nmi)
Mach 0.9
Turbojet, solid fuel
Surface
Inertial, mid course correction, active radar
USSR
Used in combat
P-70 Ametist (SS-N-7 STARBRIGHT)
1968
3,500 kg(7,700 lb)
500 kg(1,100 lb)
65 km(35 nmi)
1,050 km/h (570 kn)
Solid rocket
Sub
Inertial, terminal homing
USSR
P-15 Termit (SS-N-2 STYX)
1958
3,100 kg(6,800 lb)
454 kg(1,001 lb)
80 km(43 nmi)
1,100 km/h (590 kn)
Liquid fuel rocket
Surface
Active radar, infrarred
USSR
Used in combat
P-5 Pyatyorka (SS-N-3 "Shaddock")
1959
5,000 kg(11,000 lb)
1,000 kg(2,200 lb)
750 km(400 nmi)
1,000 km/h (540 kn)
Turbojet
Surface
Inertial, mid course correction, active radar
USSR
Kh-15 (AS-16 Kickback)
1988
1,200 kg(2,600 lb)
150 kg conventional/nuclear
300 km(160 nmi)
6,125 km/h (3,307 kn)
Solid-fuel rocket
Air
Inertial/Active radar
USSR/Russia
Kh-55
1984
1,700 kg(3,700 lb)
410 kg(900 lb) conventional/200 kt nuclear
300 km(160 nmi)
828 km/h (447 kn)
Turbofan
Air
Radar inertial, tERCOM, infrared
USSR/Russia
Kh-35 (AS-20 KAYAK)
1983
520 kg(1,150 lb)
145 kg(320 lb)
130 km(70 nmi)
970 km/h (520 kn)
Turbofan
Surface, air
Inertial, active radar
USSR/Russia/North Korea
Kh-22 (AS-4 Kitchen)
1962
5,820 kg(12,830 lb)
1000 kg conventional/nuclear
400 km(220 nmi)
4,000 km/h (2,200 kn)
Liquid-fuel rocket
Air
Inertial
USSR/Russia
KSShch (SS-N-1 "Scrubber")
1958
2,300 kg(5,100 lb)
Nuclear
40 km(22 nmi)
1,150 km/h (620 kn)
Liquid-fuel rocket
Surface
Inertial
USSR
SM-6
2013
1,500 kg(3,300 lb)
64 kg(141 lb)
370 km(200 nmi)
4,287.7 km/h (2,315.2 kn)
two stage/solid rocket booster
surface ships, transporter erector launcher
Inertial guidance, active radar homing, semi active radar homing
United States
(The anti-ship version will enter service in 2023.)
AGM-158C LRASM
2013 / 2018
~900 kg
450 kg
370–560 km(200–300 nmi)
High subsonic
Turbojet
Air, ship
Passive radar and infrared homing
United States
AGM-123 Skipper II
1985
582 kg(1,283 lb)
450 kg(990 lb)
25 km(13 nmi)
1,100 km/h (590 kn)
Solid-fueled
Air
Laser-guided
United States
Used in combat
BGM-109 Tomahawk
1983
1,200 kg(2,600 lb)
450 kg(990 lb)
1,666 km(900 nmi) (Block V)
880 km/h (480 kn)
Turbofan
Air, surface, submarine
GPS, TERCOM, DSMAC
United States
(Previous anti-ship version withdrawn from service in 1994, new anti-ship version will enter service in 2023.)
Harpoon
1977
691 kg(1,523 lb)
221 kg(487 lb)
280 km(150 nmi)
864 km/h (467 kn)
Turbojet engine
Air, surface, submarine
Radar (B3: midcourse update)
United States
Used in combat
AGM-65F Maverick
1972
300 kg(660 lb)
140 kg(310 lb)
30 km(16 nmi)
1,150 km/h (620 kn)
Solid propellant
Air
Laser, infrarred
United States
Used in combat
Bat
1944
1,000 kg(2,200 lb)
727 kg(1,603 lb)
37 km(20 nmi)
260–390 km/h (140–210 kn)
None
Air
Active radar
United States
Used in combat
MMP
2017
15 kg(33 lb)
?
5 km(2.7 nmi)
?
Solid propellant
Surface
Infrared
France
ANL/Sea Venom
2017
120 kg
(260 lb)
30 kg(66 lb)
20 km(11 nmi)
1,040.4 km/h (561.8 kn))
Two‐stage solid‐propellant rocket motor
Air (helicopter)
Air/Surface
Infrared
France/United Kingdom
AS.34 Kormoran
1991
630 kg(1,390 lb)
220 kg(490 lb)
35 km(19 nmi)
1,101 km/h (594 kn)
Rocket
Air
Inertial, active radar
France/Germany
AS.15TT/MM.15
1985
96 kg(212 lb)
30 kg(66 lb)
15 km(8.1 nmi)
1,008 km/h (544 kn)
Solid propellant
Air
Inertial
France
ARMAT
1984
550 kg(1,210 lb)
160 kg(350 lb)
120 km(65 nmi)
1,100 km/h (590 kn)
Solid propellant
Air
Passive radar
France
Otomat/Milas
1977
770 kg(1,700 lb)
210 kg(460 lb)
360 km(190 nmi) (min.)
1,116 km/h (603 kn)
Turbojet
Surface, air
Inertial, GPS, active radar
France/Italy
Exocet
1975
670 kg(1,480 lb)
165 kg(364 lb)
180 km(97 nmi)
1,134 km/h (612 kn)
Solid propellant (Block 1, block 2), turbojet (Block 3)
Air, surface, submarine
Inertial, active radar
France
Used in combat
AS.37/AJ.168 Martel
1970
550 kg(1,210 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
60 km(32 nmi)
1,070 km/h (580 kn)
Solid propellant
Air
Passive radar, TV
France/United Kingdom
Used in combat
Malafon
1966
1,330 kg(2,930 lb)
?
13 km(7.0 nmi)
808 km/h (436 kn)
Solid propellant
Ship, surface
MCLOS (radio link)
France
SS.12/AS.12
1960
76 kg(168 lb)
28 kg(62 lb)
7 km(3.8 nmi)
370 km/h (200 kn)
Solid-fueled
Air, surface
Wire-guided MCLOS
France
Used in combat
Malaface
1954
1,430 kg(3,150 lb)
700 kg(1,500 lb)
40 km(22 nmi)
808 km/h (436 kn)
Solid propellant
Surface
MCLOS (radio link)
France
BHT-38
1940
160 kg(350 lb)
?
?
?
None (glide bomb)
Air
MCLOS (radio link)
France
Sea Eagle
1985
580 kg(1,280 lb)
230 kg(510 lb)
110 km(59 nmi) (min.)
1,000 km/h (540 kn)
Turbojet
Air
Inertial, active radar
United Kingdom
Sea Skua
1983
145 kg(320 lb)
28 kg(62 lb)
25 km(13 nmi)
950 km/h (510 kn)
Solid fuel
Air
Semi-active radar
United Kingdom
Used in combat
RBS-15
1985
800 kg(1,800 lb)
200 kg(440 lb)
200 km(110 nmi)
1,101 km/h (594 kn)
Turbojet
Air, surface
Inertial, GPS, radar
Sweden
RB 08
1966
?
?
70 km(38 nmi)
Subsonic
Turbojet
Surface
Radio link active radar
Sweden/France
RB 04
1962
600 kg(1,300 lb)
300 kg(660 lb)
32 km(17 nmi)
Subsonic
Solid propellant
Air
Active radar
Sweden
Naval Strike Missile
2009
410 kg(900 lb)
125 kg(276 lb)
250 km(130 nmi)
High subsonic
Turbojet and solid fuel booster
Air, surface
Inertial, GPS, terrain-reference, imaging IR, target database
Norway
Penguin
1972
385 kg(849 lb)
130 kg(290 lb)
55 km(30 nmi) (min.)
1,468 km/h (793 kn)
Solid propellant
Air, surface, submarine
Inertial, laser, infrarred
Norway
Fritz X
1943
1,362 kg(3,003 lb)
320 kg(710 lb)
5 km(2.7 nmi)
1,235 km/h (667 kn)
None (glide bomb)
Air
Manual (radio link)
Germany
Used in combat
Henschel Hs 293
1943
1,045 kg(2,304 lb)
295 kg(650 lb)
5 km(2.7 nmi)
828 km/h (447 kn)
Liquid-propellant, then gliding
Air
MCLOS (radio link)
Germany
Used in combat
Blohm & Voss BV 246
1943
730 kg(1,610 lb)
435 kg(959 lb)
210 km(110 nmi)
450 km/h (240 kn)
None (glide bomb)
Air
Manual (radio link)
Germany
RK-360MC Neptune
2021
870 kg(1,920 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
300 km(160 nmi)
Subsonic
Turbofan
Ground based TEL
?
Ukraine
Used in combat
BrahMos-II
2024+
?
?
1,000 km(540 nmi) 400 km(220 nmi)(export version)
6,125–8,575 km/h (3,307–4,630 kn)
Scramjet
Ship, surface, air, submarine
?
India/Russia
BrahMos
2006
2,500 kg(5,500 lb) (air), 3,000 kg(6,600 lb) (ground)
300 kg(660 lb)
290 km(160 nmi)(Export version) 400 km(220 nmi)(air-launched version) 700 km(380 nmi)(surface-launched version)
3,675 km/h (1,984 kn)
Ramjet
Ship, surface, air, submarine
Inertial, active radar
India/Russia
Çakır (missile)
2023
275–330 kg(606–728 lb)
70 kg(150 lb)
150–200 km(81–108 nmi)
919–1,040 km/h (496–562 kn)
Turbojet
Ship, surface, air
Inertial, IIR, RF, Hybrid (IIR+RF)
Turkey
Atmaca
2017
750 kg(1,650 lb)
220 kg(490 lb)
250 km(130 nmi)+280 km(150 nmi) (KARA Atmaca)
1,042 km/h (563 kn)
Turbojet
Ship, surface, air
Inertial/GPS+RA+DL+IIR
Turkey
SOM (missile)
2006
600 kg(1,300 lb)
230 kg(510 lb)
SOM-A:250 km (160 mi) SOM-J:185 km (115 mi)
1,153 km/h (623 kn)
Turbojet
Air
Inertial / GPS, terrain referenced navigation, automatic target recognition, imaging infrared
Turkey
XASM-3
2016
940 kg(2,070 lb)
?
150 km(81 nmi)(original version)400 km(220 nmi)(extended range)
3,707 km/h (2,002 kn)
Ramjet
Air
Inertial / GPS, mid-course correction, active/passive radar
Japan
Type 12
2015
700 kg(1,500 lb)
?
200 km(110 nmi)(original version)400 km(220 nmi)(ship/air-launched and improved version)900 km(490 nmi)(upgrade in development)1,500 km(810 nmi)(future version)
?
Turbojet
Ship, TEL, Air
Inertial, GPS, AESA
Japan
Type 93
1993
530 kg(1,170 lb)
?
170 km(92 nmi)
?
Turbojet
Air
Inertial and IR Image
Japan
Type 91
1991
510 kg(1,120 lb)
260 kg(570 lb)
150 km(81 nmi)
?
Turbojet
Air
Inertial, mid course correction, active radar
Japan
Type 80
1982
600 kg(1,300 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
50 km(27 nmi)
?
Turbojet
Air
Infarred
Japan
Ohka
1943
2,140 kg(4,720 lb)
1,200 kg(2,600 lb)
36 km(19 nmi)
630 km/h (340 kn)
Solid-propellant
Air
Manned (suicide attack)
Japan
Used in combat
Hsiung Feng III
2007
1,470 kg(3,240 lb)
?
400 km(220 nmi)
3,062 km (1,653 nmi)
Ramjet
Ship, surface, air
Inertial / Active radar
Taiwan
Hsiung Feng IIE
2011
1,600 kg(3,500 lb)
?
600–2,000 km(320–1,080 nmi)
1,041 km (562 nmi)
Solid-fuel rocket
Ship, surface, air
Inertial/GPS/TERCOM
Taiwan
Hsiung Feng II
1990
685 kg(1,510 lb)
180 kg(400 lb)
20–250 km(11–135 nmi)
1,041 km (562 nmi)
Solid-fuel rocket
Ship, surface, air
Inertial midflight / Dual active radar plus infrared homing
Taiwan
Hsiung Feng I
1978-2012
537.5 kg(1,185 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
40 km(22 nmi)
833 km (450 nmi)
Solid-fuel rocket
Ship, surface, air
Inertial / Radar beam riding plus terminal semi-active homing
Taiwan
Gabriel
1962
522 kg(1,151 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
60 km(32 nmi)
840 km/h (450 kn)
Solid-fuel rocket
Air, surface
Active radar
Israel
Used in combat
Hae Sung-I (SSM-700K)
2005
718 kg(1,583 lb)
300 kg(660 lb)
150 km(81 nmi)
1,013 km/h (547 kn)
Turbojet
Ship, surface
Inertial, active radar
South Korea
Noor
2005
750 kg(1,650 lb)
165 kg(364 lb)
30–220 km(16–119 nmi)
1,110–1,728 km/h (599–933 kn)
Turbojet engine
Air, Surface, Ship
Inertial, Active radar homing
Iran
Used in combat
Zafar
2012
120 kg(260 lb)
30 kg(66 lb)
25 km(13 nmi)
0.8 M
Turbojet
Surface, Ship
Active radar
Iran
P15 & Silkworm KN1
?
?
?
?
?
Turbofan
Surface, coastal
Inertial, active radar
North Korea/USSR/Russia
MANSUP
2009
380 kg(840 lb)
250 kg(550 lb)
74–100 km(40–54 nmi)
870 km/h (470 kn)
Solid-fuel rocket
Ship, surface
Inertial, active radar
Brazil
MANSUP-ER
2023
380 kg(840 lb)
250 kg(550 lb)
200 km(110 nmi)
950 km/h (510 kn)
Turbofan
Ship, surface
Inertial, active radar
Brazil
NASM-SR
Expected for 2024
375 kg(827 lb)
100 kg(220 lb)
55 km(30 nmi)
980 km/h (530 kn)
Solid-fuel rocket
Air
Inertial, satellite guidance, IIR
India
Naval anti ship missile -MR
Expected for 2025
750 kg(1,650 lb)
150 kg(330 lb)
150–250 km(81–135 nmi)
980 km/h (530 kn)
Solid-fuel rocket
Air
Inertial, satellite guidance, IIR
India
ITCM
2023
1,450 kg(3,200 lb)
200–300 kg(440–660 lb)
1,000 km(540 nmi)
1,110 km/h (600 kn)
Turbofan
Ship, Surface, Air, Submarine
Inertial, satellite guidance, IIR
India
Threat posed
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Anti-ship missile" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Video of P-1000 Vulkan missile destroying a target ship
Anti-ship missiles are a significant threat to surface ships, which have large radar, radio, and thermal signatures that are difficult to suppress. Once acquired, a ship cannot outrun or out-turn a missile, the warhead of which can inflict significant damage. To counter the threat posed, the modern surface combatant has to either avoid being detected, destroy the missile launch platform before it fires its missiles, or decoy or destroy all of the incoming missiles.
Modern navies have spent much time and effort developing counters to the threat of anti-ship missiles since the Second World War. Anti-ship missiles have been the driving force behind many aspects of modern ship design, especially in navies that operate aircraft carriers.
The first layer of antimissile defense by a modern, fully equipped aircraft carrier task force is always the long-range missile-carrying fighter planes of the aircraft carrier itself. Several fighters are kept on combat air patrol (CAP) 24 hours a day, seven days a week when at sea, and many more are put aloft when the situation warrants, such as during wartime or when a threat to the task force is detected.
These fighters patrol up to hundreds of miles away from the task force and they are equipped with airborne radar systems. When spotting an approaching aircraft on a threatening flight profile, it is the responsibility of the CAP to intercept it before any missile is launched. If this cannot be achieved in time, the missiles themselves can be targeted by the fighters's own weapons systems, usually their air-to-air missiles, but in extremis, by their rapid-fire cannon.
However, some AShMs might "leak" past the task force's fighter defenses. In addition, many modern warships operate independently of carrier-based air protection and they must provide their own defenses against missiles and aircraft. Under these circumstances, the ships themselves must utilize multilayered defenses which have been built into them.
For example, some warships, such as the US Navy's Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers, the Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyers, and the Royal Navy's Type 45 guided missile destroyer, use a combination of radar systems, integrated computer fire-control systems, and agile surface-to-air missiles (SAM) to simultaneously track, engage, and destroy several incoming anti-ship missiles or hostile warplanes at a time.
The primary American defensive system, called the Aegis Combat System, is also used by the navies of Japan, Spain, Norway, South Korea, and Australia. The Aegis system has been designed to defend against mass attacks by hostile anti-ship missiles or warplanes.
Any missiles that can elude the interception by medium-ranges SAM missiles can then be either deceived with electronic countermeasures or decoys; shot down by short-range missiles such as the Sea Sparrow or the Rolling Airframe Missile (RAM); engaged by the warship's main gun armament (if present); or, as a last resort, destroyed by a close-in weapon system (CIWS), such as the American Phalanx CIWS, Russian Kashtan CIWS, or the Dutch Goalkeeper CIWS.
Current threats and vulnerabilities
To counter these defense systems, countries such as Russia are developing or deploying missiles that slowly cruise at a very low level (about five meters above sea level) to within a short range of their target and then, at the point when radar detection becomes inevitable, initiate a supersonic, high-agility sprint (potentially with anti-aircraft missile detection and evasion) to close the terminal distance. Missiles, such as the SS-N-27 Sizzler, that incorporate this sort of threat modality are regarded by US Navy analysts as potentially being able to penetrate the US Navy's defensive systems.
Recent years have seen a growing amount of attention being paid to the possibility of ballistic missiles being re-purposed or designed for an anti-ship role. Speculation has focused on the development of such missiles for use by China's People's Liberation Army Navy. Such an anti-ship ballistic missile would approach its target extremely rapidly, making it very difficult to intercept.
Countermeasures
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See also: Countermeasure
Countermeasures against anti-ship missiles include:
surface-to-air missiles such as the:
Russian Navy's:
9K33 Osa (SA-N-4 Gecko),
9M330 Tor (SA-N-9 Gauntlet),
9M311 (SA-N-11),
9M38 Buk (SA-N-12 Grizzly),
The US Navy's:
RIM-7 Sea Sparrow,
RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile,
Standard missile,
The Royal Navy's:
Sea Wolf,
Sea Dart,
Sea Viper
On February 25, 1991, during the first Gulf War, the Phalanx-equipped USS Jarrett was a few miles from USS Missouri and the destroyer HMS Gloucester. The ships were attacked by an Iraqi Silkworm missile (often referred to as the Seersucker), at which Missouri fired its SRBOC chaff. The Phalanx system on Jarrett, operating in the automatic target-acquisition mode, fixed upon Missouri's chaff, releasing a burst of rounds. From this burst, four rounds hit Missouri which was two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 km) from Jarrett at the time. There were no injuries. A Sea Dart missile was then launched from HMS Gloucester, which destroyed the Iraqi missile, achieving the first successful engagement of a missile by a missile during combat at sea.
Close-in weapon systems (CIWS), including the Soviet-or Russian-made AK-630 or Kashtan, German Millennium Gun or the Phalanx and Goalkeeper. These are automated gun systems mounted on the deck of a ship that use radar to track the approaching missile, and then attempt to shoot it down during its final approach to the target.
Anti-aircraft guns such as the Mk 45 5-inch (127 mm) naval gun or the AK-130
Electronic warfare equipment (such as AN/SLQ-32 Electronic Warfare Suite)
Decoy systems (such as chaff, the US Navy's Mark 36 SRBOC system), and flares, or more active decoys such as the Nulka
Modern stealth ships – or ships that at least employ some stealth technology – to reduce the risk of detection and to make them a harder target for the missile itself. These passive countermeasures include:
reduction of their radar cross section (RCS) and hence radar signature.
limit a ship's infrared and acoustic signature.
Examples of these include the Norwegian Skjold-class patrol boat, the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the German Sachsen-class frigate, the US Navy's Zumwalt-class destroyer and Arleigh Burke-class destroyer, their Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force's close counterparts in Aegis warships, the Atago-class destroyer, and the Kongo-class destroyer, the Chinese Type 054 frigate and the Type 052C destroyer, Russian Navy's Admiral Gorshkov-class frigate and Steregushchiy-class corvette, the Indian Shivalik-class frigate, Kolkata-class destroyer and Visakhapatnam-class destroyer, the French La Fayette-class frigate, the FREMM multipurpose frigate and the Royal Navy's Type 45 destroyer.
In response to China's development of anti-ship missiles and other anti-access/area denial capabilities, the United States has developed the AirSea Battle doctrine.
References
^ "Ship-based Weapon Complex System - BrahMos.com". www.brahmos.com. Retrieved 2024-02-24.
^ Ronald O'Rourke (10 November 2022). "China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities—Background and Issues for Congress". Congressional Research Service. p. 14. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 2024-04-30. ...a supersonic Anti-Ship Missile (AShM)
^ Peter Ong (27 August 2021). "Will The U.S. Navy Replace The Destroyers' Harpoon Anti-Ship Missiles With Naval Strike Missiles?". Naval News. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 2024-04-30. ...the aging Harpoon Anti-Ship missiles (ASM)
^ "Bomb, Guided, Fritz X (X-1)". National Air and Space Museum.
^ Ronald O'Rourke (10 November 2022). "China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities—Background and Issues for Congress". Congressional Research Service. p. 14. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. Retrieved 2024-04-30. ...a supersonic Anti-Ship Missile (AShM)
^ Peter Ong (27 August 2021). "Will The U.S. Navy Replace The Destroyers' Harpoon Anti-Ship Missiles With Naval Strike Missiles?". Naval News. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 2024-04-30. ...the aging Harpoon Anti-Ship missiles (ASM)
^ Ford, Roger (2013). Germany's Secret Weapons of World War II. London, United Kingdom: Amber Books. p. 224. ISBN 9781909160569.
^ "An interview with CL (R) Ing. Julio Pérez, chief designer of Exocet trailer-based launcher" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on March 2, 2008.
^ Bradley Peniston. "Photos of Sahand on fire". Navybook.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
^ "Russian warship: Moskva sinks in Black Sea". BBC News. 15 April 2022. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
^ Lendon, Brad (14 April 2022). "Russian navy evacuates badly damaged flagship in Black Sea. Ukraine claims it was hit by a missile". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
^ "Крейсер "Адмирал Нахимов" получит гиперзвуковые ракеты" (in Russian). 26 October 2015. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
^ "Russia has created an 'unstoppable' 4,600mph missile". 27 March 2017. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
^ a b "Russia's hypersonic Zircon missile to go into serial production in 2018". Archived from the original on 2016-05-23. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
^ "Для гиперзвуковых крылатых ракет в России создано принципиально новое топливо". vesti.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2017-05-29. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
^ "На испытаниях российская ракета "Циркон" достигла восьми скоростей звука". vesti.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2017-04-15. Retrieved 2017-04-15.
^ "Никому в мире и не снилось: почему ракете "Вулкан" до сих пор нет равных на планете" (in Russian). Tvzvezda.ru. 2018-01-01. Archived from the original on 2018-09-16. Retrieved 2018-11-21.
^ "LRASM / Long Range Anti-Ship Missile". Archived from the original on 2010-12-06. Retrieved 2010-11-14.
^ "Arming New Platforms Will Push Up Value Of Missiles Market". Archived from the original on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
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^ "ATMACA ANTI-SHIP MISSILE – Roketsan". Archived from the original on 2021-02-05. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
^ "Grupo EDGE apresenta o míssil antinavio MANSUP-ER no Dubai Air Show". Poder Naval (in Portuguese). 14 November 2023.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anti-ship missiles.
Warship Vulnerability (tabulated shipping losses)
List of SSSR/Russian anti-ship missiles
vteTypes of missileBy platform
Air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM)
Air-launched cruise missile (ALCM)
Air-to-air missile (AAM)
Air-to-surface missile (ASM)
Ballistic missile
Cruise missile
Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM)
Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM)
Shoulder-fired missile
Standoff missile
Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
Submarine-launched cruise missile (SLCM)
Surface-to-air missile (SAM)
Surface-to-surface missile (SSM)
By target type
Anti-ballistic missile (ABM)
Anti-radiation missile (ARM)
Anti-satellite weapon (ASAT)
Anti-ship ballistic missile (ASBM)
Anti-ship missile (AShM)
Anti-submarine missile (ASuM)
Anti-tank missile (ATGM)
Land-attack missile (LAM)
Man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS)
By guidance
Unguided
Radar guidance
Radar altimeter
Active radar homing (ARH)
Semi-active radar homing (SARH)
Passive radar
Passive homing
Track-via-missile (TVM)
Anti-radiation
Command guidance
Command to line-of-sight (CLOS)
Command off line of sight (COLOS)
Manual command to line of sight (MCLOS)
Semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS)
Automatic command to line of sight (ACLOS)
Pursuit guidance
Beam riding (LOSBR)
Infrared guidance
Laser guidance
Wire guidance
Satellite guidance
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GLONASS
Inertial guidance
Astro-inertial guidance
Terrestrial guidance
TERCOM
DSMAC
Automatic target recognition (ATR)
Radio guidance
TV guidance
Contrast seeker
Compass
Predicted line of sight (PLOS)
Lists
List of military rockets
List of missiles
List of missiles by country
List of anti-ship missiles
List of anti-tank missiles
List of ICBMs
List of surface-to-air missiles
See also: Sounding rocket
|
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[1]An anti-ship missile (AShM[2] or ASM)[3] is a guided missile that is designed for use against ships and large boats. Most anti-ship missiles are of the sea-skimming variety, and many use a combination of inertial guidance and active radar homing. A large number of other anti-ship missiles use infrared homing to follow the heat that is emitted by a ship; it is also possible for anti-ship missiles to be guided by radio command all the way.The first anti-ship missiles, which were developed and built by Nazi Germany, used radio command guidance.[4] These saw some success in the Mediterranean Theatre during 1943–44, sinking or heavily damaging at least 31 ships with the Henschel Hs 293 and more than seven with the Fritz X, including the Italian battleship Roma and the light cruiser USS Savannah. A variant of the HS 293 had a TV camera/transmitter on board. The bomber carrying it could then fly outside the range of naval anti-aircraft guns and use visual guidance via the bombardier to lead the missile to its target by radio control.[citation needed]Many anti-ship missiles can be launched from a variety of weapons systems including surface warships (also referred to as ship-to-ship missiles), submarines, bombers, fighter planes, patrol planes, helicopters, shore batteries, land vehicles, and, conceivably, even infantrymen firing shoulder-launched missiles. The term surface-to-surface missile (SSM) is used when appropriate. The longer-range anti-ship missiles are often called anti-ship cruise missiles.","title":"Anti-ship missile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"air-to-surface missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-to-surface_missile"}],"text":"Both \"AShM\"[5] and “ASM”[6] are utilized interchangeably as an acronym for \"anti-ship missile.\" \"AShM\" may be the preferred acronym when confusion with \"air-to-surface missile\" (commonly abbreviated as \"ASM\") may occur.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"link_name":"Hs 293","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hs_293"},{"link_name":"Fritz 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Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salerno,_Italy"},{"link_name":"bombardiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_(air_force)"},{"link_name":"warplanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warplane"},{"link_name":"amphibious landings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_warfare"},{"link_name":"SWOD-9 Bat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_(guided_bomb)"},{"link_name":"being deployed against the Japanese in April 1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_(guided_bomb)#Deployment"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"naval mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_mine"},{"link_name":"SS-N-2 Styx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-15_Termit"},{"link_name":"Soviet Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Tu-95 Bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-95_Bear"},{"link_name":"Tu-22 Blinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu-22"},{"link_name":"KS-1 Komet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KS-1_Komet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hiddensee_P-20_missile.jpg"},{"link_name":"USNS Hiddensee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_corvette_Hiddensee"},{"link_name":"Israeli Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Navy"},{"link_name":"Eilat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Zealous_(R39)"},{"link_name":"Komar-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komar-class_missile_boat"},{"link_name":"missile boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_boat"},{"link_name":"Sinai Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Indo-Pakistani War of 1971","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1971"},{"link_name":"Indian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Osa-class missile boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osa-class_missile_boat"},{"link_name":"Karachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi"},{"link_name":"Pakistani Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_Navy"},{"link_name":"destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer"},{"link_name":"fleet oiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet_oiler"},{"link_name":"ammunition ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammunition_ship"},{"link_name":"merchant ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merchant_ship"},{"link_name":"Battle of Latakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Latakia"},{"link_name":"Yom Kippur/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War"},{"link_name":"Syrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"electronic countermeasures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures"},{"link_name":"Syrian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Falklands War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War"},{"link_name":"HMS Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Sheffield_(D80)"},{"link_name":"Type 42 destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_42_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Exocet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocet"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Conveyor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Atlantic_Conveyor"},{"link_name":"HMS Glamorgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Glamorgan_(D19)"},{"link_name":"Argentine Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine_Navy"},{"link_name":"ARA Comodoro Seguí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Hank"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"guided-missile frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided-missile_frigate"},{"link_name":"USS Stark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Stark"},{"link_name":"Mirage F-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirage_F-1"},{"link_name":"tanker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)"},{"link_name":"Sea Isle City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Sea_Isle_City"},{"link_name":"Operation Praying Mantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Praying_Mantis"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"Standard missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_missile"},{"link_name":"Sahand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_frigate_Sahand_(1969)"},{"link_name":"Harpoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-84_Harpoon"},{"link_name":"Skipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-123_Skipper_II"},{"link_name":"Walleye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-62_Walleye"},{"link_name":"iron bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_83_bomb"},{"link_name":"ammunition magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine_(artillery)#Naval_magazines"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvette"},{"link_name":"Hezbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah"},{"link_name":"INS Hanit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INS_Hanit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neptune_R-360_missile,_Kyiv_2021,_05.jpg"},{"link_name":"R-360 Neptune guided anti-ship missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-360_Neptune"},{"link_name":"Russian cruiser Moskva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cruiser_Moskva"},{"link_name":"R-360 Neptune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-360_Neptune"},{"link_name":"sinking of the Moskva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Moskva"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"US Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"US Pacific Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Indo-Pacific_Command"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNN_14apr22-11"}],"text":"Anti-ship missiles were among the first instances of short-range guided weapons during the Second World War in 1943–1944. The German Luftwaffe used the Hs 293, the Fritz X, as well as others missiles, launched from its bombers, with deadly effect against some Allied ships. The first ship sunk by a guided missile was HMS Egret on 27 August 1943, at the Bay of Biscay,[7] other ships targeted were the British troop carrier HMT Rohna, sunk with heavy loss of life and the United States Navy light cruiser USS Savannah off Salerno, Italy, being seriously damaged. These all used radio command-guidance from the bombardiers of the warplanes that launched them. Some of these hit and either sank or damaged a number of ships, including warships offshore of amphibious landings on western Italy. These radio-controlled missiles were used successfully until the Allied navies developed missile countermeasures—principally radio jamming. The Allies also developed some of their own similar radio-guided AShMs, starting with the US Navy's SWOD-9 Bat – the first autonomously guided, radar-homing anti-ship weapon deployed worldwide, being deployed against the Japanese in April 1945 – but the Bat saw little use in combat, partly from its own late-war deployment date leaving few Axis ships remaining as targets.During the Cold War, the Soviet Union turned to a sea-denial strategy concentrating on submarines, naval mines and the AShM. One of the first products of the decision was the SS-N-2 Styx missile. Further products were to follow, and they were soon loaded onto the Soviet Air Force's Tu-95 Bear and Tu-22 Blinder bombers, in the case of the air-launched KS-1 Komet.P-15 unloaded from missile tube aboard the USNS HiddenseeIn 1967, the Israeli Navy's destroyer Eilat was the first ship to be sunk by a ship-launched missile—a number of Styx missiles launched by Egyptian Komar-class missile boats off the Sinai Peninsula.In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 the Indian Navy conducted two raids using Osa-class missile boats employing the Styx on the Pakistani naval base at Karachi. These raids resulted in the destruction or crippling of approximately two thirds of the Pakistani Navy. Major losses included two destroyers, a fleet oiler, an ammunition ship, approximately a dozen merchant ships, and numerous smaller craft. Major shore-based facilities, including fuel storage tanks and naval installations were also destroyed. The Osas returned to base without loss.The Battle of Latakia in 1973 (during the Yom Kippur/Ramadan War) was the scene of the world's first combat between missile boats. In this battle, the Israeli Navy destroyed Syrian warships without suffering any damage, using electronic countermeasures and ruses for defense. After defeating the Syrian Navy the Israeli missile boats also sank a number of Egyptian warships, again without suffering any damage in return, thus achieving total naval supremacy for the rest of the war.Anti-ship missiles were used in the 1982 Falklands War. The British warship HMS Sheffield, a Type 42 destroyer, was struck by a single air-launched Exocet and later sank as a result of the damage. The container ship Atlantic Conveyor was hit by two Exocets and burnt out and subsequently sank while under tow. HMS Glamorgan was damaged when she was struck by an MM38, a ship-launched version of the Exocet, fired from a launcher taken from the Argentine Navy destroyer ARA Comodoro Seguí and mounted on a trailer by Navy technicians,[8] but she had taken evasive action that limited the damage.In 1987, a US Navy guided-missile frigate, USS Stark, was hit by an Exocet anti-ship missile fired by an Iraqi Mirage F-1 fighter plane. Stark was damaged, but she was able to steam to a friendly port for temporary repairs.In October 1987, Sungari, an American-owned tanker steaming under the Liberian flag, and Sea Isle City, a Kuwaiti tanker steaming under the American flag, were hit by Iranian HY-2 missiles.In 1988 AShMs were fired by both American and Iranian forces in Operation Praying Mantis in the Persian Gulf. During this naval battle, several Iranian warships were hit by American AShMs (and by the US Navy's Standard missiles—surface-to-air missiles which were doing double-duty in the anti-ship role). The US Navy hit the Iranian Navy frigate Sahand with three Harpoon missiles, four AGM-123 Skipper rocket-propelled bombs, a Walleye TV-guided bomb, and several 1,000 lb (454 kg) \"iron bombs\". Despite the large number of munitions and successful hits, Sahand did not sink until fire reached her ammunition magazine, causing it to detonate, sinking the vessel.[9] In the same engagement, American warships fired three Standard missiles at an Iranian Navy corvette. This corvette had such a low profile above the water that a Harpoon missile that arrived several minutes later could not lock onto it with its targeting radars.In 2006, Lebanese Hezbollah fighters fired an AShM at the Israeli corvette INS Hanit, inflicting battle damage, but this warship managed to return to Israel in one piece and under its own power. A second missile in this same salvo struck and sank an Egyptian merchant ship.R-360 Neptune guided anti-ship missileOn 13 April 2022, the Ukrainian government claimed to have hit the Russian cruiser Moskva with two R-360 Neptune missiles, resulting in the sinking of the Moskva. The Russian government did not confirm the attack, but admitted that the ship sank after a fire.[10] If Ukrainian claims are true, Moskva might be the largest warship ever disabled or destroyed by a missile, according to Carl Schuster, a retired US Navy captain and former director of operations at the US Pacific Command's Joint Intelligence Center.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of anti-ship missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anti-ship_missiles"}],"text":"See also: List of anti-ship missiles","title":"Comparison"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P-1000 Vulkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-1000_Vulkan"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"aircraft carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_carrier"},{"link_name":"task force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_force"},{"link_name":"missile-carrying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"combat air patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_air_patrol"},{"link_name":"US Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navy"},{"link_name":"Ticonderoga-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticonderoga-class_cruiser"},{"link_name":"guided missile cruisers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_missile_cruiser"},{"link_name":"Arleigh Burke-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arleigh_Burke-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"guided missile destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_missile_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"surface-to-air missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"warplanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warplane"},{"link_name":"Aegis Combat System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegis_Combat_System"},{"link_name":"close-in weapon system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system"},{"link_name":"Phalanx CIWS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanx_CIWS"},{"link_name":"Kashtan CIWS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashtan_CIWS"},{"link_name":"Goalkeeper CIWS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalkeeper_CIWS"}],"text":"Video of P-1000 Vulkan missile destroying a target shipAnti-ship missiles are a significant threat to surface ships, which have large radar, radio, and thermal signatures that are difficult to suppress. Once acquired, a ship cannot outrun or out-turn a missile, the warhead of which can inflict significant damage. To counter the threat posed, the modern surface combatant has to either avoid being detected, destroy the missile launch platform before it fires its missiles, or decoy or destroy all of the incoming missiles.Modern navies have spent much time and effort developing counters to the threat of anti-ship missiles since the Second World War. Anti-ship missiles have been the driving force behind many aspects of modern ship design, especially in navies that operate aircraft carriers.The first layer of antimissile defense by a modern, fully equipped aircraft carrier task force is always the long-range missile-carrying fighter planes of the aircraft carrier itself. Several fighters are kept on combat air patrol (CAP) 24 hours a day, seven days a week when at sea, and many more are put aloft when the situation warrants, such as during wartime or when a threat to the task force is detected.These fighters patrol up to hundreds of miles away from the task force and they are equipped with airborne radar systems. When spotting an approaching aircraft on a threatening flight profile, it is the responsibility of the CAP to intercept it before any missile is launched. If this cannot be achieved in time, the missiles themselves can be targeted by the fighters's own weapons systems, usually their air-to-air missiles, but in extremis, by their rapid-fire cannon.However, some AShMs might \"leak\" past the task force's fighter defenses. In addition, many modern warships operate independently of carrier-based air protection and they must provide their own defenses against missiles and aircraft. Under these circumstances, the ships themselves must utilize multilayered defenses which have been built into them.For example, some warships, such as the US Navy's Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers, the Arleigh Burke-class guided missile destroyers, and the Royal Navy's Type 45 guided missile destroyer, use a combination of radar systems, integrated computer fire-control systems, and agile surface-to-air missiles (SAM) to simultaneously track, engage, and destroy several incoming anti-ship missiles or hostile warplanes at a time.The primary American defensive system, called the Aegis Combat System, is also used by the navies of Japan, Spain, Norway, South Korea, and Australia. The Aegis system has been designed to defend against mass attacks by hostile anti-ship missiles or warplanes.Any missiles that can elude the interception by medium-ranges SAM missiles can then be either deceived with electronic countermeasures or decoys; shot down by short-range missiles such as the Sea Sparrow or the Rolling Airframe Missile (RAM); engaged by the warship's main gun armament (if present); or, as a last resort, destroyed by a close-in weapon system (CIWS), such as the American Phalanx CIWS, Russian Kashtan CIWS, or the Dutch Goalkeeper CIWS.","title":"Threat posed"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SS-N-27 Sizzler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-N-27"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"ballistic missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"People's Liberation Army Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Navy"},{"link_name":"anti-ship ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ship_ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Current threats and vulnerabilities","text":"To counter these defense systems, countries such as Russia are developing or deploying missiles that slowly cruise at a very low level (about five meters above sea level) to within a short range of their target and then, at the point when radar detection becomes inevitable, initiate a supersonic, high-agility sprint (potentially with anti-aircraft missile detection and evasion) to close the terminal distance. Missiles, such as the SS-N-27 Sizzler, that incorporate this sort of threat modality are regarded by US Navy analysts as potentially being able to penetrate the US Navy's defensive systems.[29]Recent years have seen a growing amount of attention being paid to the possibility of ballistic missiles being re-purposed or designed for an anti-ship role. Speculation has focused on the development of such missiles for use by China's People's Liberation Army Navy. Such an anti-ship ballistic missile would approach its target extremely rapidly, making it very difficult to intercept.[30]","title":"Threat posed"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Countermeasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countermeasure"},{"link_name":"surface-to-air missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"Russian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Navy"},{"link_name":"9K33 Osa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K33_Osa#Variants"},{"link_name":"9M330 Tor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SA-N-9_Gauntlet#3K95_Kinzhal"},{"link_name":"9M311","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashtan_CIWS"},{"link_name":"9M38 Buk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buk_missile_system#3S90_%22Uragan%22_/_M-22,_or_for_export_%22Shtil%22"},{"link_name":"RIM-7 Sea Sparrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-7_Sea_Sparrow"},{"link_name":"RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIM-116_Rolling_Airframe_Missile"},{"link_name":"Standard missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_missile"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"Sea Wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Wolf_missile"},{"link_name":"Sea Dart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Dart_missile"},{"link_name":"Sea Viper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Viper"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"USS Jarrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Jarrett"},{"link_name":"USS Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Missouri_(BB-63)"},{"link_name":"HMS Gloucester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Gloucester_(D96)"},{"link_name":"Silkworm missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkworm_missile"},{"link_name":"SRBOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_36_SRBOC"},{"link_name":"chaff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff_(radar_countermeasure)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Sea Dart missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Dart_missile"},{"link_name":"Close-in weapon systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system"},{"link_name":"AK-630","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK-630"},{"link_name":"Kashtan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashtan_CIWS"},{"link_name":"Millennium Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinmetall_Oerlikon_Millennium_Gun"},{"link_name":"Phalanx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanx_CIWS"},{"link_name":"Goalkeeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalkeeper_CIWS"},{"link_name":"Anti-aircraft guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_gun"},{"link_name":"Mk 45 5-inch (127 mm) naval gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-54_Mark_45"},{"link_name":"AK-130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AK-130"},{"link_name":"Electronic warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_warfare"},{"link_name":"AN/SLQ-32 Electronic Warfare Suite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/SLQ-32_Electronic_Warfare_Suite"},{"link_name":"Decoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoy"},{"link_name":"chaff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff_(radar_countermeasure)"},{"link_name":"Mark 36 SRBOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_36_SRBOC"},{"link_name":"flares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flare_(countermeasure)"},{"link_name":"Nulka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nulka"},{"link_name":"stealth ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_ship"},{"link_name":"stealth technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology"},{"link_name":"radar cross section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross_section"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_signature"},{"link_name":"acoustic signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_signature"},{"link_name":"Skjold-class patrol boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skjold-class_patrol_boat"},{"link_name":"Visby-class corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby-class_corvette"},{"link_name":"Sachsen-class frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachsen-class_frigate"},{"link_name":"Zumwalt-class destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zumwalt-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Maritime Self-Defense Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_Self-Defense_Force"},{"link_name":"Atago-class destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atago-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Kongo-class destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Type 054 frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_054_frigate"},{"link_name":"Type 052C destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_052C_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Admiral Gorshkov-class frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_Gorshkov-class_frigate"},{"link_name":"Steregushchiy-class corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steregushchiy-class_corvette"},{"link_name":"Shivalik-class frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivalik-class_frigate"},{"link_name":"Kolkata-class destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"Visakhapatnam-class destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visakhapatnam-class_destroyer"},{"link_name":"La Fayette-class frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Fayette-class_frigate"},{"link_name":"FREMM multipurpose frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FREMM_multipurpose_frigate"},{"link_name":"Type 45 destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_45_destroyer"},{"link_name":"anti-access/area denial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial"},{"link_name":"AirSea Battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirSea_Battle"}],"text":"See also: CountermeasureCountermeasures against anti-ship missiles include:surface-to-air missiles such as the:\nRussian Navy's:\n9K33 Osa (SA-N-4 Gecko),\n9M330 Tor (SA-N-9 Gauntlet),\n9M311 (SA-N-11),\n9M38 Buk (SA-N-12 Grizzly),\nThe US Navy's:\nRIM-7 Sea Sparrow,\nRIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile,\nStandard missile,\nThe Royal Navy's:\nSea Wolf,\nSea Dart,\nSea ViperOn February 25, 1991, during the first Gulf War, the Phalanx-equipped USS Jarrett was a few miles from USS Missouri and the destroyer HMS Gloucester. The ships were attacked by an Iraqi Silkworm missile (often referred to as the Seersucker), at which Missouri fired its SRBOC chaff. The Phalanx system on Jarrett, operating in the automatic target-acquisition mode, fixed upon Missouri's chaff, releasing a burst of rounds. From this burst, four rounds hit Missouri which was two to three miles (3.2 to 4.8 km) from Jarrett at the time. There were no injuries.[31] A Sea Dart missile was then launched from HMS Gloucester, which destroyed the Iraqi missile, achieving the first successful engagement of a missile by a missile during combat at sea.Close-in weapon systems (CIWS), including the Soviet-or Russian-made AK-630 or Kashtan, German Millennium Gun or the Phalanx and Goalkeeper. These are automated gun systems mounted on the deck of a ship that use radar to track the approaching missile, and then attempt to shoot it down during its final approach to the target.\nAnti-aircraft guns such as the Mk 45 5-inch (127 mm) naval gun or the AK-130\nElectronic warfare equipment (such as AN/SLQ-32 Electronic Warfare Suite)\nDecoy systems (such as chaff, the US Navy's Mark 36 SRBOC system), and flares, or more active decoys such as the NulkaModern stealth ships – or ships that at least employ some stealth technology – to reduce the risk of detection and to make them a harder target for the missile itself. These passive countermeasures include:reduction of their radar cross section (RCS) and hence radar signature.\nlimit a ship's infrared and acoustic signature.Examples of these include the Norwegian Skjold-class patrol boat, the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the German Sachsen-class frigate, the US Navy's Zumwalt-class destroyer and Arleigh Burke-class destroyer, their Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force's close counterparts in Aegis warships, the Atago-class destroyer, and the Kongo-class destroyer, the Chinese Type 054 frigate and the Type 052C destroyer, Russian Navy's Admiral Gorshkov-class frigate and Steregushchiy-class corvette, the Indian Shivalik-class frigate, Kolkata-class destroyer and Visakhapatnam-class destroyer, the French La Fayette-class frigate, the FREMM multipurpose frigate and the Royal Navy's Type 45 destroyer.In response to China's development of anti-ship missiles and other anti-access/area denial capabilities, the United States has developed the AirSea Battle doctrine.","title":"Countermeasures"}]
|
[{"image_text":"RGM-84 Harpoon firing from USS Leahy in 1983","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/AGM-84_Harpoon_launched_from_USS_Leahy_%28CG-16%29.jpg/220px-AGM-84_Harpoon_launched_from_USS_Leahy_%28CG-16%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Martel guided anti-ship missile","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Martel_TV-Guided_Missile_-_Elvington_-_BB.jpg/220px-Martel_TV-Guided_Missile_-_Elvington_-_BB.jpg"},{"image_text":"The MBDA Exocet anti-ship missile under a Dassault Rafale","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Exocet_AM39_P1220892.jpg/220px-Exocet_AM39_P1220892.jpg"},{"image_text":"BrahMos, a supersonic cruise missile, capable of being launched from multiple platforms. [1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/BrahMos_MAKS2009.jpg/250px-BrahMos_MAKS2009.jpg"},{"image_text":"P-15 unloaded from missile tube aboard the USNS Hiddensee","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hiddensee_P-20_missile.jpg/220px-Hiddensee_P-20_missile.jpg"},{"image_text":"R-360 Neptune guided anti-ship missile","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Neptune_R-360_missile%2C_Kyiv_2021%2C_05.jpg/220px-Neptune_R-360_missile%2C_Kyiv_2021%2C_05.jpg"},{"image_text":"Video of P-1000 Vulkan missile destroying a target ship"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Ship-based Weapon Complex System - BrahMos.com\". www.brahmos.com. Retrieved 2024-02-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brahmos.com/content.php?id=15#","url_text":"\"Ship-based Weapon Complex System - BrahMos.com\""}]},{"reference":"Ronald O'Rourke (10 November 2022). \"China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities—Background and Issues for Congress\". Congressional Research Service. p. 14. Archived from the original on 5 July 2023. 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Retrieved 2024-04-30. ...a supersonic Anti-Ship Missile (AShM)","urls":[{"url":"https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL33153/263","url_text":"\"China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities—Background and Issues for Congress\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230705013815/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL33153/263#page18","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Peter Ong (27 August 2021). \"Will The U.S. Navy Replace The Destroyers' Harpoon Anti-Ship Missiles With Naval Strike Missiles?\". Naval News. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. 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|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Am_Alive_and_You_Are_Dead:_A_Journey_into_the_Mind_of_Philip_K._Dick
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I Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey into the Mind of Philip K. Dick
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["1 Synopsis","2 Reception","3 References","4 Further reading"]
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1993 biography of Philip K. Dick
I Am Alive and You Are Dead Original French language book cover for Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts. Philip K. Dick 1928–1982 (1993)AuthorEmmanuel CarrèreOriginal titleJe suis vivant et vous êtes mortsTranslatorTimothy BentLanguageFrenchSubjectPhilip K. DickGenre"imaginative biography"PublisherÉditions du SeuilPublication date1993Publication placeFrancePublished in English2004Pages358ISBN9782020201735
I Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey into the Mind of Philip K. Dick (French: Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts. Philip K. Dick 1928–1982) is a 1993 biography of the American science fiction writer Philip K. Dick, written by the Frenchman Emmanuel Carrère.
Synopsis
Emmanuel Carrère describes the book as his depiction of "the life of Philip K. Dick from the inside, in other words, with the same freedom and empathy—indeed with the same truth—with which he depicted his own characters".
Reception
In Le Monde, Geneviève Brisac called it "one most moving and funniest books of this autumn". Charles Taylor of The New York Times wrote that the book "reads like a hyperadolescent spouting forth trippy what-ifs" and reduces "Dick's writing to bubble-gum Pirandello, or Borges rejiggered for Saturday afternoon movie serials". Sean O'Hagan of The Observer wrote that Carrère has omitted typical features of an authoritative biography, such as an index, footnotes and quotations from interviews. O'Hagan wrote that the book "appears almost novelistic" because of its focus on Dick's inner life and richness in anecdotes, and that Carrère seems to want to present Dick's life as Dick himself experienced it, calling the book an "intriguing read" and "as good a place as any to start trying to understand the enigma of Philip K Dick".
References
^ a b O'Hagan, Sean (12 June 2005). "What a clever Dick". The Observer. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Carrère, Emmanuel (2004). I Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey Into the Mind of Philp K. Dick. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 0-8050-5464-2.
^ Brisac, Geneviève (1 October 1993). "" Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts ", d'Emmanuel Carrère : le cas Dick". Le Monde (in French). Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^ Taylor, Charles (20 June 2004). "Just Imagine Philip K. Dick". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
Further reading
Moorcock, Michael (4 June 2005). "Crazy like a fox". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
vteEmmanuel CarrèreBooks
Gothic Romance (1984)
The Moustache (1986)
I Am Alive and You Are Dead (1993)
Class Trip (1995)
The Adversary (2000)
A Russian Novel (2007)
Other Lives But Mine (2009)
Limonov (2011)
The Kingdom (2014)
Yoga (2020)
V13 (2022)
Films directed
The Moustache (2005)
Between Two Worlds (2021)
Screenplays
Class Trip (1998)
All Our Desires (2011)
vtePhilip K. Dick
Bibliography
Lost works
Novels
Gather Yourselves Together (1950)
Voices from the Street (1952)
Solar Lottery (1954)
Mary and the Giant (1954)
The World Jones Made (1954)
Eye in the Sky (1955)
The Man Who Japed (1955)
A Time for George Stavros (1956)
Pilgrim on the Hill (1956)
The Broken Bubble (1956)
The Cosmic Puppets (1957)
Puttering About in a Small Land (1957)
Nicholas and the Higs (1958)
Time Out of Joint (1958)
In Milton Lumky Territory (1958)
Confessions of a Crap Artist (1959)
The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike (1960)
Humpty Dumpty in Oakland (1960)
Vulcan's Hammer (1960)
Dr. Futurity (1960)
The Man in the High Castle (1961)
We Can Build You (1962)
Martian Time-Slip (1962)
Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1963)
The Game-Players of Titan (1963)
The Simulacra (1963)
The Crack in Space (1963)
Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1964)
The Zap Gun (1964)
The Penultimate Truth (1964)
The Unteleported Man (1964)
The Ganymede Takeover (1965)
Counter-Clock World (1965)
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1966)
Nick and the Glimmung (1966)
Now Wait for Last Year (1966)
Ubik (1966)
Galactic Pot-Healer (1968)
A Maze of Death (1968)
Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1969)
Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974)
Deus Irae (1976)
Radio Free Albemuth (1976; published 1985)
A Scanner Darkly (1977)
VALIS (1981)
The Divine Invasion (1981)
The Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982)
The Owl in Daylight (unfinished)
Collections
A Handful of Darkness (1955)
The Variable Man (1956)
The Preserving Machine (1969)
The Book of Philip K. Dick (1973)
The Best of Philip K. Dick (1977)
The Golden Man (1980)
Robots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities (1984)
I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon (1985)
The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick (1987)
Beyond Lies the Wub (1988)
The Dark Haired Girl (1989)
The Father-Thing (1989)
Second Variety (1989)
The Days of Perky Pat (1990)
The Little Black Box (1990)
The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford (1990)
We Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990)
The Minority Report (1991)
Second Variety (1991)
The Eye of the Sibyl (1992)
The Philip K. Dick Reader (1997)
Minority Report (2002)
Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick (2002)
Paycheck (2004)
Vintage PKD (2006)
The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick (2011)
Short stories
"Beyond Lies the Wub" (1952)
"The Gun" (1952)
"The Skull" (1952)
"The Little Movement" (1952)
"The Defenders" (1953)
"Mr. Spaceship" (1953)
"Piper in the Woods" (1953)
"Roog" (1953)
"The Infinites" (1953)
"Second Variety" (1953)
"Colony" (1953)
"The Cookie Lady" (1953)
"Impostor" (1953)
"Paycheck" (1953)
"The Preserving Machine" (1953)
"Expendable" (1953)
"The Indefatigable Frog" (1953)
"The Commuter" (1953)
"Out in the Garden" (1953)
"The Great C" (1953)
"The King of the Elves" (1953)
"The Trouble with Bubbles" (1953)
"The Variable Man" (1953)
"The Impossible Planet" (1953)
"Planet for Transients" (1953)
"The Builder" (1953)
"Tony and the Beetles" (1953)
"The Hanging Stranger" (1953)
"Prize Ship" (1954)
"Beyond the Door" (1954)
"The Crystal Crypt" (1954)
"The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford" (1954)
"The Golden Man" (1954)
"Sales Pitch" (1954)
"Breakfast at Twilight" (1954)
"The Crawlers" (1954)
"Exhibit Piece" (1954)
"Adjustment Team" (1954)
"Shell Game" (1954)
"Meddler" (1954)
"A World of Talent" (1954)
"The Last of the Masters" (1954)
"Upon the Dull Earth" (1954)
"The Father-thing" (1954)
"Strange Eden" (1954)
"The Turning Wheel" (1954)
"Foster, You're Dead!" (1955)
"Human Is" (1955)
"War Veteran" (1955)
"Captive Market" (1955)
"Nanny" (1955)
"The Chromium Fence" (1955)
"Service Call" (1955)
"The Mold of Yancy" (1955)
"Autofac" (1955)
"Psi-man Heal My Child!" (1955)
"The Hood Maker" (1955)
"The Minority Report" (1956)
"Pay for the Printer" (1956)
"A Glass of Darkness" (1956)
"The Unreconstructed M" (1957)
"Null-O" (1958)
"Explorers We" (1959)
"Recall Mechanism" (1959)
"Fair Game" (1959)
"War Game" (1959)
"All We Marsmen" (1963)
"What'll We Do with Ragland Park?" (1963)
"The Days of Perky Pat" (1963)
"If There Were No Benny Cemoli" (1963)
"Waterspider" (1964)
"Novelty Act" (1964)
"Oh, to Be a Blobel!" (1964)
"The War with the Fnools" (1964)
"What the Dead Men Say" (1964)
"Orpheus with Clay Feet" (1964)
"Cantata 140" (1964)
"The Unteleported Man" (1964)
"The Little Black Box" (1964)
"Retreat Syndrome" (1965)
"Project Plowshare (later "The Zap Gun")" (1965)
"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" (1966)
"Holy Quarrel" (1966)
"Faith of Our Fathers" (1967)
"Not by Its Cover" (1968)
"The Electric Ant" (1969)
"A. Lincoln, Simulacrum" (1969)
"The Pre-persons" (1974)
"A Little Something for Us Tempunauts" (1974)
"The Exit Door Leads In" (1979)
"Rautavaara's Case" (1980)
"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon" (1980)
"The Eye of the Sibyl" (1987)
"Stability" (1987)
AdaptationsFilms
Blade Runner (1982)
Total Recall (1990)
Barjo (1992)
Screamers (1995)
Impostor (2001)
Minority Report (2002)
Paycheck (2003)
A Scanner Darkly (2006)
Next (2007)
Screamers: The Hunting (2009)
Radio Free Albemuth (2010)
The Adjustment Bureau (2011)
Total Recall (2012)
Blade Runner 2049 (2017)
2036: Nexus Dawn (2017)
2048: Nowhere to Run (2017)
Blade Runner Black Out 2022 (2017)
TV series
Total Recall 2070 (1999)
The Man in the High Castle (2015)
Minority Report (2015)
Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams (2017)
Blade Runner: Black Lotus (2021)
Works about
Only Apparently Real (1986 biography)
I Am Alive and You Are Dead (1993 biography)
Your Name Here (2008 drama film)
Related
Isa Dick Hackett (daughter)
Philip K. Dick Award
|
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Dick from the inside, in other words, with the same freedom and empathy—indeed with the same truth—with which he depicted his own characters\".[2]","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Le Monde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde"},{"link_name":"Geneviève Brisac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genevi%C3%A8ve_Brisac"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Pirandello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello"},{"link_name":"Borges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Sean O'Hagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_O%27Hagan_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"The Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"In Le Monde, Geneviève Brisac called it \"one most moving and funniest books of this autumn\".[3] Charles Taylor of The New York Times wrote that the book \"reads like a hyperadolescent spouting forth trippy what-ifs\" and reduces \"Dick's writing to bubble-gum Pirandello, or Borges rejiggered for Saturday afternoon movie serials\".[4] Sean O'Hagan of The Observer wrote that Carrère has omitted typical features of an authoritative biography, such as an index, footnotes and quotations from interviews. O'Hagan wrote that the book \"appears almost novelistic\" because of its focus on Dick's inner life and richness in anecdotes, and that Carrère seems to want to present Dick's life as Dick himself experienced it, calling the book an \"intriguing read\" and \"as good a place as any to start trying to understand the enigma of Philip K Dick\".[1]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moorcock, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Moorcock"},{"link_name":"\"Crazy like a fox\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theguardian.com/books/2005/jun/04/featuresreviews.guardianreview15"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Emmanuel_Carr%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Emmanuel_Carr%C3%A8re&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emmanuel_Carr%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Carrère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Carr%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Gothic Romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Romance_(novel)"},{"link_name":"The Moustache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moustache"},{"link_name":"I Am Alive and You Are Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Class Trip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_Trip_(novel)"},{"link_name":"The Adversary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adversary_(Carr%C3%A8re_book)"},{"link_name":"A Russian Novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Russian_Novel"},{"link_name":"Other Lives But Mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_Lives_But_Mine"},{"link_name":"Limonov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonov_(novel)"},{"link_name":"The Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kingdom_(Carr%C3%A8re_novel)"},{"link_name":"Yoga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_(book)"},{"link_name":"V13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V13_(book)"},{"link_name":"The Moustache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moustache_(film)"},{"link_name":"Between Two Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Between_Two_Worlds_(2021_film)"},{"link_name":"Class Trip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_Trip"},{"link_name":"All Our Desires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Our_Desires"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick_bibliography"},{"link_name":"Lost works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_works_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Gather Yourselves Together","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gather_Yourselves_Together"},{"link_name":"Voices from the Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voices_from_the_Street"},{"link_name":"Solar Lottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Lottery"},{"link_name":"Mary and the Giant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_and_the_Giant"},{"link_name":"The World Jones Made","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Jones_Made"},{"link_name":"Eye in the Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_in_the_Sky_(novel)"},{"link_name":"The Man Who Japed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Japed"},{"link_name":"A Time for George Stavros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Time_for_George_Stavros"},{"link_name":"Pilgrim on the Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim_on_the_Hill"},{"link_name":"The Broken Bubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Broken_Bubble"},{"link_name":"The Cosmic Puppets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cosmic_Puppets"},{"link_name":"Puttering About in a Small Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puttering_About_in_a_Small_Land"},{"link_name":"Nicholas and the Higs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_and_the_Higs"},{"link_name":"Time Out of Joint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Out_of_Joint"},{"link_name":"In Milton Lumky Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Milton_Lumky_Territory"},{"link_name":"Confessions of a Crap Artist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confessions_of_a_Crap_Artist"},{"link_name":"The Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Whose_Teeth_Were_All_Exactly_Alike"},{"link_name":"Humpty Dumpty in Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humpty_Dumpty_in_Oakland"},{"link_name":"Vulcan's Hammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan%27s_Hammer"},{"link_name":"Dr. Futurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Futurity"},{"link_name":"The Man in the High Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle"},{"link_name":"We Can Build You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can_Build_You"},{"link_name":"Martian Time-Slip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_Time-Slip"},{"link_name":"Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Bloodmoney,_or_How_We_Got_Along_After_the_Bomb"},{"link_name":"The Game-Players of Titan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game-Players_of_Titan"},{"link_name":"The Simulacra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simulacra"},{"link_name":"The Crack in Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crack_in_Space"},{"link_name":"Clans of the Alphane Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clans_of_the_Alphane_Moon"},{"link_name":"The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Three_Stigmata_of_Palmer_Eldritch"},{"link_name":"The Zap Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zap_Gun"},{"link_name":"The Penultimate Truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Penultimate_Truth"},{"link_name":"The Unteleported Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unteleported_Man"},{"link_name":"The Ganymede Takeover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ganymede_Takeover"},{"link_name":"Counter-Clock World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Clock_World"},{"link_name":"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_Androids_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F"},{"link_name":"Nick and the Glimmung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_and_the_Glimmung"},{"link_name":"Now Wait for Last Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_Wait_for_Last_Year"},{"link_name":"Ubik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubik"},{"link_name":"Galactic Pot-Healer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_Pot-Healer"},{"link_name":"A Maze of Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Maze_of_Death"},{"link_name":"Our Friends from Frolix 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Friends_from_Frolix_8"},{"link_name":"Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_My_Tears,_the_Policeman_Said"},{"link_name":"Deus Irae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deus_Irae"},{"link_name":"Radio Free Albemuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Albemuth"},{"link_name":"A Scanner Darkly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Scanner_Darkly"},{"link_name":"VALIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VALIS"},{"link_name":"The Divine Invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Divine_Invasion"},{"link_name":"The Transmigration of Timothy Archer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transmigration_of_Timothy_Archer"},{"link_name":"The Owl in Daylight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Owl_in_Daylight"},{"link_name":"A Handful of Darkness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Handful_of_Darkness"},{"link_name":"The Variable Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Variable_Man_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Preserving Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Preserving_Machine"},{"link_name":"The Book of Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"The Best of Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"The Golden Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Golden_Man_(collection)"},{"link_name":"Robots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robots,_Androids,_and_Mechanical_Oddities"},{"link_name":"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Hope_I_Shall_Arrive_Soon_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Collected_Stories_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Beyond Lies the Wub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Lies_the_Wub_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Dark Haired Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Haired_Girl"},{"link_name":"The Father-Thing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Father-Thing_(collection)"},{"link_name":"Second Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Variety_(1989_collection)"},{"link_name":"The Days of Perky Pat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Days_of_Perky_Pat_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Little Black Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Black_Box_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Short_Happy_Life_of_the_Brown_Oxford_(collection)"},{"link_name":"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can_Remember_It_for_You_Wholesale_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Minority_Report_(1991_collection)"},{"link_name":"Second Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Variety_(1991_collection)"},{"link_name":"The Eye of the Sibyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eye_of_the_Sibyl_(collection)"},{"link_name":"The Philip K. Dick Reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Philip_K._Dick_Reader"},{"link_name":"Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(2002_collection)"},{"link_name":"Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selected_Stories_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Paycheck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paycheck_(collection)"},{"link_name":"Vintage PKD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintage_PKD"},{"link_name":"The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Exegesis_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Beyond Lies the Wub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Lies_the_Wub"},{"link_name":"The Gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gun_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"The Skull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skull_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"The Little Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Movement"},{"link_name":"The Defenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Defenders_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Mr. Spaceship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Spaceship"},{"link_name":"Piper in the Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_in_the_Woods"},{"link_name":"Roog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roog_(story)"},{"link_name":"The Infinites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Infinites"},{"link_name":"Second 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King of the Elves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_the_Elves"},{"link_name":"The Trouble with Bubbles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Bubbles"},{"link_name":"The Variable Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Variable_Man"},{"link_name":"The Impossible Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Impossible_Planet_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Planet for Transients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_for_Transients"},{"link_name":"The Builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Builder_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Tony and the Beetles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_and_the_Beetles"},{"link_name":"The Hanging Stranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hanging_Stranger"},{"link_name":"Prize Ship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prize_Ship"},{"link_name":"Beyond the Door","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_the_Door_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"The Crystal 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Blobel!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh,_to_Be_a_Blobel!"},{"link_name":"The War with the Fnools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_with_the_Fnools"},{"link_name":"What the Dead Men Say","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_the_Dead_Men_Say_(novella)"},{"link_name":"Orpheus with Clay Feet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orpheus_with_Clay_Feet"},{"link_name":"Cantata 140","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crack_in_Space"},{"link_name":"The Unteleported Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unteleported_Man"},{"link_name":"The Little Black Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Black_Box"},{"link_name":"Retreat Syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat_Syndrome"},{"link_name":"Project Plowshare (later \"The Zap Gun\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zap_Gun"},{"link_name":"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can_Remember_It_for_You_Wholesale"},{"link_name":"Holy Quarrel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Quarrel"},{"link_name":"Faith of Our Fathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_of_Our_Fathers_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Not by Its Cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_by_Its_Cover"},{"link_name":"The Electric Ant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Electric_Ant"},{"link_name":"A. Lincoln, Simulacrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Lincoln,_Simulacrum"},{"link_name":"The Pre-persons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pre-persons"},{"link_name":"A Little Something for Us Tempunauts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Little_Something_for_Us_Tempunauts"},{"link_name":"The Exit Door Leads In","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Exit_Door_Leads_In"},{"link_name":"Rautavaara's Case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rautavaara%27s_Case"},{"link_name":"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Hope_I_Shall_Arrive_Soon"},{"link_name":"The Eye of the Sibyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eye_of_the_Sibyl"},{"link_name":"Stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stability_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"Adaptations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adaptations_of_works_by_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"Blade Runner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner"},{"link_name":"Total Recall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Recall_(1990_film)"},{"link_name":"Barjo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barjo"},{"link_name":"Screamers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screamers_(1995_film)"},{"link_name":"Impostor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impostor_(2001_film)"},{"link_name":"Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(film)"},{"link_name":"Paycheck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paycheck_(film)"},{"link_name":"A Scanner Darkly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Scanner_Darkly_(film)"},{"link_name":"Next","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"Screamers: The Hunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screamers:_The_Hunting"},{"link_name":"Radio Free Albemuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Albemuth_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Adjustment Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adjustment_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Total Recall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Recall_(2012_film)"},{"link_name":"Blade Runner 2049","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner_2049"},{"link_name":"2036: Nexus Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2036:_Nexus_Dawn"},{"link_name":"2048: Nowhere to Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2048:_Nowhere_to_Run"},{"link_name":"Blade Runner Black Out 2022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner_Black_Out_2022"},{"link_name":"Total Recall 2070","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Recall_2070"},{"link_name":"The Man in the High Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Minority Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minority_Report_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_Dreams_(2017_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Blade Runner: Black Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner:_Black_Lotus"},{"link_name":"Only Apparently Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Only_Apparently_Real:_The_World_of_Philip_K._Dick"},{"link_name":"I Am Alive and You Are Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Your Name Here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Name_Here"},{"link_name":"Isa Dick Hackett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa_Dick_Hackett"},{"link_name":"Philip K. Dick Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick_Award"}],"text":"Moorcock, Michael (4 June 2005). \"Crazy like a fox\". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 December 2023.vteEmmanuel CarrèreBooks\nGothic Romance (1984)\nThe Moustache (1986)\nI Am Alive and You Are Dead (1993)\nClass Trip (1995)\nThe Adversary (2000)\nA Russian Novel (2007)\nOther Lives But Mine (2009)\nLimonov (2011)\nThe Kingdom (2014)\nYoga (2020)\nV13 (2022)\nFilms directed\nThe Moustache (2005)\nBetween Two Worlds (2021)\nScreenplays\nClass Trip (1998)\nAll Our Desires (2011)vtePhilip K. Dick\nBibliography\nLost works\nNovels\nGather Yourselves Together (1950)\nVoices from the Street (1952)\nSolar Lottery (1954)\nMary and the Giant (1954)\nThe World Jones Made (1954)\nEye in the Sky (1955)\nThe Man Who Japed (1955)\nA Time for George Stavros (1956)\nPilgrim on the Hill (1956)\nThe Broken Bubble (1956)\nThe Cosmic Puppets (1957)\nPuttering About in a Small Land (1957)\nNicholas and the Higs (1958)\nTime Out of Joint (1958)\nIn Milton Lumky Territory (1958)\nConfessions of a Crap Artist (1959)\nThe Man Whose Teeth Were All Exactly Alike (1960)\nHumpty Dumpty in Oakland (1960)\nVulcan's Hammer (1960)\nDr. Futurity (1960)\nThe Man in the High Castle (1961)\nWe Can Build You (1962)\nMartian Time-Slip (1962)\nDr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1963)\nThe Game-Players of Titan (1963)\nThe Simulacra (1963)\nThe Crack in Space (1963)\nClans of the Alphane Moon (1964)\nThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (1964)\nThe Zap Gun (1964)\nThe Penultimate Truth (1964)\nThe Unteleported Man (1964)\nThe Ganymede Takeover (1965)\nCounter-Clock World (1965)\nDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1966)\nNick and the Glimmung (1966)\nNow Wait for Last Year (1966)\nUbik (1966)\nGalactic Pot-Healer (1968)\nA Maze of Death (1968)\nOur Friends from Frolix 8 (1969)\nFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said (1974)\nDeus Irae (1976)\nRadio Free Albemuth (1976; published 1985)\nA Scanner Darkly (1977)\nVALIS (1981)\nThe Divine Invasion (1981)\nThe Transmigration of Timothy Archer (1982)\nThe Owl in Daylight (unfinished)\nCollections\nA Handful of Darkness (1955)\nThe Variable Man (1956)\nThe Preserving Machine (1969)\nThe Book of Philip K. Dick (1973)\nThe Best of Philip K. Dick (1977)\nThe Golden Man (1980)\nRobots, Androids, and Mechanical Oddities (1984)\nI Hope I Shall Arrive Soon (1985)\nThe Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick (1987)\nBeyond Lies the Wub (1988)\nThe Dark Haired Girl (1989)\nThe Father-Thing (1989)\nSecond Variety (1989)\nThe Days of Perky Pat (1990)\nThe Little Black Box (1990)\nThe Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford (1990)\nWe Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990)\nThe Minority Report (1991)\nSecond Variety (1991)\nThe Eye of the Sibyl (1992)\nThe Philip K. Dick Reader (1997)\nMinority Report (2002)\nSelected Stories of Philip K. Dick (2002)\nPaycheck (2004)\nVintage PKD (2006)\nThe Exegesis of Philip K. Dick (2011)\nShort stories\n\"Beyond Lies the Wub\" (1952)\n\"The Gun\" (1952)\n\"The Skull\" (1952)\n\"The Little Movement\" (1952)\n\"The Defenders\" (1953)\n\"Mr. Spaceship\" (1953)\n\"Piper in the Woods\" (1953)\n\"Roog\" (1953)\n\"The Infinites\" (1953)\n\"Second Variety\" (1953)\n\"Colony\" (1953)\n\"The Cookie Lady\" (1953)\n\"Impostor\" (1953)\n\"Paycheck\" (1953)\n\"The Preserving Machine\" (1953)\n\"Expendable\" (1953)\n\"The Indefatigable Frog\" (1953)\n\"The Commuter\" (1953)\n\"Out in the Garden\" (1953)\n\"The Great C\" (1953)\n\"The King of the Elves\" (1953)\n\"The Trouble with Bubbles\" (1953)\n\"The Variable Man\" (1953)\n\"The Impossible Planet\" (1953)\n\"Planet for Transients\" (1953)\n\"The Builder\" (1953)\n\"Tony and the Beetles\" (1953)\n\"The Hanging Stranger\" (1953)\n\"Prize Ship\" (1954)\n\"Beyond the Door\" (1954)\n\"The Crystal Crypt\" (1954)\n\"The Short Happy Life of the Brown Oxford\" (1954)\n\"The Golden Man\" (1954)\n\"Sales Pitch\" (1954)\n\"Breakfast at Twilight\" (1954)\n\"The Crawlers\" (1954)\n\"Exhibit Piece\" (1954)\n\"Adjustment Team\" (1954)\n\"Shell Game\" (1954)\n\"Meddler\" (1954)\n\"A World of Talent\" (1954)\n\"The Last of the Masters\" (1954)\n\"Upon the Dull Earth\" (1954)\n\"The Father-thing\" (1954)\n\"Strange Eden\" (1954)\n\"The Turning Wheel\" (1954)\n\"Foster, You're Dead!\" (1955)\n\"Human Is\" (1955)\n\"War Veteran\" (1955)\n\"Captive Market\" (1955)\n\"Nanny\" (1955)\n\"The Chromium Fence\" (1955)\n\"Service Call\" (1955)\n\"The Mold of Yancy\" (1955)\n\"Autofac\" (1955)\n\"Psi-man Heal My Child!\" (1955)\n\"The Hood Maker\" (1955)\n\"The Minority Report\" (1956)\n\"Pay for the Printer\" (1956)\n\"A Glass of Darkness\" (1956)\n\"The Unreconstructed M\" (1957)\n\"Null-O\" (1958)\n\"Explorers We\" (1959)\n\"Recall Mechanism\" (1959)\n\"Fair Game\" (1959)\n\"War Game\" (1959)\n\"All We Marsmen\" (1963)\n\"What'll We Do with Ragland Park?\" (1963)\n\"The Days of Perky Pat\" (1963)\n\"If There Were No Benny Cemoli\" (1963)\n\"Waterspider\" (1964)\n\"Novelty Act\" (1964)\n\"Oh, to Be a Blobel!\" (1964)\n\"The War with the Fnools\" (1964)\n\"What the Dead Men Say\" (1964)\n\"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" (1964)\n\"Cantata 140\" (1964)\n\"The Unteleported Man\" (1964)\n\"The Little Black Box\" (1964)\n\"Retreat Syndrome\" (1965)\n\"Project Plowshare (later \"The Zap Gun\")\" (1965)\n\"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\" (1966)\n\"Holy Quarrel\" (1966)\n\"Faith of Our Fathers\" (1967)\n\"Not by Its Cover\" (1968)\n\"The Electric Ant\" (1969)\n\"A. Lincoln, Simulacrum\" (1969)\n\"The Pre-persons\" (1974)\n\"A Little Something for Us Tempunauts\" (1974)\n\"The Exit Door Leads In\" (1979)\n\"Rautavaara's Case\" (1980)\n\"I Hope I Shall Arrive Soon\" (1980)\n\"The Eye of the Sibyl\" (1987)\n\"Stability\" (1987)\nAdaptationsFilms\nBlade Runner (1982)\nTotal Recall (1990)\nBarjo (1992)\nScreamers (1995)\nImpostor (2001)\nMinority Report (2002)\nPaycheck (2003)\nA Scanner Darkly (2006)\nNext (2007)\nScreamers: The Hunting (2009)\nRadio Free Albemuth (2010)\nThe Adjustment Bureau (2011)\nTotal Recall (2012)\nBlade Runner 2049 (2017)\n2036: Nexus Dawn (2017)\n2048: Nowhere to Run (2017)\nBlade Runner Black Out 2022 (2017)\nTV series\nTotal Recall 2070 (1999)\nThe Man in the High Castle (2015)\nMinority Report (2015)\nPhilip K. Dick's Electric Dreams (2017)\nBlade Runner: Black Lotus (2021)\nWorks about\nOnly Apparently Real (1986 biography)\nI Am Alive and You Are Dead (1993 biography)\nYour Name Here (2008 drama film)\nRelated\nIsa Dick Hackett (daughter)\nPhilip K. Dick Award","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"O'Hagan, Sean (12 June 2005). \"What a clever Dick\". The Observer. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_O%27Hagan_(journalist)","url_text":"O'Hagan, Sean"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/jun/12/sciencefictionfantasyandhorror.philipkdick","url_text":"\"What a clever Dick\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observer","url_text":"The Observer"}]},{"reference":"Carrère, Emmanuel (2004). I Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey Into the Mind of Philp K. Dick. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 0-8050-5464-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-5464-2","url_text":"0-8050-5464-2"}]},{"reference":"Brisac, Geneviève (1 October 1993). \"\" Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts \", d'Emmanuel Carrère : le cas Dick\". Le Monde (in French). Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genevi%C3%A8ve_Brisac","url_text":"Brisac, Geneviève"},{"url":"https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1993/10/01/le-cas-dick_3943589_1819218.html","url_text":"\"\" Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts \", d'Emmanuel Carrère : le cas Dick\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Monde","url_text":"Le Monde"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Charles (20 June 2004). \"Just Imagine Philip K. Dick\". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/20/books/just-imagine-philip-k-dick.html","url_text":"\"Just Imagine Philip K. Dick\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Moorcock, Michael (4 June 2005). \"Crazy like a fox\". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Moorcock","url_text":"Moorcock, Michael"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/jun/04/featuresreviews.guardianreview15","url_text":"\"Crazy like a fox\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golestan_Palace
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Golestan Palace
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["1 History","2 Sites","2.1 Marble Throne (Takht e Marmar)","2.2 Karim Khani Nook (Khalvat e Karim Khani)","2.3 Pond House (Howz Khaneh)","2.4 Brilliant Hall (Talar e Brelian)","2.5 Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)","2.6 Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)","2.7 Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)","2.8 Salam Hall (Talar e Salam)","2.9 Diamond Hall (Talar e Almas)","2.10 The Windcatcher Building (Emarat e Badgir)","2.11 Edifice of the Sun (Shams ol Emareh)","2.12 Museum of Gifts","2.13 Abyaz Palace","2.14 Museum Hall","2.15 Photographic archive","3 Present use","4 Gallery","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 35°40′47″N 51°25′13″E / 35.67972°N 51.42028°E / 35.67972; 51.42028Former official royal Qajar complex in Tehran, Iran
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Golestan PalaceUNESCO World Heritage SiteEdifice of the Sun (Shams ol Emareh)LocationTehran, IranCriteriaCultural: ii, iii, ivReference1422Inscription2013 (37th Session)Area5.3 haBuffer zone26.2 haCoordinates35°40′47″N 51°25′13″E / 35.67972°N 51.42028°E / 35.67972; 51.42028Location of Golestan PalaceShow map of TehranGolestan Palace (Iran)Show map of IranGolestan Palace (West and Central Asia)Show map of West and Central Asia
The Golestan Palace (Persian: کاخ گلستان, Kākh-e Golestān), also transliterated as the Gulistan Palace and sometimes translated as the Rose Garden Palace from Persian language, was built in the 16th century, renovated in the 18th century and finally rebuilt in 1865. It is the former official royal Qajar complex in Tehran.
One of the oldest historic monuments in the city of Tehran, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Golestan Palace belongs to a group of royal buildings that were once enclosed within the mud-thatched walls of Tehran's arg ("citadel"). It consists of gardens, royal buildings, and collections of Iranian crafts and European presents from the 18th and 19th centuries.
History
Exterior view of the marble throne by Eugène Flandin
The origin of the Tehran's royal citadel can be traced back to July 6, 1404; when Ruy González de Clavijo, the envoy of Enrique III, traveled to Samarkand to meet with Timur, and he chose to stay at the house of Baba Sheikh (one of the elders of Tehran). It is believed that his house was located in the area of the royal citadel and later they were transformed into new buildings with changes. The beginning of the royal citadel can be traced back to the time of Suleiman I, with the construction of a palace in the Chenaristan area, a Divankhane where Soltan Hoseyn in the last year of his reign meet with the Ottoman government's ambassador, Ahmad Dari Effendi. Tehran's arg ("citadel") was built during the reign of Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576) of the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736). Abbas the Great built a big garden in the northern part of the fence, which was later surrounded by a high wall and buildings were built, with the royal residence was built inside it. At the end of the Safavid era, Tehran was sometimes the temporary seat of the court of Safavid kings. The palace was later renovated by Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty (r. 1750–1779). Agha Mohammad Khan of the Qajar dynasty (1742–1797) chose Tehran as his capital. The arg became the seat of the Qajars (1794–1925). The court and palace of Golestan became the official residence of the Qajar dynasty. The palace was rebuilt to its current form in 1865 by Haji Ab ol Hasan Mimar Navai.
During the Pahlavi era (1925–1979), the Golestan Palace was used for formal royal receptions, and the Pahlavi dynasty built their own palace (the Niavaran Complex) in Niavaran. The most important ceremonies held in the palace during the Pahlavi era were the coronation of Reza Shah (r. 1925–1941) on the Marble Throne and the coronation of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941 – 1979) in the Museum Hall. In between 1925 and 1945, a large portion of the buildings of the complex were destroyed on the orders of Reza Shah. He believed that the centuries-old Qajar palace should not hinder the growth of a modern city. In the place of the old buildings, commercial buildings with the modern style of 1950s and 1960s were erected.
Sites
The complex of Golestan Palace consists of 17 structures, including palaces, museums, and halls. Almost all of this complex was built during the 131 years rule of the Qajar kings. These palaces were used for many occasions such as coronations and other important celebrations. It also consists of three main archives, including the photographic archive, the library of manuscripts, and the archive of documents.
Marble Throne (Takht e Marmar)
Main article: Marble Throne
The Marble Throne, built from 1747 to 1751
This terrace, known as the Marble Throne, was built in 1747-1751.
Karim Khani Nook (Khalvat e Karim Khani)
Dating back to 1759, this building was a part of the interior residence of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty. The basic structure of the Karim Khani Nook is similar to the Marble Throne. Like the latter, it is a terrace. There is a small marble throne inside the terrace. The structure is much smaller than the Marble Throne and it has much less ornamentation. There was once a small pond with a fountain in the middle of this terrace. Water from a subterranean stream (the king's qanat) flowed from the fountain into the pond and was later used to irrigate the palace grounds.
Panoramic view of the Karim Khani Nook
Nasser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty was fond of this corner of the Golestan Palace.
Pond House (Howz Khaneh)
The Pond House, painted by Kamal ol Molk.
Works of European painters presented to the Qajar court are housed at the Pond House.
The Pond House was used as a summer chamber during the Qajar era.
Brilliant Hall (Talar e Brelian)
Talar e Brelian (Brilliant Hall).
The Brilliant Hall was named so for it is adorned by the brilliant mirror work of Iranian artisans. The hall was built by the order of Nasser ed Din Shah.
Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)
This building replaced the building of Narenjestan in the north of the Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj).
Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)
Ivory Hall is a large hall used as a dining room. It was decorated with some gifts presented to Nasser ed Din Shah by European monarchs.
Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)
Mirror Hall, painted by Kamal ol Molk
The Mirror Hall is a relatively small hall designed by Haj Abd ol Hossein Memar Bashi (Sanie ol Molk).
Salam Hall (Talar e Salam)
Entrance of Salam Hall
The Salam ("Reception") Hall was originally designed to be a museum.
Diamond Hall (Talar e Almas)
The Diamond Hall is located in the southern wing of the Golestan Palace, next to the building of Windcatchers.
The Windcatcher Building (Emarat e Badgir)
See also: Windcatcher
The Building of WindcatchersOne of the Windcatchers
The Windcatcher Building was constructed during the reign of Fath Ali Shah. The building underwent major renovations, including structural changes, during the reign of Nasser ed Din Shah.
Edifice of the Sun (Shams ol Emareh)
The Edifice of the Sun
The Edifice of the Sun was designed by Moayer ol Mamalek, construction on this building began in 1865 and was completed two years later.
Museum of Gifts
Golestan Palace on the reverse of a 1974 5000 Iranian rial banknote
This building is located under the Salam Hall.
Abyaz Palace
The Abyaz Palace
The Qajar monarch had the Abyaz Palace was constructed.
Museum Hall
The original collection of the Museum Hall is now scattered among Tehran's many museums.
Photographic archive
Photographic archive
There is an early photographic collection at the Golestan complex which includes photos which are mainly related to the time of the 19th-century progress of photography in Europe. It was created by the order of Naser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. It is mentioned that "photography was so common at the royal palace that the king's wives and his servants also took pictures and posed playfully in front of the camera." There is a picture of one servant with flowers decorating his head and shoulders.
Present use
On 11 October 2005, the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran submitted the palace to the UNESCO for inclusion into the World Heritage List in 2007. On 23 June 2013, it was proclaimed as world heritage site during the UNESCO meeting in Phnom Penh.
The Golestan Palace is currently operated by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran.
Gallery
Badgir Mansion.
Karim Khani Nook
Stairs leading up to Salam Hall
The ceiling of Badgir palace
One of the pools
The Marble Throne
The tomb of Naser al-Din Shah
The ceiling of Salam Hall
Tilings 1
Tilings 2
Tilings 3
Tilings 4
Tilings 5
Tilings 6
Tilings on the walls
Tilings 7
Tilings on the Karim Khani Nook
Tilings on the palace
Tilings 8
Tilings on the Shams Ol-Emareh palace
Tilings 9
Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)
Tilings in the Karim Khani Nook
The map of Golestan Palace
Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)
Salam Hall
Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)
Museum Hall
Naser al-Din Shah along with the Sun Throne at the Mirror Hall
Stone inscription of the Brilliant Hall from the reign of Muzaffar al-Din Shah
The map of Golestan palace, 1931
The crown of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar
The tilings of Museum Mansion
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Golestan Palace.
Ferdows Garden
Baharestan
Morvarid Palace
References
^ a b G. Massiot & cie. "Gulistan Palace: Part of the palace complex with water garden". Curate ND. Retrieved 2021-06-29.
^ Iran Traveling Center (July 5, 2014). "The Palace of Roses in Golestan Palace Tehran Iran". Facebook. Archived from the original on 2022-02-26. Retrieved 2021-06-29.
^ a b "Golestan Palace". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
^ "گشتی در کاخ گلستان | خلوت باشکوه پادشاهان - مجله گردشگری اتاقک" (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ a b "در مورد کاخ گلستان در ویکی تابناک بیشتر بخوانید". tabnak.ir. Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ تهران, آژانس عکس. "کاخ گلستان". آژانس عکس تهران (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ vista. "تهران در عصر صفوی". ویستا (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ "کاخ گلستان > موزه های کاخ". www.golestanpalace.ir. Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ "Tehran, Iran - Image of the Week - Earth Watching". earth.esa.int. Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ "Golestan Palace". arasbaran.org. Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ Ali Rahnema (2011). Superstition as Ideology in Iranian Politics: From Majlesi to Ahmadinejad. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 115. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793424. ISBN 978-0-521-18221-8.
^ "Golestan Palace, glorious palace in Tehran". Mehr News Agency. 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2023-12-25.
^ "کاخ گلستان". Golestanpalace.ir. Archived from the original on 2017-12-31. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
^ "The Golestan Palace Library and Archive in Tehran". Dissertation Reviews. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
^ Nazila Fathi (2007-05-30). "Iran - Photographs - Golestan Palace Collection". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
Further reading
Mahdizadeh, Sara; Walker, Stephen; Karimian, Zahra; Rajendran, Lakshmi (2022). "Royal Gardens in Republican Iran: a case study of the Golestan Palace Garden, Tehran". Landscape History. 42 (2): 119–137. doi:10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752. S2CID 254275814.
External links
Official website of Golestan Palace Archived 2006-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
More details about Golestan Palace
Images of the Golestan Palace marbles, Iran Journal of Architecture, No. 14, October 2004.
Photos from Golestan Palace
Farnāz Khatibi, The First Museum of Iran, Jadid Online, 2008 (in Persian). A slide show, by Amin Āzād and Farnāz Khatibi, Jadid Online, 2008. (4 min 54 sec).
Information and pictures of Golestan Palace (in Persian)
Horsham Museum with collections database access
35°40′47″N 51°25′13″E / 35.67972°N 51.42028°E / 35.67972; 51.42028
vteTehran Province, IranCapital
Tehran
Countiesand citiesBaharestan County
Nasim Shahr
Golestan
Salehieh
Damavand County
Damavand
Abali
Absard
Kilan
Rudehen
Eslamshahr County
Ahmadabad-e Mostowfi
Eslamshahr
Chahardangeh
Firuzkuh County
Firuzkuh
Arjomand
Malard County
Malard
Safadasht
Pakdasht County
Pakdasht
Sharifabad
Pardis County
Pardis
Bumehen
Pishva County
Pishva
Qarchak County
Qarchak
Qods County
Qods
Ray County
Rey*
Baqershahr
Hasanabad
Kahrizak
Robat Karim County
Robat Karim
Parand
Nasirabad
Shahriar County
Shahriar
Andisheh
Baghestan
Ferdowsieh
Sabashahr
Shahedshahr
Vahidieh
Shemiranat County
Shemiran*
Fasham
Lavasan
Tajrish*
Tehran County
Tehran
Varamin County
Varamin
Javadabad
Landmarks
Azadi Tower
Bahman Cultural Center
Tabiat Bridge
Carpet Museum of Iran
Dizin
Ebn-e Babooyeh
Golestan Palace
Grand Bazaar, Tehran
Iranian Crown Jewels
Malik National Museum of Iran
Milad Tower
National Museum of Iran
Niavaran Complex
Pearl Palace
Sa'dabad Complex
Shebeli Tower
Shemshak (ski resort)
Bibi Shahr Banu Shrine
Tangeh Savashi
Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art
Toopkhaneh
Tughrul Tower
Reza Abbasi Museum
St. Thaddeus and Bartholomew Church
St. George Church
Populated places
List of cities, towns and villages in Tehran Province
^* indicates that this formerly independent city is now absorbed into Tehran.
vte Palaces in Iran
Alcaraz Palace
Ali Qapu
Arg of Karim Khan
Ferdows Garden
Baqcheh Jooq Palace
Chehel Sotoun
Golestan Palace
Hasht Behesht
Jahan Nama Palace
Marble Palace
Negarestan Palace
Niavaran Complex
Palace of Ardashir
Pearl Palace
Qasre Abunasr
Ramsar Palace
Sa'dabad Complex
Shams-ol-Emareh
vteWorld Heritage Sites in IranList of World Heritage Sites in IranCultural
The Armenian Monastic Ensembles
St. Thaddeus Monastery
St. Stepanos Monastery
Chapel of Dzordzor
Chapel of Chupan
Church of the Holy Mother of God
Bam and its cultural landscape
Behistun
Chogha Zanbil
Cultural landscape of Maymand
Golestan Palace
Gonbad-e Qabus
Jameh Mosque of Isfahan
Naqsh-e Jahan Square
Pasargadae
Persepolis
The Persian gardens
Pasargadae
Chehel Sotoun
Fin
Eram
Shazdeh
Dolatabad
Abbasabad
Akbarieh
Pahlevanpour
Shahr-e Sukhteh
Sheikh Safi's Tomb
Dome of Soltaniyeh
Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System
Susa
Bazaar of Tabriz
Takht-e Soleymān
The Persian Qanat
Ghasabeh
Baladeh
Zarch
Hassan Abad Moshir
Goharriz
Akbarabad
Ghasemabad
Moun
Vazvan
Mozdabad
Ebrahimabad
Historic city of Yazd
Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region
Qal'eh Dokhtar
Ardashir Investiture Relief
Victory Relief of Ardashir
Ardashir Khurreh
Palace of Ardashir
City of Bishapur
Colossal Statue of Shapur I
Shapur cave
Sarvestan Palace
Trans-Iranian Railway
Cultural Landscape of Uramanat
The Persian Caravanserai
Flag of IranNatural
Lut Desert
Hyrcanian Forests
vteIranian architecturePeriodsZoroastrian
Achaemenid
Parthian style
Sasanian
Islamic
Early Islamic
Seljuk
Ilkhanid
Timurid
Safavid
Types
Bazaars
Caravanserais
Khaneqah
Mosques
Takyeh
Elements
Ab anbar
Andaruni
Biruni
Burj
Chahartaq
Dalan e Vorudi
Gonbad
Hashti
Howz
Imamzadeh
Iwan
Kariz
Kucheh
Panjdari
Persian Garden (hayāt)
Qanat
Sahn
Shabestan
Talar
Windcatchers
Yakhchāl
Traditional cities
Amol
Andijan
Baku
Bam
Bukhara
Ctesiphon
Derbent
Ganja
Gur-e-Amir
Hatra
Herat
Isfahan
Kashan
Kashmar
Khiva
Khorramabad
Mashhad
Merv
Nakhchivan
Nishapur
Persepolis
Qazvin
Qom
Samarkand
Shahrisabz
Shiraz
Susa
Tabriz
Takht-e Soleymān
Tehran
Yazd
Theory and analysis
Islamic architecture
Traditional Persian residential architecture
Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity
Lists
Architects of Iran
Args, castles, and ghal'ehs
List of ab anbars of Qazvin
List of mosques
List of ziyarat-gahs
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Israel
United States
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Persian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Qajar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"UNESCO World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-3"}],"text":"Former official royal Qajar complex in Tehran, IranThe Golestan Palace (Persian: کاخ گلستان, Kākh-e Golestān), also transliterated as the Gulistan Palace[1] and sometimes translated as the Rose Garden Palace from Persian language,[1][2] was built in the 16th century, renovated in the 18th century and finally rebuilt in 1865. It is the former official royal Qajar complex in Tehran.One of the oldest historic monuments in the city of Tehran, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[3] the Golestan Palace belongs to a group of royal buildings that were once enclosed within the mud-thatched walls of Tehran's arg (\"citadel\"). It consists of gardens, royal buildings, and collections of Iranian crafts and European presents from the 18th and 19th centuries.[3]","title":"Golestan Palace"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exterior_view_of_the_marble_throne_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eugène Flandin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin"},{"link_name":"Ruy González de Clavijo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruy_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Clavijo"},{"link_name":"Enrique III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Samarkand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarkand"},{"link_name":"Timur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Suleiman I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_I_of_Persia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tabnak-5"},{"link_name":"Soltan Hoseyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soltan_Hoseyn"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Tahmasp I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahmasp_I"},{"link_name":"Safavid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Abbas the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tabnak-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Karim Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karim_Khan"},{"link_name":"Zand dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zand_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Agha Mohammad Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agha_Mohammad_Khan_Qajar"},{"link_name":"Qajar dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Pahlavi era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Niavaran Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niavaran_Complex"},{"link_name":"Niavaran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niavaran"},{"link_name":"Reza Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Shah"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Marble Throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble_Throne"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Reza Pahlavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Exterior view of the marble throne by Eugène FlandinThe origin of the Tehran's royal citadel can be traced back to July 6, 1404; when Ruy González de Clavijo, the envoy of Enrique III, traveled to Samarkand to meet with Timur, and he chose to stay at the house of Baba Sheikh (one of the elders of Tehran). It is believed that his house was located in the area of the royal citadel and later they were transformed into new buildings with changes.[4] The beginning of the royal citadel can be traced back to the time of Suleiman I,[5] with the construction of a palace in the Chenaristan area, a Divankhane where Soltan Hoseyn in the last year of his reign meet with the Ottoman government's ambassador, Ahmad Dari Effendi. Tehran's arg (\"citadel\") was built during the reign of Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576) of the Safavid dynasty (1502–1736).[6] Abbas the Great built a big garden in the northern part of the fence, which was later surrounded by a high wall and buildings were built, with the royal residence was built inside it.[5] At the end of the Safavid era, Tehran was sometimes the temporary seat of the court of Safavid kings.[7] The palace was later renovated by Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty (r. 1750–1779).[8] Agha Mohammad Khan of the Qajar dynasty (1742–1797) chose Tehran as his capital.[9] The arg became the seat of the Qajars (1794–1925). The court and palace of Golestan became the official residence of the Qajar dynasty. The palace was rebuilt to its current form in 1865 by Haji Ab ol Hasan Mimar Navai.[10]During the Pahlavi era (1925–1979), the Golestan Palace was used for formal royal receptions, and the Pahlavi dynasty built their own palace (the Niavaran Complex) in Niavaran. The most important ceremonies held in the palace during the Pahlavi era were the coronation of Reza Shah (r. 1925–1941)[11] on the Marble Throne and the coronation of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941 – 1979) in the Museum Hall. In between 1925 and 1945, a large portion of the buildings of the complex were destroyed on the orders of Reza Shah.[12] He believed that the centuries-old Qajar palace should not hinder the growth of a modern city. In the place of the old buildings, commercial buildings with the modern style of 1950s and 1960s were erected.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The complex of Golestan Palace consists of 17 structures, including palaces, museums, and halls. Almost all of this complex was built during the 131 years rule of the Qajar kings.[13] These palaces were used for many occasions such as coronations and other important celebrations. It also consists of three main archives, including the photographic archive, the library of manuscripts, and the archive of documents.[14]","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_03.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Marble Throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble_Throne"}],"sub_title":"Marble Throne (Takht e Marmar)","text":"The Marble Throne, built from 1747 to 1751This terrace, known as the Marble Throne, was built in 1747-1751.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Karim Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karim_Khan_Zand"},{"link_name":"Zand dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zand_dynasty"},{"link_name":"qanat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Khalvat-karimkhani-panorama.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Khalvat-karimkhani-panorama.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nasser ed Din Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar"}],"sub_title":"Karim Khani Nook (Khalvat e Karim Khani)","text":"Dating back to 1759, this building was a part of the interior residence of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty. The basic structure of the Karim Khani Nook is similar to the Marble Throne. Like the latter, it is a terrace. There is a small marble throne inside the terrace. The structure is much smaller than the Marble Throne and it has much less ornamentation. There was once a small pond with a fountain in the middle of this terrace. Water from a subterranean stream (the king's qanat) flowed from the fountain into the pond and was later used to irrigate the palace grounds.Panoramic view of the Karim Khani NookNasser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty was fond of this corner of the Golestan Palace.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_palace_springhouse.JPG"},{"link_name":"Kamal ol Molk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal-ol-molk"}],"sub_title":"Pond House (Howz Khaneh)","text":"The Pond House, painted by Kamal ol Molk.Works of European painters presented to the Qajar court are housed at the Pond House.The Pond House was used as a summer chamber during the Qajar era.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_09.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Brilliant Hall (Talar e Brelian)","text":"Talar e Brelian (Brilliant Hall).The Brilliant Hall was named so for it is adorned by the brilliant mirror work of Iranian artisans. The hall was built by the order of Nasser ed Din Shah.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Containers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)","text":"This building replaced the building of Narenjestan in the north of the Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj).","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Ivory Hall (Talar e Adj)","text":"Ivory Hall is a large hall used as a dining room. It was decorated with some gifts presented to Nasser ed Din Shah by European monarchs.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mirror_Hall_by_Kamal-ol-molk.JPG"},{"link_name":"Kamal ol Molk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal-ol-molk"}],"sub_title":"Mirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)","text":"Mirror Hall, painted by Kamal ol MolkThe Mirror Hall is a relatively small hall designed by Haj Abd ol Hossein Memar Bashi (Sanie ol Molk).","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_07.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Salam Hall (Talar e Salam)","text":"Entrance of Salam HallThe Salam (\"Reception\") Hall was originally designed to be a museum.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Diamond Hall (Talar e Almas)","text":"The Diamond Hall is located in the southern wing of the Golestan Palace, next to the building of Windcatchers.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windcatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windcatcher"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emarat_badgir.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Badgir-golestan-palace-tehr.jpg"}],"sub_title":"The Windcatcher Building (Emarat e Badgir)","text":"See also: WindcatcherThe Building of WindcatchersOne of the WindcatchersThe Windcatcher Building was constructed during the reign of Fath Ali Shah. The building underwent major renovations, including structural changes, during the reign of Nasser ed Din Shah.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_15-19_PAN.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Edifice of the Sun (Shams ol Emareh)","text":"The Edifice of the SunThe Edifice of the Sun was designed by Moayer ol Mamalek, construction on this building began in 1865 and was completed two years later.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Iran_5000_Rials_Banknote_1977_-_Second_Pahlavi_King_(reverse).png"},{"link_name":"Iranian rial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_rial"}],"sub_title":"Museum of Gifts","text":"Golestan Palace on the reverse of a 1974 5000 Iranian rial banknoteThis building is located under the Salam Hall.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyaz_Palace_(5).JPG"}],"sub_title":"Abyaz Palace","text":"The Abyaz PalaceThe Qajar monarch had the Abyaz Palace was constructed.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Museum Hall","text":"The original collection of the Museum Hall is now scattered among Tehran's many museums.","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_40-42_HDR.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Photographic archive","text":"Photographic archiveThere is an early photographic collection at the Golestan complex which includes photos which are mainly related to the time of the 19th-century progress of photography in Europe. It was created by the order of Naser ed Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. It is mentioned that \"photography was so common at the royal palace that the king's wives and his servants also took pictures and posed playfully in front of the camera.\" There is a picture of one servant with flowers decorating his head and shoulders.[15]","title":"Sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_Heritage_Organization_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_List"},{"link_name":"Phnom Penh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Penh"}],"text":"On 11 October 2005, the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran submitted the palace to the UNESCO for inclusion into the World Heritage List in 2007. On 23 June 2013, it was proclaimed as world heritage site during the UNESCO meeting in Phnom Penh.The Golestan Palace is currently operated by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran.","title":"Present use"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_24-26_HDR.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan-palace.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace,_A_UNESCO_WHS_-_Tehran.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n,_Teher%C3%A1n,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-17,_DD_37-39_HDR.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_Garden.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avon_Marble_Beds_main.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golestan_Palace_003.jpg"},{"link_name":"Naser al-Din Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golestan_Palace_002.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decorative_wall_panel_from_Golestan_palace,_Tehran.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_34.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_32.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_palace_18.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_33.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_palace_10.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_Walls.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decorative_tile_panel,_Golestan_palace,_Tehran.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_palace_11.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_X.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_XI.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_XXIII.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NO.417-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-4.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pano_brelian_golestan.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_55.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4%D9%87_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7_%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86_%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%81.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mirror_Hall,_Golestan_Palace_(2022).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Golestan_Palace_006.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FS-FSA_A.15_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B8%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1_1218_%D9%82.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B4%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D9%81_1931_%D9%85.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%A2%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7.jpg"}],"text":"Badgir Mansion.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKarim Khani Nook\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStairs leading up to Salam Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe ceiling of Badgir palace\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOne of the pools\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Marble Throne\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe tomb of Naser al-Din Shah\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe ceiling of Salam Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 1\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 2\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 3\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 4\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 5\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 6\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings on the walls\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 7\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings on the Karim Khani Nook\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings on the palace\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 8\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings on the Shams Ol-Emareh palace\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings 9\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIvory Hall (Talar e Adj)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTilings in the Karim Khani Nook\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe map of Golestan Palace\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tContainers Hall (Talar e Zoruf)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSalam Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMirror Hall (Talar e Aineh)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMuseum Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNaser al-Din Shah along with the Sun Throne at the Mirror Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStone inscription of the Brilliant Hall from the reign of Muzaffar al-Din Shah\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe map of Golestan palace, 1931\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe crown of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe tilings of Museum Mansion","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F01433768.2022.2143752"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"254275814","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254275814"}],"text":"Mahdizadeh, Sara; Walker, Stephen; Karimian, Zahra; Rajendran, Lakshmi (2022). \"Royal Gardens in Republican Iran: a case study of the Golestan Palace Garden, Tehran\". Landscape History. 42 (2): 119–137. doi:10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752. S2CID 254275814.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Exterior view of the marble throne by Eugène Flandin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Exterior_view_of_the_marble_throne_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg/220px-Exterior_view_of_the_marble_throne_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Marble Throne, built from 1747 to 1751","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_03.jpg/220px-Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_03.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Pond House, painted by Kamal ol Molk.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Golestan_palace_springhouse.JPG/200px-Golestan_palace_springhouse.JPG"},{"image_text":"Talar e Brelian (Brilliant Hall).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_09.jpg/220px-Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_09.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mirror Hall, painted by Kamal ol Molk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Mirror_Hall_by_Kamal-ol-molk.JPG/250px-Mirror_Hall_by_Kamal-ol-molk.JPG"},{"image_text":"Entrance of Salam Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_07.jpg/220px-Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_07.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Edifice of the Sun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_15-19_PAN.jpg/220px-Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_15-19_PAN.jpg"},{"image_text":"Golestan Palace on the reverse of a 1974 5000 Iranian rial banknote","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Kingdom_of_Iran_5000_Rials_Banknote_1977_-_Second_Pahlavi_King_%28reverse%29.png/300px-Kingdom_of_Iran_5000_Rials_Banknote_1977_-_Second_Pahlavi_King_%28reverse%29.png"},{"image_text":"The Abyaz Palace","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abyaz_Palace_%285%29.JPG/220px-Abyaz_Palace_%285%29.JPG"},{"image_text":"Photographic archive","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_40-42_HDR.jpg/220px-Palacio_de_Golest%C3%A1n%2C_Teher%C3%A1n%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-17%2C_DD_40-42_HDR.jpg"},{"image_text":"Flag of Iran","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Golestan Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Golestan_Palace"},{"title":"Ferdows Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdows_Garden"},{"title":"Baharestan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baharestan"},{"title":"Morvarid Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morvarid_Palace"}]
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[{"reference":"G. Massiot & cie. \"Gulistan Palace: Part of the palace complex with water garden\". Curate ND. Retrieved 2021-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://curate.nd.edu/show/8s45q814713","url_text":"\"Gulistan Palace: Part of the palace complex with water garden\""}]},{"reference":"Iran Traveling Center (July 5, 2014). \"The Palace of Roses in Golestan Palace Tehran Iran\". Facebook. Archived from the original on 2022-02-26. Retrieved 2021-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/IranTravelingCenter/posts/the-palace-of-roses-in-golestan-palace-tehran-iranthe-palace-of-roses-is-again-o/10152245891902029/","url_text":"\"The Palace of Roses in Golestan Palace Tehran Iran\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/202844447028/10152245891902029","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Golestan Palace\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2017-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1422","url_text":"\"Golestan Palace\""}]},{"reference":"\"گشتی در کاخ گلستان | خلوت باشکوه پادشاهان - مجله گردشگری اتاقک\" (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.otaghak.com/blog/golestan-palace/","url_text":"\"گشتی در کاخ گلستان | خلوت باشکوه پادشاهان - مجله گردشگری اتاقک\""}]},{"reference":"\"در مورد کاخ گلستان در ویکی تابناک بیشتر بخوانید\". tabnak.ir. Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tabnak.ir/fa/tags/8257/1/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE-%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86","url_text":"\"در مورد کاخ گلستان در ویکی تابناک بیشتر بخوانید\""}]},{"reference":"تهران, آژانس عکس. \"کاخ گلستان\". آژانس عکس تهران (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tehranpicture.ir/fa/album/230/https%3a%2f%2fwww.tehranpicture.ir%2ffa%2falbum%2f230%2f%25da%25a9%25d8%25a7%25d8%25ae-%25da%25af%25d9%2584%25d8%25b3%25d8%25aa%25d8%25a7%25d9%2586","url_text":"\"کاخ گلستان\""}]},{"reference":"vista. \"تهران در عصر صفوی\". ویستا (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://vista.ir/w/16/oyfj2","url_text":"\"تهران در عصر صفوی\""}]},{"reference":"\"کاخ گلستان > موزه های کاخ\". www.golestanpalace.ir. Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.golestanpalace.ir/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%87-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE/agentType/View/PropertyID/6","url_text":"\"کاخ گلستان > موزه های کاخ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tehran, Iran - Image of the Week - Earth Watching\". earth.esa.int. Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://earth.esa.int/web/earth-watching/image-of-the-week/content/-/article/tehran-iran/","url_text":"\"Tehran, Iran - Image of the Week - Earth Watching\""}]},{"reference":"\"Golestan Palace\". arasbaran.org. Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://arasbaran.org/en/print_news.cfm?id=7","url_text":"\"Golestan Palace\""}]},{"reference":"Ali Rahnema (2011). Superstition as Ideology in Iranian Politics: From Majlesi to Ahmadinejad. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 115. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793424. ISBN 978-0-521-18221-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793424","url_text":"Superstition as Ideology in Iranian Politics: From Majlesi to Ahmadinejad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511793424","url_text":"10.1017/CBO9780511793424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18221-8","url_text":"978-0-521-18221-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Golestan Palace, glorious palace in Tehran\". Mehr News Agency. 2020-02-08. Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.mehrnews.com/news/155402/Golestan-Palace-glorious-palace-in-Tehran","url_text":"\"Golestan Palace, glorious palace in Tehran\""}]},{"reference":"\"کاخ گلستان\". Golestanpalace.ir. Archived from the original on 2017-12-31. Retrieved 2017-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171231225304/http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","url_text":"\"کاخ گلستان\""},{"url":"http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Golestan Palace Library and Archive in Tehran\". Dissertation Reviews. Retrieved 2017-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://dissertationreviews.org/archives/12143","url_text":"\"The Golestan Palace Library and Archive in Tehran\""}]},{"reference":"Nazila Fathi (2007-05-30). \"Iran - Photographs - Golestan Palace Collection\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/30/arts/design/30phot.html?_r=0","url_text":"\"Iran - Photographs - Golestan Palace Collection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Mahdizadeh, Sara; Walker, Stephen; Karimian, Zahra; Rajendran, Lakshmi (2022). \"Royal Gardens in Republican Iran: a case study of the Golestan Palace Garden, Tehran\". Landscape History. 42 (2): 119–137. doi:10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752. S2CID 254275814.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01433768.2022.2143752","url_text":"10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254275814","url_text":"254275814"}]}]
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51.42028"},{"Link":"https://curate.nd.edu/show/8s45q814713","external_links_name":"\"Gulistan Palace: Part of the palace complex with water garden\""},{"Link":"https://www.facebook.com/IranTravelingCenter/posts/the-palace-of-roses-in-golestan-palace-tehran-iranthe-palace-of-roses-is-again-o/10152245891902029/","external_links_name":"\"The Palace of Roses in Golestan Palace Tehran Iran\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/202844447028/10152245891902029","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1422","external_links_name":"\"Golestan Palace\""},{"Link":"https://www.otaghak.com/blog/golestan-palace/","external_links_name":"\"گشتی در کاخ گلستان | خلوت باشکوه پادشاهان - مجله گردشگری اتاقک\""},{"Link":"https://www.tabnak.ir/fa/tags/8257/1/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE-%DA%AF%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86","external_links_name":"\"در مورد کاخ گلستان در ویکی تابناک بیشتر بخوانید\""},{"Link":"https://www.tehranpicture.ir/fa/album/230/https%3a%2f%2fwww.tehranpicture.ir%2ffa%2falbum%2f230%2f%25da%25a9%25d8%25a7%25d8%25ae-%25da%25af%25d9%2584%25d8%25b3%25d8%25aa%25d8%25a7%25d9%2586","external_links_name":"\"کاخ گلستان\""},{"Link":"https://vista.ir/w/16/oyfj2","external_links_name":"\"تهران در عصر صفوی\""},{"Link":"http://www.golestanpalace.ir/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%87-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AE/agentType/View/PropertyID/6","external_links_name":"\"کاخ گلستان > موزه های کاخ\""},{"Link":"https://earth.esa.int/web/earth-watching/image-of-the-week/content/-/article/tehran-iran/","external_links_name":"\"Tehran, Iran - Image of the Week - Earth Watching\""},{"Link":"https://arasbaran.org/en/print_news.cfm?id=7","external_links_name":"\"Golestan Palace\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793424","external_links_name":"Superstition as Ideology in Iranian Politics: From Majlesi to Ahmadinejad"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511793424","external_links_name":"10.1017/CBO9780511793424"},{"Link":"https://en.mehrnews.com/news/155402/Golestan-Palace-glorious-palace-in-Tehran","external_links_name":"\"Golestan Palace, glorious palace in Tehran\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171231225304/http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","external_links_name":"\"کاخ گلستان\""},{"Link":"http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://dissertationreviews.org/archives/12143","external_links_name":"\"The Golestan Palace Library and Archive in Tehran\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/30/arts/design/30phot.html?_r=0","external_links_name":"\"Iran - Photographs - Golestan Palace Collection\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01433768.2022.2143752","external_links_name":"10.1080/01433768.2022.2143752"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254275814","external_links_name":"254275814"},{"Link":"http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","external_links_name":"Official website of Golestan Palace"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060825063724/http://www.golestanpalace.ir/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140307234203/http://wikitravelbook.com/?page=artreader&id=97","external_links_name":"More details about Golestan Palace"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071012193717/http://iranjoa.com/iranjoa14/golestan/english/album.htm","external_links_name":"Golestan Palace marbles"},{"Link":"http://www.iranian.com/ArefErfani/2005/May/Golestan/index.html","external_links_name":"Photos from Golestan Palace"},{"Link":"http://www.jadidonline.com/story/19082008/frnk/golestan_palace","external_links_name":"The First Museum of Iran, Jadid Online, 2008"},{"Link":"http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Golestan_palace_test/golestan_high.html","external_links_name":"A slide show"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080915091508/http://www.anobanini.ir/travel/fa/tehran/1385/10/post_6.php#more","external_links_name":"Information and pictures of Golestan Palace"},{"Link":"http://www.horshammuseum.org/","external_links_name":"Horsham Museum"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Golestan_Palace¶ms=35_40_47_N_51_25_13_E_region:IR_type:landmark_source:dewiki","external_links_name":"35°40′47″N 51°25′13″E / 35.67972°N 51.42028°E / 35.67972; 51.42028"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/3820156317459602350009","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007604155505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n98039258","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desk_accessory
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Desk accessory
|
["1 Personal information managers","2 Apple Macintosh","3 GEM","4 Palm OS","5 References","6 See also"]
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Small application that can be run concurrently with any other application
A desk accessory (DA) or desklet in computing is a small transient or auxiliary application that can be run concurrently in a desktop environment with any other application on the system. Early examples, such as Sidekick and Macintosh desk accessories, used special programming models to provide a small degree of multitasking on systems that initially did not have any other multitasking ability.
Personal information managers
Early personal information managers, such as Norton Desktop and Borland's Sidekick, provided pop-up calculator, alarm, calendar and other functions for single-tasking operating systems like MS-DOS using terminate-and-stay-resident techniques.
Apple Macintosh
Introduced in 1984 as part of the operating system for the Apple Macintosh computer, a Desk Accessory (DA) was a piece of software written as a device driver, conforming to a particular programming model. The purpose of this model was to permit very small helper-type applications to be run concurrently with any other application on the system. This provided a small degree of multitasking on a system that initially did not have any other multitasking ability.
DAs were implemented as a special class of driver. It was installed in the driver queue, and given time periodically and co-operatively as a result of the host application calling SystemTask() within its main loop. A DA was permitted to have a user interface as long as it was confined to one main window. A special window frame with black title bar and rounded corners was reserved for the use of DAs so that the user could distinguish it from the windows of the hosting application.
Typical early DAs included the Calculator and Alarm Clock. The control panel, Chooser, and Scrapbook were initially implemented as DAs. Third-party DAs such as spelling checkers could be purchased. It was considered hard to write a DA, especially early on when there was little in the way of developer tools. However, since on the early Mac OS drivers did not have any special privileges, writing a DA was, with practice, no more difficult than any other application.
A special Font/DA Mover utility was used to change the configuration of DAs. Because DAs were not installed or launched in the same way that applications were, the user could not drag and drop DAs into or out of the system. They resided in the System file's 'DRVR' resources, like actual drivers, though they could be installed in any file whose resources were loaded into the memory, and were stored in "suitcases" when not installed in the system file. If installed within a separate application, such as MacWrite, their functionality would be accessible only when that application was running. That is, a desk accessory installed as a resource within an application would appear on the Apple menu as a desk accessory only when that application was active. It could then be activated while the application was run and would then disappear when the application was terminated through the Quit function. (Similarly, the FKEY resources could be installed either within the System so as to be universally available, or within an application so as to be available only when that application was active). As a resource numbering scheme was implemented for marking resources as belonging to another resource of some particular type and number in the same file, such as a DA ('DRVR'), it was possible for desk accessories to have a limited "resource fork" of their own within the file they were contained in; the mover utility recognised such resources and moved them along with the actual DA code resource they were associated with.
With the advent of System 7, which included a standard cooperative multitasking feature, the need for DAs diminished greatly, and developers were encouraged to develop small applications instead. The system continued to run DAs (and still does up to Mac OS 9.x) for backward compatibility. Under System 7 and later, DAs could be moved and renamed using the Finder like normal applications, removing the need for Font/DA Mover and confining suitcases to font management. When a DA was run under System 7, it always executed in the Finder's address space. The icon for a desk accessory program under System 7 and later is roughly a reversed version of the application icon, with the writing hand on the left side instead of the right.
A similar mechanism to allow small utility programs to run along with regular applications was also present in the operating system for the Apple IIGS and Apple IIe.
GEM
The supplied desk accessories in OpenGEM
GEM resembled the Macintosh closely in many respects. One example was the presence of desk accessories, for the same reason: to allow multiple programs to be used in a system that only supported one full application at a time (although GEM desk accessories used task switching and not cooperative multitasking like the Macintosh.)
From a programming point of view, desk accessories were implemented, like other GEM applications, as DOS .EXE files, with names ending with .ACC (Accessory) rather than .APP (Application). Each .ACC file could support multiple accessories; all three of the standard GEM accessories (Calculator, Clock and Print Spooler) were provided by CALCLOCK.ACC. Installation was simply a matter of placing the .ACC in the correct directory - \GEMBOOT in earlier versions, and \GEMAPPS\GEMSYS in GEM/3 and later.
Since each desk accessory loaded reduced the amount of memory available for programs, one technique for temporarily increasing available space was to rename one or more .ACC files to have a different suffix (usually .ACX) and restart GEM. On the Amstrad PC-1512, for example, the Snapshot accessory was shipped as SNAPSHOT.ACX and had to be renamed to .ACC prior to use.
Desk accessories continued to be supported in ViewMAX, the DR-DOS file manager, which was supplied with almost unchanged versions of Calculator and Clock.
Palm OS
For much the same reason as desk accessories were used in Mac OS and in GEM, namely to allow more than one simultaneous program on a system which did not support multitasking, the concept of desk accessories was extended to Palm OS by third-party developers. DA are applets launched by an application or hack serving as a DA launcher. The DA launcher may watch for keystrokes or other system events and pop up a predefined desk accessory. Many general-purpose Palm OS launcher applications are capable of launching DAs as well.
A desk accessory program is a Palm resource database of type 'DAcc', specified to include a single 'code' #1000 resource that contains the binary code implementing the desk accessory. Global or static variables are not available, but a DA can call user interface APIs. It is possible for a DA to have user interface resources in its database. The desk accessory launcher transfers execution to the first byte of the 'code' #1000 resource.
DAs provide a modicum of multitasking. However, unlike in Mac OS and GEM, after the user is done working with the DA, it must be closed to return to the underlying application. It is possible to pop up one DA over another DA, though this might deplete stack space.
References
^ "Desk accessories are hard to write because they're constructed so differently from the host programs they depend on. They're written as device drivers – which means, among other things, that they are table-driven, that they have to be small (about 8K bytes at the most), and that they have to be very careful not to alter the environment they work in." Byte Sep 1986
Andy Hertzfeld (October 1981) . Desk Ornaments. folklore.org. URL accessed May 20, 2006.
See also
Helper application, for web browser accessories
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"link_name":"transient or auxiliary application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_posture"},{"link_name":"desktop environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_environment"},{"link_name":"Sidekick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland_Sidekick"},{"link_name":"multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"}],"text":"A desk accessory (DA) or desklet in computing is a small transient or auxiliary application that can be run concurrently in a desktop environment with any other application on the system. Early examples, such as Sidekick and Macintosh desk accessories, used special programming models to provide a small degree of multitasking on systems that initially did not have any other multitasking ability.","title":"Desk accessory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norton Desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norton_Desktop&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sidekick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland_Sidekick"},{"link_name":"terminate-and-stay-resident techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminate-and-stay-resident_program"}],"text":"Early personal information managers, such as Norton Desktop and Borland's Sidekick, provided pop-up calculator, alarm, calendar and other functions for single-tasking operating systems like MS-DOS using terminate-and-stay-resident techniques.","title":"Personal information managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"Apple Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh"},{"link_name":"multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"},{"link_name":"driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"main loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_loop"},{"link_name":"title bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_decoration#Title_bar"},{"link_name":"control panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Preferences"},{"link_name":"Chooser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chooser_(Mac_OS)"},{"link_name":"Scrapbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrapbook_(Mac_OS)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork"},{"link_name":"\"suitcases\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suitcase_(Macintosh)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"System 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_7"},{"link_name":"cooperative multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking#Cooperative_multitasking"},{"link_name":"Mac OS 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_9"},{"link_name":"font","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_font"},{"link_name":"address space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"},{"link_name":"icon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Apple IIGS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIGS"},{"link_name":"Apple IIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEOS_(8-bit_operating_system)"}],"text":"Introduced in 1984 as part of the operating system for the Apple Macintosh computer, a Desk Accessory (DA) was a piece of software written as a device driver, conforming to a particular programming model. The purpose of this model was to permit very small helper-type applications to be run concurrently with any other application on the system. This provided a small degree of multitasking on a system that initially did not have any other multitasking ability.DAs were implemented as a special class of driver. It was installed in the driver queue, and given time periodically and co-operatively as a result of the host application calling SystemTask() within its main loop. A DA was permitted to have a user interface as long as it was confined to one main window. A special window frame with black title bar and rounded corners was reserved for the use of DAs so that the user could distinguish it from the windows of the hosting application.Typical early DAs included the Calculator and Alarm Clock. The control panel, Chooser, and Scrapbook were initially implemented as DAs. Third-party DAs such as spelling checkers could be purchased. It was considered hard to write a DA, especially early on when there was little in the way of developer tools.[1] However, since on the early Mac OS drivers did not have any special privileges, writing a DA was, with practice, no more difficult than any other application.A special Font/DA Mover utility was used to change the configuration of DAs. Because DAs were not installed or launched in the same way that applications were, the user could not drag and drop DAs into or out of the system. They resided in the System file's 'DRVR' resources, like actual drivers, though they could be installed in any file whose resources were loaded into the memory, and were stored in \"suitcases\" when not installed in the system file. If installed within a separate application, such as MacWrite, their functionality would be accessible only when that application was running. That is, a desk accessory installed as a resource within an application would appear on the Apple menu as a desk accessory only when that application was active. It could then be activated while the application was run and would then disappear when the application was terminated through the Quit function. (Similarly, the FKEY resources could be installed either within the System so as to be universally available, or within an application so as to be available only when that application was active). As a resource numbering scheme was implemented for marking resources as belonging to another resource of some particular type and number in the same file, such as a DA ('DRVR'), it was possible for desk accessories to have a limited \"resource fork\" of their own within the file they were contained in; the mover utility recognised such resources and moved them along with the actual DA code resource they were associated with.With the advent of System 7, which included a standard cooperative multitasking feature, the need for DAs diminished greatly, and developers were encouraged to develop small applications instead. The system continued to run DAs (and still does up to Mac OS 9.x) for backward compatibility. Under System 7 and later, DAs could be moved and renamed using the Finder like normal applications, removing the need for Font/DA Mover and confining suitcases to font management. When a DA was run under System 7, it always executed in the Finder's address space. The icon for a desk accessory program under System 7 and later is roughly a reversed version of the application icon, with the writing hand on the left side instead of the right.A similar mechanism to allow small utility programs to run along with regular applications was also present in the operating system for the Apple IIGS and Apple IIe.","title":"Apple Macintosh"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DA_OpenGem.png"},{"link_name":"OpenGEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGEM"},{"link_name":"GEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Environment_Manager"},{"link_name":"task switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_switching"},{"link_name":"cooperative multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_multitasking"},{"link_name":"Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_macintosh"},{"link_name":"DOS .EXE files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_executable"},{"link_name":"Amstrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad"},{"link_name":"PC-1512","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-1512"},{"link_name":"ViewMAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ViewMAX"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS"}],"text":"The supplied desk accessories in OpenGEMGEM resembled the Macintosh closely in many respects. One example was the presence of desk accessories, for the same reason: to allow multiple programs to be used in a system that only supported one full application at a time (although GEM desk accessories used task switching and not cooperative multitasking like the Macintosh.)From a programming point of view, desk accessories were implemented, like other GEM applications, as DOS .EXE files, with names ending with .ACC (Accessory) rather than .APP (Application). Each .ACC file could support multiple accessories; all three of the standard GEM accessories (Calculator, Clock and Print Spooler) were provided by CALCLOCK.ACC. Installation was simply a matter of placing the .ACC in the correct directory - \\GEMBOOT in earlier versions, and \\GEMAPPS\\GEMSYS in GEM/3 and later.Since each desk accessory loaded reduced the amount of memory available for programs, one technique for temporarily increasing available space was to rename one or more .ACC files to have a different suffix (usually .ACX) and restart GEM. On the Amstrad PC-1512, for example, the Snapshot accessory was shipped as SNAPSHOT.ACX and had to be renamed to .ACC prior to use.Desk accessories continued to be supported in ViewMAX, the DR-DOS file manager, which was supplied with almost unchanged versions of Calculator and Clock.","title":"GEM"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"For much the same reason as desk accessories were used in Mac OS and in GEM, namely to allow more than one simultaneous program on a system which did not support multitasking, the concept of desk accessories was extended to Palm OS by third-party developers. DA are applets launched by an application or hack serving as a DA launcher. The DA launcher may watch for keystrokes or other system events and pop up a predefined desk accessory. Many general-purpose Palm OS launcher applications are capable of launching DAs as well.A desk accessory program is a Palm resource database of type 'DAcc', specified to include a single 'code' #1000 resource that contains the binary code implementing the desk accessory. Global or static variables are not available, but a DA can call user interface APIs. It is possible for a DA to have user interface resources in its database. The desk accessory launcher transfers execution to the first byte of the 'code' #1000 resource.DAs provide a modicum of multitasking. However, unlike in Mac OS and GEM, after the user is done working with the DA, it must be closed to return to the underlying application. It is possible to pop up one DA over another DA, though this might deplete stack space.","title":"Palm OS"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The supplied desk accessories in OpenGEM","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/DA_OpenGem.png/400px-DA_OpenGem.png"}]
|
[{"title":"Helper application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helper_application"}]
|
[]
|
[{"Link":"https://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?project=Macintosh&story=Desk_Ornaments.txt","external_links_name":"Desk Ornaments"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes
|
Colossus of Rhodes
|
["1 Siege of Rhodes","2 Construction","3 The standing Colossus (280–226 BC)","4 Collapse (226 BC)","5 Fallen state (226 BC to 653 AD)","6 Destruction of the remains","7 Posture","8 Possible locations","9 Modern Colossus projects","10 See also","11 References","11.1 Notes","11.2 References","11.3 Sources","12 Further reading"]
|
One of the seven wonders of the ancient world
For other uses, see Colossus of Rhodes (disambiguation).
Colossus of Rhodes, artist's impression, 1880
The Colossus of Rhodes (Ancient Greek: ὁ Κολοσσὸς Ῥόδιος, romanized: ho Kolossòs Rhódios; Greek: Κολοσσός της Ρόδου, romanized: Kolossós tes Rhódou) was a statue of the Greek sun god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was constructed to celebrate the successful defence of Rhodes city against an attack by Demetrius I of Macedon, who had besieged it for a year with a large army and navy.
According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70 cubits, or 33 metres (108 feet) high – approximately the height of the modern Statue of Liberty from feet to crown – making it the tallest statue in the ancient world. It collapsed during the earthquake of 226 BC, although parts of it were preserved. In accordance with the Oracle of Delphi, the Rhodians did not rebuild it. John Malalas wrote that Hadrian in his reign re-erected the Colossus, but he was mistaken. According to the Suda, the Rhodians were called Colossaeans (Κολοσσαεῖς), because they erected the statue on the island.
In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Mu'awiya I conquered Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, the statue was completely destroyed and the remains sold; this account may be unreliable.(pp 179–186)
Since 2008, a series of as-yet-unrealized proposals to build a new Colossus at Rhodes Harbour have been announced, although the actual location of the original monument remains in dispute.
Siege of Rhodes
Main article: Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC)
In the late fourth century BC, Rhodes, allied with Ptolemy I of Egypt, prevented a mass invasion staged by their common enemy, Antigonus I Monophthalmus.
In 304 BC a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived, and Demetrius (son of Antigonus) and his army abandoned the siege, leaving behind most of their siege equipment. To celebrate their victory, the Rhodians sold the equipment left behind for 300 talents and decided to use the money to build a colossal statue of their patron god, Helios. Construction was left to the direction of Chares, a native of Lindos in Rhodes, who had been involved with large-scale statues before. His teacher, the sculptor Lysippos, had constructed a 22-metre-high (72-foot) bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum.
Construction
Timeline and map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Colossus of Rhodes
Construction began in 292 BC. Ancient accounts, which differ to some degree, describe the structure as being built with iron tie bars to which brass plates were fixed to form the skin. The interior of the structure, which stood on a 15-metre-high (49-foot) white marble pedestal near the Rhodes harbour entrance, was then filled with stone blocks as construction progressed. Other sources place the Colossus on a breakwater in the harbour. According to most contemporary descriptions, the statue itself was about 70 cubits, or 32 metres (105 feet) tall. Much of the iron and bronze was reforged from the various weapons Demetrius's army left behind, and the abandoned second siege tower may have been used for scaffolding around the lower levels during construction.
Philo of Byzantium wrote in De septem mundi miraculis that Chares created the sculpture in situ by casting it in horizontal courses and then placing "...a huge mound of earth around each section as soon as it was completed, thus burying the finished work under the accumulated earth, and carrying out the casting of the next part on the level."
Modern engineers have put forward a plausible hypothesis for the statue's construction, based on the technology of the time (which was not based on the modern principles of earthquake engineering), and the accounts of Philo and Pliny, who saw and described the ruins.
The base pedestal was said to be at least 18 metres (59 feet) in diameter, and either circular or octagonal. The feet were carved in stone and covered with thin bronze plates riveted together. Eight forged iron bars set in a radiating horizontal position formed the ankles and turned up to follow the lines of the legs while becoming progressively smaller. Individually cast curved bronze plates 1.5 metres (60 in) square with turned-in edges were joined by rivets through holes formed during casting to form a series of rings. The lower plates were 25 millimetres (1 in) in thickness to the knee and 20 millimetres (3⁄4 in) thick from knee to abdomen, while the upper plates were 6.5 to 12.5 millimetres (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in) thick except where additional strength was required at joints such as the shoulder, neck, etc.
Archaeologist Ursula Vedder has proposed that the sculpture was cast in large sections following traditional Greek methods and that Philo's account is "not compatible with the situation proved by archaeology in ancient Greece."
The standing Colossus (280–226 BC)
After twelve years, in 280 BC, the statue was completed. Preserved in Greek anthologies of poetry is what is believed to be the genuine dedication text for the Colossus.
Αὐτῷ σοὶ πρὸς Ὄλυμπον ἐμακύναντο κολοσσὸν
τόνδε Ῥόδου ναέται Δωρίδος, Ἀέλιε,
χάλκεον ἁνίκα κῦμα κατευνάσαντες Ἐνυοῦς
ἔστεψαν πάτραν δυσμενέων ἐνάροις.
οὐ γὰρ ὑπὲρ πελάγους μόνον κάτθεσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν γᾷ,
ἁβρὸν ἀδουλώτου φέγγος ἐλευθερίας·
τοῖς γὰρ ἀφ' Ἡρακλῆος ἀεξηθεῖσι γενέθλας
πάτριος ἐν πόντῳ κἠν χθονὶ κοιρανία.
To you, O Sun, the people of Dorian Rhodes set up this bronze statue reaching to Olympus, when they had pacified the waves of war and crowned their city with the spoils taken from the enemy. Not only over the seas but also on land did they kindle the lovely torch of freedom and independence. For to the descendants of Herakles belongs dominion over sea and land.
Collapse (226 BC)
Artist's conception from the Grolier Society's 1911 Book of Knowledge
Further information: 226 BC Rhodes earthquake
The statue stood for 54 years until a 226 BC earthquake caused significant damage to large portions of Rhodes, including the harbour and commercial buildings, which were destroyed. The statue snapped at the knees and fell over onto land. Ptolemy III offered to pay for the reconstruction of the statue, but the Oracle of Delphi made the Rhodians fear that they had offended Helios, and they declined to rebuild it.
Fallen state (226 BC to 653 AD)
The remains lay on the ground for over 800 years and, even broken, they were so impressive that many travelled to see them.
The remains were described briefly by Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD), in his work Geography (Book XIV, Chapter 2.5). Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime. Strabo states that:
The city of the Rhodians lies on the eastern promontory of Rhodes; and it is so far superior to all others in harbours and roads and walls and improvements in general that I am unable to speak of any other city as equal to it, or even as almost equal to it, much less superior to it. It is remarkable also for its good order, and for its careful attention to the administration of affairs of state in general; and in particular to that of naval affairs, whereby it held the mastery of the sea for a long time and overthrew the business of piracy, and became a friend to the Romans and to all kings who favoured both the Romans and the Greeks. Consequently, it not only has remained autonomous but also has been adorned with many votive offerings, which for the most part are to be found in the Dionysium and the gymnasium, but partly in other places. The best of these are, first, the Colossus of Helius, of which the author of the iambic verse says, "seven times ten cubits in height, the work of Chares the Lindian"; but it now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake and broken at the knees. In accordance with a certain oracle, the people did not raise it again. This, then, is the most excellent of the votive offerings (at any rate, it is by common agreement one of the Seven Wonders).
Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – 79) was a Roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of emperor Vespasian. Pliny wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. The Naturalis Historia is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day and purports to cover the entire field of ancient knowledge. Pliny remarked:
But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus; no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration. Few men can clasp the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it.
Destruction of the remains
The ultimate fate of the remains of the statue is uncertain. Rhodes has two serious earthquakes per century, owing to its location on the seismically unstable Hellenic arc. Pausanias mentions in the Descriptio Graeciae, writing ca. 174, how the city was so devastated by an earthquake that the sibyl oracle foretelling its destruction was considered fulfilled. This means the statue could not have survived for long if it had ever been repaired. By the 4th century Rhodes was Christianized, so any further maintenance or rebuilding, if there ever was any before, on an ancient pagan statue is unlikely. The metal would have likely been used for coins and maybe also tools by the time of the Arab wars, especially during earlier conflicts such as the Sasanian wars.(pp 179–186)
The onset of Islamic naval incursions against the Byzantine Empire gave rise to a dramatic account of what became of the Colossus. In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Mu'awiya I raided Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, the remains of the statue constituted part of the booty, being melted down and sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa who loaded the bronze onto 900 camels. The same story is recorded by Bar Hebraeus, writing in Syriac in the 13th century in Edessa (after the Arab pillage of Rhodes): "And a great number of men hauled on strong ropes which were tied around the brass Colossus which was in the city and pulled it down. And they weighed from it three thousand loads of Corinthian brass, and they sold it to a certain Jew from Emesa" (the Syrian city of Homs).
Ultimately, Theophanes is the sole source of this account, and all other sources can be traced to him.(pp 169–174) As Theophanes' source was Syriac, it may have had vague information about a raid and attributed the statue's demise to it, not knowing much more. Or the Arab destruction and the purported sale to a Jew may have originated as a powerful metaphor for Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the destruction of a great statue.(pp 165–187)
Given the likely previous neglect of the remains and various opportunities for authorities to have repurposed the metal, as well as the fact that, Islamic incursions notwithstanding, the island remained an important Byzantine strategic point well into the ninth century, an Arabic raid is unlikely to have found much, if any, remaining metal to carry away. For these reasons, as well as the negative perception of the Arab conquests, L.I. Conrad considers Theophanes' story of the dismantling of the statue as likely propaganda, like the destruction of the Library of Alexandria.(pp 179–186)
Posture
The Colossus as imagined in a 16th-century engraving by Martin Heemskerck, part of his series of the Seven Wonders of the World
The harbour-straddling Colossus was a figment of medieval imaginations based on the dedication text's mention of "over land and sea" twice and the writings of an Italian visitor who in 1395 noted that local tradition held that the right foot had stood where the church of St John of the Colossus was then located. Many later illustrations show the statue with one foot on either side of the harbour mouth with ships passing under it. References to this conception are also found in literary works. William Shakespeare's Cassius in Julius Caesar (I, ii, 136–38) says of Caesar:
Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world
Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about
To find ourselves dishonourable graves
Shakespeare alludes to the Colossus also in Troilus and Cressida (V.5) and in Henry IV, Part 1 (V.1).
"The New Colossus" (1883), a sonnet by Emma Lazarus written on a cast bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty in 1903, contrasts the latter with:
The brazen giant of Greek fame
with conquering limbs astride from land to land
While these fanciful images feed the misconception, the mechanics of the situation reveal that the Colossus could not have straddled the harbour as described in Lemprière's Classical Dictionary. If the completed statue had straddled the harbour, then the entire mouth of the harbour would have been effectively closed during the entirety of the construction, and the ancient Rhodians would not have had the means to dredge and re-open the harbour after construction was finished. Additionally, the fallen statue would have blocked the harbour, and since the ancient Rhodians did not have the ability to remove the fallen statue from the harbour, it would not have remained visible on land for the next 800 years, as discussed above. Even neglecting these objections, the statue was made of bronze, and engineering analyses indicate that it could not have been built with its legs apart without collapsing under its own weight.
Many researchers have considered alternative positions for the statue which would have made it more feasible for actual construction by the ancients. There is also no evidence that the statue held a torch aloft; the records simply say that after completion, the Rhodians kindled the "torch of freedom". A relief in a nearby temple shows Helios standing with one hand shielding his eyes (as if saluting) and it is quite possible that the colossus was constructed in the same pose.
Silver tetradrachm of Rhodes showing Helios and a rose (205–190 BC, 13.48 g)
While scholars do not know what the statue looked like, they do have a good idea of what the head and face looked like, as it was of a standard rendering at the time. The head would have had curly hair with evenly spaced spikes of bronze or silver flame radiating, similar to the images found on contemporary Rhodian coins.
Possible locations
The old harbour entrance from inner embankment. The Fortress of St Nicholas is on right
While scholars generally agree that anecdotal depictions of the Colossus straddling the harbour's entry point have no historic or scientific basis, the monument's actual location remains a matter of debate. As mentioned above the statue is thought locally to have stood where two pillars now stand at the Mandraki port entrance.
The floor of the Fortress of St Nicholas, near the harbour entrance, contains a circle of sandstone blocks of unknown origin or purpose. Curved blocks of marble that were incorporated into the Fortress structure, but are considered too intricately cut to have been quarried for that purpose, have been posited as the remnants of a marble base for the Colossus, which would have stood on the sandstone block foundation.
Stone foundation and partially-reconstructed temple ruins at the apex of the Acropolis of Rhodes
Archaeologist Ursula Vedder postulates that the Colossus was not located in the harbour area at all, but rather was part of the Acropolis of Rhodes, which stood on a hill that overlooks the port area. The ruins of a large temple, traditionally thought to have been dedicated to Apollo, are situated at the highest point of the hill. Vedder believes that the structure would actually have been a Helios sanctuary, and a portion of its enormous stone foundation could have served as the supporting platform for the Colossus.
Modern Colossus projects
In 2008, The Guardian reported that a modern Colossus was to be built at the harbour entrance by the German artist Gert Hof leading a Cologne-based team. It was to be a giant light sculpture made partially out of melted-down weapons from around the world. It would cost up to €200 million.
In December 2015, a group of European architects announced plans to build a modern Colossus bestriding two piers at the harbour entrance, despite a preponderance of evidence and scholarly opinion that the original monument could not have stood there. The new statue, 150 metres (490 ft) tall (five times the height of the original), would cost an estimated US$283 million, funded by private donations and crowdsourcing. The statue would include a cultural centre, a library, an exhibition hall, and a lighthouse, all powered by solar panels. No such plans were carried out, however, and the website for the project went offline.
See also
Twelve Metal Colossi
The Colossus of Rhodes (Dalí)
The Colossus of Rhodes (Sergio Leone)
The New Colossus
The Rhodes Colossus
List of tallest statues
List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
References
Notes
^ Kolossos means "giant statue". R.S.P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *koloky-.
^ Forty cubits high, according to Pliny.
References
^ Beekes, R.S.P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill. p. 740. ISBN 9789004174184.
^ Higgins, Reynold (1988). "The Colossus of Rhodes". In Clayton, Peter A.; Price, Martin Jessop (eds.). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Psychology Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780415050364.
^ Strabo. Geography. 14.2.5.
^ a b "Why Have There Been Plans to Build a New Colossus of Rhodes? | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2024-02-07. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
^ Malalas, J. Chronography. Bks 10–11, 11.279.
^ Boatwright, Mary T. (2002). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-6910-9493-9. Archived from the original on 2024-05-21. Retrieved 2020-10-02.
^ Suda. ka.1932.
^ a b Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos. De administrando imperio. xx–xxi.
^ a b "AM 6145, AD 652/-3". The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 1997. p. 481.
^ a b c d e Conrad, L.I. (July 1996). "The Arabs and the Colossus". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1017/S1356186300007173. JSTOR 25183179. S2CID 163298319.
^ a b Williams, Kate (26 December 2015). "Rhodes reconstruction project will be a colossal gamble for Greece – but it might well pay off". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
^ a b c Bennett, Jay (7 January 2016). "There's a plan to rebuild the Colossus of Rhodes". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
^ a b Pliny the Elder. Natural History. xxxiv.18.
^ Accounts of Philo of Byzantium ca. 150 BC and Pliny (Plineus Caius Secundus) ca. 50 AD based on viewing the broken remains
^ "Description, location, & facts". Colossus of Rhodes. britannica.com. April 2023. Archived from the original on 2020-09-24. Retrieved 2020-03-19.
^ a b Vedder, Ursula (2017). "Was the Colossus of Rhodes cast in courses or large sections?". In Daehner, Jens (ed.). Artistry in Bronze: The Greeks and their legacy. XIXth International Congress on Ancient Bronzes. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum, Getty Conservation Institute. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2021-10-05. Retrieved 2021-10-05.
^ Engineering aspects of the collapse of the Colossus of Rhodes statue. International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer. 2004. pp. 69–85. ISBN 978-1-4020-2203-6.
^ Anthologia Graeca vi.171 (cf. H. Beckby (Munich 1957))
^ Bruemmer Bozeman, Adda (1994). Politics and Culture in International History: From the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age. Transaction Publishers. p. 108. ISBN 1-56000-735-4.
^ Strabo (1949). "34 Vol. VIII Book XVII". Geography. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. London, UK: William Heinemann. p. 95.
^ Strabo. "Book XIV, Chapter 2.5". Geography. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2020 – via Penelope, U. Chicago.
^ "Natural History of Metals". Natural History. book 34, xviii, 41. Archived from the original on 2020-12-31. Retrieved 2020-12-07 – via Perseus, Tufts U.
^ Pausanias. Descriptio Graeciae. II.vii.1, VIII.xliii.4.
^ a b Budge, E.A. Wallis (1932). The Chronography of Gregory Abu'l-Faraj. Vol. I. Amsterdam, NL: APA – Philo Pres. p. 98.
^ a b c d e f g Jordan, Paul (2014). Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 21–149. ISBN 9781317868859.
^ "The Colossus of Rhodes". greatest-unsolved-mysteries.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-15. Retrieved 2010-07-17.
^ "Koloss von Rhodos: Standort entdeckt!". presseportal.de. Pressemitteilung Gruner+Jahr, P.M. History. April 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-05-11. Exklusiv in P.M. History: Sensationelle Theorie der Münchner
^ Smith, Helena (2008-11-17). "Colossus of Rhodes to be rebuilt as giant light sculpture". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2019-07-15. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
^ "Colossus of Rhodes Project 2015". 2016-02-13. Archived from the original on 2016-02-13. Retrieved 2023-01-09.
Sources
Ashley, James R. (2004). The Macedonian Empire: The era of warfare under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359-323 B.C. McFarland & Company. p. 75. ISBN 0-7864-1918-0. Archived from the original on 2024-05-21. Retrieved 2017-10-05.
Gabriel, Albert (1932). "". Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. 56: 331–359. doi:10.3406/bch.1932.2843.
Maryon, H. (1956). "The Colossus of Rhodes". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 76: 68–86. doi:10.2307/629554. JSTOR 629554. — sculptor's speculations on the Colossus of Rhodes.
Haynes, D.E.L. (1957). "Philo of Byzantium and the Colossus of Rhodes". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 77 (2): 311–312. doi:10.2307/629373. JSTOR 629373. — a response to Maryon (1956).
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colossus of Rhodes.
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Colossus of Rhodes".
Library resources about Colossus of Rhodes
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Higgins, Michael Denis (2023). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: Science, engineering, and technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1976-4815-5.
Jones, Kenneth R. (2014). "Alcaeus of Messene, Philip V and the Colossus of Rhodes: A re-examination of Anth. Pal. 6.171". The Classical Quarterly. 64 (1): 136–151. doi:10.1017/S0009838813000591.
Romer, John; Romer, Elizabeth (1995). The Seven Wonders of the World: A history of the modern imagination (1st American ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt.
Woods, David (2016). "On the alleged Arab destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes c. 653". Byzantion: Revue Internationale des Etudes Byzantines. 86: 441–451.
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One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was constructed to celebrate the successful defence of Rhodes city against an attack by Demetrius I of Macedon, who had besieged it for a year with a large army and navy.According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70 cubits, or 33 metres (108 feet) high – approximately the height of the modern Statue of Liberty from feet to crown – making it the tallest statue in the ancient world.[2] It collapsed during the earthquake of 226 BC, although parts of it were preserved. In accordance with the Oracle of Delphi, the Rhodians did not rebuild it.[3][4] John Malalas wrote that Hadrian in his reign re-erected the Colossus,[5] but he was mistaken.[6] According to the Suda, the Rhodians were called Colossaeans (Κολοσσαεῖς), because they erected the statue on the island.[7]In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Mu'awiya I conquered Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor,[8] the statue was completely destroyed and the remains sold;[9] this account may be unreliable.[10](pp 179–186)Since 2008, a series of as-yet-unrealized proposals to build a new Colossus at Rhodes Harbour have been announced, although the actual location of the original monument remains in dispute.[11][12]","title":"Colossus of Rhodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ptolemy I of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter"},{"link_name":"Antigonus I Monophthalmus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus"},{"link_name":"Demetrius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"talents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_talent"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pliny-xxxiv-18-14"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"Chares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chares_of_Lindos"},{"link_name":"Lysippos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysippos"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto"}],"text":"In the late fourth century BC, Rhodes, allied with Ptolemy I of Egypt, prevented a mass invasion staged by their common enemy, Antigonus I Monophthalmus.In 304 BC a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived, and Demetrius (son of Antigonus) and his army abandoned the siege, leaving behind most of their siege equipment. To celebrate their victory, the Rhodians sold the equipment left behind for 300 talents[13] and decided to use the money to build a colossal statue of their patron god, Helios. Construction was left to the direction of Chares, a native of Lindos in Rhodes, who had been involved with large-scale statues before. His teacher, the sculptor Lysippos, had constructed a 22-metre-high (72-foot)[b] bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum.","title":"Siege of Rhodes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_seven_wonders_timeline.svg"},{"link_name":"Seven Wonders of the Ancient World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World"},{"link_name":"marble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"pedestal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestal"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze"},{"link_name":"reforged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forging"},{"link_name":"scaffolding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaffolding"},{"link_name":"Philo of Byzantium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantium"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vedder-2017-18"},{"link_name":"earthquake engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Philo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantium"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vedder-2017-18"}],"text":"Timeline and map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Colossus of RhodesConstruction began in 292 BC. Ancient accounts, which differ to some degree, describe the structure as being built with iron tie bars to which brass plates were fixed to form the skin. The interior of the structure, which stood on a 15-metre-high (49-foot) white marble pedestal near the Rhodes harbour entrance, was then filled with stone blocks as construction progressed.[14] Other sources place the Colossus on a breakwater in the harbour. According to most contemporary descriptions, the statue itself was about 70 cubits, or 32 metres (105 feet) tall.[15] Much of the iron and bronze was reforged from the various weapons Demetrius's army left behind, and the abandoned second siege tower may have been used for scaffolding around the lower levels during construction.Philo of Byzantium wrote in De septem mundi miraculis that Chares created the sculpture in situ by casting it in horizontal courses and then placing \"...a huge mound of earth around each section as soon as it was completed, thus burying the finished work under the accumulated earth, and carrying out the casting of the next part on the level.\"[16]Modern engineers have put forward a plausible hypothesis for the statue's construction, based on the technology of the time (which was not based on the modern principles of earthquake engineering), and the accounts of Philo and Pliny, who saw and described the ruins.[17]The base pedestal was said to be at least 18 metres (59 feet) in diameter, and either circular or octagonal. The feet were carved in stone and covered with thin bronze plates riveted together. Eight forged iron bars set in a radiating horizontal position formed the ankles and turned up to follow the lines of the legs while becoming progressively smaller. Individually cast curved bronze plates 1.5 metres (60 in) square with turned-in edges were joined by rivets through holes formed during casting to form a series of rings. The lower plates were 25 millimetres (1 in) in thickness to the knee and 20 millimetres (3⁄4 in) thick from knee to abdomen, while the upper plates were 6.5 to 12.5 millimetres (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in) thick except where additional strength was required at joints such as the shoulder, neck, etc.[citation needed]Archaeologist Ursula Vedder has proposed that the sculpture was cast in large sections following traditional Greek methods and that Philo's account is \"not compatible with the situation proved by archaeology in ancient Greece.\"[16]","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"After twelve years, in 280 BC, the statue was completed. Preserved in Greek anthologies of poetry is what is believed to be the genuine dedication text for the Colossus.[18]Αὐτῷ σοὶ πρὸς Ὄλυμπον ἐμακύναντο κολοσσὸν\nτόνδε Ῥόδου ναέται Δωρίδος, Ἀέλιε,\nχάλκεον ἁνίκα κῦμα κατευνάσαντες Ἐνυοῦς\nἔστεψαν πάτραν δυσμενέων ἐνάροις.\nοὐ γὰρ ὑπὲρ πελάγους μόνον κάτθεσαν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν γᾷ,\nἁβρὸν ἀδουλώτου φέγγος ἐλευθερίας·\nτοῖς γὰρ ἀφ' Ἡρακλῆος ἀεξηθεῖσι γενέθλας\nπάτριος ἐν πόντῳ κἠν χθονὶ κοιρανία.To you, O Sun, the people of Dorian Rhodes set up this bronze statue reaching to Olympus, when they had pacified the waves of war and crowned their city with the spoils taken from the enemy. Not only over the seas but also on land did they kindle the lovely torch of freedom and independence. For to the descendants of Herakles belongs dominion over sea and land.","title":"The standing Colossus (280–226 BC)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhodes0211.jpg"},{"link_name":"Grolier Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grolier"},{"link_name":"226 BC Rhodes earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/226_BC_Rhodes_earthquake"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bozeman-21"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes"},{"link_name":"Oracle of Delphi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythia"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"Artist's conception from the Grolier Society's 1911 Book of KnowledgeFurther information: 226 BC Rhodes earthquakeThe statue stood for 54 years until a 226 BC earthquake caused significant damage to large portions of Rhodes, including the harbour and commercial buildings, which were destroyed.[19] The statue snapped at the knees and fell over onto land. Ptolemy III offered to pay for the reconstruction of the statue, but the Oracle of Delphi made the Rhodians fear that they had offended Helios, and they declined to rebuild it.[4]","title":"Collapse (226 BC)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Vespasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"The remains lay on the ground for over 800 years and, even broken, they were so impressive that many travelled to see them.The remains were described briefly by Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD), in his work Geography (Book XIV, Chapter 2.5). Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.\nStrabo is best known for his work Geographica (\"Geography\"), which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime.[20] Strabo states that:The city of the Rhodians lies on the eastern promontory of Rhodes; and it is so far superior to all others in harbours and roads and walls and improvements in general that I am unable to speak of any other city as equal to it, or even as almost equal to it, much less superior to it. It is remarkable also for its good order, and for its careful attention to the administration of affairs of state in general; and in particular to that of naval affairs, whereby it held the mastery of the sea for a long time and overthrew the business of piracy, and became a friend to the Romans and to all kings who favoured both the Romans and the Greeks. Consequently, it not only has remained autonomous but also has been adorned with many votive offerings, which for the most part are to be found in the Dionysium and the gymnasium, but partly in other places. The best of these are, first, the Colossus of Helius, of which the author of the iambic verse says, \"seven times ten cubits in height, the work of Chares the Lindian\"; but it now lies on the ground, having been thrown down by an earthquake and broken at the knees. In accordance with a certain oracle, the people did not raise it again. This, then, is the most excellent of the votive offerings (at any rate, it is by common agreement one of the Seven Wonders).[21]Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – 79) was a Roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of emperor Vespasian. Pliny wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. The Naturalis Historia is one of the largest single works to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day and purports to cover the entire field of ancient knowledge. Pliny remarked:But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus; no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration. Few men can clasp the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it.[22]","title":"Fallen state (226 BC to 653 AD)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hellenic arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_arc"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"Descriptio Graeciae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"sibyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibyl"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Rhodes was Christianized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Arab wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars"},{"link_name":"Sasanian wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-1996-11"},{"link_name":"Islamic naval incursions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Caliphate_navy"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mu'awiya I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I"},{"link_name":"Theophanes the Confessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constantine-VII-xx%E2%80%93xxi-9"},{"link_name":"Edessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edessa"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clarendon-1997-10"},{"link_name":"Bar Hebraeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus"},{"link_name":"Syriac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Budge-1932-26"},{"link_name":"Corinthian brass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthian_brass"},{"link_name":"Homs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homs"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Budge-1932-26"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-1996-11"},{"link_name":"Nebuchadnezzar's dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-1996-11"},{"link_name":"Arab conquests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests"},{"link_name":"Library of Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conrad-1996-11"}],"text":"The ultimate fate of the remains of the statue is uncertain. Rhodes has two serious earthquakes per century, owing to its location on the seismically unstable Hellenic arc. Pausanias mentions in the Descriptio Graeciae, writing ca. 174, how the city was so devastated by an earthquake that the sibyl oracle foretelling its destruction was considered fulfilled.[23] This means the statue could not have survived for long if it had ever been repaired. By the 4th century Rhodes was Christianized, so any further maintenance or rebuilding, if there ever was any before, on an ancient pagan statue is unlikely. The metal would have likely been used for coins and maybe also tools by the time of the Arab wars, especially during earlier conflicts such as the Sasanian wars.[10](pp 179–186)The onset of Islamic naval incursions against the Byzantine Empire gave rise to a dramatic account of what became of the Colossus. In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Mu'awiya I raided Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor,[8] the remains of the statue constituted part of the booty, being melted down and sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa who loaded the bronze onto 900 camels.[9] The same story is recorded by Bar Hebraeus, writing in Syriac in the 13th century in Edessa[24] (after the Arab pillage of Rhodes): \"And a great number of men hauled on strong ropes which were tied around the brass Colossus which was in the city and pulled it down. And they weighed from it three thousand loads of Corinthian brass, and they sold it to a certain Jew from Emesa\" (the Syrian city of Homs).[24]Ultimately, Theophanes is the sole source of this account, and all other sources can be traced to him.[10](pp 169–174) As Theophanes' source was Syriac, it may have had vague information about a raid and attributed the statue's demise to it, not knowing much more. Or the Arab destruction and the purported sale to a Jew may have originated as a powerful metaphor for Nebuchadnezzar's dream of the destruction of a great statue.[10](pp 165–187)Given the likely previous neglect of the remains and various opportunities for authorities to have repurposed the metal, as well as the fact that, Islamic incursions notwithstanding, the island remained an important Byzantine strategic point well into the ninth century, an Arabic raid is unlikely to have found much, if any, remaining metal to carry away. For these reasons, as well as the negative perception of the Arab conquests, L.I. Conrad considers Theophanes' story of the dismantling of the statue as likely propaganda, like the destruction of the Library of Alexandria.[10](pp 179–186)","title":"Destruction of the remains"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colossus_of_Rhodes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Martin Heemskerck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heemskerck"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)"},{"link_name":"Troilus and Cressida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida"},{"link_name":"Henry IV, Part 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_1"},{"link_name":"The New Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Colossus"},{"link_name":"Emma Lazarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Lazarus"},{"link_name":"Statue of Liberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty#Inscriptions,_plaques,_and_dedications"},{"link_name":"Lemprière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lempri%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Classical Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_Classica"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhodos_tetradrachm_Helios.jpg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"}],"text":"The Colossus as imagined in a 16th-century engraving by Martin Heemskerck, part of his series of the Seven Wonders of the WorldThe harbour-straddling Colossus was a figment of medieval imaginations based on the dedication text's mention of \"over land and sea\" twice and the writings of an Italian visitor who in 1395 noted that local tradition held that the right foot had stood where the church of St John of the Colossus was then located.[25] Many later illustrations show the statue with one foot on either side of the harbour mouth with ships passing under it. References to this conception are also found in literary works. William Shakespeare's Cassius in Julius Caesar (I, ii, 136–38) says of Caesar:Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world\nLike a Colossus, and we petty men\nWalk under his huge legs and peep about\nTo find ourselves dishonourable gravesShakespeare alludes to the Colossus also in Troilus and Cressida (V.5) and in Henry IV, Part 1 (V.1).\"The New Colossus\" (1883), a sonnet by Emma Lazarus written on a cast bronze plaque and mounted inside the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty in 1903, contrasts the latter with:The brazen giant of Greek fame\nwith conquering limbs astride from land to landWhile these fanciful images feed the misconception, the mechanics of the situation reveal that the Colossus could not have straddled the harbour as described in Lemprière's Classical Dictionary. If the completed statue had straddled the harbour, then the entire mouth of the harbour would have been effectively closed during the entirety of the construction, and the ancient Rhodians would not have had the means to dredge and re-open the harbour after construction was finished. Additionally, the fallen statue would have blocked the harbour, and since the ancient Rhodians did not have the ability to remove the fallen statue from the harbour, it would not have remained visible on land for the next 800 years, as discussed above. Even neglecting these objections, the statue was made of bronze, and engineering analyses indicate that it could not have been built with its legs apart without collapsing under its own weight.[25]Many researchers have considered alternative positions for the statue which would have made it more feasible for actual construction by the ancients.[25][26] There is also no evidence that the statue held a torch aloft; the records simply say that after completion, the Rhodians kindled the \"torch of freedom\". A relief in a nearby temple shows Helios standing with one hand shielding his eyes (as if saluting) and it is quite possible that the colossus was constructed in the same pose.[25]Silver tetradrachm of Rhodes showing Helios and a rose (205–190 BC, 13.48 g)While scholars do not know what the statue looked like, they do have a good idea of what the head and face looked like, as it was of a standard rendering at the time. The head would have had curly hair with evenly spaced spikes of bronze or silver flame radiating, similar to the images found on contemporary Rhodian coins.[25]","title":"Posture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mandraki_colosseus_harbour_rhodes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fortress of St Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Rhodes#Tower_and_Fort_of_Saint_Nicholas"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"link_name":"Fortress of St Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications_of_Rhodes#Tower_and_Fort_of_Saint_Nicholas"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jordan-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_Apollon_Rhodes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Acropolis of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Acropolis of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"The old harbour entrance from inner embankment. The Fortress of St Nicholas is on rightWhile scholars generally agree that anecdotal depictions of the Colossus straddling the harbour's entry point have no historic or scientific basis,[25] the monument's actual location remains a matter of debate. As mentioned above the statue is thought locally to have stood where two pillars now stand at the Mandraki port entrance.The floor of the Fortress of St Nicholas, near the harbour entrance, contains a circle of sandstone blocks of unknown origin or purpose. Curved blocks of marble that were incorporated into the Fortress structure, but are considered too intricately cut to have been quarried for that purpose, have been posited as the remnants of a marble base for the Colossus, which would have stood on the sandstone block foundation.[25]Stone foundation and partially-reconstructed temple ruins at the apex of the Acropolis of RhodesArchaeologist Ursula Vedder postulates that the Colossus was not located in the harbour area at all, but rather was part of the Acropolis of Rhodes, which stood on a hill that overlooks the port area. The ruins of a large temple, traditionally thought to have been dedicated to Apollo, are situated at the highest point of the hill. Vedder believes that the structure would actually have been a Helios sanctuary, and a portion of its enormous stone foundation could have served as the supporting platform for the Colossus.[27]","title":"Possible locations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Williams-2015-12-26-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bennett-2016-01-07-PM-13"},{"link_name":"crowdsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdsourcing"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bennett-2016-01-07-PM-13"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"In 2008, The Guardian reported that a modern Colossus was to be built at the harbour entrance by the German artist Gert Hof leading a Cologne-based team. It was to be a giant light sculpture made partially out of melted-down weapons from around the world. It would cost up to €200 million.[28]In December 2015, a group of European architects announced plans to build a modern Colossus bestriding two piers at the harbour entrance, despite a preponderance of evidence and scholarly opinion that the original monument could not have stood there.[11][12] The new statue, 150 metres (490 ft) tall (five times the height of the original), would cost an estimated US$283 million, funded by private donations and crowdsourcing. The statue would include a cultural centre, a library, an exhibition hall, and a lighthouse, all powered by solar panels.[12] No such plans were carried out, however, and the website for the project went offline.[29]","title":"Modern Colossus projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Colossus of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Colossus_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Wikisource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource"},{"link_name":"The New Student's Reference Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work"},{"link_name":"Colossus of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Colossus_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Online books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Colossus+of+Rhodes&library=OLBP"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Colossus+of+Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Colossus+of+Rhodes&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-1976-4815-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1976-4815-5"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0009838813000591","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838813000591"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World"},{"link_name":"Seven Wonders of the Ancient World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World"},{"link_name":"Great Pyramid of 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Kiev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Motherland,_Kiev"},{"link_name":"Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equestrian_statue_of_Genghis_Khan"},{"link_name":"Statue of Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Unity"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sculpture"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_sculpture"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41553#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/206871447"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/176354902"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16116108v"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16116108v"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4753734-6"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n2005034572"},{"link_name":"Structurae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//structurae.net/structures/20002409"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/136119271"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colossus of Rhodes.Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article \"Colossus of Rhodes\".Library resources about Colossus of Rhodes \n\nOnline books\nResources in your library\nResources in other librariesHiggins, Michael Denis (2023). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: Science, engineering, and technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1976-4815-5.\nJones, Kenneth R. (2014). \"Alcaeus of Messene, Philip V and the Colossus of Rhodes: A re-examination of Anth. Pal. 6.171\". The Classical Quarterly. 64 (1): 136–151. doi:10.1017/S0009838813000591.\nRomer, John; Romer, Elizabeth (1995). The Seven Wonders of the World: A history of the modern imagination (1st American ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt.\nWoods, David (2016). \"On the alleged Arab destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes c. 653\". Byzantion: Revue Internationale des Etudes Byzantines. 86: 441–451.vteSeven Wonders of the Ancient WorldThe Seven Wonders\nGreat Pyramid of Giza\nHanging Gardens of Babylon\nStatue of Zeus at Olympia\nTemple of Artemis\nMausoleum at Halicarnassus\nColossus of Rhodes\nLighthouse of Alexandria\nRelated\nWonders of the World\nSeven Wonders of the World (1956 film)\n\"Eighth Wonder of the World\"\nNew7Wonders of the WorldvteSculpturesTypes of sculptures\nArchitectural sculpture\nAssemblage\nBas relief\nBust\nGas sculpture\nEarth art\nEnvironmental sculpture\nFigurine\nInstallation art\nKinetic sculpture\nMobile\nPedimental\nSoft sculpture\nStatue\nStyles of sculptures\nBaroque\nClassical\nDetonography\nJain sculpture\nModern sculpture\nRelief\nRenaissance\nElements in sculpture\nMass\nNegative space\nSpace\nVolume\nTraditional materials\nWood\nMarble\nLimestone\nGranite\nPorphyry\nDiorite\nJade\nIvory\nClay\nTerracotta\nBronze\nGold\nSilver\nButter\nSoapstone\nModern materials\nSteel\nIce\nJesmonite\nAcrylic\nConcrete\nPlastic\nFiberglass\nGlass\nAluminium\nFabric\nPaper\nFound object\nNotable sculptures\nGreat Sphinx of Giza (c. 2558–2532 BCE)\nAbu Simbel temples (c. 1264 BCE)\nElgin Marbles from the Parthenon (438 BCE)\nColossus of Rhodes (c. 292 BCE)\nWinged Victory of Samothrace (c. 2nd century BCE)\nTerracotta Army (246–210 BCE)\nLaocoön and His Sons (c. 200 BCE-70 CE)\nVenus de Milo (130–100 BCE)\nEquestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (175 CE)\nBuddhas of Bamiyan (507–554 CE)\nChartes Cathedral (c. 1194–1250 CE)\nThe Golden Virgin\nJules Verne's Tomb\nKonark Sun Temple (1250 CE)\nMoai, Easter Islands (1250–1500 CE)\nPietà (1498–1499)\nDavid (1501–1504)\nVeiled Christ (1753)\nKamagaya Great Buddha (1776)\nNelson's Column (1843)\nLion of Belfort (1880)\nLiberty Enlightening the World, Statue of Liberty (1886)\nThe Gates of Hell (1890–1917)\nThe Thinker (1904)\nAbraham Lincoln (1920)\nMount Rushmore Shrine of Democracy (1927–1941)\nChrist the Redeemer (1927–1931)\nThe Motherland Calls (1967)\nFallen Astronaut (1971)\nMother Motherland, Kiev (1981)\nGenghis Khan Equestrian Statue (2008)\nStatue of Unity (2018)\n\n Category\nOutlineAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\n2\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nUnited States\nGeographic\nStructurae\nOther\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Colossus of Rhodes, artist's impression, 1880","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Colosse_de_Rhodes_%28Barclay%29.jpg/220px-Colosse_de_Rhodes_%28Barclay%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Timeline and map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Colossus of Rhodes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ancient_seven_wonders_timeline.svg/220px-Ancient_seven_wonders_timeline.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Artist's conception from the Grolier Society's 1911 Book of Knowledge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Rhodes0211.jpg/220px-Rhodes0211.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Colossus as imagined in a 16th-century engraving by Martin Heemskerck, part of his series of the Seven Wonders of the World","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Colossus_of_Rhodes.jpg/220px-Colossus_of_Rhodes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Silver tetradrachm of Rhodes showing Helios and a rose (205–190 BC, 13.48 g)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Rhodos_tetradrachm_Helios.jpg/220px-Rhodos_tetradrachm_Helios.jpg"},{"image_text":"The old harbour entrance from inner embankment. The Fortress of St Nicholas is on right","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mandraki_colosseus_harbour_rhodes.jpg/220px-Mandraki_colosseus_harbour_rhodes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stone foundation and partially-reconstructed temple ruins at the apex of the Acropolis of Rhodes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Temple_Apollon_Rhodes.jpg/220px-Temple_Apollon_Rhodes.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Twelve Metal Colossi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Metal_Colossi"},{"title":"The Colossus of Rhodes (Dalí)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Colossus_of_Rhodes_(Dal%C3%AD)"},{"title":"The Colossus of Rhodes (Sergio Leone)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Colossus_of_Rhodes_(film)"},{"title":"The New Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Colossus"},{"title":"The Rhodes Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rhodes_Colossus"},{"title":"List of tallest statues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_statues"},{"title":"List of tallest structures built before the 20th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_structures_built_before_the_20th_century"}]
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[{"reference":"Beekes, R.S.P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill. p. 740. ISBN 9789004174184.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes","url_text":"Beekes, R.S.P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004174184","url_text":"9789004174184"}]},{"reference":"Higgins, Reynold (1988). \"The Colossus of Rhodes\". In Clayton, Peter A.; Price, Martin Jessop (eds.). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Psychology Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780415050364.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vGhbJzigPBwC&pg=PA130","url_text":"130"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415050364","url_text":"9780415050364"}]},{"reference":"Strabo. Geography. 14.2.5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo","url_text":"Strabo"},{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-grc1:14.2.5","url_text":"14.2.5"}]},{"reference":"\"Why Have There Been Plans to Build a New Colossus of Rhodes? | Britannica\". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2024-02-07. Retrieved 2024-02-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/story/why-have-there-been-plans-to-build-a-new-colossus-of-rhodes","url_text":"\"Why Have There Been Plans to Build a New Colossus of Rhodes? | Britannica\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240207111422/https://www.britannica.com/story/why-have-there-been-plans-to-build-a-new-colossus-of-rhodes","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Malalas, J. Chronography. Bks 10–11, 11.279.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Malalas","url_text":"Malalas, J."},{"url":"https://topostext.org/work/793#11.279","url_text":"11.279"}]},{"reference":"Boatwright, Mary T. (2002). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-6910-9493-9. Archived from the original on 2024-05-21. Retrieved 2020-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pf9ZDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6910-9493-9","url_text":"978-0-6910-9493-9"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240521125859/https://books.google.com/books?id=pf9ZDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Suda. ka.1932.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda","url_text":"Suda"},{"url":"https://topostext.org/work/240#ka.1932","url_text":"ka.1932"}]},{"reference":"Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos. De administrando imperio. xx–xxi.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_VII","url_text":"Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_administrando_imperio","url_text":"De administrando imperio"}]},{"reference":"\"AM 6145, AD 652/-3\". The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. 1997. p. 481.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Conrad, L.I. (July 1996). \"The Arabs and the Colossus\". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1017/S1356186300007173. JSTOR 25183179. S2CID 163298319.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186300007173","url_text":"10.1017/S1356186300007173"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/25183179","url_text":"25183179"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163298319","url_text":"163298319"}]},{"reference":"Williams, Kate (26 December 2015). \"Rhodes reconstruction project will be a colossal gamble for Greece – but it might well pay off\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/27/greece-colossus-rhodes-new-project","url_text":"\"Rhodes reconstruction project will be a colossal gamble for Greece – but it might well pay off\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151227004635/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/27/greece-colossus-rhodes-new-project","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, Jay (7 January 2016). \"There's a plan to rebuild the Colossus of Rhodes\". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/a18877/architects-want-to-rebuild-colossus-of-rhodes","url_text":"\"There's a plan to rebuild the Colossus of Rhodes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Mechanics","url_text":"Popular Mechanics"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160725172414/http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/a18877/architects-want-to-rebuild-colossus-of-rhodes/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pliny the Elder. Natural History. xxxiv.18.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder","url_text":"Pliny the Elder"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)","url_text":"Natural History"}]},{"reference":"\"Description, location, & facts\". Colossus of Rhodes. britannica.com. April 2023. Archived from the original on 2020-09-24. 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McFarland & Company. p. 75. ISBN 0-7864-1918-0. Archived from the original on 2024-05-21. Retrieved 2017-10-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nTmXOFX-wioC","url_text":"The Macedonian Empire: The era of warfare under Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359-323 B.C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1918-0","url_text":"0-7864-1918-0"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240521130348/https://books.google.com/books?id=nTmXOFX-wioC","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gabriel, Albert (1932). \"[no title cited]\". Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique. 56: 331–359. doi:10.3406/bch.1932.2843.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbch.1932.2843","url_text":"10.3406/bch.1932.2843"}]},{"reference":"Maryon, H. (1956). \"The Colossus of Rhodes\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 76: 68–86. doi:10.2307/629554. JSTOR 629554.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Maryon","url_text":"Maryon, H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F629554","url_text":"10.2307/629554"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/629554","url_text":"629554"}]},{"reference":"Haynes, D.E.L. (1957). \"Philo of Byzantium and the Colossus of Rhodes\". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 77 (2): 311–312. doi:10.2307/629373. JSTOR 629373.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F629373","url_text":"10.2307/629373"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/629373","url_text":"629373"}]},{"reference":"Higgins, Michael Denis (2023). The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: Science, engineering, and technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1976-4815-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1976-4815-5","url_text":"978-0-1976-4815-5"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Kenneth R. (2014). \"Alcaeus of Messene, Philip V and the Colossus of Rhodes: A re-examination of Anth. Pal. 6.171\". The Classical Quarterly. 64 (1): 136–151. doi:10.1017/S0009838813000591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838813000591","url_text":"10.1017/S0009838813000591"}]},{"reference":"Romer, John; Romer, Elizabeth (1995). The Seven Wonders of the World: A history of the modern imagination (1st American ed.). New York, NY: Henry Holt.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Woods, David (2016). \"On the alleged Arab destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes c. 653\". Byzantion: Revue Internationale des Etudes Byzantines. 86: 441–451.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoxenus
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Aristoxenus
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["1 Life","2 Overview of his works","3 Elementa harmonica","4 On rhythmics and metrics","5 Other works","6 Editions and translations","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
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4th century BC Greek Peripatetic philosopher
For other people named Aristoxenus, see Aristoxenus (disambiguation).
A modern imagining of the appearance of Aristoxenus.
Aristoxenus of Tarentum (Greek: Ἀριστόξενος ὁ Ταραντῖνος; born c. 375, fl. 335 BC) was a Greek Peripatetic philosopher, and a pupil of Aristotle. Most of his writings, which dealt with philosophy, ethics and music, have been lost, but one musical treatise, Elements of Harmony (Greek: Ἁρμονικὰ στοιχεῖα; Latin: Elementa harmonica), survives incomplete, as well as some fragments concerning rhythm and meter. The Elements is the chief source of our knowledge of ancient Greek music.
Life
Aristoxenus was born at Tarentum (in modern-day Apulia, southern Italy) in Magna Graecia, and was the son of a learned musician named Spintharus (otherwise Mnesias). He learned music from his father, and having then been instructed by Lamprus of Erythrae and Xenophilus the Pythagorean, he finally became a pupil of Aristotle, whom he appears to have rivaled in the variety of his studies.
According to the Suda, he heaped insults on Aristotle after his death, because Aristotle had designated Theophrastus as the next head of the Peripatetic school, a position which Aristoxenus himself had coveted, having achieved great distinction as a pupil of Aristotle. This story is, however, contradicted by Aristocles, who asserts that he only ever mentioned Aristotle with the greatest respect. Nothing is known of his life after the time of Aristotle's departure, apart from a comment in Elementa Harmonica concerning his works.
Overview of his works
His writings were said to have consisted of four hundred and fifty-three books, and dealt with philosophy, ethics and music.
Although his final years were in the Peripatetic school, and he hoped to succeed Aristotle on his death, Aristoxenus was strongly influenced by Pythagoreanism, and was only a follower of Aristotle in so far as Aristotle was a follower of Plato and Pythagoras. Thus, as Gibson tells us: "the various philosophical influences"(pp ...)
on Aristoxenus included growing up in the profoundly Pythagorean city of Taras (Tarentum), home also of the two Pythagoreans Archytas and Philolaus, and his father's (Pythagorean) musical background, which he inculcated into his son. Gibson tells us that, after the influence of his father:
The second important influence on Aristoxenos' development was Pythagoreanism: Born in Tarentum, the city in which both Archytas and Philolaos had lived, it can be seen that the extended period of time that Aristoxenus spent in a Pythagorean environment made an indelible impact on the subject matter of his writings. Such titles as "Pythagorou bios", "Peri Pythaorou kai ton guorimon autou" and "Peri tou Pythagorikou biou" indicate Aristoxenus' interest in the society. Furthermore, his works on education show evidence of Pythagorean influence, particularly in their tendency towards conservatism. Most importantly, speculation on the structure of music had its origin in a Pythagorean environment. Its focus was on the numerical relationship between notes and, at its furthest stretch, developed into a comparison between musical, mathematical and cosmological structures.(pp 3–4)
However, Aristoxenus disagreed with earlier Pythagorean musical theory in several respects, building on their work with ideas of his own. The only work of his that has come down to us is the three books of the Elements of Harmony, an incomplete musical treatise. Aristoxenus' theory had an empirical tendency; in music he held that the notes of the scale are to be judged, not as earlier Pythagoreans had believed, by mathematical ratio, but by the ear. Vitruvius in his De architectura paraphrases the writings of Aristoxenus on music. His ideas were responded to and developed by some later theorists such as Archestratus, and his place in the methodological debate between rationalists and empiricists was commented upon by such writers as Ptolemais of Cyrene.
The Pythagorean theory that the soul is a 'harmony' of the four elements composing the body, and therefore mortal ("nothing at all," in the words of Cicero), was ascribed to Aristoxenus (fr. 118–121 Wehrli) and Dicaearchus. This theory is comparable to the one offered by Simmias in Plato's Phaedo.
Elementa harmonica
In his Elements of Harmony (also Harmonics), Aristoxenus attempted a complete and systematic exposition of music. The first book contains an explanation of the genera of Greek music, and also of their species; this is followed by some general definitions of terms, particularly those of sound, interval, and system. In the second book Aristoxenus divides music into seven parts, which he takes to be: the genera, intervals, sounds, systems, tones or modes, mutations, and melopoeia. The remainder of the work is taken up with a discussion of the many parts of music according to the order which he had himself prescribed.
While it is often held among modern scholars that Aristoxenus rejected the opinion of the Pythagoreans that arithmetic rules were the ultimate judge of intervals and that in every system there must be found a mathematical coincidence before such a system can be said to be harmonic, Aristoxenus made extensive use of arithmetic terminology, notably to define varieties of semitones and dieses in his descriptions of the various genera.
In his second book he asserted that "by the hearing we judge of the magnitude of an interval, and by the understanding we consider its many powers." And further he wrote, "that the nature of melody is best discovered by the perception of sense, and is retained by memory; and that there is no other way of arriving at the knowledge of music;" and though, he wrote, "others affirm that it is by the study of instruments that we attain this knowledge;" this, he wrote, is talking wildly, "for just as it is not necessary for him who writes an Iambic to attend to the arithmetical proportions of the feet of which it is composed, so it is not necessary for him who writes a Phrygian song to attend to the ratios of the sounds proper thereto." However, this should not be construed as meaning that he postulated a simplistic system of harmony resembling that of modern twelve tone theory, and especially not an equally tempered system. As he urges us to consider, "(a)fter all, with which of the people who argue about the shades of the genera should one agree? Not everyone looks to the same division when tuning the chromatic or the enharmonic, so why should the note a ditone from mesé be called lichanos rather than a small amount higher?"
It is sometimes claimed that the nature of Aristoxenus' scales and genera deviated sharply from his predecessors. That Aristoxenus used a model for creating scales based upon the notion of a topos, or range of pitch location, is fact, however there is no reason to believe that he alone set this precedent, as he himself does not make this claim. Indeed, the idea of unfixed pitch locations that cover certain ranges, the limits of which may be defined by fixed points, is a notion that was popular until the modern fixation upon fixed pitch systems, as is indicated by Baroque theoretical systems of pitch and intonation. Another way of stating this, however perhaps less accurate, is that instead of using discrete ratios to place intervals, he used continuously variable quantities.
The postulation that this resulted in the structuring of his tetrachords and the resulting scales having 'other' qualities of consonance is one that can only be accounted for by the recourse to often repeated inconsistencies amongst his interpreters and modern confirmation bias in favour of simplified twelve tone theories. Aristoxenus himself held that "... two things must not be overlooked: First, that many people have mistakenly supposed us to be saying that a tone can be divided into three equal parts in a melody. They made this mistake because they did not realise that it is one thing to employ the third part of a tone, and another to divide a tone into three parts and sing all three. Secondly we accept that from a purely abstract point of view there is no least interval."
In book three Aristoxenus goes on to describe twenty eight laws of melodic succession, which are of great interest to those concerned with classical Greek melodic structure.
On rhythmics and metrics
Part of the second book of a work on rhythmics and metrics, Elementa rhythmica, is preserved in medieval manuscript tradition.
Aristoxenus was also the author of a work On the Primary Duration (chronos).
A five-column fragment of a treatise on meter (P. Oxy. 9/"2687".) was published in Grenfell and Hunt's Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. 1 (1898) and is probably by Aristoxenus.
Other works
The edition of Wehrli presents the surviving evidence for works with the following titles (not including several fragments of uncertain origin):
Life of Pythagoras ( Πυθαγόρου βίος ): fr. 11 Wehrli
On Pythagoras and his pupils ( Περὶ Πυθαγόρου καὶ τῶν γνωρίμων αὐτοῦ ): fr. 14 Wehrli
On the Pythagorean life ( Περὶ τοῦ Πυθαγορικοῦ βίου ): fr. 31 Wehrli
Pythagorean maxims or Pythagorean negations ( Πυθαγορικαὶ ἀποφάσεις ): fr. 34 Wehrli
Educational customs or Rules of education ( Παιδευτικοὶ νόμοι ): fr. 42–43 Wehrli
Political laws ( Πολιτικοὶ νόμοι ): fr. 44–45 Wehrli
Mantinean character ( Μαντινέων ἔθη ): fr. 45, I, lines 1–9 Wehrli
Praise of Mantineans ( Μαντινέων ἐγκώμιον ): fr. 45, I, lines 10–12 Wehrli
Life of Archytas ( Ἀρχύτα βίος ): fr. 47–50 Wehrli
Life of Socrates ( Σωκράτους βίος ): fr. 54 Wehrli
Life of Plato ( Πλάτωνος βίος ): fr. 64 Wehrli
On tonoi ( Περὶ τόνων ): a brief quotation in Porphyry's commentary on Ptolemy's Harmonics, p. 78 Düring (not edited by Wehrli)
On music ( Περὶ μουσικῆς ): fr. 80, 82, 89 Wehrli
On listening to music or Lecture course on music ( Μουσικὴ ἀκρόασις ): fr. 90 Wehrli
On Praxidamas ( Πραξιδαμάντεια ): fr. 91 Wehrli
On melodic composition or On music in lyric poetry ( Περὶ μελοποιίας ): fr. 93 Wehrli
On musical instruments ( Περὶ ὀργάνων ): fr. 94–95, 102 Wehrli
On aulos ( Περὶ αὐλῶν ): fr. 96 Wehrli
On auletes ( Περὶ αὐλητῶν ): fr. 100 Wehrli
On the boring of aulos ( Περὶ αὐλῶν τρήσεως ): fr. 101 Wehrli
On choruses ( Περὶ χορῶν ): fr. 103 Wehrli
On tragic dancing ( Περὶ τραγικῆς ὀρχήσεως ): fr. 104–106 Wehrli
Comparisons of dances ( Συγκρίσεις ): fr. 109 Wehrli
On tragic poets ( Περὶ τραγῳδοποιῶν ): fr. 113 Wehrli
Life of Telestes ( Τελέστου βίος ): fr. 117 Wehrli (according to whom this Telestes is the dithyrambic poet)
Miscellaneous table talk or Sympotic miscellany ( Σύμμικτα συμποτικά ): fr. 124 Wehrli
Notes or Memorabilia ( Ὑπομνήματα ), Historical notes (Ἱστορικὰ ὑπομνήματα), Brief notes ( Κατὰ βραχὺ ὑπομνήματα ), Miscellaneous notes ( Σύμμικτα ὑπομνήματα ), Random jottings ( Τὰ σποράδην ): fr. 128–132, 139 Wehrli
Editions and translations
Barker, Andrew (1989). Greek Musical Writings, vol. 2: Harmonic and Acoustic Theory (Cambridge), pp. 119–89, English translation with introduction and notes, ISBN 0-521-61697-2
Macran, Henry Stewart (1902). The Harmonics of Aristoxenus (Oxford), Greek text with English translation and notes (archive.org, Internet Archive)
Marquard, Paul (1868). Die harmonischen Fragmente des Aristoxenus (Berlin), Greek text with German translation and commentary (archive.org, Google Books)
Pearson, Lionel (1990). Aristoxenus: Elementa rhythmica. The fragment of Book II and the additional evidence for Aristoxenean rhythmic theory (Oxford ), Greek texts with introduction, translation, and commentary, ISBN 0-19-814051-7
Wehrli, Fritz (1967). Die Schule des Aristoteles, vol. 2: Aristoxenos, 2nd. ed. (Basel/Stuttgart), Greek text (excluding the harmonic fragments, rhythmic fragments, On the Primary Duration, and On tonoi: see p. 28) with commentary in German
Westphal, Rudolf (1883–1893). Aristoxenus von Tarent: Melik und Rhythmik des classischen Hellenenthums, 2 vols. (Leipzig) (vol. 1, vol. 2)
Westphal, Rudolf (1861). Die Fragmente und die Lehrsätze der griechischen Rhythmiker (Leipzig), pp. 26–41, Greek text of Elementa rhythmica and On the Primary Duration (Internet Archive)
See also
Plato's unwritten doctrines, for Aristoxenus's report on Plato's Lecture on the Good
Notes
^ "Aristoxenus of Tarentum". Chambers's Encyclopædia. Vol. 1. London, UK: George Newnes Ltd. 1961. p. 593.
^ a b c "Aristoxenos". Suda (Aelian ed.). H. A. ii. 11.
^ Aulus Gellius. . iv. 11.; Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. i. 18.
^ Aristocles ap. Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. xv. 2.
^
Barker, A. (2007). The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139468626. Retrieved 2015-05-03. No more of his life-history is known ... .
^ a b
Gibson, Sophie (2005). Aristoxenus of Tarentum and the Birth of Musicology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 041597061X.
^ Chisholm 1911.
^ Vitruvius, Book V Chapter IV
^ Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. 1.22.51, cf. 1.11.24.
^ a b c d e f Hawkins, John, Sir (1868). A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. Vol. 1. pp. 66–67.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Barker 1989, pp. 142–144.
^ Barker 1989, p. 163.
^ Barker 1989, p. 140.
^ John Chalmers, (1993) Divisions of the Tetrachord, Chapter 3, pp. 17–22. Frog Peak Music. ISBN 0-945996-04-7.
^ Barker 1989, p. 160.
^ Barker 1989, pp. 170–183.
References
Barker, Andrew (1989). Greek Musical Writings. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30220-3.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aristoxenus". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 522.
Further reading
Bélis, Annie (1986). Aristoxène de Tarente et Aristote: le Traité d'harmonique. Paris, Klincksieck.
Barker, Andrew (1978). "Hoi Kaloumenoi harmonikoi: The Predecessors of Aristoxenus". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society. 24: 1–21. doi:10.1017/s0068673500003990.
Barker, Andrew (1978). "Music and Perception: A Study in Aristoxenus". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 98: 9–16. doi:10.2307/630189. JSTOR 630189. S2CID 161552153.
Bélis, Annie (2001). "Aristoxenus". In Stanley Sadie; John Tyrrell (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. .{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Crocker, Richard (1966). "Aristoxenus and Greek Mathematics". In LaRue, Jan (ed.). Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.
Henderson, Isabel (1957). "Ancient Greek Music". In Wellesz, Egon (ed.). Ancient and Oriental Music. The New Oxford History of Music. Vol. 1. London: Oxford University Press.
Huffman, Carl A. (ed.) (2011). Aristoxenus of Tarentum. Discussion. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. (RUSCH XVII).
Huffman, Carl (2012). Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Texts and Discussions. New Brunswick: Transactions Publications.
Levin, Flora (1972). "Synesis in Aristoxenian Theory". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 103: 211–234. doi:10.2307/2935976. JSTOR 2935976.
Lippman, Edward (1964). Musical Thought in Ancient Greece. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rowell, Lewis (1979). "Aristoxenus on Rhythm". Journal of Music Theory. 23 (Spring): 63–79. doi:10.2307/843694. JSTOR 843694.
Winnington-Ingram, R. P. (1980). "Aristoxenus". In Stanley Sadie (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. .{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
External links
Works by or about Aristoxenus at Wikisource
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aristoxenus (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristoxenus_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristosseno.jpg"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"fl.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fl."},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Peripatetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"link_name":"music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Elementa harmonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementa_harmonica"},{"link_name":"rhythm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm"},{"link_name":"meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_(music)"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chambers-1"}],"text":"For other people named Aristoxenus, see Aristoxenus (disambiguation).A modern imagining of the appearance of Aristoxenus.Aristoxenus of Tarentum (Greek: Ἀριστόξενος ὁ Ταραντῖνος; born c. 375, fl. 335 BC) was a Greek Peripatetic philosopher, and a pupil of Aristotle. Most of his writings, which dealt with philosophy, ethics and music, have been lost, but one musical treatise, Elements of Harmony (Greek: Ἁρμονικὰ στοιχεῖα; Latin: Elementa harmonica), survives incomplete, as well as some fragments concerning rhythm and meter. The Elements is the chief source of our knowledge of ancient Greek music.[1]","title":"Aristoxenus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto"},{"link_name":"Apulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia"},{"link_name":"Magna Graecia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Graecia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suda-2"},{"link_name":"Lamprus of Erythrae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprus_of_Erythrae"},{"link_name":"Xenophilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophilus"},{"link_name":"Pythagorean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Suda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suda-2"},{"link_name":"Theophrastus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus"},{"link_name":"head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarch"},{"link_name":"Peripatetic school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school"},{"link_name":"Aristocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocles_of_Messene"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A._Barker-5"}],"text":"Aristoxenus was born at Tarentum (in modern-day Apulia, southern Italy) in Magna Graecia, and was the son of a learned musician named Spintharus (otherwise Mnesias).[2] He learned music from his father, and having then been instructed by Lamprus of Erythrae and Xenophilus the Pythagorean, he finally became a pupil of Aristotle,[3] whom he appears to have rivaled in the variety of his studies.According to the Suda,[2] he heaped insults on Aristotle after his death, because Aristotle had designated Theophrastus as the next head of the Peripatetic school, a position which Aristoxenus himself had coveted, having achieved great distinction as a pupil of Aristotle. This story is, however, contradicted by Aristocles, who asserts that he only ever mentioned Aristotle with the greatest respect. Nothing is known of his life after the time of Aristotle's departure, apart from a comment in Elementa Harmonica concerning his works.[4][5]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suda-2"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics"},{"link_name":"music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music"},{"link_name":"Peripatetic school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school"},{"link_name":"Pythagoreanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Pythagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gibson-2005-6"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Taras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto#History"},{"link_name":"Archytas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archytas"},{"link_name":"Philolaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philolaus"},{"link_name":"Pythagoreanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism"},{"link_name":"Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Taranto"},{"link_name":"Archytas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archytas"},{"link_name":"Philolaos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philolaos"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gibson-2005-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-7"},{"link_name":"Vitruvius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvius"},{"link_name":"De architectura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_architectura"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Archestratus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archestratus_(music_theorist)"},{"link_name":"Ptolemais of Cyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemais_of_Cyrene"},{"link_name":"soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul"},{"link_name":"four elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_elements"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Dicaearchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicaearchus"},{"link_name":"Simmias in Plato's Phaedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simmias_of_Thebes#Character_in_Plato.27s_Phaedo"}],"text":"His writings were said to have consisted of four hundred and fifty-three books,[2] and dealt with philosophy, ethics and music. \nAlthough his final years were in the Peripatetic school, and he hoped to succeed Aristotle on his death, Aristoxenus was strongly influenced by Pythagoreanism, and was only a follower of Aristotle in so far as Aristotle was a follower of Plato and Pythagoras. Thus, as Gibson tells us: \"the various philosophical influences\"[6](pp ...)[page needed]\non Aristoxenus included growing up in the profoundly Pythagorean city of Taras (Tarentum), home also of the two Pythagoreans Archytas and Philolaus, and his father's (Pythagorean) musical background, which he inculcated into his son. Gibson tells us that, after the influence of his father:The second important influence on Aristoxenos' development was Pythagoreanism: Born in Tarentum, the city in which both Archytas and Philolaos had lived, it can be seen that the extended period of time that Aristoxenus spent in a Pythagorean environment made an indelible impact on the subject matter of his writings. Such titles as \"Pythagorou bios\", \"Peri Pythaorou kai ton guorimon autou\" and \"Peri tou Pythagorikou biou\" indicate Aristoxenus' interest in the society. Furthermore, his works on education show evidence of Pythagorean influence, particularly in their tendency towards conservatism. Most importantly, speculation on the structure of music had its origin in a Pythagorean environment. Its focus was on the numerical relationship between notes and, at its furthest stretch, developed into a comparison between musical, mathematical and cosmological structures.[6](pp 3–4)However, Aristoxenus disagreed with earlier Pythagorean musical theory in several respects, building on their work with ideas of his own. The only work of his that has come down to us is the three books of the Elements of Harmony, an incomplete musical treatise. Aristoxenus' theory had an empirical tendency; in music he held that the notes of the scale are to be judged, not as earlier Pythagoreans had believed, by mathematical ratio, but by the ear.[7] Vitruvius in his De architectura[8] paraphrases the writings of Aristoxenus on music. His ideas were responded to and developed by some later theorists such as Archestratus, and his place in the methodological debate between rationalists and empiricists was commented upon by such writers as Ptolemais of Cyrene.The Pythagorean theory that the soul is a 'harmony' of the four elements composing the body, and therefore mortal (\"nothing at all,\" in the words of Cicero[9]), was ascribed to Aristoxenus (fr. 118–121 Wehrli) and Dicaearchus. This theory is comparable to the one offered by Simmias in Plato's Phaedo.","title":"Overview of his works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elements of Harmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementa_harmonica"},{"link_name":"music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(music)"},{"link_name":"Greek music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave_species"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(music)"},{"link_name":"system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_greece"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"Pythagoreans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoreanism"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"semitones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitone"},{"link_name":"dieses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesis"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1989142%E2%80%93144-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hawkins66-10"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(music)"},{"link_name":"chromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(music)#Chromatic"},{"link_name":"enharmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(music)#Enharmonic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1989163-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1989140-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1989160-15"},{"link_name":"melodic succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melodic_pattern"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarker1989170%E2%80%93183-16"}],"text":"In his Elements of Harmony (also Harmonics), Aristoxenus attempted a complete and systematic exposition of music. The first book contains an explanation of the genera of Greek music, and also of their species; this is followed by some general definitions of terms, particularly those of sound, interval, and system.[10] In the second book Aristoxenus divides music into seven parts, which he takes to be: the genera, intervals, sounds, systems, tones or modes, mutations, and melopoeia.[10] The remainder of the work is taken up with a discussion of the many parts of music according to the order which he had himself prescribed.[10]While it is often held among modern scholars that Aristoxenus rejected the opinion of the Pythagoreans that arithmetic rules were the ultimate judge of intervals and that in every system there must be found a mathematical coincidence before such a system can be said to be harmonic,[10] Aristoxenus made extensive use of arithmetic terminology, notably to define varieties of semitones and dieses in his descriptions of the various genera.[11]In his second book he asserted that \"by the hearing we judge of the magnitude of an interval, and by the understanding we consider its many powers.\"[10] And further he wrote, \"that the nature of melody is best discovered by the perception of sense, and is retained by memory; and that there is no other way of arriving at the knowledge of music;\" and though, he wrote, \"others affirm that it is by the study of instruments that we attain this knowledge;\" this, he wrote, is talking wildly, \"for just as it is not necessary for him who writes an Iambic to attend to the arithmetical proportions of the feet of which it is composed, so it is not necessary for him who writes a Phrygian song to attend to the ratios of the sounds proper thereto.\"[10] However, this should not be construed as meaning that he postulated a simplistic system of harmony resembling that of modern twelve tone theory, and especially not an equally tempered system. As he urges us to consider, \"(a)fter all, with which of the people who argue about the shades of the genera should one agree? Not everyone looks to the same division when tuning the chromatic or the enharmonic, so why should the note a ditone from mesé be called lichanos rather than a small amount higher?\"[12]It is sometimes claimed that the nature of Aristoxenus' scales and genera deviated sharply from his predecessors. That Aristoxenus used a model for creating scales based upon the notion of a topos, or range of pitch location,[13] is fact, however there is no reason to believe that he alone set this precedent, as he himself does not make this claim. Indeed, the idea of unfixed pitch locations that cover certain ranges, the limits of which may be defined by fixed points, is a notion that was popular until the modern fixation upon fixed pitch systems, as is indicated by Baroque theoretical systems of pitch and intonation. Another way of stating this, however perhaps less accurate, is that instead of using discrete ratios to place intervals, he used continuously variable quantities.The postulation that this resulted in the structuring of his tetrachords and the resulting scales having 'other' qualities of consonance[14] is one that can only be accounted for by the recourse to often repeated inconsistencies amongst his interpreters and modern confirmation bias in favour of simplified twelve tone theories. Aristoxenus himself held that \"... two things must not be overlooked: First, that many people have mistakenly supposed us to be saying that a tone can be divided into three equal parts in a melody. They made this mistake because they did not realise that it is one thing to employ the third part of a tone, and another to divide a tone into three parts and sing all three. Secondly we accept that from a purely abstract point of view there is no least interval.\"[15]In book three Aristoxenus goes on to describe twenty eight laws of melodic succession, which are of great interest to those concerned with classical Greek melodic structure.[16]","title":"Elementa harmonica"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P. Oxy. 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_9"},{"link_name":"\"2687\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//163.1.169.40/cgi-bin/library?e=q-000-00---0POxy--00-0-0--0prompt-10---4------0-1l--1-en-50---20-about-2687--00031-001-0-0utfZz-8-00&a=d&c=POxy&cl=search&d=HASH0145fcb68270ba24d867ccd9"},{"link_name":"Grenfell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Pyne_Grenfell"},{"link_name":"Hunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Surridge_Hunt"},{"link_name":"Oxyrhynchus Papyri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri"}],"text":"Part of the second book of a work on rhythmics and metrics, Elementa rhythmica, is preserved in medieval manuscript tradition.Aristoxenus was also the author of a work On the Primary Duration (chronos).A five-column fragment of a treatise on meter (P. Oxy. 9/\"2687\".) was published in Grenfell and Hunt's Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. 1 (1898) and is probably by Aristoxenus.","title":"On rhythmics and metrics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archytas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archytas"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Porphyry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"commentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110721083538/http://www.toxolyros.gr/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5663&Itemid=857"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy's Harmonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy#Music"},{"link_name":"aulos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulos"},{"link_name":"dithyrambic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dithyramb"},{"link_name":"table talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_talk_(literature)"},{"link_name":"Sympotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium"}],"text":"The edition of Wehrli presents the surviving evidence for works with the following titles (not including several fragments of uncertain origin):Life of Pythagoras ( Πυθαγόρου βίος ): fr. 11 Wehrli\nOn Pythagoras and his pupils ( Περὶ Πυθαγόρου καὶ τῶν γνωρίμων αὐτοῦ ): fr. 14 Wehrli\nOn the Pythagorean life ( Περὶ τοῦ Πυθαγορικοῦ βίου ): fr. 31 Wehrli\nPythagorean maxims or Pythagorean negations ( Πυθαγορικαὶ ἀποφάσεις ): fr. 34 Wehrli\nEducational customs or Rules of education ( Παιδευτικοὶ νόμοι ): fr. 42–43 Wehrli\nPolitical laws ( Πολιτικοὶ νόμοι ): fr. 44–45 Wehrli\nMantinean character ( Μαντινέων ἔθη ): fr. 45, I, lines 1–9 Wehrli\nPraise of Mantineans ( Μαντινέων ἐγκώμιον ): fr. 45, I, lines 10–12 Wehrli\nLife of Archytas ( Ἀρχύτα βίος ): fr. 47–50 Wehrli\nLife of Socrates ( Σωκράτους βίος ): fr. 54 Wehrli\nLife of Plato ( Πλάτωνος βίος ): fr. 64 Wehrli\nOn tonoi ( Περὶ τόνων ): a brief quotation in Porphyry's commentary on Ptolemy's Harmonics, p. 78 Düring (not edited by Wehrli)\nOn music ( Περὶ μουσικῆς ): fr. 80, 82, 89 Wehrli\nOn listening to music or Lecture course on music ( Μουσικὴ ἀκρόασις ): fr. 90 Wehrli\nOn Praxidamas ( Πραξιδαμάντεια ): fr. 91 Wehrli\nOn melodic composition or On music in lyric poetry ( Περὶ μελοποιίας ): fr. 93 Wehrli\nOn musical instruments ( Περὶ ὀργάνων ): fr. 94–95, 102 Wehrli\nOn aulos ( Περὶ αὐλῶν ): fr. 96 Wehrli\nOn auletes ( Περὶ αὐλητῶν ): fr. 100 Wehrli\nOn the boring of aulos ( Περὶ αὐλῶν τρήσεως ): fr. 101 Wehrli\nOn choruses ( Περὶ χορῶν ): fr. 103 Wehrli\nOn tragic dancing ( Περὶ τραγικῆς ὀρχήσεως ): fr. 104–106 Wehrli\nComparisons of dances ( Συγκρίσεις ): fr. 109 Wehrli\nOn tragic poets ( Περὶ τραγῳδοποιῶν ): fr. 113 Wehrli\nLife of Telestes ( Τελέστου βίος ): fr. 117 Wehrli (according to whom this Telestes is the dithyrambic poet)\nMiscellaneous table talk or Sympotic miscellany ( Σύμμικτα συμποτικά ): fr. 124 Wehrli\nNotes or Memorabilia ( Ὑπομνήματα ), Historical notes (Ἱστορικὰ ὑπομνήματα), Brief notes ( Κατὰ βραχὺ ὑπομνήματα ), Miscellaneous notes ( Σύμμικτα ὑπομνήματα ), Random jottings ( Τὰ σποράδην ): fr. 128–132, 139 Wehrli","title":"Other works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barker, Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Barker_(classicist)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-61697-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-61697-2"},{"link_name":"archive.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/search.php?query=macran%20AND%20aristoxenus%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/aristoxenouharm00arisgoog"},{"link_name":"archive.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/aristoxenoyharm00marqgoog"},{"link_name":"Google Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=-dyxQXD4cdIC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-814051-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814051-7"},{"link_name":"Westphal, Rudolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Westphal"},{"link_name":"vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/aristoxenusvont01arisgoog"},{"link_name":"vol. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=DgrF3KQ1U98C"},{"link_name":"Westphal, Rudolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Westphal"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/bub_gb_ZAVBAAAAcAAJ/page/n42"}],"text":"Barker, Andrew (1989). Greek Musical Writings, vol. 2: Harmonic and Acoustic Theory (Cambridge), pp. 119–89, English translation with introduction and notes, ISBN 0-521-61697-2\nMacran, Henry Stewart (1902). The Harmonics of Aristoxenus (Oxford), Greek text with English translation and notes (archive.org, Internet Archive)\nMarquard, Paul (1868). Die harmonischen Fragmente des Aristoxenus (Berlin), Greek text with German translation and commentary (archive.org, Google Books)\nPearson, Lionel (1990). Aristoxenus: Elementa rhythmica. The fragment of Book II and the additional evidence for Aristoxenean rhythmic theory (Oxford ), Greek texts with introduction, translation, and commentary, ISBN 0-19-814051-7\nWehrli, Fritz (1967). Die Schule des Aristoteles, vol. 2: Aristoxenos, 2nd. ed. (Basel/Stuttgart), Greek text (excluding the harmonic fragments, rhythmic fragments, On the Primary Duration, and On tonoi: see p. 28) with commentary in German\nWestphal, Rudolf (1883–1893). Aristoxenus von Tarent: Melik und Rhythmik des classischen Hellenenthums, 2 vols. (Leipzig) (vol. 1, vol. 2)\nWestphal, Rudolf (1861). Die Fragmente und die Lehrsätze der griechischen Rhythmiker (Leipzig), pp. 26–41, Greek text of Elementa rhythmica and On the Primary Duration (Internet Archive)","title":"Editions and translations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Chambers_1-0"},{"link_name":"Chambers's Encyclopædia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers%27s_Encyclop%C3%A6dia"},{"link_name":"George Newnes Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Newnes_Ltd"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-suda_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-suda_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-suda_2-2"},{"link_name":"Suda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Aulus Gellius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Gellius"},{"link_name":"Marcus Tullius Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero"},{"link_name":"Tusculanae Disputationes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Praeparatio Evangelica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeparatio_Evangelica"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-A._Barker_5-0"},{"link_name":"The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xRM9WLpswiEC&dq=Elementa+Harmonica&pg=PA113"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1139468626","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139468626"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Gibson-2005_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Gibson-2005_6-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"041597061X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/041597061X"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911_7-0"},{"link_name":"Chisholm 1911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFChisholm1911"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Book V Chapter IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gutenberg.org/files/20239/20239-h/29239-h.htm#Page_139"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Marcus Tullius Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero"},{"link_name":"Tusculanae Disputationes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawkins66_10-5"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker1989142%E2%80%93144_11-0"},{"link_name":"Barker 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarker1989"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker1989163_12-0"},{"link_name":"Barker 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarker1989"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker1989140_13-0"},{"link_name":"Barker 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarker1989"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-945996-04-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-945996-04-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker1989160_15-0"},{"link_name":"Barker 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarker1989"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarker1989170%E2%80%93183_16-0"},{"link_name":"Barker 1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBarker1989"}],"text":"^ \"Aristoxenus of Tarentum\". Chambers's Encyclopædia. Vol. 1. London, UK: George Newnes Ltd. 1961. p. 593.\n\n^ a b c \"Aristoxenos\". Suda (Aelian ed.). H. A. ii. 11.\n\n^ Aulus Gellius. [no title cited]. iv. 11.; Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. i. 18.\n\n^ Aristocles ap. Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. xv. 2.\n\n^ \nBarker, A. (2007). The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139468626. Retrieved 2015-05-03. [ed.:] No more of his life-history is known ... .\n\n^ a b \nGibson, Sophie (2005). Aristoxenus of Tarentum and the Birth of Musicology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 041597061X.\n\n^ Chisholm 1911.\n\n^ Vitruvius, Book V Chapter IV\n\n^ Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. 1.22.51, cf. 1.11.24.\n\n^ a b c d e f Hawkins, John, Sir (1868). A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. Vol. 1. pp. 66–67.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)\n\n^ Barker 1989, pp. 142–144.\n\n^ Barker 1989, p. 163.\n\n^ Barker 1989, p. 140.\n\n^ John Chalmers, (1993) Divisions of the Tetrachord, Chapter 3, pp. 17–22. Frog Peak Music. ISBN 0-945996-04-7.\n\n^ Barker 1989, p. 160.\n\n^ Barker 1989, pp. 170–183.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bélis, Annie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_B%C3%A9lis"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/s0068673500003990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0068673500003990"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/630189","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F630189"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"630189","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/630189"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"161552153","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161552153"},{"link_name":"Stanley Sadie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Sadie"},{"link_name":"John Tyrrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyrrell_(musicologist)"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"cite encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"},{"link_name":"Levin, Flora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_Levin"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2935976","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2935976"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2935976","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2935976"},{"link_name":"Musical Thought in Ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/musicalthoughtin00lipp"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/843694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F843694"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"843694","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/843694"},{"link_name":"Stanley Sadie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Sadie"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"cite encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher"}],"text":"Bélis, Annie (1986). Aristoxène de Tarente et Aristote: le Traité d'harmonique. Paris, Klincksieck.\nBarker, Andrew (1978). \"Hoi Kaloumenoi harmonikoi: The Predecessors of Aristoxenus\". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society. 24: 1–21. doi:10.1017/s0068673500003990.\nBarker, Andrew (1978). \"Music and Perception: A Study in Aristoxenus\". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 98: 9–16. doi:10.2307/630189. JSTOR 630189. S2CID 161552153.\nBélis, Annie (2001). \"Aristoxenus\". In Stanley Sadie; John Tyrrell (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. [page needed].{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\nCrocker, Richard (1966). \"Aristoxenus and Greek Mathematics\". In LaRue, Jan (ed.). Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.\nHenderson, Isabel (1957). \"Ancient Greek Music\". In Wellesz, Egon (ed.). Ancient and Oriental Music. The New Oxford History of Music. Vol. 1. London: Oxford University Press.\nHuffman, Carl A. (ed.) (2011). Aristoxenus of Tarentum. Discussion. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. (RUSCH XVII).\nHuffman, Carl (2012). Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Texts and Discussions. New Brunswick: Transactions Publications.\nLevin, Flora (1972). \"Synesis in Aristoxenian Theory\". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 103: 211–234. doi:10.2307/2935976. JSTOR 2935976.\nLippman, Edward (1964). Musical Thought in Ancient Greece. New York: Columbia University Press.\nRowell, Lewis (1979). \"Aristoxenus on Rhythm\". Journal of Music Theory. 23 (Spring): 63–79. doi:10.2307/843694. JSTOR 843694.\nWinnington-Ingram, R. P. (1980). \"Aristoxenus\". In Stanley Sadie (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. [page needed].{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"A modern imagining of the appearance of Aristoxenus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aristosseno.jpg/200px-Aristosseno.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Plato's unwritten doctrines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_unwritten_doctrines"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Aristoxenus of Tarentum\". Chambers's Encyclopædia. Vol. 1. London, UK: George Newnes Ltd. 1961. p. 593.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers%27s_Encyclop%C3%A6dia","url_text":"Chambers's Encyclopædia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Newnes_Ltd","url_text":"George Newnes Ltd"}]},{"reference":"\"Aristoxenos\". Suda (Aelian ed.). H. A. ii. 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suda","url_text":"Suda"}]},{"reference":"Aulus Gellius. [no title cited]. iv. 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Gellius","url_text":"Aulus Gellius"}]},{"reference":"Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. i. 18.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero","url_text":"Marcus Tullius Cicero"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes","url_text":"Tusculanae Disputationes"}]},{"reference":"Aristocles ap. Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. xv. 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeparatio_Evangelica","url_text":"Praeparatio Evangelica"}]},{"reference":"Barker, A. (2007). The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139468626. Retrieved 2015-05-03. [ed.:] No more of his life-history is known ... .","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xRM9WLpswiEC&dq=Elementa+Harmonica&pg=PA113","url_text":"The Science of Harmonics in Classical Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139468626","url_text":"978-1139468626"}]},{"reference":"Gibson, Sophie (2005). Aristoxenus of Tarentum and the Birth of Musicology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 041597061X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/041597061X","url_text":"041597061X"}]},{"reference":"Marcus Tullius Cicero. Tusculanae Disputationes. 1.22.51, cf. 1.11.24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero","url_text":"Marcus Tullius Cicero"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes","url_text":"Tusculanae Disputationes"}]},{"reference":"Hawkins, John, Sir (1868). A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. Vol. 1. pp. 66–67.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Barker, Andrew (1989). Greek Musical Writings. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30220-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-30220-3","url_text":"978-0-521-30220-3"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Aristoxenus\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 522.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Aristoxenus","url_text":"Aristoxenus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Barker, Andrew (1978). \"Hoi Kaloumenoi harmonikoi: The Predecessors of Aristoxenus\". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society. 24: 1–21. doi:10.1017/s0068673500003990.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0068673500003990","url_text":"10.1017/s0068673500003990"}]},{"reference":"Barker, Andrew (1978). \"Music and Perception: A Study in Aristoxenus\". Journal of Hellenic Studies. 98: 9–16. doi:10.2307/630189. JSTOR 630189. S2CID 161552153.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630189","url_text":"10.2307/630189"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/630189","url_text":"630189"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161552153","url_text":"161552153"}]},{"reference":"Bélis, Annie (2001). \"Aristoxenus\". In Stanley Sadie; John Tyrrell (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. [page needed].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Sadie","url_text":"Stanley Sadie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyrrell_(musicologist)","url_text":"John Tyrrell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources","url_text":"page needed"}]},{"reference":"Crocker, Richard (1966). \"Aristoxenus and Greek Mathematics\". In LaRue, Jan (ed.). Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Henderson, Isabel (1957). \"Ancient Greek Music\". In Wellesz, Egon (ed.). Ancient and Oriental Music. The New Oxford History of Music. Vol. 1. London: Oxford University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Huffman, Carl (2012). Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Texts and Discussions. New Brunswick: Transactions Publications.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Levin, Flora (1972). \"Synesis in Aristoxenian Theory\". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 103: 211–234. doi:10.2307/2935976. JSTOR 2935976.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_Levin","url_text":"Levin, Flora"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2935976","url_text":"10.2307/2935976"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2935976","url_text":"2935976"}]},{"reference":"Lippman, Edward (1964). Musical Thought in Ancient Greece. New York: Columbia University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/musicalthoughtin00lipp","url_text":"Musical Thought in Ancient Greece"}]},{"reference":"Rowell, Lewis (1979). \"Aristoxenus on Rhythm\". Journal of Music Theory. 23 (Spring): 63–79. doi:10.2307/843694. JSTOR 843694.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F843694","url_text":"10.2307/843694"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/843694","url_text":"843694"}]},{"reference":"Winnington-Ingram, R. P. (1980). \"Aristoxenus\". In Stanley Sadie (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 1. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. [page needed].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Sadie","url_text":"Stanley Sadie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources","url_text":"page needed"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-cadet_keyboard
|
Space-cadet keyboard
|
["1 Description","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
|
Keyboard used on MIT Lisp machines, influential to Emacs
The Symbolics-labeled version shown here was only used with the LM-2, which was Symbolics' repackaged version of the MIT CADR. Later Symbolics systems used a greatly simplified keyboard, the Symbolics keyboard, that retained only the basic layout and the more commonly used function and modifier keys from the space-cadet keyboard.
The space-cadet keyboard is a keyboard designed by John L. Kulp in 1978 and used on Lisp machines at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which inspired several still-current jargon terms in the field of computer science and influenced the design of Emacs. It was inspired by the Knight keyboard, which was developed for the Knight TV system, used with MIT's Incompatible Timesharing System.
Description
The space-cadet keyboard was equipped with seven modifier keys: four keys for bucky bits (⎈ Control, ◆ Meta, ❖ Super, and ✦ Hyper), and three shift keys, called ⇧ Shift, Top, and Front (which was labeled on the front of the key; the top was labeled Greek). Meta had been introduced on the earlier Knight keyboard, while Hyper and Super were introduced by this keyboard. Each group was in a row, thus allowing easy chording, or pressing of several modifier keys; for example, Control+Meta+Hyper+Super could be pressed with the fingers of one hand, while the other hand pressed another key.
Many keys had three symbols on them, accessible by means of the shift keys: a letter and a symbol on the top, and a Greek letter on the front. For example, the G key had a "G" and an up-arrow ("↑") on the top, and the Greek letter gamma ("γ") on the front. By pressing this key with one hand while playing an appropriate "chord" with the other hand on the shift keys, the user could get the following results:
Key pressed
Result
G
g (lowercase G)
⇧ Shift+G
G (uppercase G)
Front+G
γ (lowercase gamma)
Front+⇧ Shift+G
Γ (uppercase gamma)
Top+G
↑ (upwards arrow)
Each of these might, in addition, be typed with any combination of the ⎈ Control, ◆ Meta, ❖ Super, and ✦ Hyper keys. By combining the modifier keys, it is possible to make (50 keys × 5 shift types) × 24 bucky keys = 4000 different inputs. This allowed the user to type very complicated mathematical text, and also to have thousands of single-character commands at their disposal. Many users were willing to memorise the command meanings of so many characters if it reduced typing time. This attitude shaped the interface of Emacs; compare the use of the ⎋ Esc key in vi, due to the convenient position of the key on the ADM-3A terminal. Other users, however, thought that so many keys were excessive and objected to this design on the grounds that such a keyboard can be difficult to operate. Emacs uses "M-" as the prefix for ⎇ Alt when describing key presses: the "M-" stood for Meta on the space-cadet keyboard, and when Emacs was ported to PCs, the Alt key was used in place of Meta.
This keyboard included a Macro key which had limited application support. It also included four Roman Numeral keys (I, II, III, and IV) which allowed for easy interaction with lists of four or fewer choices.
See also
Lisp machine
Symbolics
Knight keyboard
References
This article is based in part on the Jargon File, which is in the public domain.
^ Xah Lee (2011-10-27). "Space-cadet Keyboard and Lisp Machine Keyboards".
^ https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mietek/mit-cadr-system-software/master/src/lmdoc/kbdpro.3
^ "Re: Pretty-lambdas".
^ "I know this is another "neckbeard" comment (Love that term), but anyone who ever... | Hacker News".
^ a b c The Jargon File. Xinware Corporation. 2007. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-897454-66-4.
^ Cameron, Debra; Rosenblatt, Bill; Raymond, Eric (1996). "Emacs and X". In Loukides, Mike (ed.). Learning GNU Emacs (Second ed.). Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. pp. 408–409. ISBN 1-56592-152-6.
^ Xah Lee. "History of Emacs ＆ vi Keys (Keyboard Influence on Keybinding Design)".
External links
Space Cadet: Mike McMahon's discussion of the keyboard, with illustrative pictures and technical documentation
Jargon File entry on the space-cadet keyboard
The Lisp keyboards: overview of the space-cadet and other famous Lisp keyboards
Xah Lee (2011-10-27). "Space-cadet Keyboard and Lisp Machine Keyboards".
vteKeyboard keysDead keys
Compose
Modifier keys
Control
Shift
Alt / Option (Apple)
AltGr
Command (Apple) / Windows (Microsoft) / Super
Meta
Hyper
Fn
Gold
Lock keys
Scroll Lock
Num Lock
Caps Lock
F-Lock
Navigation keys
Arrow keys
Page Up/Page Down
Home
End
Esc
Menu
Editing
Enter/Return
Carriage return
Backspace
Insert
Delete
Tab
Space bar
Numeric keypad
Language input
Contextual
Function keys
Print Screen
System request
Break/Pause
Misc.
Power management keys (Power, Sleep, Wake)
Any key
Macro key
Copilot key
Keyboard technology
Keyboard shortcut
Keyboard layout
Keyboard mapping
|
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Later Symbolics systems used a greatly simplified keyboard, the Symbolics keyboard, that retained only the basic layout and the more commonly used function and modifier keys from the space-cadet keyboard.[1]The space-cadet keyboard is a keyboard designed by John L. Kulp in 1978 and used on Lisp machines at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),[2][3][4] which inspired several still-current jargon terms[citation needed] in the field of computer science and influenced the design of Emacs. It was inspired by the Knight keyboard, which was developed for the Knight TV system, used with MIT's Incompatible Timesharing System.","title":"Space-cadet keyboard"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modifier keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifier_key"},{"link_name":"bucky bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucky_bit"},{"link_name":"⎈ Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_key"},{"link_name":"◆ Meta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_key"},{"link_name":"❖ Super","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_key_(keyboard_button)"},{"link_name":"✦ Hyper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"⇧ Shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_key"},{"link_name":"Top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jargon_file-5"},{"link_name":"chording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorded_keyboard"},{"link_name":"up-arrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_arrow_(symbol)"},{"link_name":"gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma"},{"link_name":"⎈ Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_key"},{"link_name":"◆ Meta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_key"},{"link_name":"❖ Super","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_key_(keyboard_button)"},{"link_name":"✦ Hyper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Emacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emacs"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-isbn1-56592-152-6-6"},{"link_name":"⎋ Esc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_key"},{"link_name":"vi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi_(text_editor)"},{"link_name":"ADM-3A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADM-3A"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xahlee-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jargon_file-5"},{"link_name":"⎇ Alt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt_key"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jargon_file-5"}],"text":"The space-cadet keyboard was equipped with seven modifier keys: four keys for bucky bits (⎈ Control, ◆ Meta, ❖ Super, and ✦ Hyper), and three shift keys, called ⇧ Shift, Top, and Front (which was labeled on the front of the key; the top was labeled Greek). Meta had been introduced on the earlier Knight keyboard, while Hyper and Super were introduced by this keyboard.[5] Each group was in a row, thus allowing easy chording, or pressing of several modifier keys; for example, Control+Meta+Hyper+Super could be pressed with the fingers of one hand, while the other hand pressed another key.Many keys had three symbols on them, accessible by means of the shift keys: a letter and a symbol on the top, and a Greek letter on the front. For example, the G key had a \"G\" and an up-arrow (\"↑\") on the top, and the Greek letter gamma (\"γ\") on the front. By pressing this key with one hand while playing an appropriate \"chord\" with the other hand on the shift keys, the user could get the following results:Each of these might, in addition, be typed with any combination of the ⎈ Control, ◆ Meta, ❖ Super, and ✦ Hyper keys. By combining the modifier keys, it is possible to make (50 keys × 5 shift types) × 24 bucky keys = 4000 different inputs. This allowed the user to type very complicated mathematical text, and also to have thousands of single-character commands at their disposal. Many users were willing to memorise the command meanings of so many characters if it reduced typing time. This attitude shaped the interface of Emacs;[6] compare the use of the ⎋ Esc key in vi, due to the convenient position of the key on the ADM-3A terminal.[7] Other users, however, thought that so many keys were excessive and objected to this design on the grounds that such a keyboard can be difficult to operate.[5] Emacs uses \"M-\" as the prefix for ⎇ Alt when describing key presses: the \"M-\" stood for Meta on the space-cadet keyboard, and when Emacs was ported to PCs, the Alt key was used in place of Meta.This keyboard included a Macro key which had limited application support. It also included four Roman Numeral keys (I, II, III, and IV) which allowed for easy interaction with lists of four or fewer choices.[5]","title":"Description"}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Observer
|
The New York Observer
|
["1 History","2 Ownership","3 Political stance","4 References","5 External links"]
|
American weekly newspaper-turned media site
The New York Observer was also a 19th-century newspaper founded by Sidney Edwards Morse
ObserverHeadquarters at the 321 West 44th Street, New York.TypeWebsite, formerly weekly newspaperFormat
Broadsheet (1987–2007; 2011–2014)
Tabloid (2007–2011; 2014–2016)
Online only (2016–present)
Owner(s)
Observer Media
Joseph Meyer
Jared Kushner (former)
Founder(s)Arthur L. CarterPublisherJoseph MeyerPresidentJames KarklinsFoundedSeptember 22, 1987; 36 years ago (1987-09-22)LanguageEnglishHeadquarters1 Whitehall StreetCityNew York City, New YorkCountryUnited StatesISSN1052-2948Websiteobserver.comMedia of the United StatesList of newspapers
The New York Observer was a weekly newspaper printed from 1987 to 2016, when it ceased print publication and became the online-only newspaper Observer. The media site focuses on culture, real estate, media, politics and the entertainment and publishing industries.
History
The Observer was first published in New York City on September 22, 1987, as a weekly alternative newspaper by Arthur L. Carter, a former investment banker. The New York Observer had also been the title of an earlier weekly religious paper founded 164 years before by Sidney E. Morse in 1823.
After almost two decades, in July 2006, the paper was purchased by the American real estate figure Jared Kushner, then only 25 years old. The paper began its life as a broadsheet, and was then printed in tabloid format every Wednesday, and currently has an exclusively online format on an internet website. It is headquartered at 1 Whitehall Street in lower Manhattan.
Previous prominent writers for the publication include Joe Conason, Doree Shafrir, Hilton Kramer, Andrew Sarris, Richard Brookhiser, Michael Tomasky, Azi Paybarah, Ross Barkan, John Heilpern, Robert Gottlieb, Nicholas von Hoffman, Simon Doonan, Anne Roiphe, Terry Golway, Ron Rosenbaum, Michael M. Thomas, Philip Weiss, and Steve Kornacki.
The paper published Candace Bushnell's column "Sex and the City" about Manhattan's social life and emotional relationships on which the trend-setting popular television series Sex and the City (later also with two successful feature films) is based.
It was visually distinctive because of its use of sketch illustrations and salmon-colored newsprint, with the latter compared to the similar physical appearance of the Financial Times from Britain. Henry Rollins once described it as "the curiously pink newspaper". The paper switched in 2014 to using regular white newsprint for its last two years on paper.
The fourth and longest-serving editor for the newspaper, Peter Kaplan, left the publication on July 1, 2009. Interim editor Tom McGeveran was replaced by Kyle Pope later that year in November 2009. Two years later, Elizabeth Spiers then served as editor for a year from 2011 to 2012, followed by interim editor Aaron Gell. In January 2013, publisher Jared Kushner named his longtime friend Ken Kurson, a political consultant, journalist, and author, as the Observer's next editor.
Publication of the weekly print edition ended with the November 9, 2016 issue. Observer Media, the publication's parent company, has continued to publish content on an online website under the masthead title of the "Observer" (dropping "New York" from the name).
The discontinuation of the print Observer came the day after editor Kushner's father-in-law, Donald Trump (Trump's daughter Ivanka is Kushner's wife), won the 2016 presidential election; becoming the 45th President of the United States, serving one term to 2021. Kushner served as a senior adviser in the Trump administration. Kushner transferred his ownership of Observer Media's remaining online assets into a Trump family trust, through which his brother-in-law Joseph Meyer took over his former role as publisher during that time.
Ownership
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The publisher and original owner, Arthur Carter, has had other publishing interests, including the Litchfield County Times. At one time, he was a part‑owner in The East Hampton Star. Carter received a B.A. in French literature from Brown University and an M.B.A. in finance from the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. He spent 25 years in investment banking until 1981, when he founded the Litchfield County Times in New Milford, Connecticut. He owned it for twenty years until selling to Journal Register Company, later also selling his 50‑percent interest in The East Hampton Star in 2003. He has been an adjunct professor of philosophy and journalism at New York University and is a trustee.
In July 2006, Jared Kushner, a 25‑year‑old law student and son of a wealthy New Jersey developer, Charles Kushner, purchased the paper for just under $10 million.
In January 2017, Jared Kushner announced he would sell his stake to a Kushner family trust, when he became a senior advisor to President Donald Trump. Kushner's brother-in-law, Joseph Meyer, who has been the CEO of Observer Media Group since 2013, replaced him as publisher.
Political stance
In 2016, the Observer became one of only a handful of newspapers to officially endorse United States presidential candidate Donald Trump in the Republican Party presidential primaries. The newspaper's owner and then publisher, Jared Kushner, is Trump's son-in-law and was an advisor to the Trump presidential campaign. The Observer did not repeat its endorsement after Trump became the Republican nominee for President.
References
^ a b c Stoeffel, Kat (August 4, 2011). "The New York Observer Will Switch From Tabloid to Broadsheet". New York Observer.
^ a b c Pompeo, Joe (March 18, 2014). "Observer C.E.O. touts gains ahead of relaunch". Capital New York. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2015. Tomorrow, newsstand readers and subscribers will get a look at the Observer's relaunched print product, which is a smaller, tabloid‑format, saddle‑stapled publication that will trade in its distinctive salmon hue for white paper.
^ The Wall Street Journal, November 14, 2016, p. B5
^ McAlone, Nathan (January 9, 2017). "Trump son-in-law Jared Kushner will step down as publisher of the Observer, and have no 'ownership stake'". Business Insider.
^ Elstein, Aaron (January 8, 2018). "Kushners' Observer Media names new president". Crain's New York Business. New York City: Crain Communications Inc.
^ a b Grynbaum, Michael M. (November 11, 2016). "New York Observer Ending Print Edition". The New York Times.
^ Pompeo, Joe (December 12, 2013). "'Observer' surrenders the pink". Politico. Retrieved February 16, 2023.
^ Neyfakh, Leon (November 5, 2009). "Kyle Pope Is the Next Editor of The Observer". New York Observer. ISSN 1052-2948. Archived from the original on March 21, 2011.
^ Carr, David (January 4, 2013). "New York Observer Hits Reset Again, Names Ken Kurson New Editor". The New York Times. Retrieved January 14, 2013.
^ The Wall Street Journal, Monday, November 14, 2016, pg. B5
^ Stoeffel, Kat (April 12, 2017). "What Should Happen to Jared Kushner's New York Observer? Media Pros Offer Advice". The Hollywood Reporter.
^ Seelye, Katharine Q. (July 31, 2006). "Developer's Son Acquires New York Observer". The New York Times. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
^ Byers, Dylan (January 9, 2017). "Jared Kushner to transfer Observer interest to family trust". CNNMoney. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
^ "Trump son-in-law Jared Kushner will step down as publisher of the Observer, and have no 'ownership stake'". Business Insider. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
^ "In the Republican Primary: Donald Trump for President". The New York Observer. April 12, 2016.
^ Diamond, Jeremy (June 20, 2016). "Who is Jared Kushner?". CNN.
^ Calderone, Michael (November 2, 2016). "Donald Trump Will Not Get His Son-In-Law's Paper's Endorsement". The Huffington Post.
External links
Official website
The New York Observer collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States
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Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_M._Thomas"},{"link_name":"Philip Weiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Weiss"},{"link_name":"Steve Kornacki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Kornacki"},{"link_name":"Candace Bushnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candace_Bushnell"},{"link_name":"Sex and the City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_the_City_(newspaper_column)"},{"link_name":"Sex and the City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_and_the_City"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pompeo2014-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pompeo2013-7"},{"link_name":"Henry Rollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rollins"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pompeo2014-2"},{"link_name":"Peter Kaplan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kaplan"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Neyfakh2009-8"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Spiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Spiers"},{"link_name":"Ken Kurson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Kurson"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ceased_Print-6"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"Ivanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivanka_Trump"},{"link_name":"2016 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Trump administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stoeffel_Meyer-11"}],"text":"The Observer was first published in New York City on September 22, 1987, as a weekly alternative newspaper by Arthur L. Carter, a former investment banker. The New York Observer had also been the title of an earlier weekly religious paper founded 164 years before by Sidney E. Morse in 1823.After almost two decades, in July 2006, the paper was purchased by the American real estate figure Jared Kushner, then only 25 years old. The paper began its life as a broadsheet, and was then printed in tabloid format every Wednesday, and currently has an exclusively online format on an internet website. It is headquartered at 1 Whitehall Street in lower Manhattan.Previous prominent writers for the publication include Joe Conason, Doree Shafrir, Hilton Kramer, Andrew Sarris, Richard Brookhiser, Michael Tomasky, Azi Paybarah, Ross Barkan, John Heilpern, Robert Gottlieb, Nicholas von Hoffman, Simon Doonan, Anne Roiphe, Terry Golway, Ron Rosenbaum, Michael M. Thomas, Philip Weiss, and Steve Kornacki.The paper published Candace Bushnell's column \"Sex and the City\" about Manhattan's social life and emotional relationships on which the trend-setting popular television series Sex and the City (later also with two successful feature films) is based.It was visually distinctive because of its use of sketch illustrations and salmon-colored newsprint, with the latter compared to the similar physical appearance of the Financial Times from Britain.[2][7] Henry Rollins once described it as \"the curiously pink newspaper\". The paper switched in 2014 to using regular white newsprint for its last two years on paper.[2]The fourth and longest-serving editor for the newspaper, Peter Kaplan, left the publication on July 1, 2009. Interim editor Tom McGeveran was replaced by Kyle Pope later that year in November 2009.[8] Two years later, Elizabeth Spiers then served as editor for a year from 2011 to 2012, followed by interim editor Aaron Gell. 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At one time, he was a part‑owner in The East Hampton Star. Carter received a B.A. in French literature from Brown University and an M.B.A. in finance from the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College. He spent 25 years in investment banking until 1981, when he founded the Litchfield County Times in New Milford, Connecticut. He owned it for twenty years until selling to Journal Register Company, later also selling his 50‑percent interest in The East Hampton Star in 2003. 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Tomorrow, newsstand readers and subscribers will get a look at the Observer's relaunched print product, which is a smaller, tabloid‑format, saddle‑stapled publication that will trade in its distinctive salmon hue for white paper.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/media/2014/03/8542172/emobserverem-ceo-touts-gains-ahead-relaunch","url_text":"\"Observer C.E.O. touts gains ahead of relaunch\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044818/http://www.capitalnewyork.com/article/media/2014/03/8542172/emobserverem-ceo-touts-gains-ahead-relaunch","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"McAlone, Nathan (January 9, 2017). \"Trump son-in-law Jared Kushner will step down as publisher of the Observer, and have no 'ownership stake'\". 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Archived from the original on March 21, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110321111645/http://observer.com/2009/media/kyle-pope-next-editor-observer","url_text":"\"Kyle Pope Is the Next Editor of The Observer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1052-2948","url_text":"1052-2948"},{"url":"https://observer.com/2009/11/kyle-pope-is-the-next-editor-of-ithe-observeri/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Carr, David (January 4, 2013). \"New York Observer Hits Reset Again, Names Ken Kurson New Editor\". The New York Times. 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Retrieved March 5, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/31/business/media/31observer.html","url_text":"\"Developer's Son Acquires New York Observer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Byers, Dylan (January 9, 2017). \"Jared Kushner to transfer Observer interest to family trust\". CNNMoney. Retrieved January 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://money.cnn.com/2017/01/09/media/jared-kushner-new-york-observer/index.html","url_text":"\"Jared Kushner to transfer Observer interest to family trust\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNNMoney","url_text":"CNNMoney"}]},{"reference":"\"Trump son-in-law Jared Kushner will step down as publisher of the Observer, and have no 'ownership stake'\". Business Insider. Retrieved January 24, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://uk.businessinsider.com/jared-kushner-steps-down-as-publisher-of-the-observer-2017-1","url_text":"\"Trump son-in-law Jared Kushner will step down as publisher of the Observer, and have no 'ownership stake'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Insider","url_text":"Business Insider"}]},{"reference":"\"In the Republican Primary: Donald Trump for President\". The New York Observer. April 12, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://observer.com/2016/04/in-the-republican-primary-donald-trump-for-president/","url_text":"\"In the Republican Primary: Donald Trump for President\""}]},{"reference":"Diamond, Jeremy (June 20, 2016). \"Who is Jared Kushner?\". CNN.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Diamond_(journalist)","url_text":"Diamond, Jeremy"},{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/20/politics/donald-trump-jared-kushner/index.html","url_text":"\"Who is Jared Kushner?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"}]},{"reference":"Calderone, Michael (November 2, 2016). \"Donald Trump Will Not Get His Son-In-Law's Paper's Endorsement\". The Huffington Post.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/donald-trump-new-york-observer_us_5819f55ae4b092edafb57456","url_text":"\"Donald Trump Will Not Get His Son-In-Law's Paper's Endorsement\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Huffington_Post","url_text":"The Huffington Post"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_for_State_Development
|
Minister for State Development (Western Australia)
|
["1 List of ministers","2 See also","3 References"]
|
Minister for State Development, Jobs and TradeIncumbentRoger Cooksince 19 March 2021 (2021-03-19)Department of State DevelopmentStyleThe HonourableNominatorPremier of Western AustraliaAppointerGovernor of Western AustraliaInaugural holderJames Mitchell(as Minister for Industries)Formation16 September 1910WebsitePremier Mark McGowan
The Minister for State Development, Jobs and Trade is a position in the government of Western Australia, currently held by Roger Cook of the Labor Party. The position was first created in 1910, for the government of Frank Wilson, and has existed in most governments since then, including every government after 1939. The minister is responsible for the state government's Department of State Development.
List of ministers
Order
Minister
Party
Premier
Title
Term start
Term end
1
James Mitchell
None
Minister for Industries
16 September 1910
7 October 1911
1911–1916: no minister – responsibilities held by other ministers
James Mitchell (again)
Liberal
Minister for Industries
27 July 1916
28 June 1917
2
Robert Robinson
Nationalist
28 June 1917
21 June 1919
3
John Scaddan
Country
25 June 1919
22 March 1924
4
William Angwin
Labor
16 April 1924
30 April 1927
1927–1930: no minister – responsibilities held by other ministers
John Scaddan (again)
Nationalist
Minister for Industry
24 April 1930
24 April 1933
5
James Kenneally
Labor
Minister for Industrial Development
24 April 1933
26 March 1935
1935–1939: no minister – responsibilities held by other ministers
6
Albert Hawke
Labor
Minister for Industrial Development
18 April 1939
1 April 1947
7
Arthur Watts
Country
1 April 1947
23 February 1953
Albert Hawke (again)
Labor
23 February 1953
13 May 1954
8
Lionel Kelly
Labor
13 May 1954
19 December 1957
Albert Hawke (again)
Labor
19 December 1957
13 November 1958
9
Frank Wise
Labor
13 November 1958
2 April 1959
10
Charles Court
Liberal
Court
2 April 1959
3 March 1971
11
Herb Graham
Labor
3 March 1971
12 October 1971
Minister for Development and Decentralisation
12 October 1971
30 May 1973
12
Don Taylor
Labor
30 May 1973
8 April 1974
13
Andrew Mensaros
Liberal
Minister for Industrial Development
8 April 1974
5 March 1980
14
Peter Jones
National Country
Minister for Industrial Development and Commerceand Minister for Resources Development
5 March 1980
11 June 1982
Minister for Resources Development
11 June 1982
25 February 1983
15
Barry MacKinnon
Liberal
Minister for Industrial, Commercial, and Regional Development
16
Mal Bryce
Labor
Minister for Economic Development and Technology
25 February 1983
23 December 1983
Minister for Industrial Development
23 December 1983
25 February 1986
Minister for Industry and Technology
25 February 1986
25 February 1988
17
David Parker
Labor
Minister for Economic Development and Trade
25 February 1988
28 February 1989
Minister for Resources Development
28 February 1989
19 February 1990
18
Ian Taylor
Labor
Minister for Finance and Economic Development
19 February 1990
20 December 1990
Minister for State Development
20 December 1990
16 February 1993
19
Colin Barnett
Liberal
Barnett
Minister for Resources Development
16 February 1993
16 February 2001
20
Clive Brown
Labor
Minister for State Development
16 February 2001
3 March 2005
21
Alan Carpenter
Labor
3 March 2005
13 December 2006
22
Eric Ripper
Labor
13 December 2006
23 September 2008
Colin Barnett (again)
Liberal
23 September 2008
31 March 2016
23
Bill Marmion
Liberal
31 March 2016
17 March 2017
24
Mark McGowan
Labor
McGowan
Minister for State Development, Jobs and Trade
17 March 2017
19 March 2021
25
Roger Cook
Labor
McGowan
19 March 2021
present
Cook
See also
Minister for Energy (Western Australia)
Minister for Mines and Petroleum (Western Australia)
Minister for Regional Development (Western Australia)
References
David Black (2014), The Western Australian Parliamentary Handbook (Twenty-Third Edition). Perth : Parliament of Western Australia.
vte Ministerial portfolios (45) of the government of Western Australia
Premier
Deputy Premier
Aboriginal Affairs
Agriculture and Food
Attorney-General
Child Protection
Citizenship and Multicultural Interests
Commerce
Corrective Services
Culture and the Arts
Community Services
Disability Services
Education
Electoral Affairs
Emergency Services
Energy
Environment
Finance
Fisheries
Forestry
Health
Heritage
Housing
Lands
Local Government
Mental Health
Mines and Petroleum
Planning
Police
Racing and Gaming
Regional Development
Road Safety
Science
Seniors and Volunteering
Small Business
Sport and Recreation
State Development
Tourism
Training and Workforce Development
Transport
Treasurer
Veterans
Water
Women's Interests
Youth
Current Ministry
|
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|
[]
|
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|
[]
|
[{"Link":"http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/Parliament/Memblist.nsf/WAllMembersFlat/McGowan,+Mark?opendocument","external_links_name":"Premier Mark McGowan"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183010/http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/ParliamentaryHandbook/23rd%20Edition%20of%20the%20Parliament%20Handbook%20-%20Final%20Version.pdf","external_links_name":"The Western Australian Parliamentary Handbook (Twenty-Third Edition)"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lawson_Vaught
|
Robert Lawson Vaught
|
["1 Life","2 Work","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]
|
American mathematician
Robert Lawson VaughtVaught in 1974Born(1926-04-04)April 4, 1926Alhambra, CaliforniaDiedApril 2, 2002(2002-04-02) (aged 75)Berkeley, CaliforniaNationalityAmericanAlma materUniversity of California, BerkeleyScientific careerFieldsMathematicsInstitutionsUniversity of California, BerkeleyThesis Topics in the Theory of Arithmetical Classes and Boolean Algebras (1954)Doctoral advisorAlfred TarskiDoctoral studentsJames BaumgartnerRonald FaginJulia KnightJack SilverMichael D. Morley (de facto)
Robert Lawson Vaught (April 4, 1926 – April 2, 2002) was a mathematical logician and one of the founders of model theory.
Life
Vaught was a musical prodigy in his youth, in his case playing the piano. He began his university studies at Pomona College, at age 16. When World War II broke out, he enlisted into the US Navy, which assigned him to the University of California's V-12 program. He graduated in 1945 with an AB in physics.
In 1946, he began a Ph.D. in mathematics at Berkeley. He initially worked under the supervision of the topologist John L. Kelley, writing on C* algebras. In 1950, in response to McCarthyite pressures, Berkeley required all staff to sign a loyalty oath. Kelley declined and moved his career to Tulane University for three years. Vaught then began afresh under the supervision of Alfred Tarski, completing in 1954 a thesis on mathematical logic, titled Topics in the Theory of Arithmetical Classes and Boolean Algebras. After spending four years at the University of Washington, Vaught returned to Berkeley in 1958, where he remained until his 1991 retirement.
In 1957, Vaught married Marilyn Maca; they had two children.
Work
Vaught's work is primarily focused on model theory. In 1957, he and Tarski introduced elementary submodels and the Tarski–Vaught test characterizing them. In 1962, he and Michael D. Morley pioneered the concept of a saturated structure. His investigations on countable models of first-order theories led him to the Vaught conjecture stating that the number of countable models of a complete first-order theory (in a countable language) is always either finite, or countably infinite, or equinumerous with the real numbers. Vaught's "Never 2" theorem states that a complete first-order theory cannot have exactly two nonisomorphic countable models.
He considered his best work was his paper "Invariant sets in topology and logic", introducing the Vaught transform. He is known for the Tarski–Vaught test for elementary substructures, the Feferman–Vaught theorem, the Łoś–Vaught test for completeness and decidability, the Vaught two-cardinal theorem, and his conjecture on the nonfinite axiomatizability of totally categorical theories (this work eventually led to geometric stability theory).
See also
Łoś–Vaught test
Notes
^ In Memoriam: Robert Lawson Vaught, U. C. Berkeley Archived 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine
References
Feferman, Anita Burdman, and Solomon Feferman, 2004. Alfred Tarski: Life and Logic. Cambridge Univ. Press. 24 index entries for Vaught, especially pp. 185–88.
External links
Robert Lawson Vaught at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Addison, J. W. (Fall 2002). "In Memoriam: Robert Lawson Vaught" (PDF). Berkeley Mathematics Newsletter. p. 13.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Academics
MathSciNet
Mathematics Genealogy Project
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
|
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He graduated in 1945 with an AB in physics.In 1946, he began a Ph.D. in mathematics at Berkeley. He initially worked under the supervision of the topologist John L. Kelley, writing on C* algebras. In 1950, in response to McCarthyite pressures, Berkeley required all staff to sign a loyalty oath. Kelley declined and moved his career to Tulane University for three years. Vaught then began afresh under the supervision of Alfred Tarski, completing in 1954 a thesis on mathematical logic, titled Topics in the Theory of Arithmetical Classes and Boolean Algebras. 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In 1957, he and Tarski introduced elementary submodels and the Tarski–Vaught test characterizing them. In 1962, he and Michael D. Morley pioneered the concept of a saturated structure. His investigations on countable models of first-order theories led him to the Vaught conjecture stating that the number of countable models of a complete first-order theory (in a countable language) is always either finite, or countably infinite, or equinumerous with the real numbers. Vaught's \"Never 2\" theorem states that a complete first-order theory cannot have exactly two nonisomorphic countable models.He considered his best work was his paper \"Invariant sets in topology and logic\"[citation needed], introducing the Vaught transform. He is known for the Tarski–Vaught test for elementary substructures, the Feferman–Vaught theorem, the Łoś–Vaught test for completeness and decidability, the Vaught two-cardinal theorem, and his conjecture on the nonfinite axiomatizability of totally categorical theories (this work eventually led to geometric stability theory).","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"In Memoriam: Robert Lawson Vaught, U. C. Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/inmemoriam/robertlawsonvaught.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140714201845/http://senate.universityofcalifornia.edu/inmemoriam/robertlawsonvaught.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"^ In Memoriam: Robert Lawson Vaught, U. C. Berkeley Archived 2014-07-14 at the Wayback Machine","title":"Notes"}]
|
[]
|
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSPACE
|
NSPACE
|
["1 Complexity classes","2 Relation with other complexity classes","2.1 DSPACE","2.2 Time","3 Limitations","4 References","5 External links"]
|
In computational complexity theory, non-deterministic space or NSPACE is the computational resource describing the memory space for a non-deterministic Turing machine. It is the non-deterministic counterpart of DSPACE.
Complexity classes
The measure NSPACE is used to define the complexity class whose solutions can be determined by a non-deterministic Turing machine. The complexity class NSPACE(f(n)) is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine, M, using space O(f(n)), where n is the length of the input.
Several important complexity classes can be defined in terms of NSPACE. These include:
REG = DSPACE(O(1)) = NSPACE(O(1)), where REG is the class of regular languages (nondeterminism does not add power in constant space).
NL = NSPACE(O(log n))
CSL = NSPACE(O(n)), where CSL is the class of context-sensitive languages.
PSPACE = NPSPACE =
⋃
k
∈
N
N
S
P
A
C
E
(
n
k
)
{\displaystyle \bigcup _{k\in \mathbb {N} }{\mathsf {NSPACE}}(n^{k})}
EXPSPACE = NEXPSPACE =
⋃
k
∈
N
N
S
P
A
C
E
(
2
n
k
)
{\displaystyle \bigcup _{k\in \mathbb {N} }{\mathsf {NSPACE}}(2^{n^{k}})}
The Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem states that NSPACE(s(n)) is closed under complement for every function s(n) ≥ log n.
A further generalization is ASPACE, defined with alternating Turing machines.
Relation with other complexity classes
DSPACE
NSPACE is the non-deterministic counterpart of DSPACE, the class of memory space on a deterministic Turing machine. First by definition, then by Savitch's theorem, we have that:
D
S
P
A
C
E
[
s
(
n
)
]
⊆
N
S
P
A
C
E
[
s
(
n
)
]
⊆
D
S
P
A
C
E
[
(
s
(
n
)
)
2
]
.
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {DSPACE}}\subseteq {\mathsf {NSPACE}}\subseteq {\mathsf {DSPACE}}.}
Time
NSPACE can also be used to determine the time complexity of a deterministic Turing machine by the following theorem:
If a language L is decided in space S(n) (where S(n) ≥ log n) by a non-deterministic TM, then there exists a constant C such that L is decided in time O(CS(n)) by a deterministic one.
Limitations
The measure of space complexity in terms of DSPACE is useful because it represents the total amount of memory that an actual computer would need to solve a given computational problem with a given algorithm. The reason is that DSPACE describes the space complexity used by deterministic Turing machines, which can represent actual computers. On the other hand, NSPACE describes the space complexity of non-deterministic Turing machines, which are not useful when trying to represent actual computers. For this reason, NSPACE is limited in its usefulness to real-world applications.
References
^ Sipser, Michael (2006). Introduction to the Theory of Computation (2nd ed.). Course Technology. pp. 303–304. ISBN 978-0-534-95097-2.
^ Goddard, Wayne (2008). Introducing the Theory of Computation. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-7637-4125-9.
External links
Complexity Zoo: NSPACE(f(n)).
vteComplexity classesConsidered feasible
DLOGTIME
AC0
ACC0
TC0
L
SL
RL
FL
NL
NL-complete
NC
SC
CC
P
P-complete
ZPP
RP
BPP
BQP
APX
FP
Suspected infeasible
UP
NP
NP-complete
NP-hard
co-NP
co-NP-complete
TFNP
FNP
AM
QMA
PH
⊕P
PP
#P
#P-complete
IP
PSPACE
PSPACE-complete
Considered infeasible
EXPTIME
NEXPTIME
EXPSPACE
2-EXPTIME
ELEMENTARY
PR
R
RE
ALL
Class hierarchies
Polynomial hierarchy
Exponential hierarchy
Grzegorczyk hierarchy
Arithmetical hierarchy
Boolean hierarchy
Families of classes
DTIME
NTIME
DSPACE
NSPACE
Probabilistically checkable proof
Interactive proof system
List of complexity classes
|
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The complexity class NSPACE(f(n)) is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic Turing machine, M, using space O(f(n)), where n is the length of the input.[1]Several important complexity classes can be defined in terms of NSPACE. These include:REG = DSPACE(O(1)) = NSPACE(O(1)), where REG is the class of regular languages (nondeterminism does not add power in constant space).\nNL = NSPACE(O(log n))\nCSL = NSPACE(O(n)), where CSL is the class of context-sensitive languages.\nPSPACE = NPSPACE = \n \n \n \n \n ⋃\n \n k\n ∈\n \n N\n \n \n \n \n \n N\n S\n P\n A\n C\n E\n \n \n (\n \n n\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigcup _{k\\in \\mathbb {N} }{\\mathsf {NSPACE}}(n^{k})}\n \n\nEXPSPACE = NEXPSPACE = \n \n \n \n \n ⋃\n \n k\n ∈\n \n N\n \n \n \n \n \n N\n S\n P\n A\n C\n E\n \n \n (\n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\bigcup _{k\\in \\mathbb {N} }{\\mathsf {NSPACE}}(2^{n^{k}})}The Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem states that NSPACE(s(n)) is closed under complement for every function s(n) ≥ log n.A further generalization is ASPACE, defined with alternating Turing machines.","title":"Complexity classes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Relation with other complexity classes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DSPACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPACE"},{"link_name":"memory space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_space_(computational_resource)"},{"link_name":"deterministic Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"Savitch's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savitch%27s_theorem"}],"sub_title":"DSPACE","text":"NSPACE is the non-deterministic counterpart of DSPACE, the class of memory space on a deterministic Turing machine. First by definition, then by Savitch's theorem, we have that:D\n S\n P\n A\n C\n E\n \n \n [\n s\n (\n n\n )\n ]\n ⊆\n \n \n N\n S\n P\n A\n C\n E\n \n \n [\n s\n (\n n\n )\n ]\n ⊆\n \n \n D\n S\n P\n A\n C\n E\n \n \n [\n (\n s\n (\n n\n )\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {DSPACE}}[s(n)]\\subseteq {\\mathsf {NSPACE}}[s(n)]\\subseteq {\\mathsf {DSPACE}}[(s(n))^{2}].}","title":"Relation with other complexity classes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deterministic Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Time","text":"NSPACE can also be used to determine the time complexity of a deterministic Turing machine by the following theorem:If a language L is decided in space S(n) (where S(n) ≥ log n) by a non-deterministic TM, then there exists a constant C such that L is decided in time O(CS(n)) by a deterministic one.[2]","title":"Relation with other complexity classes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"space complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_complexity"},{"link_name":"DSPACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSPACE"},{"link_name":"computational problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_problem"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"deterministic Turing machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"non-deterministic Turing machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-deterministic_Turing_machine"}],"text":"The measure of space complexity in terms of DSPACE is useful because it represents the total amount of memory that an actual computer would need to solve a given computational problem with a given algorithm. The reason is that DSPACE describes the space complexity used by deterministic Turing machines, which can represent actual computers. On the other hand, NSPACE describes the space complexity of non-deterministic Turing machines, which are not useful when trying to represent actual computers. For this reason, NSPACE is limited in its usefulness to real-world applications.","title":"Limitations"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_Pulse
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Steel Pulse
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["1 History","1.1 Island Records era (1977–1980)","1.2 Elektra Records era (1982–1985)","1.3 MCA Records era (1988–1997)","1.4 Later years (1997–present)","2 Awards and nominations","3 Personnel","3.1 Current members","3.2 Former members","3.3 Timeline","4 Discography","4.1 Studio albums","4.2 Live albums","4.3 Compilation albums","4.4 Compilation appearances","4.5 Filmography","4.6 Singles","5 References","6 External links"]
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This article may be written from a fan's point of view, rather than a neutral point of view. Please clean it up to conform to a higher standard of quality, and to make it neutral in tone. (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Reggae band from Birmingham, England
Steel PulseSteel Pulse in 2017Background informationOriginBirmingham, EnglandGenresRoots reggaeYears active1975–presentLabelsIslandMangoElektraMCAAtlanticRASMembers
David Hinds
Selwyn Brown
Sidney Mills
Wayne Clarke
David Elecciri Jr.
Amlak Tafari
Past membersSee former membersWebsitesteelpulse.com
Steel Pulse are a roots reggae band from the Erdington area of Birmingham, England. They originally formed at Handsworth Wood Boys School, and were composed of David Hinds (lead vocals, guitar), Basil Gabbidon (lead guitar, vocals), and Ronald McQueen (bass); along with Basil's brother Colin briefly on drums and Mykaell Riley (vocals, percussion). Steel Pulse were the first non-Jamaican act to win the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album.
History
Frontman David Hinds of Steel Pulse in concert in Antwerp, 2022.
Basil Gabbidon and David Hinds became inspired to form Steel Pulse after listening to Bob Marley and The Wailers' Catch a Fire. The band formed in 1975; their debut single release "Kibudu, Mansetta And Abuku" arrived on the small independent label Dip, and linked the plight of urban black youth with the image of a greater African homeland. They followed it with "Nyah Luv" for Anchor. They were initially refused live dates in Caribbean venues in Birmingham due to their Rastafarian beliefs. During the popularization of punk rock in the mid-1970's, Steel Pulse began to play punk venues such as the Hope and Anchor in London and The Electric Circus in Manchester in 1976.
Aligning themselves closely with the Rock Against Racism organization and featuring in its first music festival in early 1978, they chose to tour with sympathetic elements of the punk movement, including the Stranglers and XTC. Eventually they found a more natural home in support slots for Burning Spear, which brought them to the attention of Island Records.
Island Records era (1977–1980)
Their first release for Island was the "Ku Klux Klan" single, about the evils of racism, and one often accompanied by a visual parody of the sect on stage; the song was ranked the 460th-greatest song of all time in Rolling Stone's 2020 edition of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. By this time, their ranks had swelled to include Selwyn Brown (keyboards), Steve "Grizzly" Nisbett (drums), Alphonso Martin (vocals, percussion) and Mykaell Riley (vocals). Their debut album, Handsworth Revolution (recorded in 1977 and released in early 1978), was part the evolution of roots reggae outside Jamaica. However, despite critical and moderate commercial success over three albums, the relationship with Island Records had soured by the advent of their third album, Caught You (released in the US as Reggae Fever).
The band made their US concert debut at the Mudd Club in New York in 1980.
Tom Terrell, who would later serve as their manager, was instrumental in masterminding a Steel Pulse concert on the night of Bob Marley's funeral, which was broadcast live around the world from the 9:30 Club, 930 F Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., on 21 May 1981.
Elektra Records era (1982–1985)
In 1982, Steel Pulse switched to Elektra Records, and unveiled their most consistent collection of songs since Handsworth Revolution with True Democracy, distinguished by the Garvey-eulogizing 'Rally Round' cut. A further definitive set arrived in Earth Crisis in 1984. However, Elektra chose to take a leaf out of Island's book in trying to coerce Steel Pulse into a more mainstream vein, asking them to emulate the pop-reggae stance of Eddy Grant. Babylon the Bandit was consequently weakened, but did contain "Not King James Version".
Steel Pulse released Babylon The Bandit in 1985, for which the band won a Grammy award.
MCA Records era (1988–1997)
Their next move was to MCA for State of Emergency (1988), which retained some of the synthesized dance elements of its predecessor.
Rastafari Centennial, Steel Pulse's first live record, was recorded live at the Elysee Montmartre in Paris, over three nights in January 1992, and dedicated to the hundred-year anniversary of the birth of Haile Selassie. It was the first recording since the defection of Alphonso Martin, leaving the trio of Hinds, Nisbett and Selwyn. While they still faced criticism at the hands of British reggae fans, in the United States their reputation was growing, becoming the first ever reggae band to appear on the Tonight television show. Their profile was raised further when, in 1992, Hinds challenged the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission in the Supreme Court, asserting that their cab drivers discriminated against black people in general and Rastafarians in particular. The lawsuit was later dropped by Steel Pulse.
In 1989, the group contributed I Can't Stand it to the soundtrack of Spike Lee's film Do The Right Thing.
In 1994, the group headlined some of the world's biggest reggae festivals including Reggae Sunsplash USA, Jamaican Sunsplash, Japan Splash and Northern California annual Reggae on the River Festival. In 1986, Steel Pulse contributed a version of "Franklin's Tower" on Pow Wow Records' Fire on the Mountain: Reggae Celebrates the Grateful Dead compilation. They recorded The Police's "Can't Stand Losing You" for a reggae compilation of Police tunes that appeared on the Ark 21 label. Rastanthology, a 17-song collection of Steel Pulse classics (the 1996 compilation was released on the band's own Wise Man Doctrine label).
Later years (1997–present)
Frontman David Hinds in 2017
In 1997, the band released Rage and Fury.
Until February 2001, it had been many years since Pulse had performed in their hometown of Birmingham. They decided to perform at the Ray Watts memorial concert, which was held at the Irish Centre. Pulse shared the stage with Watts' band, Beshara, along with other artists from Birmingham.
In 2004, Steel Pulse returned to their militant roots with African Holocaust – their eleventh studio album. With guest appearances by Damian Marley, Capleton, and Tiken Jah Fakoly (on the track African Holocaust), the album is a collection of protest and spiritual songs, including "Global Warning" (a dire warning about climate change), "Tyrant", a protest song against political corruption, and "No More Weapons", an anti-war song. Also featured on the album is the Bob Dylan song, "George Jackson".
In 2007, the band released a music video for the track "Door of No Return". The video was produced by Driftwood Pictures Ltd., and was shot on location in Senegal and New York City. The video was directed by Trishul Thejasvi and produced by Yoni Gal. The video had its world premier at the Times 51st BFI London Film Festival in October 2007.
In a 2013 interview with Midnight Raver, David Hinds indicated that a new studio album and documentary, tentatively titled Steel Pulse: The Definitive Story, would be released in 2014. However, on 10 July 2014 Midnight Raver reported that, according to Hinds, both the studio album and documentary will be delayed until at least 2015.
In anticipation to a new Steel Pulse album, the Roots Reggae Library has indexed two compilation albums of the latest Steel Pulse singles. The albums are called Positivity and Jah Way, both named after tracks on the albums.
In October 2018, Steel Pulse announced their new album, the first in 14 years, Mass Manipulation, was released on Rootfire Cooperative a non-traditional label which provides interest free loans and label services to independent musicians. The single "Stop You Coming and Come" was released on 7 December. The album was nominated for the 2020 Grammy Awards.
On March 22, 2023, the Easy Star All-Stars released a cover of "Five Years" in collaboration with Steel Pulse, from their album Ziggy Stardub, a reggae reimagining of David Bowie's The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. A music video, directed by Robert Bartolome, was released on the same day.
Former drummer Conrad Kelly died on 8 May 2024, at the age of 65.
Awards and nominations
A Grammy Award was given for their 1986 album Babylon the Bandit. Steel Pulse has received nominations for Victims (1991), Rastafari Centennial (1992), Rage and Fury (1998), Living Legacy (2000). and Mass Manipulation (2019).
Personnel
Current members
David Hinds – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1975–present)
Selwyn Brown – keyboards, backing vocals (1975–present)
Sidney Mills – keyboards, backing vocals (1988–present)
Wayne C# Clarke – drums (2005–present)
Amlak Tafari – bass (2005–present)
David Ellecirri Jr. - lead guitar (2012–present)
Stephen Bradley – trumpet (2017–present)
Zem Audu – saxophone (2017–present)
Baruch Hinds – rap and backing vocals (2017–present)
Former members
Drummers
Colin Gabbidon – drums (1975–1976)
Donovan Shaw – drums (1976–1977)
Steve Nisbett – drums, percussion (1977–2001; died 2018)
Alphonso Martin – percussion, vocals (1977–1991)
Mykaell Riley – percussion, backing vocals (1977–1978)
Conrad Kelly – drums (1994–2005; died 2024)
Guitarists
Basil Gabbidon – lead guitar, backing vocals (1975–1982)
Melvin Brown – lead guitar (1982–1989)
Clifford "Moonie" Pusey – lead guitar (1989–2015)
Donovan McKitty – lead guitar (2008–2015; died 2017)
Bass players
Ronald McQueen – bass (1975–1983)
Alvin Ewen – bass, percussion (1983–2005)
Keyboard players
Tyrone Downie – keyboards (1985)
Errol Reid – keyboards (1985–1994)
Horns players
Jerry Johnson – saxophone (1992–1997, 2012–2019)
Steve Morrison – trombone (1991–1992)
James Renford – saxophone (1991–1992)
Kevin Batchelor – trumpet (1992–1997)
Clark Gayton – trombone (1992–1997)
Micah Robinson – trombone (1998–2015)
Backing vocalists
Makiesha McTaggert – backing vocals (2005–2016)
Yaz Alexander – backing vocals (1991–1997)
Donna Sterling – backing vocals (1998–2004)
Sylvia Tella – backing vocals (1998–1999)
Melanie Lynch – backing vocals (2004–2009)
Traciana Graves – backing vocals (2004)
Marea Wilson – backing vocals (2004–2005)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Handsworth Revolution (1978)
Tribute to the Martyrs (1979)
Caught You (1980)
True Democracy (1982)
Earth Crisis (1984)
Babylon the Bandit (1986) Grammy Award Winner – Best Reggae Album
State of Emergency (1988)
Victims (1991)
Vex (1994)
Rage and Fury (1997)
African Holocaust (2004)
Mass Manipulation (2019) Grammy Award Nominee - Best Reggae Album
Live albums
Rastafari Centennial - Live in Paris (Elysee Montmartre) (1992)
Living Legacy (1998)
Compilation albums
Reggae Greats (1984)
Smash Hits (1993)
Rastanthology (1996)
Sound System: The Island Anthology (1997)
Ultimate Collection (2000)
20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Steel Pulse (2004)
Rastanthology II: The Sequel (2006)
Love This Reggae Music: 1975–2015 (2016)
Compilation appearances
Short Circuit: Live at the Electric Circus (1977) (one track – Makka Splaff)
Hope & Anchor Front Row Festival (1978) (one track - Sound Check)
Urgh! A Music War (1981)
Filmography
Live from the Archives (1992)
Introspective (2005)
Singles
"Kibudu Mansatta Abuku" (1976)
"Nyah Luv" (1977)
"Ku Klux Klan" (1978)
"Prodigal Son" (1978)
"Prediction" (1978)
"Sound System" (1979)
"Reggae Fever" (1980)
"Don't Give In" (1980)
"Ravers" (1982)
"Your House" (1982)
"Steppin' Out" (1984)
"Reaching Out" (1988)
"Save Black Music" (1986)
"Taxi Driver" (1993)
"Bootstraps" (1994)
"Brown Eyed Girl" (1996)
"Global Warning" (2004)
"No More Weapons" (2004)
"Door of No Return" (2007)
"Put Your Hoodies On " (2014)
"Stop You Coming and Come" (2018)
"Cry Cry Blood" (2019)
References
^ a b c d e f g Romanowski, Patricia; George-Warren, Holly, eds. (2005). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Rev. and updated ed.). New York: Fireside. ISBN 0743292014. OCLC 271565137.
^ a b c "Steel Pulse". Discogs. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
^ a b c Campbell, Mary. "Steel Pulse Gets Reggae Grammy Nod". AP NEWS. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
^ "Steel Pulse - Rastafari Centennial (Live In Paris - Elysee Montmartre)". Discogs. 18 September 1993. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
^ "Various - (Music From) Do The Right Thing". Discogs. 18 September 1989. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
^ "Ray Watts Memorial", Enterprise, February 2001, p. 4.
^ "African Holocaust (2004)". Steel Pulse. Retrieved 29 June 2014.
^ "Natty Dread Marches on Washington". Midnight Raver. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
^ "Steel Pulse album, documentary pushed to 2015". Midnight Raver. Retrieved 13 September 2014.
^ "Steel Pulse". roots-reggae-library.com. November 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
^ a b "Reggae "Shaman" David Hinds and the Legendary Steel Pulse Shine Light on Reggae's Future | Home - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". markets.post-gazette.com. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
^ "Rootfire Cooperative Helps The Movement, Other Reggae Acts With No-Interest Loans". Billboard. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
^ "EASY STAR ALL-STARS RELEASE "FIVE YEARS" SINGLE + VIDEO FT. STEEL PULSE". Gratefulweb.com. 2023.
^ Cullinane, Alice (10 May 2024). "Tributes paid as former Steel Pulse drummer dies". BBC News. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
^ Campbell, Howard (2019) "'In with fighting chance' Archived 30 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine", Jamaica Observer, 22 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019
^ Bloom, Madison (22 March 2019). "Steel Pulse Announce First New Album in 15 years, Share New Song: Listen". Pitchfork. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
External links
Official website
Steel Pulse discography at Discogs
Steel Pulse at IMDb
vteSteel Pulse
Selwyn Brown
David Hinds
Sidney Mills
Studio albums
Handsworth Revolution
Tribute to the Martyrs
Caught You
True Democracy
Earth Crisis
Babylon the Bandit
State of Emergency
Victims
Vex
Rage and Fury
African Holocaust
Former members
Tyrone Downie
Basil Gabbidon
Alphonso Martin
Ronald McQueen
Steve Nisbett
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
Germany
United States
Czech Republic
Artists
Grammy Awards
MusicBrainz
|
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They originally formed at Handsworth Wood Boys School, and were composed of David Hinds (lead vocals, guitar), Basil Gabbidon (lead guitar, vocals), and Ronald McQueen (bass); along with Basil's brother Colin briefly on drums and Mykaell Riley (vocals, percussion). Steel Pulse were the first non-Jamaican act to win the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album.[1]","title":"Steel Pulse"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SteelPulse14.jpg"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp"},{"link_name":"Basil Gabbidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Gabbidon"},{"link_name":"David Hinds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hinds"},{"link_name":"Bob Marley and The Wailers'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Marley_and_the_Wailers"},{"link_name":"Catch a Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_a_Fire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Rastafarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari_movement"},{"link_name":"punk rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock"},{"link_name":"1970's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_music"},{"link_name":"Hope and Anchor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_and_Anchor,_Islington"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Rock Against Racism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Against_Racism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Stranglers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranglers"},{"link_name":"XTC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XTC"},{"link_name":"Burning Spear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_Spear"},{"link_name":"Island Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_Records"}],"text":"Frontman David Hinds of Steel Pulse in concert in Antwerp, 2022.Basil Gabbidon and David Hinds became inspired to form Steel Pulse after listening to Bob Marley and The Wailers' Catch a Fire.[1] The band formed in 1975; their debut single release \"Kibudu, Mansetta And Abuku\" arrived on the small independent label Dip, and linked the plight of urban black youth with the image of a greater African homeland. They followed it with \"Nyah Luv\" for Anchor. They were initially refused live dates in Caribbean venues in Birmingham due to their Rastafarian beliefs. During the popularization of punk rock in the mid-1970's, Steel Pulse began to play punk venues such as the Hope and Anchor in London and The Electric Circus in Manchester in 1976.[1]Aligning themselves closely with the Rock Against Racism organization and featuring in its first music festival in early 1978, they chose to tour with sympathetic elements of the punk movement,[1] including the Stranglers and XTC. Eventually they found a more natural home in support slots for Burning Spear, which brought them to the attention of Island Records.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"single","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_(music)"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"500 Greatest Songs of All Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Songs_of_All_Time"},{"link_name":"Steve \"Grizzly\" Nisbett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Nisbett"},{"link_name":"Alphonso Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonso_Martin"},{"link_name":"Handsworth Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsworth_Revolution"},{"link_name":"roots reggae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots_reggae"},{"link_name":"Caught You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caught_You"},{"link_name":"Mudd Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudd_Club"},{"link_name":"Tom Terrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Terrell_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"Bob Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Marley"},{"link_name":"9:30 Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9:30_Club"}],"sub_title":"Island Records era (1977–1980)","text":"Their first release for Island was the \"Ku Klux Klan\" single, about the evils of racism, and one often accompanied by a visual parody of the sect on stage; the song was ranked the 460th-greatest song of all time in Rolling Stone's 2020 edition of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. By this time, their ranks had swelled to include Selwyn Brown (keyboards), Steve \"Grizzly\" Nisbett (drums), Alphonso Martin (vocals, percussion) and Mykaell Riley (vocals). Their debut album, Handsworth Revolution (recorded in 1977 and released in early 1978), was part the evolution of roots reggae outside Jamaica. However, despite critical and moderate commercial success over three albums, the relationship with Island Records had soured by the advent of their third album, Caught You (released in the US as Reggae Fever).The band made their US concert debut at the Mudd Club in New York in 1980.Tom Terrell, who would later serve as their manager, was instrumental in masterminding a Steel Pulse concert on the night of Bob Marley's funeral, which was broadcast live around the world from the 9:30 Club, 930 F Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., on 21 May 1981.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elektra Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra_Records"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"True Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Democracy_(album)"},{"link_name":"Garvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Garvey"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Elektra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektra_Records"},{"link_name":"Island's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_Records"},{"link_name":"Eddy Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_Grant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"Babylon The Bandit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_The_Bandit"},{"link_name":"Grammy award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Elektra Records era (1982–1985)","text":"In 1982, Steel Pulse switched to Elektra Records,[1] and unveiled their most consistent collection of songs since Handsworth Revolution with True Democracy, distinguished by the Garvey-eulogizing 'Rally Round' cut.[2] A further definitive set arrived in Earth Crisis in 1984. However, Elektra chose to take a leaf out of Island's book in trying to coerce Steel Pulse into a more mainstream vein, asking them to emulate the pop-reggae stance of Eddy Grant.[3] Babylon the Bandit was consequently weakened, but did contain \"Not King James Version\".Steel Pulse released Babylon The Bandit in 1985, for which the band won a Grammy award.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Corporation_of_America"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Elysee Montmartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysee_Montmartre"},{"link_name":"Haile Selassie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Alphonso Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonso_Martin"},{"link_name":"British reggae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_reggae"},{"link_name":"Tonight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show"},{"link_name":"New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxicabs_of_the_United_States#New_York_City_Taxi_&_Limousine_Commission"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Spike Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_Lee"},{"link_name":"Do The Right Thing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_The_Right_Thing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"reggae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae"},{"link_name":"Sunsplash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae_Sunsplash"},{"link_name":"Reggae on the River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae_on_the_River"},{"link_name":"Grateful Dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead"},{"link_name":"The Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Police"}],"sub_title":"MCA Records era (1988–1997)","text":"Their next move was to MCA for State of Emergency (1988), which retained some of the synthesized dance elements of its predecessor.[2]Rastafari Centennial, Steel Pulse's first live record, was recorded live at the Elysee Montmartre in Paris, over three nights in January 1992, and dedicated to the hundred-year anniversary of the birth of Haile Selassie.[4] It was the first recording since the defection of Alphonso Martin, leaving the trio of Hinds, Nisbett and Selwyn. While they still faced criticism at the hands of British reggae fans, in the United States their reputation was growing, becoming the first ever reggae band to appear on the Tonight television show. Their profile was raised further when, in 1992, Hinds challenged the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission in the Supreme Court, asserting that their cab drivers discriminated against black people in general and Rastafarians in particular. The lawsuit was later dropped by Steel Pulse.In 1989, the group contributed I Can't Stand it to the soundtrack of Spike Lee's film Do The Right Thing.[5]In 1994, the group headlined some of the world's biggest reggae festivals including Reggae Sunsplash USA, Jamaican Sunsplash, Japan Splash and Northern California annual Reggae on the River Festival. In 1986, Steel Pulse contributed a version of \"Franklin's Tower\" on Pow Wow Records' Fire on the Mountain: Reggae Celebrates the Grateful Dead compilation. They recorded The Police's \"Can't Stand Losing You\" for a reggae compilation of Police tunes that appeared on the Ark 21 label. Rastanthology, a 17-song collection of Steel Pulse classics (the 1996 compilation was released on the band's own Wise Man Doctrine label).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruhr_Reggae_Summer_2017_MH_Steel_Pulse_05.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Ray Watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Watts_(Beshara_band)"},{"link_name":"Beshara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beshara_(band)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Enterprise-6"},{"link_name":"African Holocaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Holocaust_(album)"},{"link_name":"Damian Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damian_Marley"},{"link_name":"Capleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capleton"},{"link_name":"Tiken Jah Fakoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiken_Jah_Fakoly"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"George Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Jackson_(song)"},{"link_name":"Senegal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal"},{"link_name":"BFI London Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BFI_London_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Midnight Raver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_Raver"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Roots Reggae Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roots_Reggae_Library"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-markets.post-gazette.com-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Ziggy_Stardust_and_the_Spiders_from_Mars"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Later years (1997–present)","text":"Frontman David Hinds in 2017In 1997, the band released Rage and Fury.[2]Until February 2001, it had been many years since Pulse had performed in their hometown of Birmingham. They decided to perform at the Ray Watts memorial concert, which was held at the Irish Centre. Pulse shared the stage with Watts' band, Beshara, along with other artists from Birmingham.[6]In 2004, Steel Pulse returned to their militant roots with African Holocaust – their eleventh studio album. With guest appearances by Damian Marley, Capleton, and Tiken Jah Fakoly (on the track African Holocaust),[7] the album is a collection of protest and spiritual songs, including \"Global Warning\" (a dire warning about climate change), \"Tyrant\", a protest song against political corruption, and \"No More Weapons\", an anti-war song. Also featured on the album is the Bob Dylan song, \"George Jackson\".In 2007, the band released a music video for the track \"Door of No Return\". The video was produced by Driftwood Pictures Ltd., and was shot on location in Senegal and New York City. The video was directed by Trishul Thejasvi and produced by Yoni Gal. The video had its world premier at the Times 51st BFI London Film Festival in October 2007.In a 2013 interview with Midnight Raver, David Hinds indicated that a new studio album and documentary, tentatively titled Steel Pulse: The Definitive Story, would be released in 2014.[8] However, on 10 July 2014 Midnight Raver reported that, according to Hinds, both the studio album and documentary will be delayed until at least 2015.[9]In anticipation to a new Steel Pulse album, the Roots Reggae Library has indexed two compilation albums of the latest Steel Pulse singles. The albums are called Positivity and Jah Way, both named after tracks on the albums.[10]In October 2018, Steel Pulse announced their new album, the first in 14 years, Mass Manipulation, was released on Rootfire Cooperative[11] a non-traditional label which provides interest free loans and label services to independent musicians.[12] The single \"Stop You Coming and Come\" was released on 7 December. The album was nominated for the 2020 Grammy Awards.On March 22, 2023, the Easy Star All-Stars released a cover of \"Five Years\" in collaboration with Steel Pulse, from their album Ziggy Stardub, a reggae reimagining of David Bowie's The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. A music video, directed by Robert Bartolome, was released on the same day.[13]Former drummer Conrad Kelly died on 8 May 2024, at the age of 65.[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"Babylon the Bandit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_the_Bandit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Rastafari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"A Grammy Award was given for their 1986 album Babylon the Bandit.[1] Steel Pulse has received nominations for Victims (1991), Rastafari Centennial (1992), Rage and Fury (1998),[3] Living Legacy (2000).[3] and Mass Manipulation (2019).[15]","title":"Awards and nominations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Hinds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hinds"},{"link_name":"Sidney Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Mills"}],"sub_title":"Current members","text":"David Hinds – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1975–present)\nSelwyn Brown – keyboards, backing vocals (1975–present)\nSidney Mills – keyboards, backing vocals (1988–present)\nWayne C# Clarke – drums (2005–present)\nAmlak Tafari – bass (2005–present)\nDavid Ellecirri Jr. - lead guitar (2012–present)\nStephen Bradley – trumpet (2017–present)\nZem Audu – saxophone (2017–present)\nBaruch Hinds – rap and backing vocals (2017–present)","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steve Nisbett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Nisbett"},{"link_name":"Alphonso Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonso_Martin"},{"link_name":"Basil Gabbidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_Gabbidon"},{"link_name":"Ronald McQueen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_McQueen"},{"link_name":"Tyrone Downie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone_Downie"},{"link_name":"Sylvia Tella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_Tella"}],"sub_title":"Former members","text":"Drummers\nColin Gabbidon – drums (1975–1976)\nDonovan Shaw – drums (1976–1977)\nSteve Nisbett – drums, percussion (1977–2001; died 2018)\nAlphonso Martin – percussion, vocals (1977–1991)\nMykaell Riley – percussion, backing vocals (1977–1978)\nConrad Kelly – drums (1994–2005; died 2024)\nGuitarists\nBasil Gabbidon – lead guitar, backing vocals (1975–1982)\nMelvin Brown – lead guitar (1982–1989)\nClifford \"Moonie\" Pusey – lead guitar (1989–2015)\nDonovan McKitty – lead guitar (2008–2015; died 2017)\nBass players\nRonald McQueen – bass (1975–1983)\nAlvin Ewen – bass, percussion (1983–2005)\nKeyboard players\nTyrone Downie – keyboards (1985)\nErrol Reid – keyboards (1985–1994)\n\n\nHorns players\nJerry Johnson – saxophone (1992–1997, 2012–2019)\nSteve Morrison – trombone (1991–1992)\nJames Renford – saxophone (1991–1992)\nKevin Batchelor – trumpet (1992–1997)\nClark Gayton – trombone (1992–1997)\nMicah Robinson – trombone (1998–2015)\nBacking vocalists\nMakiesha McTaggert – backing vocals (2005–2016)\nYaz Alexander – backing vocals (1991–1997)\nDonna Sterling – backing vocals (1998–2004)\nSylvia Tella – backing vocals (1998–1999)\nMelanie Lynch – backing vocals (2004–2009)\nTraciana Graves – backing vocals (2004)\nMarea Wilson – backing vocals (2004–2005)","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Timeline","title":"Personnel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=12"},{"link_name":"Handsworth Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsworth_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Tribute to the Martyrs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_to_the_Martyrs"},{"link_name":"Caught You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caught_You"},{"link_name":"True Democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Democracy_(album)"},{"link_name":"Earth Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Crisis_(album)"},{"link_name":"Babylon the Bandit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_the_Bandit"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"State of Emergency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Emergency_(Steel_Pulse_album)"},{"link_name":"Victims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victims_(Steel_Pulse_album)"},{"link_name":"Vex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vex_(album)"},{"link_name":"Rage and Fury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rage_and_Fury"},{"link_name":"African Holocaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Holocaust_(album)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-markets.post-gazette.com-11"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=13"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=14"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=15"},{"link_name":"Short Circuit: Live at the Electric Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_Circuit:_Live_at_the_Electric_Circus"},{"link_name":"Hope & Anchor Front Row Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_%26_Anchor_Front_Row_Festival"},{"link_name":"Urgh! A Music War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urgh!_A_Music_War"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=16"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steel_Pulse&action=edit§ion=17"}],"text":"Studio albums[edit]\nHandsworth Revolution (1978)\nTribute to the Martyrs (1979)\nCaught You (1980)\nTrue Democracy (1982)\nEarth Crisis (1984)\nBabylon the Bandit (1986) Grammy Award Winner – Best Reggae Album\nState of Emergency (1988)\nVictims (1991)\nVex (1994)\nRage and Fury (1997)\nAfrican Holocaust (2004)\nMass Manipulation (2019)[16][11] Grammy Award Nominee - Best Reggae Album\nLive albums[edit]\nRastafari Centennial - Live in Paris (Elysee Montmartre) (1992)\nLiving Legacy (1998)\nCompilation albums[edit]\nReggae Greats (1984)\nSmash Hits (1993)\nRastanthology (1996)\nSound System: The Island Anthology (1997)\nUltimate Collection (2000)\n20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Steel Pulse (2004)\nRastanthology II: The Sequel (2006)\nLove This Reggae Music: 1975–2015 (2016)\nCompilation appearances[edit]\nShort Circuit: Live at the Electric Circus (1977) (one track – Makka Splaff)\nHope & Anchor Front Row Festival (1978) (one track - Sound Check)\nUrgh! A Music War (1981)\n\n\nFilmography[edit]\nLive from the Archives (1992)\nIntrospective (2005)\nSingles[edit]\n\"Kibudu Mansatta Abuku\" (1976)\n\"Nyah Luv\" (1977)\n\"Ku Klux Klan\" (1978)\n\"Prodigal Son\" (1978)\n\"Prediction\" (1978)\n\"Sound System\" (1979)\n\"Reggae Fever\" (1980)\n\"Don't Give In\" (1980)\n\"Ravers\" (1982)\n\"Your House\" (1982)\n\"Steppin' Out\" (1984)\n\"Reaching Out\" (1988)\n\"Save Black Music\" (1986)\n\"Taxi Driver\" (1993)\n\"Bootstraps\" (1994)\n\"Brown Eyed Girl\" (1996)\n\"Global Warning\" (2004)\n\"No More Weapons\" (2004)\n\"Door of No Return\" (2007)\n\"Put Your Hoodies On [4 Trayvon]\" (2014)\n\"Stop You Coming and Come\" (2018)\n\"Cry Cry Blood\" (2019)","title":"Discography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Frontman David Hinds of Steel Pulse in concert in Antwerp, 2022.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/SteelPulse14.jpg/220px-SteelPulse14.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frontman David Hinds in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ruhr_Reggae_Summer_2017_MH_Steel_Pulse_05.jpg/220px-Ruhr_Reggae_Summer_2017_MH_Steel_Pulse_05.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Romanowski, Patricia; George-Warren, Holly, eds. (2005). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Rev. and updated ed.). New York: Fireside. ISBN 0743292014. OCLC 271565137.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0743292014","url_text":"0743292014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/271565137","url_text":"271565137"}]},{"reference":"\"Steel Pulse\". Discogs. Retrieved 19 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://api.discogs.com/artists/169498","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse\""}]},{"reference":"Campbell, Mary. \"Steel Pulse Gets Reggae Grammy Nod\". AP NEWS. Retrieved 19 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://apnews.com/34803d1b11f9452344d25f62f024990c","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse Gets Reggae Grammy Nod\""}]},{"reference":"\"Steel Pulse - Rastafari Centennial (Live In Paris - Elysee Montmartre)\". Discogs. 18 September 1993. Retrieved 19 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.discogs.com/Steel-Pulse-Rastafari-Centennial-Live-In-Paris-Elysee-Montmartre/master/137668","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse - Rastafari Centennial (Live In Paris - Elysee Montmartre)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Various - (Music From) Do The Right Thing\". Discogs. 18 September 1989. Retrieved 19 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.discogs.com/Various-Music-From-Do-The-Right-Thing/master/137674","url_text":"\"Various - (Music From) Do The Right Thing\""}]},{"reference":"\"African Holocaust (2004)\". Steel Pulse. Retrieved 29 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.steelpulse.com/africanholocaust.shtml","url_text":"\"African Holocaust (2004)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Natty Dread Marches on Washington\". Midnight Raver. Retrieved 13 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://midnightraverblog.com/2013/08/29/natty-dread-marches-on-washington/","url_text":"\"Natty Dread Marches on Washington\""}]},{"reference":"\"Steel Pulse album, documentary pushed to 2015\". Midnight Raver. Retrieved 13 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://midnightraverblog.com/2014/07/10/steel-pulse-album-documentary-pushed-to-2015/","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse album, documentary pushed to 2015\""}]},{"reference":"\"Steel Pulse\". roots-reggae-library.com. November 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.roots-reggae-library.com/2014/11/steel-pulse.html","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse\""}]},{"reference":"\"Reggae \"Shaman\" David Hinds and the Legendary Steel Pulse Shine Light on Reggae's Future | Home - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\". markets.post-gazette.com. Retrieved 12 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://markets.post-gazette.com/postgazette/news/read/37076760/","url_text":"\"Reggae \"Shaman\" David Hinds and the Legendary Steel Pulse Shine Light on Reggae's Future | Home - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rootfire Cooperative Helps The Movement, Other Reggae Acts With No-Interest Loans\". Billboard. Retrieved 12 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7356845/rootfire-cooperative-movement-reggae-loans","url_text":"\"Rootfire Cooperative Helps The Movement, Other Reggae Acts With No-Interest Loans\""}]},{"reference":"\"EASY STAR ALL-STARS RELEASE \"FIVE YEARS\" SINGLE + VIDEO FT. STEEL PULSE\". Gratefulweb.com. 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gratefulweb.com/articles/easy-star-all-stars-release-five-years-single-video-ft-steel-pulse","url_text":"\"EASY STAR ALL-STARS RELEASE \"FIVE YEARS\" SINGLE + VIDEO FT. STEEL PULSE\""}]},{"reference":"Cullinane, Alice (10 May 2024). \"Tributes paid as former Steel Pulse drummer dies\". BBC News. Retrieved 10 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cxr3k53270zo","url_text":"\"Tributes paid as former Steel Pulse drummer dies\""}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Madison (22 March 2019). \"Steel Pulse Announce First New Album in 15 years, Share New Song: Listen\". Pitchfork. Retrieved 24 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://pitchfork.com/news/steel-pulse-announce-first-new-album-in-15-years-share-new-song-listen/","url_text":"\"Steel Pulse Announce First New Album in 15 years, Share New Song: Listen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitchfork_(website)","url_text":"Pitchfork"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://steelpulse.com/","external_links_name":"steelpulse.com"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/271565137","external_links_name":"271565137"},{"Link":"https://api.discogs.com/artists/169498","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse\""},{"Link":"https://apnews.com/34803d1b11f9452344d25f62f024990c","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse Gets Reggae Grammy Nod\""},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/Steel-Pulse-Rastafari-Centennial-Live-In-Paris-Elysee-Montmartre/master/137668","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse - Rastafari Centennial (Live In Paris - Elysee Montmartre)\""},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/Various-Music-From-Do-The-Right-Thing/master/137674","external_links_name":"\"Various - (Music From) Do The Right Thing\""},{"Link":"http://www.steelpulse.com/africanholocaust.shtml","external_links_name":"\"African Holocaust (2004)\""},{"Link":"http://midnightraverblog.com/2013/08/29/natty-dread-marches-on-washington/","external_links_name":"\"Natty Dread Marches on Washington\""},{"Link":"http://midnightraverblog.com/2014/07/10/steel-pulse-album-documentary-pushed-to-2015/","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse album, documentary pushed to 2015\""},{"Link":"http://www.roots-reggae-library.com/2014/11/steel-pulse.html","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse\""},{"Link":"http://markets.post-gazette.com/postgazette/news/read/37076760/","external_links_name":"\"Reggae \"Shaman\" David Hinds and the Legendary Steel Pulse Shine Light on Reggae's Future | Home - Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\""},{"Link":"https://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7356845/rootfire-cooperative-movement-reggae-loans","external_links_name":"\"Rootfire Cooperative Helps The Movement, Other Reggae Acts With No-Interest Loans\""},{"Link":"https://www.gratefulweb.com/articles/easy-star-all-stars-release-five-years-single-video-ft-steel-pulse","external_links_name":"\"EASY STAR ALL-STARS RELEASE \"FIVE YEARS\" SINGLE + VIDEO FT. STEEL PULSE\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cxr3k53270zo","external_links_name":"\"Tributes paid as former Steel Pulse drummer dies\""},{"Link":"http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20191122/ARTICLE/191129892/1116","external_links_name":"'In with fighting chance'"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191130044816/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20191122/ARTICLE/191129892/1116","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://pitchfork.com/news/steel-pulse-announce-first-new-album-in-15-years-share-new-song-listen/","external_links_name":"\"Steel Pulse Announce First New Album in 15 years, Share New Song: Listen\""},{"Link":"http://www.steelpulse.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.discogs.com/artist/Steel+Pulse","external_links_name":"Steel Pulse"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/name/nm3092555/","external_links_name":"Steel Pulse"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000123370475","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/710145857003122921083","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/10276621-6","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n91128825","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0056197&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://www.grammy.com/artists/steel-pulse/14714","external_links_name":"Grammy Awards"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/artist/37367b2f-69e4-4df2-9e64-75ca6204764b","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGPL
|
GNU Lesser General Public License
|
["1 History","2 Differences from the GPL","3 Compatibility","4 FSF recommendations on library licensing","5 Programming language specifications","5.1 Class inheritance","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
|
Free-software license
GNU Lesser General Public LicenseLogoPublished1991; 33 years ago (1991)SPDX identifierLGPL-3.0-or-laterLGPL-3.0-onlyLGPL-2.1-or-laterLGPL-2.1-onlyLGPL-2.0-or-laterLGPL-2.0-onlyDebian FSG compatibleYesFSF approvedYesOSI approvedYesGPL compatibleYesCopyleftYes (library or dynamic linking-based)Linking from code with a different licenceYesWebsitewww.gnu.org/copyleft/lesser.html
The GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) is a free-software license published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). The license allows developers and companies to use and integrate a software component released under the LGPL into their own (even proprietary) software without being required by the terms of a strong copyleft license to release the source code of their own components. However, any developer who modifies an LGPL-covered component is required to make their modified version available under the same LGPL license. For proprietary software, code under the LGPL is usually used in the form of a shared library, so that there is a clear separation between the proprietary and LGPL components. The LGPL is primarily used for software libraries, although it is also used by some stand-alone applications.
The LGPL was developed as a compromise between the strong copyleft of the GNU General Public License (GPL) and more permissive licenses such as the BSD licenses and the MIT License. The word "Lesser" in the title shows that the LGPL does not guarantee the end user's complete freedom in the use of software; it only guarantees the freedom of modification for components licensed under the LGPL, but not for any proprietary components.
History
The license was originally called the GNU Library General Public License and was first published in 1991, and adopted the version number 2 for parity with GPL version 2. The LGPL was revised in minor ways in the 2.1 point release, published in 1999, when it was renamed the GNU Lesser General Public License to reflect the FSF's position that not all libraries should use it. Version 3 of the LGPL was published in 2007 as a list of additional permissions applied to GPL version 3.
In addition to the term "work based on the Program" of GPL, LGPL version 2 introduced two additional clarification terms "work based on the library" and "work that uses the library". LGPL version 3 partially dropped these terms.
Differences from the GPL
The main difference between the GPL and the LGPL is that the latter allows the work to be linked with (in the case of a library, "used by") a non-(L)GPLed program, regardless of whether it is licensed under a license of GPL family or other licenses. In LGPL 2.1, the non-(L)GPLed program can then be distributed under any terms if it is not a derivative work. If it is a derivative work, then the program's terms must allow for "modification of the work for the customer's own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications". Whether a work that uses an LGPL program is a derivative work or not is a legal issue. A standalone executable that dynamically links to a library through a .so, .dll, or similar medium is generally accepted as not being a derivative work as defined by the LGPL. It would fall under the definition of a "work that uses the Library". Paragraph 5 of the LGPL version 2.1 states:
A program that contains no derivative of any portion of the Library, but is designed to work with the Library by being compiled or linked with it, is called a "work that uses the Library". Such a work, in isolation, is not a derivative work of the Library, and therefore falls outside the scope of this License.
Essentially, if it is a "work that uses the library", then it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program. The most commonly used method for doing so is to use "a suitable shared library mechanism for linking". Alternatively, a statically linked library is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided.
Compatibility
One feature of the LGPL is the permission to sublicense under the GPL any piece of software which is received under the LGPL (see section 3 of the LGPL version 2.1, and section 2 option b of the LGPL version 3). This feature allows for direct reuse of LGPLed code in GPLed libraries and applications.
Version 3 of the LGPL is not inherently compatible with version 2 of the GPL. However, works using the latter that have given permission to use a later version of the GPL are compatible: a work released under the GPLv2 "or any later version" may be combined with code from a LGPL version 3 library, with the combined work as a whole falling under the terms of the GPLv3.
FSF recommendations on library licensing
The former name GNU Library General Public License gave some the impression that the FSF recommended that all software libraries should use the LGPL and programs should use the GPL. In 1999 essay Why you shouldn't use the Lesser GPL for your next library Richard Stallman explained that while the LGPL had not been deprecated, one should not necessarily use the LGPL for all libraries, as using GPL can give advantage to free-software developers.
On the other hand, the FSF sometimes advocate for even less restrictive licenses. For example, Stallman endorsed the use of BSD-style license by the Vorbis project in its libraries in 2001.
Programming language specifications
The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in the C programming language or its family. Franz Inc., the developers of Allegro Common Lisp, published their own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in the Lisp context. The LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred to as the LLGPL.
In addition, Ada has a special feature, generics, which may prompt the use of the GNAT Modified General Public License (GMGPL): it allows code to link against or instantiate GMGPL-covered units without the code itself becoming covered by the GPL.
C++ templates and header-only libraries have the same problem as Ada generics. Version 3 of the LGPL addresses such cases in section 3.
Class inheritance
Some concern has risen about the suitability of object-oriented classes in LGPL-licensed code being inherited by non-(L)GPL code. Clarification is given on the official GNU website:
The LGPL does not contain special provisions for inheritance, because none are needed. Inheritance creates derivative works in the same way as traditional linking, and the LGPL permits this type of derivative work in the same way as it permits ordinary function calls.
See also
Free and open-source software portal
GNU Affero General Public License
GNU Free Documentation License
GNAT Modified General Public License
GPL linking exception
Software using the LGPL (category)
References
^ License information Debian
^ a b c "Various Licenses and Comments about Them". Free Software Foundation. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
^ Licenses & Standards Open Source Initiative
^ "Chapter 10. The Lesser GPL". Copyleft and the GNU General Public License: A Comprehensive Tutorial and Guide. 2018.
^ a b Stallman, Richard. "Why you shouldn't use the Lesser GPL for your next library". Free Software Foundation official website.
^ Gnu Lesser General Public License, Section 4, pt. d) 0)
^ "sublicense". Wiktionary. 7 December 2020.
^ GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3. Free Software Foundation official website.
^ Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU Licenses - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation. Free Software Foundation official website.
^ Stallman, Richard. Re: Xiph.org announces Vorbis Beta 4 and the Xiph.org
^ Preamble to the Gnu Lesser General Public License
^ LGPLv3 for a C++ Pure Template Library ?
^ Turner, David. The LGPL and Java. GNU official website.
External links
LGPL Official Page
LGPL-3.0 license
LGPL-2.1 license
LGPL-2.0 license
Derivative Works
Lisping Copyleft: A Close Reading of the Lisp LGPL, 5 International Free and Open Source Software Law Review 15 (2013)
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Contributors
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Other projects
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Sister organizations
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"free-software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-software_license"},{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"shared library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_library"},{"link_name":"software libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"GNU General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_free_software_licence"},{"link_name":"BSD licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_license"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"}],"text":"The GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) is a free-software license published by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). 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The word \"Lesser\" in the title shows that the LGPL does not guarantee the end user's complete freedom in the use of software; it only guarantees the freedom of modification for components licensed under the LGPL, but not for any proprietary components.","title":"GNU Lesser General Public License"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The license was originally called the GNU Library General Public License and was first published in 1991, and adopted the version number 2 for parity with GPL version 2. The LGPL was revised in minor ways in the 2.1 point release, published in 1999, when it was renamed the GNU Lesser General Public License to reflect the FSF's position that not all libraries should use it. 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Such a work, in isolation, is not a derivative work of the Library, and therefore falls outside the scope of this License.Essentially, if it is a \"work that uses the library\", then it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program. The most commonly used method for doing so is to use \"a suitable shared library mechanism for linking\". Alternatively, a statically linked library is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided.[6]","title":"Differences from the GPL"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LGPL_FSF-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LGPL_FSF_MATRIX-9"}],"text":"One feature of the LGPL is the permission to sublicense[7] under the GPL any piece of software which is received under the LGPL (see section 3 of the LGPL version 2.1, and section 2 option b of the LGPL version 3). This feature allows for direct reuse of LGPLed code in GPLed libraries and applications.Version 3 of the LGPL is not inherently compatible with version 2 of the GPL. However, works using the latter that have given permission to use a later version of the GPL are compatible:[8] a work released under the GPLv2 \"or any later version\" may be combined with code from a LGPL version 3 library, with the combined work as a whole falling under the terms of the GPLv3.[9]","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deprecated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-not_use_LGPL-5"},{"link_name":"BSD-style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_license"},{"link_name":"Vorbis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorbis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vorbis_and_BSD-10"}],"text":"The former name GNU Library General Public License gave some the impression that the FSF recommended that all software libraries should use the LGPL and programs should use the GPL. In 1999 essay Why you shouldn't use the Lesser GPL for your next library Richard Stallman explained that while the LGPL had not been deprecated, one should not necessarily use the LGPL for all libraries, as using GPL can give advantage to free-software developers.[5]On the other hand, the FSF sometimes advocate for even less restrictive licenses. For example, Stallman endorsed the use of BSD-style license by the Vorbis project in its libraries in 2001.[10]","title":"FSF recommendations on library licensing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Allegro Common Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegro_Common_Lisp"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LGPL_preamble-11"},{"link_name":"Ada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"generics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ada_Programming/Generics"},{"link_name":"GNAT Modified General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNAT_Modified_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"header-only libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Header-only"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in the C programming language or its family. Franz Inc., the developers of Allegro Common Lisp, published their own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in the Lisp context. The LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred to as the LLGPL.[11]In addition, Ada has a special feature, generics, which may prompt the use of the GNAT Modified General Public License (GMGPL): it allows code to link against or instantiate GMGPL-covered units without the code itself becoming covered by the GPL.C++ templates and header-only libraries have the same problem as Ada generics. Version 3 of the LGPL addresses such cases in section 3.[12]","title":"Programming language specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inherited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Class inheritance","text":"Some concern has risen about the suitability of object-oriented classes in LGPL-licensed code being inherited by non-(L)GPL code. Clarification is given on the official GNU website:The LGPL does not contain special provisions for inheritance, because none are needed. Inheritance creates derivative works in the same way as traditional linking, and the LGPL permits this type of derivative work in the same way as it permits ordinary function calls.[13]","title":"Programming language specifications"}]
|
[]
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[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"GNU Affero General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Affero_General_Public_License"},{"title":"GNU Free Documentation License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License"},{"title":"GNAT Modified General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNAT_Modified_General_Public_License"},{"title":"GPL linking exception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPL_linking_exception"},{"title":"Software using the LGPL (category)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_using_the_LGPL_license"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Various Licenses and Comments about Them\". Free Software Foundation. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.en.html#LGPL","url_text":"\"Various Licenses and Comments about Them\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chapter 10. The Lesser GPL\". Copyleft and the GNU General Public License: A Comprehensive Tutorial and Guide. 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://copyleft.org/guide/comprehensive-gpl-guidech11.html","url_text":"\"Chapter 10. The Lesser GPL\""}]},{"reference":"\"sublicense\". Wiktionary. 7 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sublicense","url_text":"\"sublicense\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_38500
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ISO/IEC 38500
|
["1 History","1.1 Updates to the standard","2 See also","3 References"]
|
Standard for corporate governance of information technology
ISO/IEC 38500 is an international standard for Corporate governance of information technology published jointly by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The standard is heavily based on the AS 8015-2005 Australian Standard for Corporate Governance of Information and Communication Technology, originally published in January 2005.
History
The introduction of AS 8015 in 2005 brought about the first standard "to describe governance of IT without resorting to descriptions of management systems and processes." The 12-page document stood out and attracted the attention of the international community. The ISO/IEC technical committee JTC 1 reached out to Standards Australia, the group that pushed AS 8015 forward, and asked them to participate in the international adaptation process. On 1 February 2007 the ISO/IEC published the first draft international standard (DIS) of the revised AS 8015 as ISO/IEC DIS 29382. The DIS then received "fast-track" status in July 2007 (meaning the draft standard could then be submitted for approval as an ISO standard), revisions of the document were made in September 2007, and the final disposition of comments was completed in January 2008, resulting in the standard being sent to the ISO/IEC Information Technology Task Force for international standards processing.
Depending on the source, shortly before final approval of the standard in either April or May 2008, the ISO/IEC chose to rename the document ISO/IEC 38500, before finally publishing the finalized version on 1 June as ISO/IEC 38500:2008.
Updates to the standard
On 12 February 2015 the ISO/IEC updated the standard to 38500:2015. Standards Australia described the changes as such:
With the evolution of thinking in the field of IT governance, ISO/IEC 38500 was revised in 2015. The main changes include the title of the standard, from Corporate Governance of IT to Governance of IT for the Organization, which reflects the wider applicability of the standard. Terminology and definitions have also been updated and refined throughout the document to reflect the widened scope and to make the standard more applicable across different international jurisdictions, cultures and languages.
In a February 2015 article submitted to Communications of the ACM, Juiz and Toomey (involved in the development process) highlighted this "wider applicability":
In the ISO/IEC 38500 model, the governing body is a generic entity (the individual or group of individuals) responsible and accountable for performance and conformance (through control) of the organization. While ISO/IEC 38500 makes clear the role of the governing body, it also allows that such delegation could result in a subsidiary entity giving more focused attention to the tasks in governance of IT (such as creation of a board committee). It also includes delegation of detail to management, as in finance and human resources. There is an implicit expectation that the governing body will require management establish systems to plan, build, and run the IT-enabled organization.
See also
AS 8015
Corporate governance of information technology
Data governance
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 40
SFIA definition of Enterprise IT Governance skill
References
^ Smallwood, R.F. (2014). "Chapter 10: Information Governance and Information Technology Functions". Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 189–206. ISBN 9781118421017. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ Toomey, M. (20 November 2008). "A Significant Achievement" (PDF). The Informatics Letter. Infonomics Pty Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ a b Juiz, C.; Toomey, M. (2015). "To Govern IT, or Not to Govern IT?". Communications of the ACM. 58 (2): 58–64. doi:10.1145/2656385. S2CID 34086325.
^ McKay, A. (2007). "Australia leads the world on ICT governance". Up. 8 (Summer 2007): 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "ISO/IEC DIS 29382: 2007 Edition, February 1, 2007". IHS Standards Store. IHS, Inc. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ Jones, B. (29 January 2007). "Explanation of the ISO "Fast-Track" process". Microsoft Developer Network Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "JTC1/SC7 List of Documents: N3851 - N3900". ISO/IEC. 18 January 2008. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "IT Governance and The International Standard, ISO/IEC 38500". IT Governance. IT Governance Ltd. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "ISO 38500 IT Governance Standard". 38500.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ a b Garcia-Menendez, M. (1 June 2009). "ISO/IEC 38500:2008. Un año difundiendo el concepto de 'Buen Gobierno Corporativo de las TIC'". Gobernanza de TI (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "ISO/IEC 38500:2008". ISO. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
^ "2015 Edition of ISO/IEC 38500 Published" (PDF). Standards Australia. 23 March 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
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Related
International Electrotechnical Commission
|
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The standard is heavily based on the AS 8015-2005 Australian Standard for Corporate Governance of Information and Communication Technology, originally published in January 2005.[1][2]","title":"ISO/IEC 38500"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JuizToGov15-3"},{"link_name":"Standards Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standards_Australia"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McKayAust07-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISODIS29382Arch-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JonesExpl07-6"},{"link_name":"Information Technology Task Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JTC1/SC7-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ITGITGov-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38500org-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garcia-MenendezISO09-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garcia-MenendezISO09-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISO38500:08-11"}],"text":"The introduction of AS 8015 in 2005 brought about the first standard \"to describe governance of IT without resorting to descriptions of management systems and processes.\"[3] The 12-page document stood out and attracted the attention of the international community. 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While ISO/IEC 38500 makes clear the role of the governing body, it also allows that such delegation could result in a subsidiary entity giving more focused attention to the tasks in governance of IT (such as creation of a board committee). It also includes delegation of detail to management, as in finance and human resources. There is an implicit expectation that the governing body will require management establish systems to plan, build, and run the IT-enabled organization.","title":"History"}]
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(2007). \"Australia leads the world on ICT governance\". Up. 8 (Summer 2007): 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090911085709/http://www.icsid.org/smallbox4/file.php?sb47dec3c68a502","url_text":"\"Australia leads the world on ICT governance\""},{"url":"http://www.icsid.org/smallbox4/file.php?sb47dec3c68a502","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ISO/IEC DIS 29382: 2007 Edition, February 1, 2007\". IHS Standards Store. IHS, Inc. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160623191716/https://global.ihs.com/doc_detail.cfm?&item_s_key=00490704","url_text":"\"ISO/IEC DIS 29382: 2007 Edition, February 1, 2007\""},{"url":"https://global.ihs.com/doc_detail.cfm?&item_s_key=00490704","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jones, B. (29 January 2007). \"Explanation of the ISO \"Fast-Track\" process\". Microsoft Developer Network Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/brian_jones/2007/01/29/explanation-of-the-iso-fast-track-process/","url_text":"\"Explanation of the ISO \"Fast-Track\" process\""}]},{"reference":"\"JTC1/SC7 List of Documents: N3851 - N3900\". ISO/IEC. 18 January 2008. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160623193343/http://jtc1-sc7.logti.etsmtl.ca/N3851-N3900.html","url_text":"\"JTC1/SC7 List of Documents: N3851 - N3900\""},{"url":"http://jtc1-sc7.logti.etsmtl.ca/N3851-N3900.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"IT Governance and The International Standard, ISO/IEC 38500\". IT Governance. IT Governance Ltd. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160317074057/http://www.itgovernance.in/t-itgovernanceandisoiec38500.aspx","url_text":"\"IT Governance and The International Standard, ISO/IEC 38500\""},{"url":"http://www.itgovernance.in/t-itgovernanceandisoiec38500.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ISO 38500 IT Governance Standard\". 38500.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160605060540/http://www.38500.org/","url_text":"\"ISO 38500 IT Governance Standard\""},{"url":"http://www.38500.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Garcia-Menendez, M. (1 June 2009). \"ISO/IEC 38500:2008. Un año difundiendo el concepto de 'Buen Gobierno Corporativo de las TIC'\". Gobernanza de TI (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://gobernanza.wordpress.com/2009/06/01/isoiec-385002008-un-ano-difundiendo-el-concepto-de-buen-gobierno-corporativo-de-las-tic/","url_text":"\"ISO/IEC 38500:2008. Un año difundiendo el concepto de 'Buen Gobierno Corporativo de las TIC'\""}]},{"reference":"\"ISO/IEC 38500:2008\". ISO. Retrieved 23 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=51639","url_text":"\"ISO/IEC 38500:2008\""}]},{"reference":"\"2015 Edition of ISO/IEC 38500 Published\" (PDF). Standards Australia. 23 March 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2016. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_culture
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Bicycle culture
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["1 Advocacy and activism subcultures","1.1 Examples","2 Mainstream bike cultures","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
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Culture supporting the use of bicycles
Cycling is the most common form of transit in Amsterdam
Bicycle culture can refer to a mainstream culture that supports the use of bicycles or to a subculture. Although "bike culture" is often used to refer to various forms of associated fashion, it is erroneous to call fashion in and of itself a culture.
Cycling culture refers to cities and countries which support a large percentage of utility cycling. Examples include the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Belgium (Flanders in particular), Sweden, Italy, China, Bangladesh and Japan. There are also towns in some countries where bicycle culture has been an integral part of the landscape for generations, even without much official support. That is the case of Ílhavo, in Portugal. North American cities with strong bicycle cultures include Madison, Portland, San Francisco, Little Rock, Boston, Toronto, Montreal, Lincoln, Peoria, and the Twin Cities. In Latin America, Bogotá is often regarded as one of the most bike-friendly cities.
A city with a strong bicycle culture usually has a well-developed cycling infrastructure, including segregated bike lanes and extensive facilities catering to urban bicycles, such as bike racks.
Advocacy and activism subcultures
In some cities and countries, transportation infrastructure is focused on automobiles, and large portions of the population use cars as their only local mechanical transport. Bicycling advocates include those who advocate for an increase in population-wide commuting, acceptance of cycling, and legislation and infrastructure to promote and protect the safety and rights of cyclists.
Cycling advocacy often aims to improve community bike infrastructure, including aspects such as bike lanes, parking facilities, and access to public transportation.
Within the cycling community, activism may take many forms, and may include creative and practical approaches. These include bike-related music, bike-related films, international exchange of hospitality (Warm Showers), organized bike rides (often noncompetitive—i.e. Critical Mass and World Naked Bike Ride), art bikes displays, printed-word materials (such as blogs, zines and magazines, stickers, and spoke cards), and the publication and distribution of books (such as: Thomas Stevens's Around the World on a Bicycle, Mark Twain's essay "Taming the Bicycle" and H. G. Wells's novel The Wheels of Chance). There are hundreds of bicycle cooperatives offering spaces for cyclists to replace their own bikes and socialise.
Examples
Cyclists in Portland, Oregon, move the contents of a house to demonstrate how bikes can be used for large tasks
Many cities contain subcultures of bicycle enthusiasts that include racers, bicycle messengers, bicycle transportation activists, mutant bicycle fabricators, bicycle mechanics, and bicycle commuters. Some such groups are affiliated with activism or counterculture groups. These hybrid groups often organize activities such as competitive cycling, fun rides, protests, and civil disobedience, such as Critical Mass. Some groups work to promote bicycle transportation (community bicycle program); others fix bicycles to give to children or the homeless (Bikes Not Bombs). There are also feminist groups of women of color who promote the empowerment of women through their rides such as Ovarian Psycos.
Bicycle magazines and organizations give awards to cities for being "bicycle friendly". Examples include Boulder, Minneapolis, Austin, Philadelphia, Madison, Seattle, and Portland—all cities that promote bicycle culture.
Midnight Ridazz is a group of bicycle enthusiasts who ride every second Friday of the month in Los Angeles, California to inspire more people to ride bicycles. Rides often exceed 1,000 cyclists. Similar midnight rides such as the Midnight Mystery rides of Portland and Victoria, the bi-monthly Midnight Mass of Vancouver BC, and similar rides across the US and Europe have been growing in popularity.
San Jose Bike Party is another example of a large monthly social ride that regularly exceeds a thousand riders. It occurs on third Fridays of each month after the evening commute. Typically there are two regroup points allowing slower riders to catch up, which include music and food trucks.
Mainstream bike cultures
Cycling is the norm in countries like the Netherlands and Denmark. In Denmark, 16 percent of all trips are made by bike—and as much as 50 percent of urban populations cycle to work and school. In the Netherlands, 63 percent of Amsterdam residents ride their bikes every day. Strong cycling infrastructure helps encourage cycling in these cities, and so cycling is the fastest, most convenient way to get from one place to another.
Mainstream bike cultures are characterized by notions of function over form. In mainstream bike cultures, there is less of a differentiation between cyclists and the rest of the population. People of all demographics cycle regularly, and most are less concerned about cycling attire and bike performance. It is not uncommon to see people cycle in business attire or on an old rusty bike.
See also
Cycling mobility
Cyclability
Bicycle Film Festival
Bicycle-friendly
Car-free movement
Critical Mass
International Cycling Film Festival
Cycling in Denmark
Cycling in the Netherlands
History of cycling
List of films about bicycles and cycling
Cycling infrastructure
Cycle touring
Utility cycling
Mamil
References
^ Snob, Bike (2009). Bike Snob: Systematically & Mercilessly Realigning the World of Cycling .
^ League of American Bicyclists (2013), Where We Ride: Analysis of bicycling in American cities (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-25
^ "Great Plains Trails Network | Jogging, Biking, Walking, Horseback Riding Trails | Lincoln". Gptn.org. Retrieved 2016-06-02.
^ Furness, Zack (2010). One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility.
^ Gonzales, Sandra (2010-10-20). "San Jose Bike Party, monthly ride attracts thousands of die-hard bicyclists, but no politics". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
^ Grobelny, Kasia; Goode, Lauren (2014-04-21). "San Jose Bike Party is not your typical Silicon Valley cycling group". SF Gate/San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2019-08-15.
^ "Facts about Cycling in Denmark - Cycling Embassy of Denmark". Cycling Embassy of Denmark. Retrieved 2016-04-27.
^ "Copenhageners love their bikes - The official website of Denmark". denmark.dk. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2016-04-27.
^ "Cycling facts and figures | I amsterdam". www.iamsterdam.com. Retrieved 2016-04-27.
Further reading
"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing", New York Times, 23 October 2014
"An American in Denmark: Close encounters with European bicycle culture," Grist, August 5, 2013
"Spin cycle: Copenhagen's rise, fall, and rise again to cycling supremacy." Grist, August 7, 2013
"Riding lessons for U.S. cities from one of Europe's bike capitals." Grist, August 9, 2013
Zack Furness, One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility. Temple University Press, 2010.
vteCycling
Glossary
Outlines
Bicycles
Cycling
General and technical
Bicycle
Bicycle culture
Bicycle dynamics
Bicycle geometry
Bicycle performance
Electric bicycle
History of the bicycle
History of cycling infrastructure
Balance bike
Tandem bicycle
Tricycle
Unicycle
Utility and slow recreation
Bicycle commuting
Bicycle messenger
Bicycle rental/hire
Bicycle-sharing system
Bicycle touring
Cargo bike
Challenge riding
Cold-weather biking
Indoor cycling
Rail trail
Randonneuring
Road cycling
Utility bicycle
Utility cycling
Vehicular cycling
Sports-related cycling and fast-paced recreation
Artistic cycling
BMX
Cross-country cycling
Cycle speedway
Cycle sport
Cyclo-cross
Cyclosportive
Fatbiking
Freeride
Goldsprint
Gravel cycling
Mountain biking
Downhill
Trials
Pump track
Road bicycle racing
Track cycling
Triathlon
Unicycle hockey
Unicycle trials
Health, safety and infrastructure
Active mobility
Bicycle-friendly
Bicycle law
Bicycle parking
Bicycle poverty reduction
Bicycle rodeo
Bicycle safety
Bicycle transportation planning and engineering
Bike rage
Bike registry
Bike-to-Work Day
Bike Week (Bicycle Week)
Cyclability
Cycling advocacy
Cycling infrastructure
Hand signals
Idaho stop
Lane splitting
Protected intersection
Tegelijk groen
Vehicular cycling
Other
Bicycle collecting
Cycling kit
Pentacycle
Quadracycle
Sustainable transport
Lists
List of bicycle types
List of bicycle brands and manufacturing companies
List of BMX bicycle manufacturers
List of bicycle-sharing systems
List of cyclists
List of films about bicycles and cycling
List of doping cases in cycling
Category
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Although \"bike culture\" is often used to refer to various forms of associated fashion, it is erroneous to call fashion in and of itself a culture.[1]Cycling culture refers to cities and countries which support a large percentage of utility cycling. Examples include the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Belgium (Flanders in particular), Sweden, Italy, China, Bangladesh and Japan. There are also towns in some countries where bicycle culture has been an integral part of the landscape for generations, even without much official support. That is the case of Ílhavo, in Portugal. North American cities with strong bicycle cultures include Madison,[2] Portland, San Francisco, Little Rock, Boston, Toronto, Montreal, Lincoln,[3] Peoria, and the Twin Cities. In Latin America, Bogotá is often regarded as one of the most bike-friendly cities.A city with a strong bicycle culture usually has a well-developed cycling infrastructure, including segregated bike lanes and extensive facilities catering to urban bicycles, such as bike racks.","title":"Bicycle culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"transportation infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"automobiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile"},{"link_name":"Bicycling advocates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycling_advocates"},{"link_name":"bike lanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike_lane"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Warm Showers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm_Showers"},{"link_name":"Critical Mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(cycling)"},{"link_name":"World Naked Bike Ride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Naked_Bike_Ride"},{"link_name":"art bikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_bike"},{"link_name":"spoke cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoke_card"},{"link_name":"Thomas Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Stevens_(cyclist)"},{"link_name":"Mark Twain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain"},{"link_name":"H. G. Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._G._Wells"},{"link_name":"The Wheels of Chance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wheels_of_Chance"},{"link_name":"bicycle cooperatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_cooperative"}],"text":"In some cities and countries, transportation infrastructure is focused on automobiles, and large portions of the population use cars as their only local mechanical transport. Bicycling advocates include those who advocate for an increase in population-wide commuting, acceptance of cycling, and legislation and infrastructure to promote and protect the safety and rights of cyclists.Cycling advocacy often aims to improve community bike infrastructure, including aspects such as bike lanes, parking facilities, and access to public transportation.Within the cycling community, activism may take many forms, and may include creative and practical approaches.[4] These include bike-related music, bike-related films, international exchange of hospitality (Warm Showers), organized bike rides (often noncompetitive—i.e. Critical Mass and World Naked Bike Ride), art bikes displays, printed-word materials (such as blogs, zines and magazines, stickers, and spoke cards), and the publication and distribution of books (such as: Thomas Stevens's Around the World on a Bicycle, Mark Twain's essay \"Taming the Bicycle\" and H. G. Wells's novel The Wheels of Chance). There are hundreds of bicycle cooperatives offering spaces for cyclists to replace their own bikes and socialise.","title":"Advocacy and activism subcultures"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moving_by_bike.jpg"},{"link_name":"Portland, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"subcultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subculture"},{"link_name":"bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle"},{"link_name":"bicycle messengers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_messenger"},{"link_name":"bicycle mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_mechanic"},{"link_name":"bicycle commuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_commuter"},{"link_name":"activism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activism"},{"link_name":"counterculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture"},{"link_name":"civil disobedience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_disobedience"},{"link_name":"Critical Mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(cycling)"},{"link_name":"community bicycle program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_bicycle_program"},{"link_name":"Bikes Not Bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikes_Not_Bombs"},{"link_name":"Ovarian Psycos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovarian_Psycos"},{"link_name":"Bicycle magazines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_magazine"},{"link_name":"organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_organization"},{"link_name":"bicycle friendly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_friendly"},{"link_name":"Boulder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Midnight Ridazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_Ridazz"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Vancouver BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_BC"},{"link_name":"San Jose Bike Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose_Bike_Party"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010-10-merc-SJBP-gonzales-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2014-04-SFGate-SJBP-6"}],"sub_title":"Examples","text":"Cyclists in Portland, Oregon, move the contents of a house to demonstrate how bikes can be used for large tasksMany cities contain subcultures of bicycle enthusiasts that include racers, bicycle messengers, bicycle transportation activists, mutant bicycle fabricators, bicycle mechanics, and bicycle commuters. Some such groups are affiliated with activism or counterculture groups. These hybrid groups often organize activities such as competitive cycling, fun rides, protests, and civil disobedience, such as Critical Mass. Some groups work to promote bicycle transportation (community bicycle program); others fix bicycles to give to children or the homeless (Bikes Not Bombs). There are also feminist groups of women of color who promote the empowerment of women through their rides such as Ovarian Psycos.Bicycle magazines and organizations give awards to cities for being \"bicycle friendly\". Examples include Boulder, Minneapolis, Austin, Philadelphia, Madison, Seattle, and Portland—all cities that promote bicycle culture.Midnight Ridazz is a group of bicycle enthusiasts who ride every second Friday of the month in Los Angeles, California to inspire more people to ride bicycles. Rides often exceed 1,000 cyclists. Similar midnight rides such as the Midnight Mystery rides of Portland and Victoria, the bi-monthly Midnight Mass of Vancouver BC, and similar rides across the US and Europe have been growing in popularity.San Jose Bike Party is another example of a large monthly social ride that regularly exceeds a thousand riders. It occurs on third Fridays of each month after the evening commute. Typically there are two regroup points allowing slower riders to catch up, which include music and food trucks.[5][6]","title":"Advocacy and activism subcultures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Cycling is the norm in countries like the Netherlands and Denmark. In Denmark, 16 percent of all trips are made by bike—and as much as 50 percent of urban populations cycle to work and school.[7][8] In the Netherlands, 63 percent of Amsterdam residents ride their bikes every day.[9] Strong cycling infrastructure helps encourage cycling in these cities, and so cycling is the fastest, most convenient way to get from one place to another.Mainstream bike cultures are characterized by notions of function over form. In mainstream bike cultures, there is less of a differentiation between cyclists and the rest of the population. People of all demographics cycle regularly, and most are less concerned about cycling attire and bike performance. It is not uncommon to see people cycle in business attire or on an old rusty bike.","title":"Mainstream bike cultures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/fashion/for-the-bike-to-work-generation-a-move-to-fashionable-high-tech-clothing.html"},{"link_name":"An American in Denmark: Close encounters with European bicycle culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//grist.org/cities/an-american-in-denmark-close-encounters-with-european-bicycle-culture/"},{"link_name":"Spin cycle: Copenhagen's rise, fall, and rise again to cycling supremacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//grist.org/cities/spin-cycle-copenhagens-rise-fall-and-rise-again-to-cycling-supremacy/"},{"link_name":"Riding lessons for U.S. cities from one of Europe's bike capitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//grist.org/cities/riding-lessons-what-u-s-cities-can-learn-from-one-of-europes-bike-capitals/"},{"link_name":"One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161002010707/http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1899_reg.html"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cycling"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Cycling"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cycling"},{"link_name":"Cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling"},{"link_name":"Glossary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_cycling"},{"link_name":"Bicycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_bicycles"},{"link_name":"Cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cycling"},{"link_name":"Bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle"},{"link_name":"Bicycle culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Bicycle dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_dynamics"},{"link_name":"Bicycle geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_and_motorcycle_geometry"},{"link_name":"Bicycle performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_performance"},{"link_name":"Electric bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_bicycle"},{"link_name":"History of the bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_bicycle"},{"link_name":"History of cycling infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cycling_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"Balance bike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_bike"},{"link_name":"Tandem bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tandem_bicycle"},{"link_name":"Tricycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricycle"},{"link_name":"Unicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicycle"},{"link_name":"Bicycle commuting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_commuting"},{"link_name":"Bicycle messenger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_messenger"},{"link_name":"Bicycle rental/hire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike_rental"},{"link_name":"Bicycle-sharing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle-sharing_system"},{"link_name":"Bicycle touring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_touring"},{"link_name":"Cargo bike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_bike"},{"link_name":"Challenge riding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenge_riding"},{"link_name":"Cold-weather biking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold-weather_biking"},{"link_name":"Indoor cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_cycling"},{"link_name":"Rail trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_trail"},{"link_name":"Randonneuring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randonneuring"},{"link_name":"Road cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_cycling"},{"link_name":"Utility bicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_bicycle"},{"link_name":"Utility cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_cycling"},{"link_name":"Vehicular cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_cycling"},{"link_name":"Artistic cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_cycling"},{"link_name":"BMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMX"},{"link_name":"Cross-country cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-country_cycling"},{"link_name":"Cycle speedway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_speedway"},{"link_name":"Cycle sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_sport"},{"link_name":"Cyclo-cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclo-cross"},{"link_name":"Cyclosportive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclosportive"},{"link_name":"Fatbiking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatbike"},{"link_name":"Freeride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeride_(mountain_biking)"},{"link_name":"Goldsprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsprint"},{"link_name":"Gravel cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravel_cycling"},{"link_name":"Mountain biking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_biking"},{"link_name":"Downhill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downhill_mountain_biking"},{"link_name":"Trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_bike_trials"},{"link_name":"Pump track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump_track"},{"link_name":"Road bicycle racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_bicycle_racing"},{"link_name":"Track cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_cycling"},{"link_name":"Triathlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triathlon"},{"link_name":"Unicycle hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicycle_hockey"},{"link_name":"Unicycle trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicycle_trials"},{"link_name":"Active mobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_mobility"},{"link_name":"Bicycle-friendly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle-friendly"},{"link_name":"Bicycle law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_law"},{"link_name":"Bicycle parking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_parking"},{"link_name":"Bicycle poverty reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_poverty_reduction"},{"link_name":"Bicycle rodeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_rodeo"},{"link_name":"Bicycle safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_safety"},{"link_name":"Bicycle transportation planning and engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_transportation_planning_and_engineering"},{"link_name":"Bike rage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike_rage"},{"link_name":"Bike registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike_registry"},{"link_name":"Bike-to-Work Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike-to-Work_Day"},{"link_name":"Bike Week (Bicycle Week)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bike_Week_(cycling)"},{"link_name":"Cyclability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclability"},{"link_name":"Cycling advocacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_advocacy"},{"link_name":"Cycling infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"Hand signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_signals"},{"link_name":"Idaho stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho_stop"},{"link_name":"Lane splitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane_splitting"},{"link_name":"Protected intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_intersection"},{"link_name":"Tegelijk groen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegelijk_groen"},{"link_name":"Vehicular cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_cycling"},{"link_name":"Bicycle collecting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_collecting"},{"link_name":"Cycling kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_kit"},{"link_name":"Pentacycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentacycle"},{"link_name":"Quadracycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadracycle"},{"link_name":"Sustainable transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_transport"},{"link_name":"List of bicycle types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bicycle_types"},{"link_name":"List of bicycle brands and manufacturing companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bicycle_brands_and_manufacturing_companies"},{"link_name":"List of BMX bicycle manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_BMX_bicycle_manufacturers"},{"link_name":"List of bicycle-sharing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bicycle-sharing_systems"},{"link_name":"List of cyclists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cyclists"},{"link_name":"List of films about bicycles and cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_bicycles_and_cycling"},{"link_name":"List of doping cases in cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_doping_cases_in_cycling"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Cycling"}],"text":"\"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing\", New York Times, 23 October 2014\n\"An American in Denmark: Close encounters with European bicycle culture,\" Grist, August 5, 2013\n\"Spin cycle: Copenhagen's rise, fall, and rise again to cycling supremacy.\" Grist, August 7, 2013\n\"Riding lessons for U.S. cities from one of Europe's bike capitals.\" Grist, August 9, 2013\nZack Furness, One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility. Temple University Press, 2010.vteCycling\nGlossary\nOutlines\nBicycles\nCycling\nGeneral and technical\nBicycle\nBicycle culture\nBicycle dynamics\nBicycle geometry\nBicycle performance\nElectric bicycle\nHistory of the bicycle\nHistory of cycling infrastructure\nBalance bike\nTandem bicycle\nTricycle\nUnicycle\nUtility and slow recreation\nBicycle commuting\nBicycle messenger\nBicycle rental/hire\nBicycle-sharing system\nBicycle touring\nCargo bike\nChallenge riding\nCold-weather biking\nIndoor cycling\nRail trail\nRandonneuring\nRoad cycling\nUtility bicycle\nUtility cycling\nVehicular cycling\nSports-related cycling and fast-paced recreation\nArtistic cycling\nBMX\nCross-country cycling\nCycle speedway\nCycle sport\nCyclo-cross\nCyclosportive\nFatbiking\nFreeride\nGoldsprint\nGravel cycling\nMountain biking\nDownhill\nTrials\nPump track\nRoad bicycle racing\nTrack cycling\nTriathlon\nUnicycle hockey\nUnicycle trials\nHealth, safety and infrastructure\nActive mobility\nBicycle-friendly\nBicycle law\nBicycle parking\nBicycle poverty reduction\nBicycle rodeo\nBicycle safety\nBicycle transportation planning and engineering\nBike rage\nBike registry\nBike-to-Work Day\nBike Week (Bicycle Week)\nCyclability\nCycling advocacy\nCycling infrastructure\nHand signals\nIdaho stop\nLane splitting\nProtected intersection\nTegelijk groen\nVehicular cycling\nOther\nBicycle collecting\nCycling kit\nPentacycle\nQuadracycle\nSustainable transport\nLists\nList of bicycle types\nList of bicycle brands and manufacturing companies\nList of BMX bicycle manufacturers\nList of bicycle-sharing systems\nList of cyclists\nList of films about bicycles and cycling\nList of doping cases in cycling\n\n Category","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Cycling is the most common form of transit in Amsterdam","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cycling_Amsterdam.jpg/220px-Cycling_Amsterdam.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cyclists in Portland, Oregon, move the contents of a house to demonstrate how bikes can be used for large tasks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Moving_by_bike.jpg/220px-Moving_by_bike.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Cycling mobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_mobility"},{"title":"Cyclability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclability"},{"title":"Bicycle Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_Film_Festival"},{"title":"Bicycle-friendly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle-friendly"},{"title":"Car-free movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car-free_movement"},{"title":"Critical Mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(cycling)"},{"title":"International Cycling Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Cycling_Film_Festival"},{"title":"Cycling in Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_in_Denmark"},{"title":"Cycling in the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_in_the_Netherlands"},{"title":"History of cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cycling"},{"title":"List of films about bicycles and cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_bicycles_and_cycling"},{"title":"Cycling infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure"},{"title":"Cycle touring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_touring"},{"title":"Utility cycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_cycling"},{"title":"Mamil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamil"}]
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[{"reference":"Snob, Bike (2009). Bike Snob: Systematically & Mercilessly Realigning the World of Cycling [Hardcover].","urls":[]},{"reference":"League of American Bicyclists (2013), Where We Ride: Analysis of bicycling in American cities (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-25","urls":[{"url":"https://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf","url_text":"Where We Ride: Analysis of bicycling in American cities"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230525161048/https://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Great Plains Trails Network | Jogging, Biking, Walking, Horseback Riding Trails | Lincoln\". Gptn.org. Retrieved 2016-06-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gptn.org/","url_text":"\"Great Plains Trails Network | Jogging, Biking, Walking, Horseback Riding Trails | Lincoln\""}]},{"reference":"Furness, Zack (2010). One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gonzales, Sandra (2010-10-20). \"San Jose Bike Party, monthly ride attracts thousands of die-hard bicyclists, but no politics\". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved 2019-08-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mercurynews.com/2010/10/20/san-jose-bike-party-monthly-ride-attracts-thousands-of-die-hard-bicyclists-but-no-politics/","url_text":"\"San Jose Bike Party, monthly ride attracts thousands of die-hard bicyclists, but no politics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News","url_text":"San Jose Mercury News"}]},{"reference":"Grobelny, Kasia; Goode, Lauren (2014-04-21). \"San Jose Bike Party is not your typical Silicon Valley cycling group\". SF Gate/San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2019-08-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.sfgate.com/inthepeninsula/2014/04/21/san-jose-bike-party/","url_text":"\"San Jose Bike Party is not your typical Silicon Valley cycling group\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle","url_text":"San Francisco Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"\"Facts about Cycling in Denmark - Cycling Embassy of Denmark\". Cycling Embassy of Denmark. Retrieved 2016-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cycling-embassy.dk/facts-about-cycling-in-denmark/statistics/","url_text":"\"Facts about Cycling in Denmark - Cycling Embassy of Denmark\""}]},{"reference":"\"Copenhageners love their bikes - The official website of Denmark\". denmark.dk. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2016-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923095100/http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/bicycle-culture/copenhageners-love-their-bikes","url_text":"\"Copenhageners love their bikes - The official website of Denmark\""},{"url":"http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/bicycle-culture/copenhageners-love-their-bikes/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Cycling facts and figures | I amsterdam\". www.iamsterdam.com. Retrieved 2016-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iamsterdam.com/en/media-centre/city-hall/dossier-cycling/cycling-facts-and-figures","url_text":"\"Cycling facts and figures | I amsterdam\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing\", New York Times, 23 October 2014","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/fashion/for-the-bike-to-work-generation-a-move-to-fashionable-high-tech-clothing.html","url_text":"\"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf","external_links_name":"Where We Ride: Analysis of bicycling in American cities"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230525161048/https://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/ACS_report_final_forweb_2.pdf","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"http://www.gptn.org/","external_links_name":"\"Great Plains Trails Network | Jogging, Biking, Walking, Horseback Riding Trails | Lincoln\""},{"Link":"https://www.mercurynews.com/2010/10/20/san-jose-bike-party-monthly-ride-attracts-thousands-of-die-hard-bicyclists-but-no-politics/","external_links_name":"\"San Jose Bike Party, monthly ride attracts thousands of die-hard bicyclists, but no politics\""},{"Link":"https://blog.sfgate.com/inthepeninsula/2014/04/21/san-jose-bike-party/","external_links_name":"\"San Jose Bike Party is not your typical Silicon Valley cycling group\""},{"Link":"http://www.cycling-embassy.dk/facts-about-cycling-in-denmark/statistics/","external_links_name":"\"Facts about Cycling in Denmark - Cycling Embassy of Denmark\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923095100/http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/bicycle-culture/copenhageners-love-their-bikes","external_links_name":"\"Copenhageners love their bikes - The official website of Denmark\""},{"Link":"http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/bicycle-culture/copenhageners-love-their-bikes/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.iamsterdam.com/en/media-centre/city-hall/dossier-cycling/cycling-facts-and-figures","external_links_name":"\"Cycling facts and figures | I amsterdam\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/fashion/for-the-bike-to-work-generation-a-move-to-fashionable-high-tech-clothing.html","external_links_name":"\"Cyclists Go Glam Into the Night: For the Bike-to-Work Generation, a Move to Fashionable High-Tech Clothing\""},{"Link":"http://grist.org/cities/an-american-in-denmark-close-encounters-with-european-bicycle-culture/","external_links_name":"An American in Denmark: Close encounters with European bicycle culture"},{"Link":"http://grist.org/cities/spin-cycle-copenhagens-rise-fall-and-rise-again-to-cycling-supremacy/","external_links_name":"Spin cycle: Copenhagen's rise, fall, and rise again to cycling supremacy"},{"Link":"http://grist.org/cities/riding-lessons-what-u-s-cities-can-learn-from-one-of-europes-bike-capitals/","external_links_name":"Riding lessons for U.S. cities from one of Europe's bike capitals"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161002010707/http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1899_reg.html","external_links_name":"One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility."}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitome
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Epitome
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["1 Examples of epitomes for lost works","2 See also","3 References"]
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Summary of a literary work
For other uses, see Epitome (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Epitome" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
An epitome (/ɪˈpɪtəmiː/; Greek: ἐπιτομή, from ἐπιτέμνειν epitemnein meaning "to cut short") is a summary or miniature form, or an instance that represents a larger reality, also used as a synonym for embodiment. Epitomacy represents "to the degree of." An abridgment differs from an epitome in that an abridgment is made of selected quotations of a larger work; no new writing is composed, as opposed to the epitome, which is an original summation of a work, at least in part.
Many documents from the Ancient Greek and Roman worlds survive now only "in epitome," referring to the practice of some later authors (epitomators) who wrote distilled versions of larger works now lost. Some writers attempted to convey the stance and spirit of the original, while others added further details or anecdotes regarding the general subject. As with all secondary historical sources, a different bias not present in the original may creep in.
Documents surviving in epitome differ from those surviving only as fragments quoted in later works and those used as unacknowledged sources by later scholars, as they can stand as discrete documents but refracted through the views of another author.
Epitomes of a kind are still produced today when dealing with a corpus of literature, especially classical works often considered dense, unwieldy and unlikely to be read by the average person, to make them more accessible: some are more along the lines of abridgments, such as many which have been written of Edward Gibbon's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a work of six large volumes (about 3600 pages) often published as one volume of about 1400 pages.
Some are of the same type as the ancient epitome, such as various epitomes of the Summa Theologiae of Thomas Aquinas, originally written as an introductory textbook in theology and now accessible to very few except for the learned in theology and Aristotelian philosophy, such as A Summa of the Summa and A Shorter Summa. Many epitomes today are published under the general title "The Companion to ...", such as The Oxford Companion to Aristotle, or "An Overview of ...", or "guides," such as An Overview of the Thought of Immanuel Kant, How to Read Hans Urs von Balthasar, or, in some cases, as an introduction, in the cases of An Introduction to Søren Kierkegaard or A Very Short Introduction to the New Testament (many philosophical "introductions" and "guides" share the epitomic form, unlike general "introductions" to a field).
Examples of epitomes for lost works
Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius epitomes of Manetho's Aegyptiaca
John Xiphilinus's precis of the missing portions of Cassius Dio's Roman History
Justin's abridged version of the Philippic History by Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, one of the main sources for the life of Alexander the Great
The epitome of Book IV of the Pseudo-Apollodorus's Bibliotheca , a comprehensive encyclopedia of Greek mythology
Libro de los Epítomes, a 2000-page volume summarising the 16th-century collection of Ferdinand Columbus (Hernando Colón) of over 15000 books
See also
Abridgment
Epitome de Caesaribus, short fourth-century Latin example of an epitome
Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada, a probably sixteenth-century description of the Spanish conquest of the Muisca
Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, a seventeenth-century astronomy textbook by Kepler
References
^ "Epitome". Oxford Learner's Dictionary. 2019 Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Epitome" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering
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Mountaineering
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["1 History","1.1 Early mountaineering","1.2 The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism","1.3 Expansion around the world","1.4 The last frontier: The Himalayas","1.5 Today","2 Organisation","2.1 Activities","2.2 Rules and governance","3 Terrain and techniques","3.1 Walk-up terrain","3.2 Rock","3.3 Snow and ice","4 Shelter","4.1 Camping","4.2 Hut","4.3 Snow cave","5 Safety and hazards","5.1 Altitude","5.2 Heat-related conditions","5.3 Cold-related conditions","6 Styles of mountaineering","6.1 Expedition style","6.2 Alpine style","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
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Sport of mountain climbing
"Mountaineer" redirects here. For other uses, see Mountaineer (disambiguation).
Climbers ascending Mount Rainier looking at Little Tahoma Peak
Mountaineering, mountain climbing, or alpinism is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains. Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing, skiing, and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right. Indoor climbing, sport climbing, and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some, but are part of a wide group of mountain sports.
Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks) when climbing mountains. Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing. The consequences of mountaineering on the natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone). Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles.
History
Early mountaineering
Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps. However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts. Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary.
The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux (1,912 m (6,273 ft)) in one of his epistolae familiares, claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo.
For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille (2,085 m (6,841 ft)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré. Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering.
Conrad Gessner, A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure.
In the Andes, around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco.
The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism
Edward Whymper (1840–1911), painting by Lance Calkin
The Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains. In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard. The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport.
By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.
The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857.
One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies.
Edelweiss, a plant associated with mountain sports
In the early years of the "golden age", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona. At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers.
Expansion around the world
British mountaineer William Cecil Slingsby became known as the father of Norwegian mountaineering and contributed greatly to its popularization with his classic book Norway, the Northern Playground
In the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps. One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in the 19th century were the mountains of Norway—particularly Jotunheimen—where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby, Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers. Slingsby's book Norway, the Northern Playground contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community. Around the turn of the century, a young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus, Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub, the third oldest mountaineering association in the world. By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour.
In 1897 Mount Saint Elias (18,008 ft (5,489 m)) on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20,549 ft (6,263 m)) and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer, Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder.
The last frontier: The Himalayas
Mountaineers, c. 1900
The last and greatest mountain range to be conquered was the Himalayas in South Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m). In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim.
In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft (7,100 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.
In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2. They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as "misguided" and "lamentable" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader.
Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons, and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.
By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The highest of these peaks Mount Everest was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.
Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, self-medicating with pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), the vasodilator padutin, and a stimulant tea made from coca leaves. K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks.
Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being the first without supplemental oxygen. In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so.
Today
Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people. Some have come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of a tourist activity.
Organisation
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Activities
There are different activities associated with the sport.
Traditional mountaineering involves identifying a specific mountain and route to climb, and executing the plan by whatever means appropriate. A mountain summit is almost always the goal. This activity is strongly associated with aid climbing and free climbing, as well as the use of ice axe and crampons on glaciers and similar terrain.
Ski mountaineering involves skiing on mountainous terrain, usually in terrain much more rugged than typical cross-country skiing. Unlike traditional mountaineering, routes are less well-defined and summiting may not be the main goal.
Peak bagging is the general activity of ascending peaks that are on a list of notable mountains, such as the 4000m peaks of the Alps.
Enchainment is climbing more than one significant summit in one outing, usually on the same day.
Climbing via ferratas involves traversing ladder-like paths on highly exposed terrain.
Ice climbing which involves proceeding on steep sections of blank ice with crampons and ice axes. This activity often requires progressing on steep and blank sections of ice. Most mountaineers have to rely on ice climbing skills to climb upon the higher peaks in the European Alps, Himalayas and Canadian ranges.
Rules and governance
Mountaineering lacks formal rules – though appropriately empowered bodies make many pertaining to specific use of mountains and practices on them. In theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of the sport.
Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall-based competition – by the International Olympic Committee; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing, remain independent.
The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted Piolet d'Or, which has expanded from a single recognition to multiple. While there are many competitions, particularly in toproped climbing wall disciplines, there are no "official" world championships or other similar competitions for mountaineering broadly.
Terrain and techniques
Antique climbing tools
Mountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, terrain, and route. Both techniques and hazards vary by terrain, spanning trails, rock, snow, and ice. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment, stamina, and skill to complete their tasks.
See also: Grade (climbing)
Walk-up terrain
The term "walk-up" or "trek" is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed. To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering.
Rock
Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top. Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and a climber who ascends the rock. The first climber, called the leader, will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor, which will secure subsequent climbers. Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts.
Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain.
For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock.
In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.
Snow and ice
Mountaineers proceed across snow fields on South Tyrol; other climbers are visible further up the slopes.
Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice. Crampons attach to the bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice. For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred. Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering.
Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, such as the French technique and German technique. Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes, or buried equipment or rocks. Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively, a roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall.
It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team.
For example, when traveling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces the risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.
For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors.
Shelter
"Basecamp" redirects here. For other uses, see Base camp (disambiguation).
Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping.
Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such a light bivouac sack.
Camping
Winter campers bivouaced in the snow
Typical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks. The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments.
In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a "base camp," which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps.
Hut
Cabane du Trient, a mountain hut in the Swiss Alps
Camping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts.
The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners. The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut.
When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment.
In the UK the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as "bothies" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.
Snow cave
Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions.
Safety and hazards
Main article: Hazards of outdoor recreation
See also: List of deaths on eight-thousandersMountaineers face a variety of hazards. When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, objective (mountain-based) and subjective (human-based). Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of exposure, and other environmental conditions. Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning.
In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.
From 1947 to 2018 in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death." Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.
When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to mitigate those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias.
Altitude
Climber approaching the summit of Manaslu at 8,163 metres
Rapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness. The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is "climb high, sleep low", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.
Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (high-altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (high-altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.
In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.
Heat-related conditions
Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body. A heat-related illness can occur when the body is unable to lose that heat through the skin.
Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse. The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.
Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures. This is a life-threatening illness that must be dealt with right away. While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.
Cold-related conditions
In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction. A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.
Problems that can arise from the cold include wind chill, hypothermia, frost nip, frostbite, and immersion foot.
The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear. Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions. Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry.
Styles of mountaineering
Fixed lines and ladders are distinguishing characteristics of expedition style mountaineering
There are two main styles of mountaineering: expedition style and alpine style.
Expedition style
The alpine style contrasts with "expedition style". With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress. Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization. Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides). To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used. Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit. This technique is also helpful for acclimatization. While it is the original style in which high mountains were climbed, expedition style is rare these days as more mountains have become accessible to the general public with air travel and the penetration of highways into mountainous regions. It is still common in ranges such as the Alaska Range and the Himalayas.
Uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps
Group sizes are often larger than alpine-style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps.
Fixed rope lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps.
For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is frequently used.
There is a higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps.
Avoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions
Possible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps
Higher capital expenditures and a longer time scale
Alpine style
Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today. It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking. This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of 2,000–5,000 m (6,600–16,400 ft), such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit. If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit. "Light and fast" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer.
Climbers climb the route only once, bringing their own supplies; there is no camp-stocking.
Fewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed.
Rapid Alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to hazards (such as accidents, deteriorating health at altitude, and avalanches of snow or rock) as long as an expedition-style climb; however, they also leave less time for acclimatization.
For the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is rarely used, or used more sparingly.
Danger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE
Lower capital expenditures and a shorter time scale
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mountaineering.
Exploration of the High Alps
Glossary of climbing terms
Hazards in the Rocky Mountains
Highest unclimbed mountain
Index of climbing topics
Lead climbing
List of climbers and mountaineers
List of deaths on eight-thousanders
List of first ascents
List of mountaineering equipment brands
Mountain film
Mountain rescue
Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
Peak bagging
Ski mountaineering
Snow goggles
Piolet d'Or
Snow Leopard award
World altitude record (mountaineering)
National Outdoor Leadership School
References
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^ Whitlock, W., Van Romer, K., & Becker, H. (1991). Nature Based Tourism: An Annotated Bibliography Clemson SC: Strom Thurmond Institute, Regional Development Group.
^ Pomfret, G. (2006). "Mountaineering adventure tourists: a conceptual framework for research". Tourism Management. 27 (1): 113–123. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2004.08.003.
^ Beedie, P.; Hudson, S. (2003). "Emergence of mountain-based adventure tourism". Annals of Tourism Research. 30 (3): 625–643. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00043-4.
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^ "UIAA Activities". UIAA. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
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^ Apollo, M.; Andreychouk, V. (2022). Mountaineering Adventure Tourism and Local Communities: Social, Environmental and Economics Interactions. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 9781802209372.
^ Description of the Discovery Archived 13 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine of Ötzi at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology web site
^ a b c d Ludovic Seifert; Peter Wolf; Andreas Schweizer (19 September 2016). The Science of Climbing and Mountaineering. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-40315-9.
^ "Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: The Ascent of Mount Ventoux". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. 26 January 1996. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
^ a b c d Peter H. Hansen (14 May 2013). The Summits of Modern Man. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07452-1.
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^ The Ice Maiden. National Geographic. 2006. ISBN 9780792259121.
^ Brown, Rebecca A. (2002). Women on High: Pioneers of Mountaineering. Appalachian Mountain Club Books. ISBN 1-929173-13-X.
^ Kara Rogers (14 July 2010). "The Matterhorn: Edward Whymper and the Golden Age of Mountaineering". Encyclopædia Britannica BLOG. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
^ "1865: the Golden Age of Mountaineering". Vertebrate Publishing. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
^ Claire Eliane Engel (1950), A History of Mountaineering in the Alps, chapter VII.
^ Die Besteigung der Berge – Die Dolomitgipfel werden erobert (German: The ascent of the mountains – the dolomite peaks are conquered)
^ Edelweiß, die Symbolpflanze der Alpen (German: Edelweiss, the symbolic plant of the Alps) Archived 16 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine
^ Hermann Hinterstoisser: Das Edelweiß – Alpenblume mit Symbolkraft. In: Truppendienst, 2012, Nr. 5/329. Das Edelweiß
^ Schage, Pål V. (2008). Norsk fjellsport gjennom 200 år. Andresen & Butenschøn. ISBN 978-82-7981-052-0.
^ Aasgaard, Jan (2016). Jotunheimen: gjennom historien (in Norwegian). Dreyer. pp. 156–157. ISBN 9788282651417.
^ "Mountaineering". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 November 2023.
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House, William P. (1939). "K2-1938". Feature Article. American Alpine Journal. American Alpine Club. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
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^ Mackinder, Halford John (May 1900). "A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa". The Geographical Journal. 15 (5): 453–476. Bibcode:1900GeogJ..15..453M. doi:10.2307/1774261. JSTOR 1774261.
^ a b c d e Maurice Isserman; Stewart Angas Weaver; Dee Molenaar (2010). Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16420-6.
^ Rowell, Galen (1977). In The Throne Room of the Mountain Gods. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. pp. 36–40. ISBN 978-0-87156-184-8.
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^ "How Mount Everest became a tourist destination". Washington Post. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
^ Andrew J. Kauffman (30 June 1948). "Some Tips for the Apprentice Mountaineer" (PDF). Up Rope!. Vol. 4, no. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
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Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) . Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (7th ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-828-9.
^ "Recap of the Piolets d'Or 2018 Ceremony in Ladek Zdroj, Poland". Rock and Ice. 5 October 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
^ "Fall or Slip on Rock, Falling Rock, Failure to Follow Route, Washington, Mount Thompson – Search The American Alpine Journal and Accidents". AAC Publications. 24 September 1989. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
^ a b Jonathan Hurdle (1999). Walking Austria's Alps: Hut to Hut. The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-640-7.
^ "The Mountain Bothies Association". Mountain Bothies Association UK. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
^ a b c d Cymerman, A; Rock, PB. Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers (Report). US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. USARIEM-TN94-2. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ Emma P. DeLoughery; Thomas G. DeLoughery (14 June 2022). "Review and Analysis of Mountaineering Accidents in the United States from 1947–2018". High Altitude Medicine & Biology. 23 (2): 114–118. doi:10.1089/ham.2021.0085. PMID 35263173. S2CID 247361980. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
^ a b Roach, Robert; Stepanek, Jan & Hackett, Peter. (2002). "24". Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved 5 January 2009.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Biondich, Amy Sue; Joslin, Jeremy D. (December 2015). "Coca: High Altitude Remedy of the Ancient Incas". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 26 (4): 567–571. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2015.07.006. ISSN 1080-6032. PMID 26507611. S2CID 33306058.
^ Roach, James M. & Schoene, Robert B. (2002). "25". High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved 5 January 2009.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004). "Altitude Acclimatization Guide". US Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report (USARIEM–TN–04–05). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ Szymczak, Robert K.; Marosz, Michał; Grzywacz, Tomasz; Sawicka, Magdalena; Naczyk, Marta (2021). "Death Zone Weather Extremes Mountaineers Have Experienced in Successful Ascents". Frontiers in Physiology. 12. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.696335. ISSN 1664-042X. PMC 8287323. PMID 34290622.
^ a b D., Carline, Jan (2004). Mountaineering first aid : a guide to accident response and first aid care. Mountaineers Books. ISBN 0-89886-878-5. OCLC 1131535523.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ a b S., Wilkerson, James A., 1934- Bangs, Cameron, C. Hayward, John (1986). Hypothermia, Frostbite, and Other Cold Injuries : Prevention, Recognition, and Prehospital Treatment. The Mountaineers. ISBN 0-89886-024-5. OCLC 13062884.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Cold Injuries: Practice Essentials, Overview, Systemic Hypothermia". eMedicine. 16 October 2021.
Further reading
Isserman, Maurice; Weaver, Stewart (2008). Fallen giants: a history of Himalayan mountaineering from the age of empire to the age of extremes. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16420-6. OCLC 181424034.
Ortner, Sherry B. (1999). Life and death on Mt. Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00689-5. OCLC 41326318.
Unsworth, Walt (1994). Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-379-6. OCLC 28547900.
"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
External links
Mountaineering at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from CommonsNews from WikinewsTexts from WikisourceTravel information from Wikivoyage
A Climber's Glossary
Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) − Federation of American Scientists (PDF)
International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA) – official organisation of mountaineering and climbing recognised by International Olympic Committee
Climbing the clouds – virtual exhibit of British Columbia mountaineering
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For other uses, see Mountaineer (disambiguation).Climbers ascending Mount Rainier looking at Little Tahoma PeakMountaineering, mountain climbing, or alpinism[1] is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains. Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing, skiing, and traversing via ferratas that have become sports in their own right.[2][3][4][5] Indoor climbing, sport climbing, and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some,[6][7] but are part of a wide group of mountain sports.Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks) when climbing mountains.[7][8] Numerous local alpine clubs support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing.[9] The consequences of mountaineering on the natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone).[10] Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles.[11]","title":"Mountaineering"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ötzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96tzi"},{"link_name":"4th millennium BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_millennium_BC"},{"link_name":"glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"Ötztal Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96tztal_Alps"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"supernatural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SeifertWolf2016-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tour_crit-7"},{"link_name":"Petrarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrarch"},{"link_name":"his 26 April 1336 ascent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascent_of_Mont_Ventoux"},{"link_name":"Mount Ventoux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ventoux"},{"link_name":"epistolae familiares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistolae_familiares"},{"link_name":"Philip V of Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"Mount Haemo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beklemeto_Pass"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project_1996-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansen2013-15"},{"link_name":"Mont Aiguille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Aiguille"},{"link_name":"Domjulien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domjulien"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansen2013-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Doran_2023-16"},{"link_name":"Conrad Gessner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Gessner"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Doran_2023-16"},{"link_name":"Andes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Incas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incas"},{"link_name":"Volcan Llullaillaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcan_Llullaillaco"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Early mountaineering","text":"Humans have been present in mountains since prehistory. The remains of Ötzi, who lived in the 4th millennium BC, were found in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps.[12] However, the highest mountains were rarely visited early on, and were often associated with supernatural or religious concepts.[13] Nonetheless, there are many documented examples of people climbing mountains prior to the formal development of the sport in the 19th century, although many of these stories are sometimes considered fictional or legendary.[7]The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux (1,912 m (6,273 ft)) in one of his epistolae familiares, claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo.[14][15]For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille (2,085 m (6,841 ft)) by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré.[15] Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering.[16]Conrad Gessner, A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure.[16]In the Andes, around the late 1400s and early 1500s many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Whymper_Calkin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edward Whymper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Whymper"},{"link_name":"Lance Calkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_Calkin"},{"link_name":"Age of Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"Romantic era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Horace-Bénédict de Saussure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace-B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure"},{"link_name":"Mont Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Blanc"},{"link_name":"Jacques Balmat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Balmat"},{"link_name":"Michel-Gabriel Paccard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel-Gabriel_Paccard"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SeifertWolf2016-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansen2013-15"},{"link_name":"alpine peaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"Grossglockner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grossglockner"},{"link_name":"Ortler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortler"},{"link_name":"Jungfrau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungfrau"},{"link_name":"Finsteraarhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finsteraarhorn"},{"link_name":"Breithorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breithorn"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SeifertWolf2016-13"},{"link_name":"Marie Paradis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Paradis"},{"link_name":"Henriette d'Angeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henriette_d%27Angeville"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Wetterhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetterhorn"},{"link_name":"Alfred Wills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wills"},{"link_name":"Golden Age of Alpinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Alpinism"},{"link_name":"Alpine Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Club_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"first ascent of the Matterhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_ascent_of_the_Matterhorn"},{"link_name":"Edward Whymper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Whymper"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansen2013-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leontopodium_alpinum_1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Edelweiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edelweiss"},{"link_name":"golden age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age"},{"link_name":"John Tyndall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndall"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"John Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ball_(naturalist)"},{"link_name":"Dolomites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomites"},{"link_name":"Paul Grohmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Grohmann"},{"link_name":"Angelo Dibona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_Dibona"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"edelweiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edelweiss"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"The Enlightenment and the Golden Age of Alpinism","text":"Edward Whymper (1840–1911), painting by Lance CalkinThe Age of Enlightenment and the Romantic era marked a change of attitudes towards high mountains. In 1757 Swiss scientist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure made the first of several unsuccessful attempts on Mont Blanc in France. He then offered a reward to anyone who could climb the mountain, which was claimed in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard. The climb is usually considered an epochal event in the history of mountaineering, a symbolic mark of the birth of the sport.[13][15]By the early 19th century, many of the alpine peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813.[13] In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.[18]The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857.[19][20]One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies.[15]Edelweiss, a plant associated with mountain sportsIn the early years of the \"golden age\", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.[21] The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona.[22] At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers.[23][24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WilliamCecilSlingsby_Storen.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Cecil Slingsby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cecil_Slingsby"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Norway, the Northern Playground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway,_the_Northern_Playground"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Jotunheimen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jotunheimen"},{"link_name":"William Cecil Slingsby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cecil_Slingsby"},{"link_name":"Harold Raeburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Raeburn"},{"link_name":"Howard Priestman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Priestman"},{"link_name":"Norway, the Northern Playground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway,_the_Northern_Playground"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"George Paus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wegner_Paus"},{"link_name":"Kristian Tandberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristian_Tandberg"},{"link_name":"Norsk Tindeklub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsk_Tindeklub"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Mount Saint Elias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Saint_Elias"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"Duke of the Abruzzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Luigi_Amedeo,_Duke_of_the_Abruzzi"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aaj_1939-28"},{"link_name":"Andes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Chimborazo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimborazo"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Mount Kilimanjaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kilimanjaro"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Purtscheller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Purtscheller"},{"link_name":"Hans Meyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Meyer_(geologist)"},{"link_name":"Mount Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kenya"},{"link_name":"Halford Mackinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halford_Mackinder"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mackinder-30"}],"sub_title":"Expansion around the world","text":"British mountaineer William Cecil Slingsby became known as the father of Norwegian mountaineering and contributed greatly to its popularization with his classic book Norway, the Northern PlaygroundIn the 19th century, the focus of mountaineering turned towards mountains beyond the Alps. One of the earliest mountain areas to be explored beyond the Alps in the 19th century were the mountains of Norway—particularly Jotunheimen—where British mountaineers such as William Cecil Slingsby, Harold Raeburn and Howard Priestman were early pioneers. Slingsby's book Norway, the Northern Playground contributed greatly to the popularization of mountaineering in Norway among the international mountaineering community.[25] Around the turn of the century, a young generation of Norwegian mountaineers such as George Paus, Eilert Sundt and Kristian Tandberg appeared, and later founded Norsk Tindeklub, the third oldest mountaineering association in the world.[26] By the turn of the 20th century, mountaineering had acquired a more international flavour.[27]In 1897 Mount Saint Elias (18,008 ft (5,489 m)) on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party.[28] In 1879–1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo (20,549 ft (6,263 m)) and explored the mountains of Ecuador.[29] It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer, Mount Kenya in 1899 by Halford Mackinder.[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Owen_Glynne_Jones_12_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"William Martin Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Martin_Conway"},{"link_name":"Karakoram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakoram"},{"link_name":"Albert F. Mummery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_F._Mummery"},{"link_name":"Nanga Parbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanga_Parbat"},{"link_name":"Douglas Freshfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Freshfield"},{"link_name":"Sikkim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikkim"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IssermanWeaver2010-31"},{"link_name":"Fanny Bullock Workman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_Bullock_Workman"},{"link_name":"Nun Kun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nun_Kun"},{"link_name":"Gurkha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurkha"},{"link_name":"Charles Granville Bruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Granville_Bruce"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IssermanWeaver2010-31"},{"link_name":"Oscar Eckenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Eckenstein"},{"link_name":"Aleister Crowley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleister_Crowley"},{"link_name":"K2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K2"},{"link_name":"first expedition to Kangchenjunga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Kanchenjunga_expedition"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IssermanWeaver2010-31"},{"link_name":"crampons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crampons"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"eight-thousanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight-thousander"},{"link_name":"Annapurna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapurna"},{"link_name":"Maurice Herzog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Herzog"},{"link_name":"Louis Lachenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Lachenal"},{"link_name":"1950 French Annapurna expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950_French_Annapurna_expedition"},{"link_name":"Mount Everest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest"},{"link_name":"1922 expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_British_Mount_Everest_Expedition"},{"link_name":"1924 expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924_British_Mount_Everest_Expedition"},{"link_name":"George Mallory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mallory"},{"link_name":"Andrew Irvine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Irvine_(mountaineer)"},{"link_name":"Sir Edmund Hillary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Hillary"},{"link_name":"Tenzing Norgay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IssermanWeaver2010-31"},{"link_name":"Hermann Buhl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Buhl"},{"link_name":"Nanga Parbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanga_Parbat"},{"link_name":"1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_German%E2%80%93Austrian_Nanga_Parbat_expedition"},{"link_name":"pervitin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervitin"},{"link_name":"methamphetamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methamphetamine"},{"link_name":"vasodilator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasodilator"},{"link_name":"padutin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padutin"},{"link_name":"coca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroxylum_coca"},{"link_name":"K2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K2"},{"link_name":"first scaled in 1954","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_Italian_Karakoram_expedition_to_K2"},{"link_name":"Lino Lacedelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lino_Lacedelli"},{"link_name":"Achille Compagnoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achille_Compagnoni"},{"link_name":"Shishapangma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shishapangma"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IssermanWeaver2010-31"},{"link_name":"Reinhold Messner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold_Messner"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"The last frontier: The Himalayas","text":"Mountaineers, c. 1900The last[clarification needed] and greatest mountain range to be conquered was the Himalayas in South Asia. They had initially been surveyed by the British Empire for military and strategic reasons. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m). In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 Douglas Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim.[31]In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908 American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft (7,100 m)). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.[31]In 1902 the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2. They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as \"misguided\" and \"lamentable\" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader.[31]Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons, and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.[32]By the 1950s, all the eight-thousanders but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The highest of these peaks Mount Everest was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.[31]Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, self-medicating with pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), the vasodilator padutin, and a stimulant tea made from coca leaves. K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks.[31]\nReinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being the first without supplemental oxygen. In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so.[33][34]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SeifertWolf2016-13"},{"link_name":"tourist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Today","text":"Long the domain of the wealthy elite and their agents, the emergence of the middle-class in the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in mass interest in mountaineering. It became a popular pastime and hobby of many people.[13] Some have come to criticize the sport as becoming too much of a tourist activity.[35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aid climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_climbing"},{"link_name":"free climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_climbing"},{"link_name":"ice axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_axe"},{"link_name":"crampons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crampon"},{"link_name":"Ski mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_mountaineering"},{"link_name":"cross-country skiing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-country_skiing"},{"link_name":"Peak bagging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_bagging"},{"link_name":"4000m peaks of the Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Alpine_four-thousanders"},{"link_name":"Enchainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchainment"},{"link_name":"via ferratas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_ferrata"},{"link_name":"Ice climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_climbing"}],"sub_title":"Activities","text":"There are different activities associated with the sport.Traditional mountaineering involves identifying a specific mountain and route to climb, and executing the plan by whatever means appropriate. A mountain summit is almost always the goal. This activity is strongly associated with aid climbing and free climbing, as well as the use of ice axe and crampons on glaciers and similar terrain.\nSki mountaineering involves skiing on mountainous terrain, usually in terrain much more rugged than typical cross-country skiing. Unlike traditional mountaineering, routes are less well-defined and summiting may not be the main goal.\nPeak bagging is the general activity of ascending peaks that are on a list of notable mountains, such as the 4000m peaks of the Alps.\nEnchainment is climbing more than one significant summit in one outing, usually on the same day.\nClimbing via ferratas involves traversing ladder-like paths on highly exposed terrain.\nIce climbing which involves proceeding on steep sections of blank ice with crampons and ice axes. This activity often requires progressing on steep and blank sections of ice. Most mountaineers have to rely on ice climbing skills to climb upon the higher peaks in the European Alps, Himalayas and Canadian ranges.","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"climbing wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climbing_wall"},{"link_name":"International Olympic Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee"},{"link_name":"the UIAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Climbing_and_Mountaineering_Federation"},{"link_name":"alpine clubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alpine_clubs"},{"link_name":"The Mountaineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mountaineers_(club)"},{"link_name":"French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Federation_of_Mountaineering_and_Climbing"},{"link_name":"Piolet d'Or","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piolet_d%27Or"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RockIce2018-38"},{"link_name":"toproped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toprope"}],"sub_title":"Rules and governance","text":"Mountaineering lacks formal rules – though appropriately empowered bodies make many pertaining to specific use of mountains and practices on them. In theory, any person may climb a mountain and call themself a mountaineer. In practice, the sport is defined by the safe and necessary use of technical skills in mountainous terrain: in particular, roped climbing and snow travel abilities. A variety of techniques have been developed to help people climb mountains that are widely applied among practitioners of the sport.[36][37]Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall-based competition – by the International Olympic Committee; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing, remain independent.The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted Piolet d'Or,[38] which has expanded from a single recognition to multiple. While there are many competitions, particularly in toproped climbing wall disciplines, there are no \"official\" world championships or other similar competitions for mountaineering broadly.","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Climbing_tools_-_Mount_Shasta_Sisson_Museum_-_DSC02839.JPG"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"Grade (climbing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(climbing)"}],"text":"Antique climbing toolsMountaineering techniques vary greatly depending on location, season, terrain, and route. Both techniques and hazards vary by terrain, spanning trails, rock, snow, and ice. Mountaineers must possess adequate food, water, information, equipment, stamina, and skill to complete their tasks.[37]See also: Grade (climbing)","title":"Terrain and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAC_Publications_1989-39"},{"link_name":"hike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiking"},{"link_name":"physical fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"sub_title":"Walk-up terrain","text":"The term \"walk-up\" or \"trek\" is used to describe terrain in which no technical equipment is needed.[39] To traverse this terrain, mountaineers hike long distances to a base camp or the beginning of rough terrain, either following trails or using navigation techniques to travel cross-country. Hiking may be a strenuous activity, and adequate physical fitness and familiarity with the wilderness is necessary to complete a hike; it is also a prerequisite of success in all aspects of mountaineering.[37]","title":"Terrain and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rock climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_climbing"},{"link_name":"pitches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_(ascent/descent)"},{"link_name":"belayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belaying"},{"link_name":"anchor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchor_(climbing)"},{"link_name":"cams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring-loaded_camming_device"},{"link_name":"nuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(climbing)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kublak2014-8"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"aid climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_climbing"},{"link_name":"fixed lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_rope"},{"link_name":"ascenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascender_(climbing)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kublak2014-8"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"sub_title":"Rock","text":"Alpine rock climbing involves technical skills including the ability to place anchors into the rock to safely ascend a mountain. In some cases, climbers may have to climb multiple pitches of rock to reach the top. Typically, for any one pitch, there is a belayer who is stationary and creates tension on the rope to catch a climber should he or she fall, and a climber who ascends the rock. The first climber, called the leader, will reach a point on the rock and then build an anchor, which will secure subsequent climbers. Anchors could be created by using slings around a tree or boulder, or by using protection devices like cams and nuts.Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain.[8][37]For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, fixed lines, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock.[8]In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.[37]","title":"Terrain and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ortler_Ascent_-_South_Tyrol.jpg"},{"link_name":"South Tyrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tyrol"},{"link_name":"crampons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crampons"},{"link_name":"snowshoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowshoe"},{"link_name":"skis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skis"},{"link_name":"ski mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_mountaineering"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"ice axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_axe"},{"link_name":"deadman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climbing_terms#D"},{"link_name":"flukes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_fluke"},{"link_name":"Bollards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollard"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"glaciers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"crevasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crevasse"},{"link_name":"snowbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowbridge"},{"link_name":"crevasse rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crevasse_rescue"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"ice climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_climbing"},{"link_name":"ice screws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_screw"},{"link_name":"ice picks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_pick"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"sub_title":"Snow and ice","text":"Mountaineers proceed across snow fields on South Tyrol; other climbers are visible further up the slopes.Compacted snow conditions allow mountaineers to progress on foot. Frequently crampons are required to travel efficiently and safely over snow and ice. Crampons attach to the bottom of a mountaineer's boots and provide additional traction on hard snow and ice. For loose snow, crampons are less suitable, and snowshoes or skis may be preferred. Using various techniques from alpine skiing to ascend/descend a mountain is a form of the sport by itself, called ski mountaineering.[37]Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, such as the French technique and German technique. Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called flukes, or buried equipment or rocks. Bollards, which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively, a roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall.[37]It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team.[37]For example, when traveling over glaciers, crevasses pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces the risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.[37]For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as ice screws and ice picks help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors.[37]","title":"Terrain and techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Base camp (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_camp_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"bivouac sack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivouac_shelter"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"text":"\"Basecamp\" redirects here. For other uses, see Base camp (disambiguation).Climbers use a few different forms of shelter depending on the situation and conditions; alpine shelters or arctic shelters. Shelter is a very important aspect of safety for the climber as weather in the mountains may be very unpredictable. Tall mountains may require many days of camping.[37]Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such a light bivouac sack.[37]","title":"Shelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:981123-Ararat-Camp1-IMG_0831.jpg"},{"link_name":"bivouaced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivouac_shelter"},{"link_name":"camping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camping"},{"link_name":"tents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tent"},{"link_name":"bivouac sacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivouac_shelter"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"Everest base camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everest_base_camps"},{"link_name":"Camp Muir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Muir"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Camping","text":"Winter campers bivouaced in the snowTypical shelters used for camping include tents and bivouac sacks. The ability of these shelters to provide protection from the elements is dependent on their design. Mountaineers who climb in areas with cold weather or snow and ice will use more heavy-duty shelters than those who climb in more forgiving environments.[37]In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a \"base camp,\" which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps.[citation needed]","title":"Shelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CabaneduTrient.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cabane du Trient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_du_Trient"},{"link_name":"Swiss Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Alps"},{"link_name":"mountain huts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_hut"},{"link_name":"sleeping bag liners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeping_bag_liner"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hurdle1999-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hurdle1999-40"},{"link_name":"\"bothies\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothy"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Hut","text":"Cabane du Trient, a mountain hut in the Swiss AlpsCamping is not always an option, or may not be suitable if a mountain is close to civilization. Some regions may legally prohibit primitive camping due to concern for the environment, or due to issues with crowds. In lieu of camping, mountaineers may choose to stay in mountain huts.The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners. The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut.[40]When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment.[40]In the UK the term \"hut\" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as \"bothies\" are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.[41]","title":"Shelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"snow caves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_cave"},{"link_name":"quinzee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinzee"},{"link_name":"Igloos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloo"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"sub_title":"Snow cave","text":"Where conditions permit, snow caves are another way to shelter high on the mountain. Some climbers do not use tents at high altitudes unless the snow conditions do not allow for snow caving, since snow caves are silent and much warmer than tents. They can be built relatively easily, given sufficient time, using a snow shovel. The temperature of a correctly made snow cave will hover around freezing, which relative to outside temperatures can be very warm. They can be dug anywhere where there is at least four feet of snow. The addition of a good quality bivouac bag and closed cell foam sleeping mat will also increase the warmth of the snow cave. Another shelter that works well is a quinzee, which is excavated from a pile of snow that has been work hardened or sintered (typically by stomping). Igloos are used by some climbers, but are deceptively difficult to build and require specific snow conditions.[37]","title":"Shelter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of deaths on eight-thousanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_on_eight-thousanders"},{"link_name":"hazards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard"},{"link_name":"exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(climbing)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tour_crit-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kublak2014-8"},{"link_name":"avalanches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MedicalProblems-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14_June_2022-43"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"mitigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitigation"},{"link_name":"personal bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"}],"text":"See also: List of deaths on eight-thousandersMountaineers face a variety of hazards. When climbing mountains, there are two types of hazards, objective (mountain-based) and subjective (human-based). Objective hazards relate to the environment, and may include inclement weather conditions, dangerous terrain, duration of exposure, and other environmental conditions.[7] Subjective hazards relate to a climber's poor judgement, poor planning, lack of skills, faulty analysis and conclusions, or inadequate conditioning.[8]In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face include loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.[42]From 1947 to 2018 in the United States \"2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death.\"[43] Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.[37]When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to mitigate those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias.[37]","title":"Safety and hazards"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Climber_Summit_Manaslu_8163m.jpg"},{"link_name":"Manaslu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manaslu"},{"link_name":"altitude sickness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude_sickness"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MedicalProblems-42"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BordenHACE-44"},{"link_name":"Andes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"coca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"high-altitude cerebral edema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_cerebral_edema"},{"link_name":"high-altitude pulmonary edema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MedicalProblems-42"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BordenHACE-44"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BordenHAPE-46"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MedicalProblems-42"},{"link_name":"acclimatise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclimatization"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Acclimatization-47"},{"link_name":"bottled oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottled_oxygen"},{"link_name":"8000-metre peaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight-thousander"},{"link_name":"Everest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Altitude","text":"Climber approaching the summit of Manaslu at 8,163 metresRapid ascent can lead to altitude sickness.[42][44] The best treatment is to descend immediately. The climber's motto at high altitude is \"climb high, sleep low\", referring to the regimen of climbing higher to acclimatise but returning to lower elevation to sleep. In the Andes, the chewing of coca leaves has been traditionally used to treat altitude sickness symptoms.[45]Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (high-altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (high-altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.[42][44][46]In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe.[42] This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to acclimatise, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before.[47] Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed 8000-metre peaks (including Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.[48]","title":"Safety and hazards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heat-related illness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat-related_illness"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"heat cramps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_cramps"},{"link_name":"heat exhaustion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_exhaustion"},{"link_name":"heat stroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_stroke"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-49"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-49"}],"sub_title":"Heat-related conditions","text":"Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body. A heat-related illness can occur when the body is unable to lose that heat through the skin.[37]Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse. The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.[37][49]Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures. This is a life-threatening illness that must be dealt with right away. While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.[37][49]","title":"Safety and hazards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-50"},{"link_name":"wind chill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_chill"},{"link_name":"hypothermia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia"},{"link_name":"frostbite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frostbite"},{"link_name":"immersion foot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_foot_syndromes"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Cold-related conditions","text":"In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction. A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.[50]Problems that can arise from the cold include wind chill, hypothermia, frost nip, frostbite, and immersion foot.[37]The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear. Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions. Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry.[50][51]","title":"Safety and hazards"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_Khumbu-Icefall.jpg"},{"link_name":"expedition style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_climbing"},{"link_name":"expedition style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_style"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"}],"text":"Fixed lines and ladders are distinguishing characteristics of expedition style mountaineeringThere are two main styles of mountaineering: expedition style and alpine style.","title":"Styles of mountaineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"air travel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_travel"},{"link_name":"highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highways"},{"link_name":"Alaska Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Range"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"Fixed rope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_rope"},{"link_name":"supplemental oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottled_oxygen_(climbing)"}],"sub_title":"Expedition style","text":"The alpine style contrasts with \"expedition style\". With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress. Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization. Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides). To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used. Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit. This technique is also helpful for acclimatization.[37] While it is the original style in which high mountains were climbed, expedition style is rare these days as more mountains have become accessible to the general public with air travel and the penetration of highways into mountainous regions. It is still common in ranges such as the Alaska Range and the Himalayas.Uses multiple trips between camps to carry supplies up to higher camps\nGroup sizes are often larger than alpine-style climbs because more supplies are carried between camps.\nFixed rope lines are often used to minimize the danger involved in continually moving between camps.\nFor the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is frequently used.\nThere is a higher margin of safety in relation to equipment, food, time, and ability to wait out storms at high camps.\nAvoidance of being trapped in storms at high altitudes and being forced to descend in treacherous avalanche conditions\nPossible higher exposure to objective hazards such as avalanches or rockfall, due to slower travel times between camps\nHigher capital expenditures and a longer time scale","title":"Styles of mountaineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-freedom-37"},{"link_name":"supplemental oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottled_oxygen_(climbing)"},{"link_name":"HAPE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema"},{"link_name":"HACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_cerebral_edema"}],"sub_title":"Alpine style","text":"Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today. It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking. This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of 2,000–5,000 m (6,600–16,400 ft), such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit. If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit. \"Light and fast\" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer.[37]Climbers climb the route only once, bringing their own supplies; there is no camp-stocking.\nFewer supplies are used on the climb, therefore fewer personnel are needed.\nRapid Alpine-style ascents do not leave the climber exposed to hazards (such as accidents, deteriorating health at altitude, and avalanches of snow or rock) as long as an expedition-style climb; however, they also leave less time for acclimatization.\nFor the highest mountains, supplemental oxygen is rarely used, or used more sparingly.\nDanger of being trapped at high altitude due to storms, potentially being exposed to HAPE or HACE\nLower capital expenditures and a shorter time scale","title":"Styles of mountaineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isserman, Maurice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Isserman"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-300-16420-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16420-6"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"181424034","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/181424034"},{"link_name":"Ortner, Sherry B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherry_Ortner"},{"link_name":"Life and death on Mt. Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/lifedeathonmteve00ortn"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-00689-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00689-5"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"41326318","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/41326318"},{"link_name":"Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/holdheightsfound0000unsw"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-89886-379-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-379-6"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"28547900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/28547900"},{"link_name":"\"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//content.lib.washington.edu/mtnweb/index.html"},{"link_name":"\"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//content.lib.washington.edu/cmpweb/exhibits/mountaineers/index.html"}],"text":"Isserman, Maurice; Weaver, Stewart (2008). Fallen giants: a history of Himalayan mountaineering from the age of empire to the age of extremes. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16420-6. OCLC 181424034.\nOrtner, Sherry B. (1999). Life and death on Mt. Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00689-5. OCLC 41326318.\nUnsworth, Walt (1994). Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-379-6. OCLC 28547900.\n\"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::\". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.\n\"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers\". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Climbers ascending Mount Rainier looking at Little Tahoma Peak","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/M_Rainier.jpg/230px-M_Rainier.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edward Whymper (1840–1911), painting by Lance Calkin","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Edward_Whymper_Calkin.jpg/170px-Edward_Whymper_Calkin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edelweiss, a plant associated with mountain sports","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Leontopodium_alpinum_1.JPG/170px-Leontopodium_alpinum_1.JPG"},{"image_text":"British mountaineer William Cecil Slingsby became known as the father of Norwegian mountaineering and contributed greatly to its popularization with his classic book Norway, the Northern Playground","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/WilliamCecilSlingsby_Storen.jpg/220px-WilliamCecilSlingsby_Storen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mountaineers, c. 1900","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Owen_Glynne_Jones_12_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Owen_Glynne_Jones_12_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Antique climbing tools","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Climbing_tools_-_Mount_Shasta_Sisson_Museum_-_DSC02839.JPG/220px-Climbing_tools_-_Mount_Shasta_Sisson_Museum_-_DSC02839.JPG"},{"image_text":"Mountaineers proceed across snow fields on South Tyrol; other climbers are visible further up the slopes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Ortler_Ascent_-_South_Tyrol.jpg/220px-Ortler_Ascent_-_South_Tyrol.jpg"},{"image_text":"Winter campers bivouaced in the snow","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/981123-Ararat-Camp1-IMG_0831.jpg/220px-981123-Ararat-Camp1-IMG_0831.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cabane du Trient, a mountain hut in the Swiss Alps","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/CabaneduTrient.jpg/220px-CabaneduTrient.jpg"},{"image_text":"Climber approaching the summit of Manaslu at 8,163 metres","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Climber_Summit_Manaslu_8163m.jpg/220px-Climber_Summit_Manaslu_8163m.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fixed lines and ladders are distinguishing characteristics of expedition style mountaineering","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Inside_Khumbu-Icefall.jpg/220px-Inside_Khumbu-Icefall.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mountaineering"},{"title":"Exploration of the High Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_the_High_Alps"},{"title":"Glossary of climbing terms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climbing_terms"},{"title":"Hazards in the Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Range#Hazards"},{"title":"Highest unclimbed mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highest_unclimbed_mountain"},{"title":"Index of climbing topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climbing_topics"},{"title":"Lead climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_climbing"},{"title":"List of climbers and mountaineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climbers_and_mountaineers"},{"title":"List of deaths on eight-thousanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaths_on_eight-thousanders"},{"title":"List of first ascents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first_ascents"},{"title":"List of mountaineering equipment brands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountaineering_equipment_brands"},{"title":"Mountain film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_film"},{"title":"Mountain rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_rescue"},{"title":"Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering:_The_Freedom_of_the_Hills"},{"title":"Peak bagging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_bagging"},{"title":"Ski mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_mountaineering"},{"title":"Snow goggles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_goggles"},{"title":"Piolet d'Or","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piolet_d%27Or"},{"title":"Snow Leopard award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_Leopard_award"},{"title":"World altitude record (mountaineering)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_altitude_record_(mountaineering)"},{"title":"National Outdoor Leadership School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Outdoor_Leadership_School"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Alpinism Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dictionary.com/browse/alpinism?s=t","url_text":"\"Alpinism Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com\""}]},{"reference":"Pomfret, G. (2006). \"Mountaineering adventure tourists: a conceptual framework for research\". Tourism Management. 27 (1): 113–123. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2004.08.003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tourman.2004.08.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.tourman.2004.08.003"}]},{"reference":"Beedie, P.; Hudson, S. (2003). \"Emergence of mountain-based adventure tourism\". Annals of Tourism Research. 30 (3): 625–643. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00043-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0160-7383%2803%2900043-4","url_text":"10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00043-4"}]},{"reference":"Apollo, Michal (2017). \"The true accessibility of mountaineering: The case of the High Himalaya\". Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism. 17: 29–43. doi:10.1016/j.jort.2016.12.001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jort.2016.12.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.jort.2016.12.001"}]},{"reference":"Apollo, M.; Wengel, Y. (1 October 2021). \"Mountaineering Tourism: A Critical Perspective\". Routledge.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.routledge.com/Mountaineering-Tourism-A-Critical-Perspective/Apollo-Wengel/p/book/9780367558291","url_text":"\"Mountaineering Tourism: A Critical Perspective\""}]},{"reference":"Thomas Kublak (8 June 2014). Mountaineering Methodology – Part 1 – The Basics. Tomas Kublak – MMPublishing. ISBN 978-80-87715-12-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2zCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8","url_text":"Mountaineering Methodology – Part 1 – The Basics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-87715-12-3","url_text":"978-80-87715-12-3"}]},{"reference":"\"UIAA Activities\". UIAA. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110511025957/http://theuiaa.org/activities.html","url_text":"\"UIAA Activities\""},{"url":"http://theuiaa.org/activities.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Apollo, M. (2021). Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering. SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-72667-6. ISBN 978-3-030-72666-9. S2CID 234774157.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-72667-6","url_text":"Environmental Impacts of Mountaineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-72667-6","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-030-72667-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-72666-9","url_text":"978-3-030-72666-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234774157","url_text":"234774157"}]},{"reference":"Apollo, M.; Andreychouk, V. (2022). Mountaineering Adventure Tourism and Local Communities: Social, Environmental and Economics Interactions. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 9781802209372.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/usd/mountaineering-adventure-tourism-and-local-communities-9781802209372.html","url_text":"Mountaineering Adventure Tourism and Local Communities: Social, Environmental and Economics Interactions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781802209372","url_text":"9781802209372"}]},{"reference":"Ludovic Seifert; Peter Wolf; Andreas Schweizer (19 September 2016). The Science of Climbing and Mountaineering. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-40315-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=k-BRDQAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Science of Climbing and Mountaineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40315-9","url_text":"978-1-317-40315-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: The Ascent of Mount Ventoux\". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. 26 January 1996. Retrieved 9 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/petrarch-ventoux.asp","url_text":"\"Medieval Sourcebook: Petrarch: The Ascent of Mount Ventoux\""}]},{"reference":"Peter H. Hansen (14 May 2013). The Summits of Modern Man. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07452-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mZU3CUZJN9sC&pg=PA26","url_text":"The Summits of Modern Man"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-07452-1","url_text":"978-0-674-07452-1"}]},{"reference":"Doran, Jeffrey J. (2023). Ramble On: How Hiking Became One of the Most Popular Outdoor Activities in the World. Amazon Digital Services LLC - Kdp. ISBN 979-8373963923.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-8373963923","url_text":"979-8373963923"}]},{"reference":"The Ice Maiden. National Geographic. 2006. ISBN 9780792259121.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780792259121","url_text":"9780792259121"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Rebecca A. (2002). Women on High: Pioneers of Mountaineering. Appalachian Mountain Club Books. ISBN 1-929173-13-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/womenonhighpione00brow","url_text":"Women on High: Pioneers of Mountaineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-929173-13-X","url_text":"1-929173-13-X"}]},{"reference":"Kara Rogers (14 July 2010). \"The Matterhorn: Edward Whymper and the Golden Age of Mountaineering\". Encyclopædia Britannica BLOG. Archived from the original on 18 July 2014. Retrieved 2 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140718173805/http://www.britannica.com/blogs/2010/7/the-matterhorn-edward-whymper-and-the-golden-age-of-mountaineering/","url_text":"\"The Matterhorn: Edward Whymper and the Golden Age of Mountaineering\""},{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/blogs/2010/7/the-matterhorn-edward-whymper-and-the-golden-age-of-mountaineering","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"1865: the Golden Age of Mountaineering\". Vertebrate Publishing. Retrieved 12 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.v-publishing.co.uk/books/climbing/1865-the-golden-age-of-mountaineering/","url_text":"\"1865: the Golden Age of Mountaineering\""}]},{"reference":"Schage, Pål V. (2008). Norsk fjellsport gjennom 200 år. Andresen & Butenschøn. ISBN 978-82-7981-052-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-82-7981-052-0","url_text":"978-82-7981-052-0"}]},{"reference":"Aasgaard, Jan (2016). Jotunheimen: gjennom historien [Jotunheimen: through history] (in Norwegian). Dreyer. pp. 156–157. ISBN 9788282651417.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788282651417","url_text":"9788282651417"}]},{"reference":"\"Mountaineering\". Encyclopædia Britannica. 21 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/394976/mountaineering/5045/History","url_text":"\"Mountaineering\""}]},{"reference":"House, William P. (1939). \"K2-1938\". Feature Article. American Alpine Journal. American Alpine Club. Retrieved 9 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12193922900/K2-1938","url_text":"\"K2-1938\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ascent of Chimborazo\". The Cornishman. No. 92. 15 April 1880. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mackinder, Halford John (May 1900). \"A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa\". The Geographical Journal. 15 (5): 453–476. Bibcode:1900GeogJ..15..453M. doi:10.2307/1774261. JSTOR 1774261.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halford_John_Mackinder","url_text":"Mackinder, Halford John"},{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1449198","url_text":"\"A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1900GeogJ..15..453M","url_text":"1900GeogJ..15..453M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1774261","url_text":"10.2307/1774261"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1774261","url_text":"1774261"}]},{"reference":"Maurice Isserman; Stewart Angas Weaver; Dee Molenaar (2010). Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16420-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JgEKGGYEpZIC&pg=PA49","url_text":"Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16420-6","url_text":"978-0-300-16420-6"}]},{"reference":"Rowell, Galen (1977). In The Throne Room of the Mountain Gods. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. pp. 36–40. ISBN 978-0-87156-184-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/inthroneroomofmo0000rowe","url_text":"In The Throne Room of the Mountain Gods"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/inthroneroomofmo0000rowe/page/36","url_text":"36–40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87156-184-8","url_text":"978-0-87156-184-8"}]},{"reference":"Wilkes, Rob (5 August 2015). \"Reinhold Messner museum project ends on a high, with breathtaking Zaha Hadid venue...\" We Heart. Retrieved 12 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.we-heart.com/2015/08/05/messner-mountain-museum-corones-south-tyrol-italy/","url_text":"\"Reinhold Messner museum project ends on a high, with breathtaking Zaha Hadid venue...\""}]},{"reference":"\"How Mount Everest became a tourist destination\". Washington Post. Retrieved 12 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2019/05/31/how-mount-everest-became-tourist-destination/","url_text":"\"How Mount Everest became a tourist destination\""}]},{"reference":"Andrew J. Kauffman (30 June 1948). \"Some Tips for the Apprentice Mountaineer\" (PDF). Up Rope!. Vol. 4, no. 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 27 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://files.patcms.org/upropes/1948/1948-13.pdf","url_text":"\"Some Tips for the Apprentice Mountaineer\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200329084315/http://files.patcms.org/upropes/1948/1948-13.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cox, Steven M.; Fulsaas, Kris, eds. (2009) [2003]. Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (7th ed.). Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-828-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering:_The_Freedom_of_the_Hills","url_text":"Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-828-9","url_text":"978-0-89886-828-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Recap of the Piolets d'Or 2018 Ceremony in Ladek Zdroj, Poland\". Rock and Ice. 5 October 2018. Retrieved 29 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://rockandice.com/climbing-news/recap-of-the-piolets-dor-2018-ceremony-in-ladek-zdroj-poland/","url_text":"\"Recap of the Piolets d'Or 2018 Ceremony in Ladek Zdroj, Poland\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fall or Slip on Rock, Falling Rock, Failure to Follow Route, Washington, Mount Thompson – Search The American Alpine Journal and Accidents\". AAC Publications. 24 September 1989. Retrieved 9 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/13199006502/Fall-or-Slip-on-Rock-Falling-Rock-Failure-to-Follow-Route-Washington-Mount-Thompson","url_text":"\"Fall or Slip on Rock, Falling Rock, Failure to Follow Route, Washington, Mount Thompson – Search The American Alpine Journal and Accidents\""}]},{"reference":"Jonathan Hurdle (1999). Walking Austria's Alps: Hut to Hut. The Mountaineers Books. ISBN 978-0-89886-640-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Nex_W-wazdoC","url_text":"Walking Austria's Alps: Hut to Hut"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-640-7","url_text":"978-0-89886-640-7"}]},{"reference":"\"The Mountain Bothies Association\". Mountain Bothies Association UK. Retrieved 13 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mountainbothies.org.uk/","url_text":"\"The Mountain Bothies Association\""}]},{"reference":"Cymerman, A; Rock, PB. Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers (Report). US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. USARIEM-TN94-2. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042510/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7976","url_text":"Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers"}]},{"reference":"Emma P. DeLoughery; Thomas G. DeLoughery (14 June 2022). \"Review and Analysis of Mountaineering Accidents in the United States from 1947–2018\". High Altitude Medicine & Biology. 23 (2): 114–118. doi:10.1089/ham.2021.0085. PMID 35263173. S2CID 247361980. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 11 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220711104944/https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ham.2021.0085","url_text":"\"Review and Analysis of Mountaineering Accidents in the United States from 1947–2018\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1089%2Fham.2021.0085","url_text":"10.1089/ham.2021.0085"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35263173","url_text":"35263173"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247361980","url_text":"247361980"},{"url":"https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ham.2021.0085#B8","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Roach, Robert; Stepanek, Jan & Hackett, Peter. (2002). \"24\". Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Cerebral Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved 5 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html","url_text":"\"24\""}]},{"reference":"Biondich, Amy Sue; Joslin, Jeremy D. (December 2015). \"Coca: High Altitude Remedy of the Ancient Incas\". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 26 (4): 567–571. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2015.07.006. ISSN 1080-6032. PMID 26507611. S2CID 33306058.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wem.2015.07.006","url_text":"\"Coca: High Altitude Remedy of the Ancient Incas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.wem.2015.07.006","url_text":"10.1016/j.wem.2015.07.006"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1080-6032","url_text":"1080-6032"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26507611","url_text":"26507611"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33306058","url_text":"33306058"}]},{"reference":"Roach, James M. & Schoene, Robert B. (2002). \"25\". High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC. Retrieved 5 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/harshEnv2/harshEnv2.html","url_text":"\"25\""}]},{"reference":"Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004). \"Altitude Acclimatization Guide\". US Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report (USARIEM–TN–04–05). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090423042451/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/7616","url_text":"\"Altitude Acclimatization Guide\""}]},{"reference":"Szymczak, Robert K.; Marosz, Michał; Grzywacz, Tomasz; Sawicka, Magdalena; Naczyk, Marta (2021). \"Death Zone Weather Extremes Mountaineers Have Experienced in Successful Ascents\". Frontiers in Physiology. 12. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.696335. ISSN 1664-042X. PMC 8287323. PMID 34290622.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8287323","url_text":"\"Death Zone Weather Extremes Mountaineers Have Experienced in Successful Ascents\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffphys.2021.696335","url_text":"10.3389/fphys.2021.696335"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1664-042X","url_text":"1664-042X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8287323","url_text":"8287323"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34290622","url_text":"34290622"}]},{"reference":"D., Carline, Jan (2004). Mountaineering first aid : a guide to accident response and first aid care. Mountaineers Books. ISBN 0-89886-878-5. OCLC 1131535523.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/1131535523","url_text":"Mountaineering first aid : a guide to accident response and first aid care"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89886-878-5","url_text":"0-89886-878-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1131535523","url_text":"1131535523"}]},{"reference":"S., Wilkerson, James A., 1934- Bangs, Cameron, C. Hayward, John (1986). Hypothermia, Frostbite, and Other Cold Injuries : Prevention, Recognition, and Prehospital Treatment. The Mountaineers. ISBN 0-89886-024-5. OCLC 13062884.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/13062884","url_text":"Hypothermia, Frostbite, and Other Cold Injuries : Prevention, Recognition, and Prehospital Treatment"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89886-024-5","url_text":"0-89886-024-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13062884","url_text":"13062884"}]},{"reference":"\"Cold Injuries: Practice Essentials, Overview, Systemic Hypothermia\". eMedicine. 16 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1278523-overview","url_text":"\"Cold Injuries: Practice Essentials, Overview, Systemic Hypothermia\""}]},{"reference":"Isserman, Maurice; Weaver, Stewart (2008). Fallen giants: a history of Himalayan mountaineering from the age of empire to the age of extremes. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-16420-6. OCLC 181424034.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Isserman","url_text":"Isserman, Maurice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-16420-6","url_text":"978-0-300-16420-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/181424034","url_text":"181424034"}]},{"reference":"Ortner, Sherry B. (1999). Life and death on Mt. Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00689-5. OCLC 41326318.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherry_Ortner","url_text":"Ortner, Sherry B."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/lifedeathonmteve00ortn","url_text":"Life and death on Mt. Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00689-5","url_text":"978-0-691-00689-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41326318","url_text":"41326318"}]},{"reference":"Unsworth, Walt (1994). Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering. Seattle: The Mountaineers. ISBN 978-0-89886-379-6. OCLC 28547900.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/holdheightsfound0000unsw","url_text":"Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89886-379-6","url_text":"978-0-89886-379-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28547900","url_text":"28547900"}]},{"reference":"\"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::\". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://content.lib.washington.edu/mtnweb/index.html","url_text":"\"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::\""}]},{"reference":"\"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers\". content.lib.washington.edu. Retrieved 12 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://content.lib.washington.edu/cmpweb/exhibits/mountaineers/index.html","url_text":"\"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers\""}]}]
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Everest : Sherpas and Himalayan mountaineering"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41326318","external_links_name":"41326318"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/holdheightsfound0000unsw","external_links_name":"Hold the heights: the foundations of mountaineering"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28547900","external_links_name":"28547900"},{"Link":"https://content.lib.washington.edu/mtnweb/index.html","external_links_name":"\"::: The Mountaineers Photograph Album Collection :::\""},{"Link":"https://content.lib.washington.edu/cmpweb/exhibits/mountaineers/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Olympic Peninsula Community Museum – Online Exhibits – The Mountaineers\""},{"Link":"http://climber.org/data/glossary.html","external_links_name":"A Climber's Glossary"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210926101551/https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm3-97-61.pdf","external_links_name":"Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) − Federation of American Scientists"},{"Link":"http://www.theuiaa.org/","external_links_name":"International Mountaineering and Climbing Federation (UIAA)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140103211411/http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca/sgc-cms/expositions-exhibitions/nuages-clouds/en/index.html/","external_links_name":"Climbing the clouds"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1028334/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13340853q","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13340853q","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4005694-6","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548307305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85087816","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573462","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph168214&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=43921","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine"},{"Link":"https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/016338","external_links_name":"Historical Dictionary of Switzerland"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10642219","external_links_name":"NARA"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshima_Airport
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Oshima Airport
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["1 History","2 Airlines and destinations","3 Facilities","4 References","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 34°46′55″N 139°21′37″E / 34.78194°N 139.36028°E / 34.78194; 139.36028
Airport in Izu Ōshima, TokyoŌshima Airport大島空港Ōshima KūkōIATA: OIMICAO: RJTOSummaryAirport typePublic (Type-3)OperatorTokyo MetropolisServesIzu Ōshima TownLocationIzu Ōshima, TokyoElevation AMSL124 ft / 38 mCoordinates34°46′55″N 139°21′37″E / 34.78194°N 139.36028°E / 34.78194; 139.36028MapRJTOLocation in JapanRunways
Direction
Length
Surface
m
ft
03/21
1,800
5,906
Asphalt
Statistics (2015)Passengers37,942Cargo (metric tonnes)21Aircraft movement5,830Source: Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Aerial view of Oshima Airport
Ōshima Airport (大島空港, Ōshima Kūkō), also known as Tokyo Ōshima Camellia Airport (東京大島かめりあ空港, Tokyo Ōshima Kameria Kūkō), is an airport located on the island of Izu Ōshima, Tokyo, Japan (IATA: OIM, ICAO: RJTO).
History
Ōshima Airport was built in June 1964, with a 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) runway. The runway was lengthened to its present 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) length in October 2002 to permit operations by jet-powered aircraft. From August 2008, All Nippon Airways (ANA) began daily services to Haneda Airport in Tokyo. New Central Airservice began operations to Chofu Airport from 2009. ANA ended service to Oshima in October 2015.
Since 9 July 2021, Oshima Airport has been called Tokyo Oshima Camellia Airport (東京大島カメリア空港, Tōkyō Ōshima Kacmeria Kūkō) as nickname.
Airlines and destinations
AirlinesDestinations New Central Airservice Chōfu
Toho Air Service Miyakejima, Toshima
Prior to 2015, ANA Wings operated a daily service to Haneda Airport.
Facilities
Oshima Airport is operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. The terminal is open from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. daily and contains a restaurant, shop and observation deck. The Japan Civil Aviation Bureau and Japan Meteorological Agency maintain offices on-site.
Routemap and bus stops of Oshima Bus
References
^ "Oshima Airport" (PDF). Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
^ a b About nickname of Oshima Airport
^ a b A statement on decision of nickname
^ Kohase, Yusuke (26 October 2015). ANA、大島空港所廃止 人事異動も. Aviation Wire (in Japanese). Retrieved 27 October 2015.
^ 路線・時刻表 (in Japanese). Toho Air Service. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
^ 大島空港のサービス (in Japanese). Bureau of Port and Harbor, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oshima Airport.
External links
Tokyo Oshima Camellia Airport
Oshima Airport Branch - Tokyo District Meteorological Observatory
ANA Airlines airport guide
Tokyo portalAviation portal
vteAirports in Japan1 Joint civil-military useMajor hubs
Fukuoka
Nagoya (Chūbu Centrair)
Naha1
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Osaka (Kansai)
Sapporo (New Chitose)
Tokyo (Haneda)
Tokyo (Narita)
InternationalHokkaidō
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Toyama
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Okayama
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Matsuyama
Takamatsu
Kyushu
Kitakyushu
Nagasaki
Oita
Saga1
Kagoshima
Kumamoto
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Okinawa
Ishigaki (Painushima)
Shimojishima1
Domestic
Aguni
Amakusa
Amami
Chofu
Fukushima
Fukue
Hachijojima
Hanamaki
Hateruma
Iejima
Iki
Iwakuni1
Iwami
Izumo
Kamigoto
Kerama
Kikai
Kitadaito
Kobe
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Kushiro
Matsumoto
Memanbetsu
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Misawa1
Miyakejima
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Niijima
Noto
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Ojika
Okadama1
Oki
Okinoerabu
Okushiri
Oshima
Rebun
Rishiri
Sado
Satsuma Iōjima
Shonai
Tajima
Tarama
Tsushima
Tokachi–Obihiro
Tokunoshima
Tokushima1
Tottori
Wakkanai
Yamagata
Yakushima
Yamaguchi Ube
Yonaguni
Yoron
General aviation
Fukui
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Ozuki
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StatisticsList of the busiest airports in Japan Category Commons JP Phrase JP Basic WikiProject
This article about a Japanese airport is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This Tokyo location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oshima_airport_aerial-photo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oshima20210709-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oshima20210709metropolitan-3"},{"link_name":"Izu Ōshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izu_%C5%8Cshima"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"IATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IATA_airport_code"},{"link_name":"ICAO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICAO_airport_code"}],"text":"Airport in Izu Ōshima, TokyoAerial view of Oshima AirportŌshima Airport (大島空港, Ōshima Kūkō), also known as Tokyo Ōshima Camellia Airport (東京大島かめりあ空港, Tokyo Ōshima Kameria Kūkō),[2][3] is an airport located on the island of Izu Ōshima, Tokyo, Japan (IATA: OIM, ICAO: RJTO).","title":"Oshima Airport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"All Nippon Airways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Nippon_Airways"},{"link_name":"Haneda Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haneda_Airport"},{"link_name":"New Central Airservice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Central_Airservice"},{"link_name":"Chofu Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chofu_Airport"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oshima20210709-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oshima20210709metropolitan-3"}],"text":"Ōshima Airport was built in June 1964, with a 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) runway. The runway was lengthened to its present 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) length in October 2002 to permit operations by jet-powered aircraft. From August 2008, All Nippon Airways (ANA) began daily services to Haneda Airport in Tokyo. New Central Airservice began operations to Chofu Airport from 2009. ANA ended service to Oshima in October 2015.[4]\nSince 9 July 2021, Oshima Airport has been called Tokyo Oshima Camellia Airport (東京大島カメリア空港, Tōkyō Ōshima Kacmeria Kūkō) as nickname.[2][3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ANA Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANA_Wings"},{"link_name":"Haneda Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haneda_Airport"}],"text":"Prior to 2015, ANA Wings operated a daily service to Haneda Airport.","title":"Airlines and destinations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tokyo Metropolitan Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Metropolitan_Government"},{"link_name":"Japan Civil Aviation Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Civil_Aviation_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Japan Meteorological Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oshima_Bus_routemap.png"}],"text":"Oshima Airport is operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. The terminal is open from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. daily and contains a restaurant, shop and observation deck. The Japan Civil Aviation Bureau and Japan Meteorological Agency maintain offices on-site.[6]Routemap and bus stops of Oshima Bus","title":"Facilities"}]
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[{"image_text":"Aerial view of Oshima Airport","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Oshima_airport_aerial-photo.jpg/220px-Oshima_airport_aerial-photo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Routemap and bus stops of Oshima Bus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Oshima_Bus_routemap.png/220px-Oshima_Bus_routemap.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Oshima Airport\" (PDF). Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161021205147/http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001141840.pdf","url_text":"\"Oshima Airport\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Land,_Infrastructure,_Transport_and_Tourism","url_text":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism"},{"url":"http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001141840.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kohase, Yusuke (26 October 2015). ANA、大島空港所廃止 人事異動も. Aviation Wire (in Japanese). Retrieved 27 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aviationwire.jp/archives/73164","url_text":"ANA、大島空港所廃止 人事異動も"}]},{"reference":"路線・時刻表 (in Japanese). Toho Air Service. Retrieved 27 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://tohoair-tal.jp/ext/timetable.html","url_text":"路線・時刻表"}]},{"reference":"大島空港のサービス (in Japanese). Bureau of Port and Harbor, Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Retrieved 27 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kouwan.metro.tokyo.jp/rito/tmg-airport/oshima/oshima_service.html","url_text":"大島空港のサービス"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_partition_and_boot_partition
|
System partition and boot partition
|
["1 Common definition","2 Microsoft definition","3 See also","4 References"]
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Computing terms for disk partitions
"System partition" redirects here. Not to be confused with EFI system partition.
"Boot partition" redirects here. Not to be confused with BIOS boot partition.
The system partition and the boot partition (also known as the system volume and the boot volume) are computing terms for disk partitions of a hard disk drive or solid-state drive that must exist and be properly configured for a computer to operate. There are two different definitions for these terms: the common definition and the Microsoft definition.
Common definition
In context of every operating system, except those developed by Microsoft, the system partition and the boot partition are defined as follows:
The boot partition is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system. For example, in the standard Linux directory layout (Filesystem Hierarchy Standard), boot files (such as the kernel, initrd, and boot loader GRUB) are mounted at /boot/. Despite Microsoft's radically different definition (see below), System Information, a utility app included in Windows NT family of operating systems, refers to it as "boot device".
The system partition is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root. By default, in Linux, operating system files are mounted at / (the root directory).
In Linux, a single partition can be both a boot and a system partition if both /boot/ and the root directory are in the same partition.
Microsoft definition
Since Windows NT 3.1 (the first version of Windows NT), Microsoft has defined the terms as follows:
The system partition (or system volume) is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system.: 1087 This partition holds the boot sector and is marked active.: 970 The EFI system partition is an example of system partition.
The boot partition (or boot volume) is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root or %systemroot% in Windows NT.: 174
Before Windows 7, the system and boot partitions were, by default, the same and were given the "C:" drive letter.: 971 Since Windows 7, however, Windows Setup creates, by default, a separate system partition that is not given an identifier and therefore is hidden. The boot partition is still given "C:" as its identifier. This configuration is suitable for running BitLocker, which requires a separate unencrypted system partition for booting. As of Windows 11, this nomenclature is still used by the "Disk Management" utility.
See also
NTLDR
Windows startup process
Windows NT startup process
Windows Vista startup process
Windows To Go
References
^ Petersen, Richard (2009). "Chapter 21: Basic System Administration". Ubuntu The Complete Reference. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 473. ISBN 978-0-07-164368-9.
^ Andrews, Jean; Chellis, James (13 August 2012). A+ Guide to Software (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 21. ISBN 9781285414980.
^ Donald, Lisa (2008). MCSA / MCSE: Windows Server 2003 Environment Management and Maintenance Study Guide: Exam 70-290 (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 116–117. ISBN 9780470327616.
^ "Definition of System and Boot Partition". Support. Microsoft. 20 February 2007. Archived from the original on 13 March 2016.
^ a b "Definitions for system volume and boot volume". Support. Microsoft. 29 October 2009. Archived from the original on 2017-09-13.
^ a b Tulloch, Mitch; Tulloch, Ingrid (2002). Microsoft Encyclopedia of Networking (2nd ed.). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. ISBN 0-7356-1378-8.
^ a b Russinovich, Mark E; Ionescu, Alex; Solomon, David A (2008). Windows Internals (5th ed.). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press. ISBN 978-0-7356-2530-3.
vteFirmware and bootingProcesses
Windows
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EDL mode
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There are two different definitions for these terms: the common definition and the Microsoft definition.","title":"System partition and boot partition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"primary partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_partition"},{"link_name":"boot loader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_loader"},{"link_name":"booting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Filesystem Hierarchy Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem_Hierarchy_Standard"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"initrd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initrd"},{"link_name":"GRUB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRUB"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"root directory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_directory"}],"text":"In context of every operating system, except those developed by Microsoft, the system partition and the boot partition are defined as follows:The boot partition is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system. For example, in the standard Linux directory layout (Filesystem Hierarchy Standard), boot files (such as the kernel, initrd, and boot loader GRUB) are mounted at /boot/.[1] Despite Microsoft's radically different definition (see below), System Information, a utility app included in Windows NT family of operating systems, refers to it as \"boot device\".[2][3]\nThe system partition is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root. By default, in Linux, operating system files are mounted at / (the root directory).In Linux, a single partition can be both a boot and a system partition if both /boot/ and the root directory are in the same partition.","title":"Common definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows NT 3.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_3.1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"boot sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_sector"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winternals5-7"},{"link_name":"EFI system partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFI_system_partition"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"drive letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_letter_assignment"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winternals5-7"},{"link_name":"Windows Setup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Setup"},{"link_name":"BitLocker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitLocker"},{"link_name":"Windows 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_11"}],"text":"Since Windows NT 3.1 (the first version of Windows NT),[4] Microsoft has defined the terms as follows:The system partition (or system volume)[5] is a primary partition that contains the boot loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the operating system.[6]: 1087 This partition holds the boot sector and is marked active.[7]: 970 The EFI system partition is an example of system partition.\nThe boot partition (or boot volume)[5] is the disk partition that contains the operating system folder, known as the system root or %systemroot% in Windows NT.[6]: 174Before Windows 7, the system and boot partitions were, by default, the same and were given the \"C:\" drive letter.[7]: 971 Since Windows 7, however, Windows Setup creates, by default, a separate system partition that is not given an identifier and therefore is hidden. The boot partition is still given \"C:\" as its identifier. This configuration is suitable for running BitLocker, which requires a separate unencrypted system partition for booting. As of Windows 11, this nomenclature is still used by the \"Disk Management\" utility.","title":"Microsoft definition"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Assistant
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Home Assistant
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["1 History","2 Features","2.1 Hardware","2.2 Dashboard","2.3 Automation","3 Security","4 Add-ons","5 Awards, reception and reviews","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Home automation software
This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Home AssistantOriginal author(s)Paulus SchoutsenDeveloper(s)Open Home Foundation, Home Assistant Core Team and CommunityInitial release17 September 2013(10 years ago) (2013-09-17)Stable release2024.6.3
/ 15 June 2024; 4 days ago (15 June 2024)
Repositorygithub.com/home-assistantWritten inPython (Python 3.11)Operating systemSoftware appliance / Virtual appliance (Linux)PlatformARM, ARM64, IA-32 (x86), and x64 (x86-64)TypeHome automation, smart home technology, Internet of things, task automatorLicenseApache License (free and open-source)Websitewww.home-assistant.io
Home Assistant is free and open-source software for home automation, designed to be an Internet of things (IoT) ecosystem-independent integration platform and smart home hub for controlling smart home devices, with a focus on local control and privacy. Its interface can be accessed through a web-based user interface, by using companion apps for Android and iOS, or by voice commands via a supported virtual assistant, such as Google Assistant, Amazon Alexa, Apple Siri, and Home Assistant's own "Assist" (a built-in local voice assistant) using natural language.
The Home Assistant software application is commonly run on a computer appliance with "Home Assistant Operating System" that will act as a central control system for home automation (commonly called a smart home hub/gateway/bridge/controller), that has the purpose of controlling IoT connectivity technology devices, software, applications and services from third-parties via modular integration components, including native integration components for common wired or wireless communication protocols and standards for IoT products such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, EnOcean, and Thread/Matter (used to create either local personal area networks or direct ad hoc connections with small smart home devices using low-power digital radios), or Wi-Fi and Ethernet connected devices on a home network / local area network (LAN).
Home Assistant as such supports controlling devices and services connected via either open and proprietary ecosystems or commercial smart home hubs/gateways/bridges as long they provide public access via some kind of Open API or MQTT interface to allow for third-party integration over either the local area network or Internet, which includes integrations for Alexa Smart Home (Amazon Echo), Google Nest (Google Home), HomeKit (Apple Home), Samsung SmartThings, and Philips Hue.
Information from all devices and their attributes (entities) that the application sees can be used and controlled via automation or script using scheduling and/or subroutines (including preconfigured "blueprint"), e.g. for controlling lighting, climate, entertainment systems and smart home appliances.
History
The project was started as a Python application by Paulus Schoutsen in September 2013 and first published publicly on GitHub in November 2013.
In July 2017, a managed operating system called Hass.io was initially introduced to make it easier to use Home Assistant on single-board computers like the Raspberry Pi series. This has since been renamed to "Home Assistant Operating System" (and is often referred to as "Home Assistant OS"), and uses the concept of a bundled "supervisor" management system that allows users to manage, backup, update the local installation and enable the option to extend the functionality of the software with add-ons (plug-in applications) to run as services on the same platform for tighter integrations with Home Assistant core.
An optional "Home Assistant Cloud" subscription service was introduced in December 2017 as an external cloud computing service officially supported by the Home Assistant founders to solve the complexities associated with secured remote access, as well as linking to various third-party cloud services, such as Amazon Alexa and Google Assistant. Nabu Casa, Inc. was formed in September 2018 to take over this subscription service. The company's funding is based solely on revenue from the "Home Assistant Cloud" subscription service. The money earned is used to finance the project's infrastructure and to pay for full-time employees contributing to the Home Assistant and ESPHome projects.
In January 2020, branding was adjusted to make it easier to refer to different parts of the project. The main piece of software was renamed Home Assistant Core, while the full suite of software with the Hass.io embedded operating system with a bundled "supervisor" management system was renamed Home Assistant (though it is also commonly referred to as "HAOS" as in short for "Home Assistant OS").
In the beginning of January 2021, Home Assistant made a public service announcement, disclosing vulnerabilities with its third-party custom integrations. Later in January 2021, it made a second security disclosure about a security vulnerability.
In April 2024, ownership of the Home Assistant source code and brand name was transferred to the newly created "Open Home Foundation" non-profit organization. The founder of Home Assistant made statements in the announcement that this transfer of ownership and change in governance should mean no practical change to its developers or users as it was primarily done to ensure that Home Assistant source code will remain a free and open-source software and with a continued focus on privacy and local control. Statements in the press release also included secondary plans and goals of making Home Assistant transition from an enthusiast platform to a mainstream consumer product. Ownership of many of the open-source libraries that Home Assistant uses as dependencies and other related entities was also transferred to the Open Home Foundation non-profit organization.
Features
Hardware
Home Assistant is supported and can be installed on multiple platforms. Pre-installed hardware appliances are also available for purchase from a few different manufacturers. Compatible hardware platforms include single-board computers (for example Hardkernel ODROID, Raspberry Pi, Asus Tinkerboard, Intel NUC), operating systems like Windows, macOS, Linux as well as virtual machines and NAS systems. Windows support is via a Windows VM or installing the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL).
On officially supported hardware platforms like the ODROID N2+ and Raspberry Pi 3/4 single-board computers, the installation requires flashing a corresponding system image onto a microSD card, eMMC, or other local storage from which the system can boot. It is possible to use Home Assistant as a gateway or bridge for devices using different IoT technologies like Zigbee or Z-Wave; necessary hardware can be mounted onto GPIO (Serial/I2C/SMBus), UART, or using USB ports. Moreover, it can connect directly or indirectly to local IoT devices, control hubs/gateways/bridges or cloud services from many different vendors, including other open and closed smart home ecosystems.
In December 2020, a customized ODROID N2+ computer appliance with bundled software was introduced under the product name "Home Assistant Blue" as an officially supported common hardware reference platform. The same package is also referred to as "ODROID-N2+ Home Assistant Bundle" when sold without the official custom-made enclosure. It comes with Home Assistant OS pre-installed on local eMMC storage, a power-adapter, and a custom Home Assistant themed enclosure. Home Assistant founders made it clear that the release of official hardware would not keep them from supporting other hardware platforms like the Raspberry Pi series.
In September 2021, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced a crowdfunding campaign on Crowd Supply for pre-orders of "Home Assistant Yellow" (initially called "Home Assistant Amber"), a new official home automation controller hardware platform with Home Assistant pre-installed, a spiritual successor to "Home Assistant Blue". "Home Assistant Yellow" is designed to be an appliance, and its internals are architected with a carrier board (or "baseboard") for a computer-on-modules compatible with the Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 (CM4) embedded computer as well as an integrated M.2 expansion slot meant for either an NVMe SSD as expanded storage or for an AI accelerator card, and an onboard EFR32 based radio module made by Silicon Labs capable of acting as a Zigbee Coordinator or Thread Leader (Thread Border Router), as well as optional variant with PoE (Power over Ethernet) support. The most otherwise notable features missing on "Home Assistant Yellow" are an HDMI or DisplayPort to connect a monitor, (which is likely due to it like most smart home hubs being purpose-built to act as a headless system), as well as lack of onboard Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and a USB 3.0 port by default. Shipping of "Home Assistant Yellow" is targeted for June 2022.
In June of 2022, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced their officially supported "Home Assistant SkyConnect", a multi-protocol IoT USB radio dongle capable of Zigbee and/or Thread low-power wireless protocols, that enable plug-and-play support for Home Assistant's built-in Zigbee gateway (the "ZHA" integration) and experimental Thread/Matter integrations. That same initial SkyConnect USB radio dongle model has since been renamed to "Home Assistant Connect ZBT-1" in preparation of future IoT USB radio dongle models in the same series, where an upcoming Z-Wave dongle has been announced and planned for launch in the end of 2024.
In September 2023, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced their officially supported "Home Assistant Green" as an entry-level computer appliance that is meant to make it easier for new users to get started with Home Assistant from scratch. It does however only feature an Ethernet port (for connection to the user's LAN) and two USB ports. That is, unlike the previous "Home Assistant Yellow" this new computer appliance does not include any built-in IoT radios for Zigbee and Thread low-power wireless protocols, so users wanting to connect such devices will need to buy separate USB radio dongles for each such protocol.
Dashboard
The primary front-end dashboard system is called Lovelace (named after Ada Lovelace), which offers different cards to display information and control devices. Cards can display information provided by a connected device or control a resource (lights, thermostats, and other devices). The interface design language is based on Material Design and can be customized using global themes. The GUI is customizable using the integrated editor or by modifying the underlying YAML code. Cards can be extended with custom resources, which are often created by community members.
Automation
Home Assistant acts as a central smart home controller hub by combining different devices and services in a single place and integrating them as entities. The provided rule-based system for automation allows creating custom routines based on a trigger event, conditions and actions, including scripts. These enable building automation, alarm management of security alarms and video surveillance for home security system as well as monitoring of energy measuring devices. Since December 2020, it is possible to use automation blueprints - pre-made automation from the community that can be easily added to an existing system.
Security
Home Assistant is an on-premises software product with a focus on local control, which has been described as beneficial to the security of the platform, specifically when compared to closed-source home automation software based on proprietary hardware and cloud-services.
There is no remote access enabled by default and data is stored solely on the device itself. User accounts can be secured with two-factor authentication to prevent access even if the user password becomes compromised. Add-ons receive a security rating based on their access to system resources.
In January 2021, cybersecurity analyst Oriel Goel found a directory traversal security vulnerability in third party custom integrations. The issue was disclosed on January 22, 2021, and addressed in Home Assistant version 2021.1.5, released on January 23. There is no information about whether the vulnerability was exploited.
In March 2023, a full authentication bypass was discovered in Home Assistant, earning a CVE score of 10/10. This security issue affected Home Assistant's default remote access solution, Nabu Casa, due to Nabu Casa's remote access security model that publicly exposes the local Home Assistant server to the public internet. This security issue allows bad actors full control of any Home Assistant server they can access due to the full auth bypass.
Add-ons
Home Assistant provides an add-on functionality where community developers can author add-ons to extend Home Assistant's functionality. The Docker image-based add-ons can extend the functionality of Home Assistant or can be used to provide local services on the user's home network, such as ad-blockers, DNS servers, and more.
Let's Encrypt - A Let's Encrypt add-on for Home Assistant that allows users to create SSL certificates.
Samba Share - Allows users to start a local Samba server on their Home Assistant device, which allows file access via Windows Explorer.
SSH Server & Terminal - Allows users to use a SSH terminal directly in Home Assistnat's UI. This add-on also optionally allows the setting up of an SSH server, allowing remote SSH access from any device.
AdGuard Home - Allows users to run an AdGuard Home DNS server to enable DNS request filtering.
Vaultwarden - Allows users to run a private and local Bitwarden server for secure password managment.
Homeway - Enables secure remote access to Home Assistant. Homeway also supports Alexa and Google Assistant integrations.
Awards, reception and reviews
Home Assistant took second place in 2017 and 2018 for the Thomas Krenn Award (formerly Open Source Grant), later winning first place in 2019. Home Assistant also won an DINACon award in 2018 for their "Open Internet Award" category, as well as being a nominee for the same awards in 2013.
Home Assistant has been included in a number of product and platform comparisons, where, like many other non-commercial smart home hubs/gateways/bridges/controllers for home automation, it has often been criticized for forcing users into a tedious file-based setup procedure using text-based YAML markup-language instead of graphical user interfaces. However, newer versions of Home Assistant produced by the core development team make the configuration (from initial installation as well as most basic configurations) more user-friendly by allowing configuration using the web-based graphical user interface as well as the original YAML scripting. GitHub's "State of the Octoverse" in 2019 listed Home Assistant as the tenth biggest open-source project on its platform with 6,300 contributors.
See also
Free and open-source software portal
List of home automation software
List of automation protocols
Index of home automation articles
Smart home hub
Smart speaker
Virtual assistant
Home automation for the elderly and disabled
Access control
Smart lock
Smart device
Web of Things
Smart environment
Smart grid
Home server
Home network
Matter (standard)
References
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^ "SmartThings vs Home Assistant: What is the Best Smart Home Hub". Smart Home University. 29 April 2018.
^ "Best of open source smart home: Home Assistant vs OpenHAB". Smart Home University. 28 February 2018.
^ Jancer, Matt (26 May 2016). "Smart-Home Gadgets Need a Translator Real Bad—Here's How to Get One". Wired – via www.wired.com.
^ "Home Assistant Review – Sean's Technical Ramblings". 4 March 2017.
^ "Smart Home Home Assistant Konfiguration mit YAML". 12 July 2017.
^ "Weekend Project: Setting up Home Assistant on your PC or Mac". 22 April 2016.
^ "OpenHAB vs Home Assistant: What is the Best For Smart home?". 11 February 2020.
^ "Home Assistant Vs Openhab 2019". 10 August 2019.
^ "Home Assistant Vs OpenHAB". 29 July 2019.
^ Gadget-Freak, Chef (28 April 2019). "Comparison between Domoticz and Home Assistant".
^ "The State of the Octoverse". The State of the Octoverse. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
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Template:Home automation
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|
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(Google Home)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Nest"},{"link_name":"HomeKit (Apple Home)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HomeKit"},{"link_name":"Samsung SmartThings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_SmartThings"},{"link_name":"Philips Hue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_Hue"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)"},{"link_name":"subroutines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Home Assistant is free and open-source software for home automation, designed to be an Internet of things (IoT) ecosystem-independent integration platform and smart home hub for controlling smart home devices, with a focus on local control and privacy.[2][3][4][5] Its interface can be accessed through a web-based user interface, by using companion apps for Android and iOS, or by voice commands via a supported virtual assistant, such as Google Assistant, Amazon Alexa, Apple Siri, and Home Assistant's own \"Assist\" (a built-in local voice assistant) using natural language.[6][7][8]The Home Assistant software application is commonly run on a computer appliance with \"Home Assistant Operating System\" that will act as a central control system for home automation (commonly called a smart home hub/gateway/bridge/controller),[9][10][11][12] that has the purpose of controlling IoT connectivity technology devices, software, applications and services from third-parties via modular integration components, including native integration components for common wired or wireless communication protocols and standards for IoT products such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, EnOcean, and Thread/Matter (used to create either local personal area networks or direct ad hoc connections with small smart home devices using low-power digital radios), or Wi-Fi and Ethernet connected devices on a home network / local area network (LAN).[13][14][15][16]Home Assistant as such supports controlling devices and services connected via either open and proprietary ecosystems or commercial smart home hubs/gateways/bridges as long they provide public access via some kind of Open API or MQTT interface to allow for third-party integration over either the local area network or Internet, which includes integrations for Alexa Smart Home (Amazon Echo), Google Nest (Google Home), HomeKit (Apple Home), Samsung SmartThings, and Philips Hue.[17][18][19]Information from all devices and their attributes (entities) that the application sees can be used and controlled via automation or script using scheduling and/or subroutines (including preconfigured \"blueprint\"), e.g. for controlling lighting, climate, entertainment systems and smart home appliances.[20][21][22][23]","title":"Home Assistant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"add-ons (plug-in applications)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"embedded operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_system"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"free and open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"The project was started as a Python application by Paulus Schoutsen in September 2013 and first published publicly on GitHub in November 2013.[24]In July 2017, a managed operating system called Hass.io was initially introduced to make it easier to use Home Assistant on single-board computers like the Raspberry Pi series. This has since been renamed to \"Home Assistant Operating System\" (and is often referred to as \"Home Assistant OS\"), and uses the concept of a bundled \"supervisor\" management system that allows users to manage, backup, update the local installation and enable the option to extend the functionality of the software with add-ons (plug-in applications) to run as services on the same platform for tighter integrations with Home Assistant core.[25]An optional \"Home Assistant Cloud\" subscription service was introduced in December 2017 as an external cloud computing service officially supported by the Home Assistant founders to solve the complexities associated with secured remote access, as well as linking to various third-party cloud services, such as Amazon Alexa and Google Assistant.[26] Nabu Casa, Inc. was formed in September 2018 to take over this subscription service.[27] The company's funding is based solely on revenue from the \"Home Assistant Cloud\" subscription service. The money earned is used to finance the project's infrastructure and to pay for full-time employees contributing to the Home Assistant and ESPHome projects.[28]In January 2020, branding was adjusted to make it easier to refer to different parts of the project. The main piece of software was renamed Home Assistant Core, while the full suite of software with the Hass.io embedded operating system with a bundled \"supervisor\" management system was renamed Home Assistant (though it is also commonly referred to as \"HAOS\" as in short for \"Home Assistant OS\").[29]In the beginning of January 2021, Home Assistant made a public service announcement, disclosing vulnerabilities with its third-party custom integrations.[30] Later in January 2021, it made a second security disclosure about a security vulnerability.[31]In April 2024, ownership of the Home Assistant source code and brand name was transferred to the newly created \"Open Home Foundation\" non-profit organization. The founder of Home Assistant made statements in the announcement that this transfer of ownership and change in governance should mean no practical change to its developers or users as it was primarily done to ensure that Home Assistant source code will remain a free and open-source software and with a continued focus on privacy and local control. Statements in the press release also included secondary plans and goals of making Home Assistant transition from an enthusiast platform to a mainstream consumer product. Ownership of many of the open-source libraries that Home Assistant uses as dependencies and other related entities was also transferred to the Open Home Foundation non-profit organization.[32][33][34][35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"single-board computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-board_computer"},{"link_name":"Hardkernel ODROID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODROID"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"Asus Tinkerboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Tinker_Board"},{"link_name":"Intel NUC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_NUC"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"virtual 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Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"microSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroSD"},{"link_name":"eMMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMMC"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Assistant-36"},{"link_name":"gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_converter"},{"link_name":"Zigbee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee"},{"link_name":"Z-Wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-Wave"},{"link_name":"GPIO (Serial/I2C/SMBus)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_input/output"},{"link_name":"UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UART"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"cloud services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto11-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"ODROID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODROID"},{"link_name":"computer appliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_appliance"},{"link_name":"bundled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundled_software"},{"link_name":"eMMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMMC"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Crowd Supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_Supply"},{"link_name":"computer-on-modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-on-module"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 (CM4)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"M.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2"},{"link_name":"NVMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVM_Express"},{"link_name":"SSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"AI accelerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_accelerator"},{"link_name":"EFR32 based radio module made by Silicon Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFM32"},{"link_name":"Zigbee Coordinator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee"},{"link_name":"Thread Leader (Thread Border Router)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(network_protocol)"},{"link_name":"PoE (Power over Ethernet)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_over_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"HDMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI"},{"link_name":"DisplayPort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DisplayPort"},{"link_name":"headless system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headless_system"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"USB 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_3.0"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Hardware","text":"Home Assistant is supported and can be installed on multiple platforms. Pre-installed hardware appliances are also available for purchase from a few different manufacturers. Compatible hardware platforms include single-board computers (for example Hardkernel ODROID, Raspberry Pi, Asus Tinkerboard, Intel NUC), operating systems like Windows, macOS, Linux as well as virtual machines and NAS systems.[36] Windows support is via a Windows VM or installing the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL).[37][38]On officially supported hardware platforms like the ODROID N2+ and Raspberry Pi 3/4 single-board computers, the installation requires flashing a corresponding system image onto a microSD card, eMMC, or other local storage from which the system can boot.[36] It is possible to use Home Assistant as a gateway or bridge for devices using different IoT technologies like Zigbee or Z-Wave; necessary hardware can be mounted onto GPIO (Serial/I2C/SMBus), UART, or using USB ports.[39][40] Moreover, it can connect directly or indirectly to local IoT devices, control hubs/gateways/bridges or cloud services from many different vendors, including other open and closed smart home ecosystems.[41][42][43][44]In December 2020, a customized ODROID N2+ computer appliance with bundled software was introduced under the product name \"Home Assistant Blue\" as an officially supported common hardware reference platform. The same package is also referred to as \"ODROID-N2+ Home Assistant Bundle\" when sold without the official custom-made enclosure. It comes with Home Assistant OS pre-installed on local eMMC storage, a power-adapter, and a custom Home Assistant themed enclosure. Home Assistant founders made it clear that the release of official hardware would not keep them from supporting other hardware platforms like the Raspberry Pi series.[45][46]In September 2021, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced a crowdfunding campaign on Crowd Supply for pre-orders of \"Home Assistant Yellow\" (initially called \"Home Assistant Amber\"), a new official home automation controller hardware platform with Home Assistant pre-installed, a spiritual successor to \"Home Assistant Blue\". \"Home Assistant Yellow\" is designed to be an appliance, and its internals are architected with a carrier board (or \"baseboard\") for a computer-on-modules compatible with the Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 (CM4) embedded computer as well as an integrated M.2 expansion slot meant for either an NVMe SSD as expanded storage or for an AI accelerator card, and an onboard EFR32 based radio module made by Silicon Labs capable of acting as a Zigbee Coordinator or Thread Leader (Thread Border Router), as well as optional variant with PoE (Power over Ethernet) support. The most otherwise notable features missing on \"Home Assistant Yellow\" are an HDMI or DisplayPort to connect a monitor, (which is likely due to it like most smart home hubs being purpose-built to act as a headless system), as well as lack of onboard Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and a USB 3.0 port by default. Shipping of \"Home Assistant Yellow\" is targeted for June 2022.[47][48]In June of 2022, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced their officially supported \"Home Assistant SkyConnect\", a multi-protocol IoT USB radio dongle capable of Zigbee and/or Thread low-power wireless protocols, that enable plug-and-play support for Home Assistant's built-in Zigbee gateway (the \"ZHA\" integration) and experimental Thread/Matter integrations.[49][50] That same initial SkyConnect USB radio dongle model has since been renamed to \"Home Assistant Connect ZBT-1\" in preparation of future IoT USB radio dongle models in the same series, where an upcoming Z-Wave dongle has been announced and planned for launch in the end of 2024.In September 2023, Home Assistant developers at Nabu Casa announced their officially supported \"Home Assistant Green\" as an entry-level computer appliance that is meant to make it easier for new users to get started with Home Assistant from scratch. It does however only feature an Ethernet port (for connection to the user's LAN) and two USB ports. That is, unlike the previous \"Home Assistant Yellow\" this new computer appliance does not include any built-in IoT radios for Zigbee and Thread low-power wireless protocols, so users wanting to connect such devices will need to buy separate USB radio dongles for each such protocol.[51][52]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dashboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dashboard_(business)"},{"link_name":"Ada Lovelace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_widget"},{"link_name":"Material Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_Design"},{"link_name":"GUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"}],"sub_title":"Dashboard","text":"The primary front-end dashboard system is called Lovelace (named after Ada Lovelace),[53] which offers different cards to display information and control devices. Cards can display information provided by a connected device or control a resource (lights, thermostats, and other devices). The interface design language is based on Material Design and can be customized using global themes. The GUI is customizable using the integrated editor or by modifying the underlying YAML code. Cards can be extended with custom resources, which are often created by community members.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"building automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_automation"},{"link_name":"alarm management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm_management"},{"link_name":"security alarms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_alarm"},{"link_name":"video surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_surveillance"},{"link_name":"home security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_security"},{"link_name":"energy measuring devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_energy_monitor"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"Automation","text":"Home Assistant acts as a central smart home controller hub by combining different devices and services in a single place and integrating them as entities. The provided rule-based system for automation allows creating custom routines based on a trigger event, conditions and actions, including scripts. These enable building automation, alarm management of security alarms and video surveillance for home security system as well as monitoring of energy measuring devices.[54][55][56][57] Since December 2020, it is possible to use automation blueprints - pre-made automation from the community that can be easily added to an existing system.[58]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"on-premises software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-premises_software"},{"link_name":"proprietary hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_hardware"},{"link_name":"cloud-services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto3-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto5-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto6-5"},{"link_name":"two-factor authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-factor_authentication"},{"link_name":"directory traversal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_traversal_attack"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"Home Assistant is an on-premises software product with a focus on local control, which has been described as beneficial to the security of the platform, specifically when compared to closed-source home automation software based on proprietary hardware and cloud-services.[2][3][4][5]There is no remote access enabled by default and data is stored solely on the device itself. User accounts can be secured with two-factor authentication to prevent access even if the user password becomes compromised. Add-ons receive a security rating based on their access to system resources.In January 2021, cybersecurity analyst Oriel Goel found a directory traversal security vulnerability in third party custom integrations. The issue was disclosed on January 22, 2021, and addressed in Home Assistant version 2021.1.5, released on January 23. There is no information about whether the vulnerability was exploited.[59][60]In March 2023, a full authentication bypass was discovered in Home Assistant, earning a CVE score of 10/10.[61] This security issue affected Home Assistant's default remote access solution, Nabu Casa, due to Nabu Casa's remote access security model that publicly exposes the local Home Assistant server to the public internet. This security issue allows bad actors full control of any Home Assistant server they can access due to the full auth bypass.[62]","title":"Security"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Let's Encrypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/home-assistant/addons/tree/master/letsencrypt"},{"link_name":"Let's Encrypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s_Encrypt"},{"link_name":"SSL certificates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSL_certificates"},{"link_name":"Samba Share","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/home-assistant/addons/tree/master/samba"},{"link_name":"Samba server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambar_Server"},{"link_name":"SSH Server & Terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/hassio-addons/addon-ssh"},{"link_name":"SSH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell"},{"link_name":"AdGuard Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/hassio-addons/addon-adguard-home"},{"link_name":"Vaultwarden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/hassio-addons/addon-bitwarden"},{"link_name":"Bitwarden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwarden"},{"link_name":"Homeway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//homeway.io/"},{"link_name":"Alexa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Alexa"},{"link_name":"Google Assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Assistant"}],"text":"Home Assistant provides an add-on functionality[63] where community developers can author add-ons to extend Home Assistant's functionality. The Docker image-based add-ons[64] can extend the functionality of Home Assistant or can be used to provide local services on the user's home network, such as ad-blockers, DNS servers, and more.Let's Encrypt - A Let's Encrypt add-on for Home Assistant that allows users to create SSL certificates.Samba Share - Allows users to start a local Samba server on their Home Assistant device, which allows file access via Windows Explorer.\nSSH Server & Terminal - Allows users to use a SSH terminal directly in Home Assistnat's UI. This add-on also optionally allows the setting up of an SSH server, allowing remote SSH access from any device.\nAdGuard Home - Allows users to run an AdGuard Home DNS server to enable DNS request filtering.\nVaultwarden - Allows users to run a private and local Bitwarden server for secure password managment.\nHomeway - Enables secure remote access to Home Assistant. Homeway also supports Alexa and Google Assistant integrations.","title":"Add-ons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"home automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automation"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-54"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-github-octoverse-2019-81"}],"text":"Home Assistant took second place in 2017[65] and 2018[66] for the Thomas Krenn Award (formerly Open Source Grant), later winning first place in 2019.[67] Home Assistant also won an DINACon award in 2018 for their \"Open Internet Award\" category,[68][69] as well as being a nominee for the same awards in 2013.[70]Home Assistant has been included in a number of product and platform comparisons, where, like many other non-commercial smart home hubs/gateways/bridges/controllers for home automation, it has often been criticized for forcing users into a tedious file-based setup procedure using text-based YAML markup-language instead of graphical user interfaces.[71][72][73][54][74] However, newer versions of Home Assistant produced by the core development team make the configuration (from initial installation as well as most basic configurations) more user-friendly by allowing configuration using the web-based graphical user interface as well as the original YAML scripting.[75][76][77][78][79][80] GitHub's \"State of the Octoverse\" in 2019 listed Home Assistant as the tenth biggest open-source project on its platform with 6,300 contributors.[81]","title":"Awards, reception and reviews"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"List of home automation software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_automation_software"},{"title":"List of automation protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automation_protocols"},{"title":"Index of home automation articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_home_automation_articles"},{"title":"Smart home hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_home_hub"},{"title":"Smart speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_speaker"},{"title":"Virtual assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_assistant"},{"title":"Home automation for the elderly and disabled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automation_for_the_elderly_and_disabled"},{"title":"Access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"title":"Smart lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_lock"},{"title":"Smart device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_device"},{"title":"Web of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Things"},{"title":"Smart environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_environment"},{"title":"Smart grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_grid"},{"title":"Home server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_server"},{"title":"Home network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_network"},{"title":"Matter (standard)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_(standard)"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"home-assistant/core/releases/tag/2024.6.3\". 15 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/home-assistant/core/releases/tag/2024.6.3","url_text":"\"home-assistant/core/releases/tag/2024.6.3\""}]},{"reference":"\"No Privacy Compromise Home Automation\". Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200925035221/https://www.jupiterbroadcasting.com/115566/no-privacy-compromise-home-automation/","url_text":"\"No Privacy Compromise Home Automation\""},{"url":"https://www.jupiterbroadcasting.com/115566/no-privacy-compromise-home-automation/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Home Assistant lets you automate your smart home without giving up privacy\". The Ambient. 10 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.the-ambient.com/features/home-assistant-automation-privacy-582","url_text":"\"Home Assistant lets you automate your smart home without giving up privacy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Secure home automation, without clouds or dedicated hubs\". 20 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://linuxgizmos.com/secure-home-automation-without-clouds-or-dedicated-hubs/","url_text":"\"Secure home automation, without clouds or dedicated hubs\""}]},{"reference":"Greenberg, Andy (20 July 2016). \"Now You Can Hide Your Smart Home on the Darknet\". Wired – via www.wired.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2016/07/now-can-hide-smart-home-darknet/","url_text":"\"Now You Can Hide Your Smart Home on the Darknet\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is Home Assistant, how does it work, and what do you need to get started?)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pocket-lint.com/what-is-home-assistant-how-does-it-work/","url_text":"\"What is Home Assistant, how does it work, and what do you need to get started?)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The 10 Best Home Assistant Devices Of 2023, Ranked)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.slashgear.com/1368219/best-home-assistant-devices-2023/","url_text":"\"The 10 Best Home Assistant Devices Of 2023, Ranked)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The best home automation systems: Compare SmartThings, Apple HomeKit, Amazon Alexa, and more)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/home-and-office/smart-home/best-home-automation-system/","url_text":"\"The best home automation systems: Compare SmartThings, Apple HomeKit, Amazon Alexa, and more)\""}]},{"reference":"Alex Kretzschmar - Mar 31, 2021 11:30 am UTC (31 March 2021). \"How to achieve smart home nirvana (or, home automation without subscription)\". 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They're the best part of my smart home)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The best smart plugs in 2024)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engadget.com/best-smart-plug-131542429.html","url_text":"\"The best smart plugs in 2024)\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Best Smart Garage Door Opener Controller)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-smart-garage-door-controller/","url_text":"\"The Best Smart Garage Door Opener Controller)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Android's built-in smart home controls now work with Home Assistant)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.androidpolice.com/home-assistant-android-device-controls/","url_text":"\"Android's built-in smart home controls now work with Home Assistant)\""}]},{"reference":"\"MyQ no longer works with any of the major smart home platforms. Fortunately, there are alternatives.)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/23949612/chamberlain-myq-smart-garage-door-controller-homebridge-integrations","url_text":"\"MyQ no longer works with any of the major smart home platforms. Fortunately, there are alternatives.)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Haier hits Home Assistant plugin dev with takedown notice)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/haier-hits-home-assistant-plugin-dev-with-takedown-notice/","url_text":"\"Haier hits Home Assistant plugin dev with takedown notice)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Magical Smart Home Upgrade Lets Muggles Control Their Homes With a Wand Too\". 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|
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They're the best part of my smart home)\""},{"Link":"https://www.engadget.com/best-smart-plug-131542429.html","external_links_name":"\"The best smart plugs in 2024)\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/best-smart-garage-door-controller/","external_links_name":"\"The Best Smart Garage Door Opener Controller)\""},{"Link":"https://www.androidpolice.com/home-assistant-android-device-controls/","external_links_name":"\"Android's built-in smart home controls now work with Home Assistant)\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/23949612/chamberlain-myq-smart-garage-door-controller-homebridge-integrations","external_links_name":"\"MyQ no longer works with any of the major smart home platforms. 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpaywall
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OurResearch
|
["1 Services","1.1 ImpactStory","1.2 Unpaywall","1.3 GetTheResearch.org","1.4 Unsub","1.5 OpenAlex","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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Nonprofit organization
OurResearchLogo of OurResearchFormation2011; 13 years ago (2011)FounderJason PriemHeather PiwowarTypeNonprofit OrganizationTax ID no. 46-1599252Legal status501(c)(3) organizationHeadquartersSanford, NCLocationVancouverServicesUnpaywall, Unsub, OpenAlex, ImpactStory, DepsyWebsiteourresearch.orgFormerly calledImpactStory
OurResearch, formerly known as ImpactStory, is a nonprofit organization that creates and distributes tools and services for libraries, institutions and researchers. The organization follows open practices with their data (to the extent allowed by providers' terms of service), code, and governance. OurResearch is funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and Arcadia Fund.
Services
ImpactStory
ImpactStory is the first open source, web-based tool released by OurResearch. It provides altmetrics to help researchers measure the impacts of their research outputs including journal articles, blog posts, datasets, and software. This aims to change the focus of the scholarly reward system to value and encourage web-native scholarship.
It provides context to its metrics so that they are meaningful without knowledge of the specific dataset: for example, instead of letting the reader guess whether having five forks on GitHub is common, ImpactStory would tell that the repository is in the 95th percentile of all GitHub repositories created that year.
The metrics provided by ImpactStory can be used by researchers who want to know how many times their work has been downloaded and shared, and also research funders who are interested in the impact of research beyond only considering citations to journal articles.
Unpaywall
Unpaywall, begun as an interface for oaDOI.org, is a browser extension which finds legal free versions of (paywalled) scholarly articles. In July 2018, Unpaywall was reported to provide free access to 20 million articles, which accounts for about 47% of the articles that people search for with Unpaywall. As of 2024, Unpaywall claims to provide access to 49 million free articles. It further states that "Unpaywall users read 52% of research papers for free". In June 2017, it was integrated into Web of Science, and in July 2018, Elsevier announced plans the same month to integrate the service into the Scopus search engine.
GetTheResearch.org
In 2019, GetTheResearch.org was announced as a search engine for open access content found by Unpaywall, with machine learning features to facilitate discoverability.
Unsub
Unsub, previously Unpaywall Journals, was launched in 2019 as a data analysis tool for libraries to estimate the actual cost and value of their subscriptions.
The tool reduces information asymmetry in negotiations over subscriptions with publishers: in its paid tailored version, it allows to merge Unpaywall data about open access status and expected evolution in 5 years, article processing charges, usage statistics and the libraries' own parameters (such as the cost of ILL) to calculate various indicators including the cost effectiveness or net cost per use of a current or planned subscription (or lack thereof).
Unpaywall Journals was used in 2020 by the SUNY Libraries Consortium to assist in the cancellation of their big deal with Elsevier, which was replaced by a subscription to 248 titles, allowing expected savings of 50–70% over the baseline, or 5 to 7 million dollars per year.
OpenAlex
Demo of the OpenAlex user interface as of March 2024
OpenAlex is an open catalog of scholarly papers, authors, institutions, and more. OpenAlex launched in January 2022 with a free API and data snapshot. The purpose of OpenAlex is to catalog publication sources, author information, and research topics. It also shows connections between these data points to provide a comprehensive, interlinked view of the global research system. It is considered an alternative to the Microsoft Academic Graph, which retired on December 31, 2021.
OpenAlex contains extensive metadata across scientific works, authors, publication venues, institutions, and concepts. Specifically, it includes metadata for 209 million works such as journal articles and books; 13 million authors with disambiguated identities; metadata for 124,000 venues that host works, including journals and online repositories; metadata for 109,000 institutions; and 65,000 concepts from Wikidata, which are algorithmically linked to works using an automated hierarchical multi-tag classifier.
See also
Scihub
#ICanHazPDF
Library Genesis
Open Access Button
References
^ a b c Else, Holly (15 August 2018). "How Unpaywall is transforming open science". Nature. 560 (7718): 290–291. Bibcode:2018Natur.560..290E. doi:10.1038/D41586-018-05968-3. PMID 30111793.
^ "Entry of Impactstory in GuideStar". GuideStar. Archived from the original on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
^ "ImpactStory total-impact". GitHub. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "Sloan Foundation grant submitted". ImpactStory blog. 1 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "About". ImpactStory. Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "ImpactStory awarded $300k NSF grant!". ImpactStory. 27 September 2013. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
^ "This tool is saving universities millions of dollars in journal subscriptions". Science | AAAS. July 9, 2020. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
^ "Impactstory awarded $850k to build open-access, AI-powered scholarly search engine, aims to help public find and understand research" (PDF). ImpactStory. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2019.
^ Priem, Jason; Heather Piwowar (25 September 2012). "The launch of ImpactStory: using altmetrics to tell data-driven stories". Impact of Social Sciences. LSE. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "ImpactStory adds figshare integration". Research Information. 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ Eisen, Jonathan (29 November 2012). "Playing with Impact Story to look at Alt Metrics for my papers, data, etc". The Tree of Life. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
^ "Paste in a DOI". oaDOI. Impactstory. 23 October 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-10-23. Retrieved 23 October 2022. Leap over tall paywalls in a single bound.
^ "About". oaDOI. Impactstory. 31 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2016-10-23. Retrieved 23 October 2022. We look for open copies of articles using the following data sources: ...
^ Coldewey, Devin (5 April 2017). "Unpaywall scours the web for free versions of scientific papers". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
^ Chawla, Dalmeet Singh (4 April 2017). "Unpaywall finds free versions of paywalled papers". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.21765. S2CID 86694031.
^ Doctorow, Cory (6 February 2018). "Unpaywall: a search-engine for authorized, freely accessible versions of scholarly journal articles". Boing Boing. Archived from the original on 2018-08-16. Retrieved 2018-08-16.
^ "Unpaywall". unpaywall.org. Retrieved 2024-04-24.
^ "Unpaywall". unpaywall.org. Retrieved 2024-04-24.
^ "Get The Research". gettheresearch.org. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
^ Price, Gary (15 May 2019). "Impactstory Announces Beta Release of "Get The Research" Search Engine". LJ infoDOCKET. Archived from the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2020-04-25.
^ "Unsub". unsub.org. Archived from the original on 2021-01-22. Retrieved 2021-01-16.
^ Lisa Janicke Hinchliffe (2020-05-19). "Taking a Big Bite Out of the Big Deal". The Scholarly Kitchen. Archived from the original on 2020-05-25. Retrieved 2020-05-19.
^ Piwowar, Heather (2019-11-26). "Unpaywall". Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3553751. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
^ Ian Mulvany (2019-11-06). "Unpaywall Journals - possibly the most interesting thing to happen this year in library subscription land". ScholCommsProd. Archived from the original on 2020-04-22. Retrieved 2020-04-25.
^ Piwowar, Heather; Priem, Jason; Orr, Richard (2019-10-09). "The Future of OA: A large-scale analysis projecting Open Access publication and readership". bioRxiv: 795310. doi:10.1101/795310. S2CID 208591684. Archived from the original on 2020-03-10. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
^ Piwowar, Heather (7 Jan 2020). "Configuration settings". Unpaywall. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^ Piwowar, Heather (25 Feb 2020). "Overview". Unpaywall. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^ Piwowar, Heather (14 Jan 2020). "Description of data fields". Unpaywall. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^ Piwowar, Heather (8 Jan 2020). "Cost Effectiveness (NCPPU)". Unpaywall. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
^ Wolfe, Denise (April 7, 2020). "SUNY Negotiates New, Modified Agreement with Elsevier". Libraries News Center University at Buffalo Libraries. Archived from the original on 2020-05-14. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
^ Pritting, Shannon (April 7, 2020). "Elsevier Update". SUNY Libraries Consortium. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
^ "OpenAlex". Retrieved 2022-01-16.
^ Piwowar, Heather (2022-01-06). "OpenAlex launch!". OurResearch blog.
^ Singh Chawla, Dalmeet (2022-01-24). "Massive open index of scholarly papers launches". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-00138-y. PMID 35075274. S2CID 246278314.
^ "Next Steps for Microsoft Academic - Expanding into New Horizons". Microsoft Research. 4 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-28.
^ "Fossil-record bias and huge research database". Nature. 601 (7893): 303. 2022-01-20. Bibcode:2022Natur.601..303.. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-00103-9. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 256820124.
^ Priem, Jason; Piwowar, Heather; Orr, Richard (2022). "OpenAlex: A fully-open index of scholarly works, authors, venues, institutions, and concepts". arXiv:2205.01833 .
Further reading
Dhakal, Kerry (15 April 2019). "Unpaywall". Journal of the Medical Library Association. 107 (2): 286–288. doi:10.5195/jmla.2019.650. PMC 6466485.
External links
Official website
Unpaywall
|
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engine.[1]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"discoverability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"GetTheResearch.org","text":"In 2019, GetTheResearch.org[19] was announced as a search engine for open access content found by Unpaywall, with machine learning features to facilitate discoverability.[20]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"data 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statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_COUNTER"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"ILL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter_Library_Loan"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"SUNY Libraries Consortium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUNY_Libraries_Consortium"},{"link_name":"big deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_deal_(subscription_model)"},{"link_name":"Elsevier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Unsub","text":"Unsub,[21] previously Unpaywall Journals,[22] was launched in 2019[23] as a data analysis tool for libraries to estimate the actual cost and value of their subscriptions.[24]The tool reduces information asymmetry in negotiations over subscriptions with publishers: in its paid tailored version, it allows to merge Unpaywall data about open access status and expected evolution in 5 years,[25] article processing charges, usage statistics and the libraries' own parameters[26] (such as the cost of ILL[27]) to calculate various indicators[28] including the cost effectiveness or net cost per use[29] of a current or planned subscription (or lack thereof).Unpaywall Journals was used in 2020 by the SUNY Libraries Consortium to assist in the cancellation of their big deal with Elsevier, which was replaced by a subscription to 248 titles,[30] allowing expected savings of 50–70% over the baseline, or 5 to 7 million dollars per year.[31]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"OpenAlex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAlex"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Wikidata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikidata"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"OpenAlex","text":"Demo of the OpenAlex user interface as of March 2024OpenAlex[32] is an open catalog of scholarly papers, authors, institutions, and more. OpenAlex launched in January 2022 with a free API and data snapshot.[33] The purpose of OpenAlex is to catalog publication sources, author information, and research topics. It also shows connections between these data points to provide a comprehensive, interlinked view of the global research system.[34] It is considered an alternative to the Microsoft Academic Graph, which retired on December 31, 2021.[35][36]OpenAlex contains extensive metadata across scientific works, authors, publication venues, institutions, and concepts. Specifically, it includes metadata for 209 million works such as journal articles and books; 13 million authors with disambiguated identities; metadata for 124,000 venues that host works, including journals and online repositories; metadata for 109,000 institutions; and 65,000 concepts from Wikidata, which are algorithmically linked to works using an automated hierarchical multi-tag classifier.[37]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Unpaywall\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6466485"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.5195/jmla.2019.650","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.5195%2Fjmla.2019.650"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"6466485","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6466485"}],"text":"Dhakal, Kerry (15 April 2019). \"Unpaywall\". Journal of the Medical Library Association. 107 (2): 286–288. doi:10.5195/jmla.2019.650. PMC 6466485.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Demo of the OpenAlex user interface as of March 2024"}]
|
[{"title":"Scihub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scihub"},{"title":"#ICanHazPDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICanHazPDF"},{"title":"Library Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_Genesis"},{"title":"Open Access Button","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Access_Button"}]
|
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S2CID 256820124.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-00103-9","url_text":"\"Fossil-record bias and huge research database\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.601..303.","url_text":"2022Natur.601..303."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-022-00103-9","url_text":"10.1038/d41586-022-00103-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836","url_text":"0028-0836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256820124","url_text":"256820124"}]},{"reference":"Priem, Jason; Piwowar, Heather; Orr, Richard (2022). \"OpenAlex: A fully-open index of scholarly works, authors, venues, institutions, and concepts\". arXiv:2205.01833 [cs.DL].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.01833","url_text":"2205.01833"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.DL","url_text":"cs.DL"}]},{"reference":"Dhakal, Kerry (15 April 2019). \"Unpaywall\". Journal of the Medical Library Association. 107 (2): 286–288. doi:10.5195/jmla.2019.650. PMC 6466485.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6466485","url_text":"\"Unpaywall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5195%2Fjmla.2019.650","url_text":"10.5195/jmla.2019.650"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6466485","url_text":"6466485"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepaths
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Telepathy
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["1 Origins of the concept","2 Thought reading","3 Case studies","4 In parapsychology","4.1 Types","4.2 Zener cards","4.3 Dream telepathy","4.4 Ganzfeld experiment","4.5 Twin telepathy","5 Scientific reception","6 Psychiatry","7 Use in fiction","8 See also","9 Notes","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
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Psychic ability
For other uses, see Telepathy (disambiguation).
The Ganzfeld experiments that aimed to demonstrate telepathy have been criticized for lack of replication and poor controls.
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vte
Telepathy (from Ancient Greek τῆλε (têle) 'distant', and πάθος/-πάθεια (páthos/-pátheia) 'feeling, perception, passion, affliction, experience') is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), and has remained more popular than the earlier expression thought-transference.
Telepathy experiments have historically been criticized for a lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no good evidence that telepathy exists, and the topic is generally considered by the scientific community to be pseudoscience. Telepathy is a common theme in science fiction.
Origins of the concept
According to historians such as Roger Luckhurst and Janet Oppenheim the origin of the concept of telepathy in Western civilization can be traced to the late 19th century and the formation of the Society for Psychical Research. As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g., animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help to understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this context.
Psychical researcher Eric Dingwall criticized SPR founding members Frederic W. H. Myers and William F. Barrett for trying to "prove" telepathy rather than objectively analyze whether or not it existed.
Thought reading
In the late 19th century, the magician and mentalist, Washington Irving Bishop would perform "thought reading" demonstrations. Bishop claimed no supernatural powers and ascribed his powers to muscular sensitivity (reading thoughts from unconscious bodily cues). Bishop was investigated by a group of scientists including the editor of the British Medical Journal and the psychologist Francis Galton. Bishop performed several feats successfully such as correctly identifying a selected spot on a table and locating a hidden object. During the experiment, Bishop required physical contact with a subject who knew the correct answer. He would hold the hand or wrist of the helper. The scientists concluded that Bishop was not a genuine telepath but using a highly trained skill to detect ideomotor movements.
Another famous thought reader was the magician Stuart Cumberland. He was famous for performing blindfolded feats such as identifying a hidden object in a room that a person had picked out or asking someone to imagine a murder scene and then attempt to read the subject's thoughts and identify the victim and reenact the crime. Cumberland claimed to possess no genuine psychic ability and his thought-reading performances could only be demonstrated by holding the hand of his subject to read their muscular movements. He came into dispute with psychical researchers associated with the Society for Psychical Research who were searching for genuine cases of telepathy. Cumberland argued that both telepathy and communication with the dead were impossible and that the mind of man cannot be read through telepathy, but only by muscle reading.
Case studies
Gilbert Murray conducted early telepathy experiments.
In the late 19th century the Creery Sisters (Mary, Alice, Maud, Kathleen, and Emily) were tested by the Society for Psychical Research and believed to have genuine psychic ability. However, during a later experiment they were caught utilizing signal codes and they confessed to fraud. George Albert Smith and Douglas Blackburn were claimed to be genuine psychics by the Society for Psychical Research but Blackburn confessed to fraud:
For nearly thirty years the telepathic experiments conducted by Mr. G. A. Smith and myself have been accepted and cited as the basic evidence of the truth of thought transference...
...the whole of those alleged experiments were bogus, and originated in the honest desire of two youths to show how easily men of scientific mind and training could be deceived when seeking for evidence in support of a theory they were wishful to establish.
Between 1916 and 1924, Gilbert Murray conducted 236 experiments into telepathy and reported 36% as successful. However, it was suggested that the results could be explained by hyperaesthesia as he could hear what was being said by the sender. Psychologist Leonard T. Troland had carried out experiments in telepathy at Harvard University which were reported in 1917. The subjects produced below chance expectations.
Arthur Conan Doyle and W. T. Stead were duped into believing Julius and Agnes Zancig had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that Zancigs performed telepathy. In 1924, Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their mind reading act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of Our Secrets!! in a London newspaper.
In 1924, Robert H. Gault of Northwestern University with Gardner Murphy conducted the first American radio test for telepathy. The results were entirely negative. One of their experiments involved the attempted thought transmission of a chosen number between one and one-thousand. Out of 2,010 replies, none was correct. This is below the theoretical chance figure of two correct replies in such a situation.
In February 1927, with the co-operation of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), V. J. Woolley who was at the time the Research Officer for the SPR, arranged a telepathy experiment in which radio listeners were asked to take part. The experiment involved 'agents' thinking about five selected objects in an office at Tavistock Square, whilst listeners on the radio were asked to identify the objects from the BBC studio at Savoy Hill. 24,659 answers were received. The results revealed no evidence of telepathy.
A famous experiment in telepathy was recorded by the American author Upton Sinclair in his book Mental Radio which documents Sinclair's test of psychic abilities of Mary Craig Sinclair, his second wife. She attempted to duplicate 290 pictures which were drawn by her husband. Sinclair claimed Mary successfully duplicated 65 of them, with 155 "partial successes" and 70 failures. However, these experiments were not conducted in a controlled scientific laboratory environment. Science writer Martin Gardner suggested that the possibility of sensory leakage during the experiment had not been ruled out:
In the first place, an intuitive wife, who knows her husband intimately, may be able to guess with a fair degree of accuracy what he is likely to draw—particularly if the picture is related to some freshly recalled event the two experienced in common. At first, simple pictures like chairs and tables would likely predominate, but as these are exhausted, the field of choice narrows and pictures are more likely to be suggested by recent experiences. It is also possible that Sinclair may have given conversational hints during some of the tests—hints which in his strong will to believe, he would promptly forget about. Also, one must not rule out the possibility that in many tests, made across the width of a room, Mrs. Sinclair may have seen the wiggling of the top of a pencil, or arm movements, which would convey to her unconscious a rough notion of the drawing.
Frederick Marion who was investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in the late 1930–1940s.
The Turner-Ownbey long distance telepathy experiment was discovered to contain flaws. May Frances Turner positioned herself in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory whilst Sara Ownbey claimed to receive transmissions 250 miles away. For the experiment Turner would think of a symbol and write it down whilst Ownbey would write her guesses. The scores were highly successful and both records were supposed to be sent to J. B. Rhine; however, Ownbey sent them to Turner. Critics pointed out this invalidated the results as she could have simply written her own record to agree with the other. When the experiment was repeated and the records were sent to Rhine the scores dropped to average.
Another example is the experiment carried out by the author Harold Sherman with the explorer Hubert Wilkins who carried out their own experiment in telepathy for five and a half months starting in October 1937. This took place when Sherman was in New York and Wilkins was in the Arctic. The experiment consisted of Sherman and Wilkins at the end of each day to relax and visualise a mental image or "thought impression" of the events or thoughts they had experienced in the day and then to record those images and thoughts on paper in a diary. The results at the end when comparing Sherman's and Wilkins' diaries were claimed to be more than 60 percent.
The full results of the experiments were published in 1942 in a book by Sherman and Wilkins titled Thoughts Through Space. In the book, both Sherman and Wilkins had written they believed they had demonstrated that it was possible to send and receive thought impressions from the mind of one person to another. The magician John Booth wrote that the experiment was not an example of telepathy as a high percentage of misses had occurred. Booth wrote it was more likely that the "hits" were the result of "coincidence, law of averages, subconscious expectancy, logical inference or a plain lucky guess". A review of their book in the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry cast doubt on their experiment, noting "the study was published five years after it was conducted, arouses suspicion on the validity of the conclusions.
In 1948, on the BBC radio Maurice Fogel made the claim that he could demonstrate telepathy. This intrigued the journalist Arthur Helliwell who wanted to discover his methods. He found that Fogel's mind reading acts were all based on trickery as he relied on information about members of his audience before the show started. Helliwell exposed Fogel's methods in a newspaper article. Although Fogel managed to fool some people into believing he could perform genuine telepathy, the majority of his audience knew he was a showman.
In a series of experiments Samuel Soal and his assistant K. M. Goldney examined 160 subjects over 128,000 trials and obtained no evidence for the existence of telepathy. Soal tested Basil Shackleton and Gloria Stewart between 1941 and 1943 in over five hundred sittings and over twenty thousand guesses. Shackleton scored 2890 compared with a chance expectation of 2308 and Gloria scored 9410 compared with a chance level of 7420. It was later discovered the results had been tampered with. Gretl Albert who was present during many of the experiments said she had witnessed Soal altering the records during the sessions. Betty Marwick discovered Soal had not used the method of random selection of numbers as he had claimed. Marwick showed that there had been manipulation of the score sheets and all experiments reported by Soal had thereby become discredited.
In 1979 the physicists John G. Taylor and Eduardo Balanovski wrote the only scientifically feasible explanation for telepathy could be electromagnetism (EM) involving EM fields. In a series of experiments the EM levels were many orders of magnitude lower than calculated and no paranormal effects were observed. Both Taylor and Balanovski wrote their results were a strong argument against the validity of telepathy.
Research in anomalistic psychology has discovered that in some cases telepathy can be explained by a covariation bias. In an experiment (Schienle et al. 1996) 22 believers and 20 skeptics were asked to judge the covariation between transmitted symbols and the corresponding feedback given by a receiver. According to the results the believers overestimated the number of successful transmissions whilst the skeptics made accurate hit judgments. The results from another telepathy experiment involving 48 undergraduate college students (Rudski, 2002) were explained by hindsight and confirmation biases.
In parapsychology
Within parapsychology, telepathy, often along with precognition and clairvoyance, is described as an aspect of extrasensory perception (ESP) or "anomalous cognition" that parapsychologists believe is transferred through a hypothetical psychic mechanism they call "psi". Parapsychologists have reported experiments they use to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use of Zener cards and the Ganzfeld experiment.
Types
Several forms of telepathy have been suggested:
Latent telepathy, formerly known as "deferred telepathy", describes a transfer of information with an observable time-lag between transmission and reception.
Retrocognitive, precognitive, and intuitive telepathy describes the transfer of information about the past, future or present state of an individual's mind to another individual.
Emotive telepathy, also known as remote influence or emotional transfer, describes the transfer of kinesthetic sensations through altered states.
Superconscious telepathy describes use of the supposed superconscious to access the collective wisdom of the human species for knowledge.
Zener cards
Main article: Zener cards
Zener cards
Zener cards are marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the "sender" and another the "receiver". The sender selects a random card and visualizes the symbol on it, while the receiver attempts to determine that symbol telepathically. Statistically, the receiver has a 20% chance of randomly guessing the correct symbol, so to demonstrate telepathy, they must repeatedly score a success rate that is significantly higher than 20%. If not conducted properly, this method is vulnerable to sensory leakage and card counting.
J. B. Rhine's experiments with Zener cards were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues. Once Rhine took precautions in response to criticisms of his methods, he was unable to find any high-scoring subjects. Due to the methodological problems, parapsychologists no longer utilize card-guessing studies.
Dream telepathy
Parapsychological studies into dream telepathy were carried out at the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York led by Stanley Krippner and Montague Ullman. They concluded the results from some of their experiments supported dream telepathy. However, the results have not been independently replicated. The psychologist James Alcock has written the dream telepathy experiments at Maimonides have failed to provide evidence for telepathy and "lack of replication is rampant."
The picture target experiments that were conducted by Krippner and Ullman were criticized by C. E. M. Hansel. According to Hansel there were weaknesses in the design of the experiments in the way in which the agent became aware of their target picture. Only the agent should have known the target and no other person until the judging of targets had been completed, however, an experimenter was with the agent when the target envelope was opened. Hansel also wrote there had been poor controls in the experiment as the main experimenter could communicate with the subject.
An attempt to replicate the experiments that used picture targets was carried out by Edward Belvedere and David Foulkes. The finding was that neither the subject nor the judges matched the targets with dreams above chance level. Results from other experiments by Belvedere and Foulkes were also negative.
Ganzfeld experiment
When using the Ganzfeld experiment to test for telepathy, one individual is designated as the receiver and is placed inside a controlled environment where they are deprived of sensory input, and another person is designated as the sender and is placed in a separate location. The receiver is then required to receive information from the sender. The nature of the information may vary between experiments.
The Ganzfeld experiment studies that were examined by Ray Hyman and Charles Honorton had methodological problems that were well documented. Honorton reported only 36% of the studies used duplicate target sets of pictures to avoid handling cues. Hyman discovered flaws in all of the 42 Ganzfeld experiments and to access each experiment, he devised a set of 12 categories of flaws. Six of these concerned statistical defects, the other six covered procedural flaws such as inadequate documentation, randomization and security as well as possibilities of sensory leakage. Over half of the studies failed to safeguard against sensory leakage and all of the studies contained at least one of the 12 flaws. Because of the flaws, Honorton agreed with Hyman the 42 Ganzfeld studies could not support the claim for the existence of psi.
Possibilities of sensory leakage in the Ganzfeld experiments included the receivers hearing what was going on in the sender's room next door as the rooms were not soundproof and the sender's fingerprints to be visible on the target object for the receiver to see.
Hyman also reviewed the autoganzfeld experiments and discovered a pattern in the data that implied a visual cue may have taken place:
The most suspicious pattern was that the hit rate for a given target increased with the frequency of occurrence of that target in the experiment. The hit rate for the targets that occurred only once was right at the chance expectation of 25%. For targets that appeared twice the hit rate crept up to 28%. For those that occurred three times it was 38%, and for those targets that occurred six or more times, the hit rate was 52%. Each time a videotape is played its quality can degrade. It is plausible then, that when a frequently used clip is the target for a given session, it may be physically distinguishable from the other three decoy clips that are presented to the subject for judging. Surprisingly, the parapsychological community has not taken this finding seriously. They still include the autoganzfeld series in their meta-analyses and treat it as convincing evidence for the reality of psi.
Hyman wrote the autoganzfeld experiments were flawed because they did not preclude the possibility of sensory leakage. In 2010, Lance Storm, Patrizio Tressoldi, and Lorenzo Di Risio analyzed 29 ganzfeld studies from 1997 to 2008. Of the 1,498 trials, 483 produced hits, corresponding to a hit rate of 32.2%. This hit rate is statistically significant with p < .001. Participants selected for personality traits and personal characteristics thought to be psi-conducive were found to perform significantly better than unselected participants in the ganzfeld condition. Hyman (2010) published a rebuttal to Storm et al. According to Hyman "reliance on meta-analysis as the sole basis for justifying the claim that an anomaly exists and that the evidence for it is consistent and replicable is fallacious. It distorts what scientists mean by confirmatory evidence." Hyman wrote the ganzfeld studies have not been independently replicated and have failed to produce evidence for telepathy. Storm et al. published a response to Hyman claiming the ganzfeld experimental design has proved to be consistent and reliable but parapsychology is a struggling discipline that has not received much attention so further research on the subject is necessary. Rouder et al. 2013 wrote that critical evaluation of Storm et al.'s meta-analysis reveals no evidence for telepathy, no plausible mechanism and omitted replication failures. A 2016 paper examined questionable research practices in the ganzfeld experiments.
Twin telepathy
Twin telepathy is a belief that has been described as a myth in psychological literature. Psychologists Stephen Hupp and Jeremy Jewell have noted that all experiments on the subject have failed to provide any scientific evidence for telepathy between twins. According to Hupp and Jewell there are various behavioral and genetic factors that contribute to the twin telepathy myth "identical twins typically spend a lot of time together and are usually exposed to very similar environments. Thus, it's not at all surprising that they act in similar ways and are adept at anticipating and forecasting each other's reactions to events."
A 1993 study by Susan Blackmore investigated the claims of twin telepathy. In an experiment with six sets of twins one subject would act as the sender and the other the receiver. The sender was given selected objects, photographs or numbers and would attempt to psychically send the information to the receiver. The results from the experiment were negative, no evidence of telepathy was observed.
The skeptical investigator Benjamin Radford has noted that "Despite decades of research trying to prove telepathy, there is no credible scientific evidence that psychic powers exist, either in the general population or among twins specifically. The idea that two people who shared their mother's womb—or even who share the same DNA—have a mysterious mental connection is an intriguing one not borne out in science."
Scientific reception
A variety of tests have been performed to demonstrate telepathy, but there is no scientific evidence that the power exists. A panel commissioned by the United States National Research Council to study paranormal claims concluded that "despite a 130-year record of scientific research on such matters, our committee could find no scientific justification for the existence of phenomena such as extrasensory perception, mental telepathy or 'mind over matter' exercises... Evaluation of a large body of the best available evidence simply does not support the contention that these phenomena exist." The scientific community considers parapsychology a pseudoscience. There is no known mechanism for telepathy. Philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge has written that telepathy would contradict laws of science and the claim that "signals can be transmitted across space without fading with distance is inconsistent with physics".
Physicist John Taylor has written that the experiments that have been claimed by parapsychologists to support evidence for the existence of telepathy are based on the use of shaky statistical analysis and poor design, and attempts to duplicate such experiments by the scientific community have failed. Taylor also wrote the arguments used by parapsychologists for the feasibility of such phenomena are based on distortions of theoretical physics as well as "complete ignorance" of relevant areas of physics.
Psychologist Stuart Sutherland wrote that cases of telepathy can be explained by people underestimating the probability of coincidences. According to Sutherland, "most stories about this phenomenon concern people who are close to one another—husband and wife or brother and sister. Since such people have much in common, it is highly probable that they will sometimes think the same thought at the same time." Graham Reed, a specialist in anomalistic psychology, noted that experiments into telepathy often involve the subject relaxing and reporting the 'messages' to consist of colored geometric shapes. Reed wrote that these are a common type of hypnagogic image and not evidence for telepathic communication.
Outside of parapsychology, telepathy is generally explained as the result of fraud, self-delusion and/or self-deception and not as a paranormal power. Psychological research has also revealed other explanations such as confirmation bias, expectancy bias, sensory leakage, subjective validation, and wishful thinking. Virtually all of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena, such as mediumship, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading. Magicians such as Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, albeit without claiming paranormal skills. They have identified, described, and developed psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading.
Psychiatry
The notion of telepathy is not dissimilar to three clinical concepts: delusions of thought insertion/removal and thought broadcasting. This similarity might explain how an individual might come to the conclusion that he or she were experiencing telepathy. Thought insertion/removal is a symptom of psychosis, particularly of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder or substance-induced psychosis. Psychiatric patients who experience this symptom falsely believe that some of their thoughts are not their own and that others (e.g., other people, aliens, demons or fallen angels, or conspiring intelligence agencies, or artificial intelligences) are putting thoughts into their minds (thought insertion). Some patients feel as if thoughts are being taken out of their minds or deleted (thought removal). Schizophrenic patients suffering from the form of alleged telepathy known as thought broadcasting believe that their private thoughts are being broadcast to other people against their informed consent. Along with other symptoms of psychosis, delusions of thought insertion may be reduced by antipsychotic medication. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists believe and empirical findings support the idea that people with schizotypy and schizotypal personality disorder are particularly likely to believe in telepathy.
Use in fiction
See also the categories Fiction about telepathy and Fictional telepaths
Telepathy is a common theme in science fiction.
See also
Brain–brain interface
Extended Mind, the concept that things frequently used by the mind become part of it.
Ishin-denshin, traditional Japanese concept of unspoken mutual understanding, sometimes translated as "telepathy".
Lady Wonder, a horse that appeared to answer questions.
Microwave auditory effect for hearing and subvocal recognition for speaking.
Synthetic telepathy
Notes
^ Marks, David; Kammann, Richard. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. pp. 97–106. ISBN 1573927988
^ Hyman, Ray. Evaluating Parapsychological Claims. In Robert J. Sternberg, Henry L. Roediger, Diane F. Halpern. (2007). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–231. ISBN 978-0521608343
^ "telepathy". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.
^ Following the model of sympathy and empathy.
^ Hamilton, Trevor (2009). Immortal Longings: F.W.H. Myers and the Victorian search for life after death. Imprint Academic. p. 121. ISBN 978-1845402488.
^ a b
Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). "The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy". Skepdic.com. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
^ a b c d Glossary of Parapsychological terms – Telepathy Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine – Parapsychological Association. Retrieved December 19, 2006.
^ a b Felix Planer. (1980). Superstition. Cassell. p. 218. ISBN 0304306916 "Many experiments have attempted to bring scientific methods to bear on the investigation of the subject. Their results based on literally millions of tests, have made it abundantly clear that there exists no such phenomenon as telepathy, and that the seemingly successful scores have relied either on illusion, or on deception."
^ a b Jan Dalkvist (1994). Telepathic Group Communication of Emotions as a Function of Belief in Telepathy. Dept. of Psychology, Stockholm University. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Within the scientific community however, the claim that psi anomalies exist or may exist is in general regarded with skepticism. One reason for this difference between the scientist and the non scientist is that the former relies on his own experiences and anecdotal reports of psi phenomena, whereas the scientist at least officially requires replicable results from well controlled experiments to believe in such phenomena—results which according to the prevailing view among scientists, do not exist.
^ Willem B. Drees (28 November 1998). Religion, Science and Naturalism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0521645621. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Let me take the example of claims in parapsychology regarding telepathy across spatial or temporal distances, apparently without a mediating physical process. Such claims are at odds with the scientific consensus.
^ Spencer Rathus. (2011). Psychology: Concepts and Connections. Cengage Learning. p. 143. ISBN 978-1111344856 "There is no adequate scientific evidence that people can read other people's minds. Research has not identified one single indisputable telepath or clairvoyant."
^ Oppenheim, Janet. (1985). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–249. ISBN 978-0521265058
^ a b Luckhurst, Roger. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy, 1870–1901. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–51. ISBN 978-0199249626
^ Dingwall, Eric. (1985). The Need for Responsibility in Parapsychology: My Sixty Years in Psychical Research. In A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 161–174. ISBN 0879753005 "Let me give an example, such as thought-transference, which is as good as any. When the British SPR was founded, the public was led to believe that at least a scientific survey was to be made, and I have no doubt that even some of those closely associated with the early days thought so too. But Myers, among others, had no such intention and cherished no such illusion. He knew that the primary aim of the Society was not objective experimentation but the establishment of telepathy. (...) What was wanted was proof that mind could communicate with mind apart from the normal avenues, for if mental sharing was a fact when the persons concerned were incarnate it could plausibly be suggested that the same mechanism might operate when death had occurred. Thus the supernatural might be proved by science, and psychical research might become, in the words of Sir William Barrett, a handmaid to religion."
^ Roger Luckhurst. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy: 18701901. Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0199249626
^ Richard Wiseman. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. pp. 140–142. ISBN 978-0230752986
^ Thurschwell, Pamela (2004). "Chapter 4: George Eliot's Prophecies: Coercive Second Sight and Everyday Though Reading". In Nicola Bown; Carolyn Burdett; Pamela Thurschwell; Gillian Beer (eds.). The Victorian Supernatural. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–108. ISBN 978-0521810159.
^ Ray Hyman. (1989). The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research. Prometheus Books. pp. 99–106
^ Gordon Stein. (1996). The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 688
^ Neher, Andrew. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. p. 220. ISBN 0486261670
^ Payne, Kenneth Wilcox. (1928). Is Telepathy all Bunk? Popular Science Monthly. p. 119
^ Couttie, Bob. (1988). Forbidden Knowledge: The Paranormal Paradox. Lutterworth Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0718826864 "In the early 1900s Gilbert Murray, who died in 1957, carried out some experiments in ESP in which he was in one room and the sender in a hallway, often with an open door between them. These experiments were successful. Most of the time the target was spoken aloud. When it was not, there were negative results. This is suggestive of a hyperacuity of hearing, especially since on at least one occasion Murray complained about noise coming from a milk-cart in the street next to the one in which the experiments were being carried out."
^ Mauskopf, Seymour H; McVaugh, Michael Rogers. (1980). The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-0801823312
^ Zusne, Leonard; Jones, Warren H. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. p. 155. ISBN 978-0805805079
^ Anderson, Rodger. (2006). Psychics, Sensitives and Somnambules: A Biographical Dictionary with Bibliographies. McFarland. p. 126. ISBN 0786427701
^ Christopher, Milbourne. (1971). ESP, Seers & Psychics. Crowell. p. 19. ISBN 978-0690268157
^ Berger, Arthur S. (1988). Lives and Letters in American Parapsychology: A Biographical History, 1850–1897. McFarland. p. 66. ISBN 0899503454
^ Luckhurst, Roger. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy: 1870–1901. Oxford University Press. p. 269. ISBN 978-0199249626
^ Hannan, Caryn. (2008 edition). Connecticut Biographical Dictionary. State History Publications. p. 526. ISBN 1878592726 "On his return to Harvard in 1916, one of his first enterprises was an investigation of telepathy in the psychology laboratory, which gave negative results."
^ Asprem, Egil. (2014). The Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900–1939. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 362–364. ISBN 978-9004251922
^ John Booth. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 8
^ Gault, Robert H. (August, 1924). Telepathy Put to the Test. Popular Science. pp. 114–115
^ Mauskopf, Seymour H; McVaugh, Michael Rogers. (1980). The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 36–38. ISBN 978-0801823312
^ Edmunds, Simeon. (1965). Miracles of the Mind: An Introduction to Parapsychology. C. C. Thomas. pp. 26–28
^ a b Martin Gardner, Fads & Fallacies in the Name of Science (Courier Dover Publications, 1957) Chapter 25: ESP and PK, available online; accessed July 25, 2010.
^ a b John Sladek. (1974). The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Sciences and Occult Beliefs. Panther. pp. 172–174
^ Bergen Evans. (1954). The Spoor of Spooks: And Other Nonsense. Knopf. p. 24
^ C. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. pp. 56–58. ISBN 0879755164
^ Simon Nasht. (2006). The Last Explorer: Hubert Wilkins, Hero of the Great Age of Polar Exploration. Arcade Publishing. pp. 267–268
^ Hubert Wilkins, Harold Sherman. (2004). Thoughts through Space: A Remarkable Adventure in the Realm of Mind. Hampton Roads Publishing. ISBN 1571743146
^ John Booth. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 69
^ Steiner, Lee R. (1942). Review of Thoughts Through Space. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 12 (4): 745.
^ Lamont, Peter. (2013). Extraordinary Beliefs: A Historical Approach to a Psychological Problem. Cambridge University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-1107019331
^ a b Lawrie Reznek. (2010). Delusions and the Madness of the Masses. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers . pp. 54–55
^ C. E. M. Hansel. (1980). ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Reevaluation. Prometheus Books. p. 165
^ Betty Markwick. (1985). The establishment of data manipulation in the Soal-Shackleton experiments. In Paul Kurtz. A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 287–312
^ Taylor, J. G; Balanovski, E. (1979). "Is There Any Scientific Explanation of the Paranormal?". Nature. 279 (5714): 631–633. Bibcode:1979Natur.279..631T. doi:10.1038/279631a0. PMID 450111. S2CID 2885230.
^ Schienle, A.; Vaitl, D.; Stark, R. (1996). "Covariation bias and paranormal belief". Psychological Reports. 78 (1): 291–305. doi:10.2466/pr0.1996.78.1.291. PMID 8839320. S2CID 34062201.
^ Rudski, J. M. (2002). "Hindsight and confirmation biases in an exercise in telepathy". Psychological Reports. 91 (3): 899–906. doi:10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3.899. PMID 12530740. S2CID 24242574.
^ Glossary of Parapsychological terms – ESP Archived 2011-01-11 at the Wayback Machine, Parapsychological Association. Retrieved December 19, 2006.
^ Rennie, John (1845), "Test for Telepathy", Scientific American, V3#1 (1847-09-25)
^ Plazo, Joseph R., (2002) "Psychic Seduction." pp. 112–114 ISBN 0978592239
^ St. Claire, David., (1989) "Instant ESP." pp. 40–50
^ a b Carroll, Robert (2006-02-17). "Zener ESP Cards". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-07-18.
^ Jonathan C. Smith. (2009). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405181228. "Today, researchers discount the first decade of Rhine's work with Zener cards. Stimulus leakage or cheating could account for all his findings. Slight indentations on the backs of cards revealed the symbols embossed on card faces. Subjects could see and hear the experimenter, and note subtle but revealing facial expressions or changes in breathing."
^ Milbourne Christopher. (1970). ESP, Seers & Psychics. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. p. 28
^ James Alcock. (2011). Back from the Future: Parapsychology and the Bem Affair. Skeptical Inquirer. "Despite Rhine's confidence that he had established the reality of extrasensory perception, he had not done so. Methodological problems with his experiments eventually came to light, and as a result parapsychologists no longer run card-guessing studies and rarely even refer to Rhine's work."
^ Ullman, Montague (2003). "Dream telepathy: experimental and clinical findings". In Totton, Nick (ed.). Psychoanalysis and the paranormal: lands of darkness. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Karnac Books. pp. 14–46. ISBN 978-1855759855.
^ Parker, Adrian. (1975). States of Mind: ESP and Altered States of Consciousness. Taplinger. p. 90. ISBN 0800873742
^ Clemmer, E. J. (1986). "Not so anomalous observations question ESP in dreams". American Psychologist. 41 (10): 1173–1174. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1173.b.
^ Hyman, Ray. (1986). "Maimonides dream-telepathy experiments". Skeptical Inquirer 11: 91–92.
^ Neher, Andrew. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. p. 145. ISBN 0486261670
^ James, Alcock (2003). "Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance: Reasons to Remain Doubtful about the Existence of Psi". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 10: 29–50.
^ Hansel, C. E. M. The Search for a Demonstration of ESP. In Kurtz, Paul. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 97–127. ISBN 0879753005
^ Belvedere, E.; Foulkes, D. (1971). "Telepathy and Dreams: A Failure to Replicate". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 33 (3): 783–789. doi:10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783. PMID 4331356. S2CID 974894.
^ Hansel, C. E. M. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. pp. 141–152. ISBN 0879755164
^ The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0062515020
^ Julie Milton, Richard Wiseman. (2002). A Response to Storm and Ertel (2002). The Journal of Parapsychology. Volume 66: 183–186.
^ a b c d Ray Hyman. Evaluating Parapsychological Claims in Robert J. Sternberg, Henry L. Roediger, Diane F. Halpern. (2007). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–231. ISBN 978-0521608343
^ Richard Wiseman, Matthew Smith, Diana Kornbrot. (1996). Assessing possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld. Journal of Parapsychology. Volume 60: 97–128.
^ Robert Todd Carroll. (2014). "Ganzfeld" in The Skeptic's Dictionary.
^
Storm, Lance; Tressoldi, Patrizio E.; Di Risio, Lorenzo (July 2010). "Meta-Analysis of Free-Response Studies, 1992–2008: Assessing the Noise Reduction Model in Parapsychology" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 471–85. doi:10.1037/a0019457. PMID 20565164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
^ Hyman, R. (2010). Meta-analysis that conceals more than it reveals: Comment on Storm et al Archived 2013-11-03 at the Wayback Machine. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 136. pp. 486–490.
^ Storm, L.; Tressoldi, P. E.; Di Risio, L. (2010). "A meta-analysis with nothing to hide: Reply to Hyman (2010)". Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 491–494. doi:10.1037/a0019840. PMID 20565166. S2CID 21103309.
^ Rouder, J. N.; Morey, R. D.; Province, J. M. (2013). "A Bayes factor meta-analysis of recent extrasensory perception experiments: Comment on Storm, Tressoldi, and Di Risio (2010)". Psychological Bulletin. 139 (1): 241–247. doi:10.1037/a0029008. PMID 23294092.
^ Bierman, DJ; Spottiswoode, JP; Bijl, A (2016), "Testing for Questionable Research Practices in a Meta-Analysis: An Example from Experimental Parapsychology", PLOS ONE, 11 (5): 1, Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153049B, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153049, PMC 4856278, PMID 27144889, We consider in the context of a meta-analysis database of Ganzfeld–telepathy experiments from the field of experimental parapsychology. The Ganzfeld database is particularly suitable for this study, because the parapsychological phenomenon it investigates is widely believed to be nonexistent.
^ a b Hupp, Stephen; Jewell, Jeremy. (2015). Great Myths of Child Development. Wiley. pp. 10–16. ISBN 978-1118521229
^ Wiseman, Richard. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. p. 54. ISBN 978-0230752986
^ "The Riddle of Twin Telepathy". Retrieved 2014-06-06.
^ Simon Hoggart, Mike Hutchinson. (1995). Bizarre Beliefs. Richard Cohen Books. p. 145. ISBN 978-1573921565 "The trouble is that the history of research into psi is littered with failed experiments, ambiguous experiments, and experiments which are claimed as great successes but are quickly rejected by conventional scientists. There has also been some spectacular cheating."
^ Robert Cogan. (1998). Critical Thinking: Step by Step. University Press of America. p. 227. ISBN 978-0761810674 "When an experiment can't be repeated and get the same result, this tends to show that the result was due to some error in experimental procedure, rather than some real causal process. ESP experiments simply have not turned up any repeatable paranormal phenomena."
^ Terence Hines. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-1573929790 "It is important to realize that, in one hundred years of parapsychological investigations, there has never been a single adequate demonstration of the reality of any psi phenomenon."
^ Thomas Gilovich. (1993). How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life. Free Press. p. 160
^ Daisie Radner, Michael Radner. (1982). Science and Unreason. Wadsworth. pp. 38–66. ISBN 0534011535
^ Bunge, Mario (1987). "Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 10 (4): 576–577. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00054595.
^ Michael W. Friedlander. (1998). At the Fringes of Science. Westview Press. p. 119. ISBN 0813322006 "Parapsychology has failed to gain general scientific acceptance even for its improved methods and claimed successes, and it is still treated with a lopsided ambivalence among the scientific community. Most scientists write it off as pseudoscience unworthy of their time."
^ Massimo Pigliucci, Maarten Boudry. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. University Of Chicago Press p. 158. ISBN 978-0226051963 "Many observers refer to the field as a "pseudoscience". When mainstream scientists say that the field of parapsychology is not scientific, they mean that no satisfying naturalistic cause-and-effect explanation for these supposed effects has yet been proposed and that the field's experiments cannot be consistently replicated."
^ Charles M. Wynn, Arthur W. Wiggins. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0309073097 "One of the reasons scientists have difficulty believing that psi effects are real is that there is no known mechanism by which they could occur. PK action-at-a-distance would presumably employ an action-at-a-distance force that is as yet unknown to science... Similarly, there is no known sense (stimulation and receptor) by which thoughts could travel from one person to another by which the mind could project itself elsewhere in the present, future, or past."
^ Mario Bunge. (1983). Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World. Springer. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-9027716347
"Precognition violates the principle of antecedence ("causality"), according to which the effect does not happen before the cause. Psychokinesis violates the principle of conservation of energy as well as the postulate that mind cannot act directly on matter. (If it did no experimenter could trust his own readings of his instruments.) Telepathy and precognition are incompatible with the epistemological principle according to which the gaining of factual knowledge requires sense perception at some point."
"Parapsychology makes no use of any knowledge gained in other fields, such as physics and physiological psychology. Moreover, its hypotheses are inconsistent with some basic assumptions of factual science. In particular, the very idea of a disembodied mental entity is incompatible with physiological psychology; and the claim that signals can be transmitted across space without fading with distance is inconsistent with physics."
^ John Taylor. (1980). Science and the Supernatural: An Investigation of Paranormal Phenomena Including Psychic Healing, Clairvoyance, Telepathy, and Precognition by a Distinguished Physicist and Mathematician. Temple Smith. p. 84. ISBN 0851171915.
^ Sutherland, Stuart. (1994). Irrationality: The Enemy Within. p. 314. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140167269
^ Graham Reed. (1988). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience. Prometheus Books. pp. 38–42. ISBN 0879754354
^ Skepdic.com on ESP. Retrieved February 22, 2007.
^ Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0805805086
^ Ian Rowland. (1998). The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. Ian Rowland Limited: 4th Revised edition. ISBN 978-0955847608
^ Derren Brown. (2007). Tricks of the Mind. Channel 4: New edition. ISBN 978-1905026357
^ Richard Noll. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders. Facts on File. p. 359. ISBN 978-0816064052
^ Graham Pickup. (2006). Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. Volume 11, Number 2, Number 2/March 2006. pp. 117–192
^ Andrew Gumley, Matthias Schwannauer. (2006). Staying Well After Psychosis: A Cognitive Interpersonal Approach to Recovery and Relapse Prevention. Wiley. p. 187. ISBN 978-0470021859 "Schizotypy refers to a normal personality construct characterised by an enduring tendency to experience attenuated forms of hallucinatory (e.g. hearing one's own thoughts) and delusional experiences (e.g. beliefs in telepathy)."
^ Mary Townsend. (2013). Essentials of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: Concepts of Care in Evidence-Based Practice. F. A. Davis Company. p. 613. ISBN 978-0803638761 "Individuals with schizotypal personality disorder are aloof and isolated and behave in a bland and apathetic manner. Magical thinking, ideas of reference, illusions, and depersonalization are part of their everybody world. Examples include superstitiousness, belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or "six sense;" and beliefs that "others can feel my feelings."
^ Langford, David; Nicholls, Peter; Stableford, Brian (2021). "Telepathy". In Clute, John; Langford, David; Sleight, Graham (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (4th ed.). Retrieved 2024-03-30.
Further reading
James Alcock. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or Magic? A Psychological Perspective. Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080257720
Whately Carington. (1945). Telepathy: An Outline of its Facts, Theory, and Implications. Methuen & Co.
Bergen Evans. (1954). The Spoor of Spooks: And Other Nonsense. Knopf.
C. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879755164
Walter Mann. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co. Chapter XII. pp. 131–191.
David Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic (2nd Edition). Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573927988
Kenneth Wilcox Payne. (1928). Is Telepathy All Bunk? Popular Science.
Felix Planer. (1980). Superstition. Cassell. ISBN 0304306916
Graham Reed. (1988). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879754354
Stuart Sutherland. (1994). Irrationality: The Enemy Within. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140167269
External links
The Intuitive Magician Archived 2021-07-20 at the Wayback Machine Bruce Hood
Telepathy – Skeptic's Dictionary
Soal-Goldney Experiment – a critical evaluation of the Soal-Goldney Experiment, which claimed to prove the existence of telepathy
Dream and Telepathy – article in Science and Psychoanalysis
vteParapsychologyOutlineTopics
Apparitional experience
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|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Telepathy (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ganzfeld.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ganzfeld experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganzfeld_experiment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"τῆλε","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%E1%BF%86%CE%BB%CE%B5#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"πάθος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"-πάθεια","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"feeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling"},{"link_name":"perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passion_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"affliction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering"},{"link_name":"experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"vicarious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicariousness"},{"link_name":"Frederic W. H. Myers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_William_Henry_Myers"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hamilton121-5"},{"link_name":"Society for Psychical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-skepdic1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-skepdic1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parasocie1-7"},{"link_name":"scientific community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community"},{"link_name":"pseudoscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Planer1980-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dalkvist1994-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Drees1998-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"}],"text":"For other uses, see Telepathy (disambiguation).The Ganzfeld experiments that aimed to demonstrate telepathy have been criticized for lack of replication and poor controls.[1][2]Telepathy (from Ancient Greek τῆλε (têle) 'distant', and πάθος/-πάθεια (páthos/-pátheia) 'feeling, perception, passion, affliction, experience')[3][4] is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic W. H. Myers,[5] a founder of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR),[6] and has remained more popular than the earlier expression thought-transference.[6][7]Telepathy experiments have historically been criticized for a lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no good evidence that telepathy exists, and the topic is generally considered by the scientific community to be pseudoscience.[8][9][10][11] Telepathy is a common theme in science fiction.","title":"Telepathy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roger Luckhurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Luckhurst"},{"link_name":"Janet Oppenheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Oppenheim"},{"link_name":"Western civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture"},{"link_name":"Society for Psychical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luckhurst2002-13"},{"link_name":"animal magnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_magnetism"},{"link_name":"paranormal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luckhurst2002-13"},{"link_name":"Eric Dingwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Dingwall"},{"link_name":"Frederic W. H. Myers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_William_Henry_Myers"},{"link_name":"William F. Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_F._Barrett"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"According to historians such as Roger Luckhurst and Janet Oppenheim the origin of the concept of telepathy in Western civilization can be traced to the late 19th century and the formation of the Society for Psychical Research.[12][13] As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g., animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help to understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this context.[13]Psychical researcher Eric Dingwall criticized SPR founding members Frederic W. H. Myers and William F. Barrett for trying to \"prove\" telepathy rather than objectively analyze whether or not it existed.[14]","title":"Origins of the concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington Irving Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Irving_Bishop"},{"link_name":"supernatural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural"},{"link_name":"muscular sensitivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_reading"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"British Medical Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Medical_Journal"},{"link_name":"Francis Galton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton"},{"link_name":"ideomotor movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideomotor_phenomenon"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Stuart Cumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Cumberland"},{"link_name":"blindfolded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindfold"},{"link_name":"Society for Psychical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research"},{"link_name":"muscle reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_reading"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BownBeer2004-17"}],"text":"In the late 19th century, the magician and mentalist, Washington Irving Bishop would perform \"thought reading\" demonstrations. Bishop claimed no supernatural powers and ascribed his powers to muscular sensitivity (reading thoughts from unconscious bodily cues).[15] Bishop was investigated by a group of scientists including the editor of the British Medical Journal and the psychologist Francis Galton. Bishop performed several feats successfully such as correctly identifying a selected spot on a table and locating a hidden object. During the experiment, Bishop required physical contact with a subject who knew the correct answer. He would hold the hand or wrist of the helper. The scientists concluded that Bishop was not a genuine telepath but using a highly trained skill to detect ideomotor movements.[16]Another famous thought reader was the magician Stuart Cumberland. He was famous for performing blindfolded feats such as identifying a hidden object in a room that a person had picked out or asking someone to imagine a murder scene and then attempt to read the subject's thoughts and identify the victim and reenact the crime. Cumberland claimed to possess no genuine psychic ability and his thought-reading performances could only be demonstrated by holding the hand of his subject to read their muscular movements. He came into dispute with psychical researchers associated with the Society for Psychical Research who were searching for genuine cases of telepathy. Cumberland argued that both telepathy and communication with the dead were impossible and that the mind of man cannot be read through telepathy, but only by muscle reading.[17]","title":"Thought reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gilbert_Murray.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Murray"},{"link_name":"Society for Psychical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research"},{"link_name":"fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraud"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"George Albert Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Albert_Smith_(film_pioneer)"},{"link_name":"Douglas Blackburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Blackburn"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Murray"},{"link_name":"hyperaesthesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaesthesia"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Leonard T. Troland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_T._Troland"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Arthur Conan Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle"},{"link_name":"W. T. Stead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomas_Stead"},{"link_name":"Julius and Agnes Zancig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_and_Agnes_Zancig"},{"link_name":"mind reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentalism"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Northwestern University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University"},{"link_name":"Gardner Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardner_Murphy"},{"link_name":"theoretical chance figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"British Broadcasting Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Tavistock Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavistock_Square"},{"link_name":"Savoy Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy_Hill"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Upton Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upton_Sinclair"},{"link_name":"Mental Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Radio"},{"link_name":"Mary Craig Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Craig_Sinclair"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gardner1957-35"},{"link_name":"Martin Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Gardner"},{"link_name":"sensory leakage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_leakage"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gardner1957-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Marion_mentalist.png"},{"link_name":"Frederick Marion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Marion&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Society for Psychical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sladek_1974-36"},{"link_name":"J. B. Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._Rhine"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sladek_1974-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Harold Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Sherman"},{"link_name":"Hubert Wilkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Wilkins"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"John Booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Booth_(magician)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Orthopsychiatry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Orthopsychiatry"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Maurice Fogel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Fogel"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamont_2013-43"},{"link_name":"Samuel Soal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Soal"},{"link_name":"K. M. Goldney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._M._Goldney"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reznek_2010-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reznek_2010-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"John G. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Taylor"},{"link_name":"EM fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"anomalistic psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology"},{"link_name":"covariation bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"hindsight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindsight_bias"},{"link_name":"confirmation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"text":"Gilbert Murray conducted early telepathy experiments.In the late 19th century the Creery Sisters (Mary, Alice, Maud, Kathleen, and Emily) were tested by the Society for Psychical Research and believed to have genuine psychic ability. However, during a later experiment they were caught utilizing signal codes and they confessed to fraud.[18][19] George Albert Smith and Douglas Blackburn were claimed to be genuine psychics by the Society for Psychical Research but Blackburn confessed to fraud:For nearly thirty years the telepathic experiments conducted by Mr. G. A. Smith and myself have been accepted and cited as the basic evidence of the truth of thought transference...\n...the whole of those alleged experiments were bogus, and originated in the honest desire of two youths to show how easily men of scientific mind and training could be deceived when seeking for evidence in support of a theory they were wishful to establish.[20]Between 1916 and 1924, Gilbert Murray conducted 236 experiments into telepathy and reported 36% as successful. However, it was suggested that the results could be explained by hyperaesthesia as he could hear what was being said by the sender.[21][22][23][24][25] Psychologist Leonard T. Troland had carried out experiments in telepathy at Harvard University which were reported in 1917.[26][27][28][29] The subjects produced below chance expectations.[30]Arthur Conan Doyle and W. T. Stead were duped into believing Julius and Agnes Zancig had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that Zancigs performed telepathy. In 1924, Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their mind reading act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of Our Secrets!! in a London newspaper.[31]In 1924, Robert H. Gault of Northwestern University with Gardner Murphy conducted the first American radio test for telepathy. The results were entirely negative. One of their experiments involved the attempted thought transmission of a chosen number between one and one-thousand. Out of 2,010 replies, none was correct. This is below the theoretical chance figure of two correct replies in such a situation.[32]In February 1927, with the co-operation of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), V. J. Woolley who was at the time the Research Officer for the SPR, arranged a telepathy experiment in which radio listeners were asked to take part. The experiment involved 'agents' thinking about five selected objects in an office at Tavistock Square, whilst listeners on the radio were asked to identify the objects from the BBC studio at Savoy Hill. 24,659 answers were received. The results revealed no evidence of telepathy.[33][34]A famous experiment in telepathy was recorded by the American author Upton Sinclair in his book Mental Radio which documents Sinclair's test of psychic abilities of Mary Craig Sinclair, his second wife. She attempted to duplicate 290 pictures which were drawn by her husband. Sinclair claimed Mary successfully duplicated 65 of them, with 155 \"partial successes\" and 70 failures. However, these experiments were not conducted in a controlled scientific laboratory environment.[35] Science writer Martin Gardner suggested that the possibility of sensory leakage during the experiment had not been ruled out:In the first place, an intuitive wife, who knows her husband intimately, may be able to guess with a fair degree of accuracy what he is likely to draw—particularly if the picture is related to some freshly recalled event the two experienced in common. At first, simple pictures like chairs and tables would likely predominate, but as these are exhausted, the field of choice narrows and pictures are more likely to be suggested by recent experiences. It is also possible that Sinclair may have given conversational hints during some of the tests—hints which in his strong will to believe, he would promptly forget about. Also, one must not rule out the possibility that in many tests, made across the width of a room, Mrs. Sinclair may have seen the wiggling of the top of a pencil, or arm movements, which would convey to her unconscious a rough notion of the drawing.[35]Frederick Marion who was investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in the late 1930–1940s.The Turner-Ownbey long distance telepathy experiment was discovered to contain flaws. May Frances Turner positioned herself in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory whilst Sara Ownbey claimed to receive transmissions 250 miles away. For the experiment Turner would think of a symbol and write it down whilst Ownbey would write her guesses.[36] The scores were highly successful and both records were supposed to be sent to J. B. Rhine; however, Ownbey sent them to Turner. Critics pointed out this invalidated the results as she could have simply written her own record to agree with the other. When the experiment was repeated and the records were sent to Rhine the scores dropped to average.[36][37][38]Another example is the experiment carried out by the author Harold Sherman with the explorer Hubert Wilkins who carried out their own experiment in telepathy for five and a half months starting in October 1937. This took place when Sherman was in New York and Wilkins was in the Arctic. The experiment consisted of Sherman and Wilkins at the end of each day to relax and visualise a mental image or \"thought impression\" of the events or thoughts they had experienced in the day and then to record those images and thoughts on paper in a diary. The results at the end when comparing Sherman's and Wilkins' diaries were claimed to be more than 60 percent.[39]The full results of the experiments were published in 1942 in a book by Sherman and Wilkins titled Thoughts Through Space. In the book, both Sherman and Wilkins had written they believed they had demonstrated that it was possible to send and receive thought impressions from the mind of one person to another.[40] The magician John Booth wrote that the experiment was not an example of telepathy as a high percentage of misses had occurred. Booth wrote it was more likely that the \"hits\" were the result of \"coincidence, law of averages, subconscious expectancy, logical inference or a plain lucky guess\".[41] A review of their book in the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry cast doubt on their experiment, noting \"the study was published five years after it was conducted, arouses suspicion on the validity of the conclusions.[42]In 1948, on the BBC radio Maurice Fogel made the claim that he could demonstrate telepathy. This intrigued the journalist Arthur Helliwell who wanted to discover his methods. He found that Fogel's mind reading acts were all based on trickery as he relied on information about members of his audience before the show started. Helliwell exposed Fogel's methods in a newspaper article. Although Fogel managed to fool some people into believing he could perform genuine telepathy, the majority of his audience knew he was a showman.[43]In a series of experiments Samuel Soal and his assistant K. M. Goldney examined 160 subjects over 128,000 trials and obtained no evidence for the existence of telepathy.[44] Soal tested Basil Shackleton and Gloria Stewart between 1941 and 1943 in over five hundred sittings and over twenty thousand guesses. Shackleton scored 2890 compared with a chance expectation of 2308 and Gloria scored 9410 compared with a chance level of 7420. It was later discovered the results had been tampered with. Gretl Albert who was present during many of the experiments said she had witnessed Soal altering the records during the sessions.[44] Betty Marwick discovered Soal had not used the method of random selection of numbers as he had claimed. Marwick showed that there had been manipulation of the score sheets and all experiments reported by Soal had thereby become discredited.[45][46]In 1979 the physicists John G. Taylor and Eduardo Balanovski wrote the only scientifically feasible explanation for telepathy could be electromagnetism (EM) involving EM fields. In a series of experiments the EM levels were many orders of magnitude lower than calculated and no paranormal effects were observed. Both Taylor and Balanovski wrote their results were a strong argument against the validity of telepathy.[47]Research in anomalistic psychology has discovered that in some cases telepathy can be explained by a covariation bias. In an experiment (Schienle et al. 1996) 22 believers and 20 skeptics were asked to judge the covariation between transmitted symbols and the corresponding feedback given by a receiver. According to the results the believers overestimated the number of successful transmissions whilst the skeptics made accurate hit judgments.[48] The results from another telepathy experiment involving 48 undergraduate college students (Rudski, 2002) were explained by hindsight and confirmation biases.[49]","title":"Case studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parapsychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology"},{"link_name":"precognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precognition"},{"link_name":"clairvoyance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyance"},{"link_name":"extrasensory perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrasensory_perception"},{"link_name":"psi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psi_(parapsychology)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parasoc2-50"},{"link_name":"Zener cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_card"},{"link_name":"Ganzfeld experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganzfeld_experiment"}],"text":"Within parapsychology, telepathy, often along with precognition and clairvoyance, is described as an aspect of extrasensory perception (ESP) or \"anomalous cognition\" that parapsychologists believe is transferred through a hypothetical psychic mechanism they call \"psi\".[50] Parapsychologists have reported experiments they use to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use of Zener cards and the Ganzfeld experiment.","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parasocie1-7"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sciam1-51"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parasocie1-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-parasocie1-7"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"superconscious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_unconscious"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Types","text":"Several forms of telepathy have been suggested:[7]Latent telepathy, formerly known as \"deferred telepathy\",[51] describes a transfer of information with an observable time-lag between transmission and reception.[7]\nRetrocognitive, precognitive, and intuitive telepathy describes the transfer of information about the past, future or present state of an individual's mind to another individual.[7]\nEmotive telepathy, also known as remote influence[52] or emotional transfer, describes the transfer of kinesthetic sensations through altered states.\nSuperconscious telepathy describes use of the supposed superconscious[53] to access the collective wisdom of the human species for knowledge.","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zener_cards_(color).svg"},{"link_name":"Zener cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_cards"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skepdic2-54"},{"link_name":"card counting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_counting"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skepdic2-54"},{"link_name":"J. B. Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Banks_Rhine"},{"link_name":"sensory leakage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_leakage"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Zener cards","text":"Zener cardsZener cards are marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the \"sender\" and another the \"receiver\". The sender selects a random card and visualizes the symbol on it, while the receiver attempts to determine that symbol telepathically. Statistically, the receiver has a 20% chance of randomly guessing the correct symbol, so to demonstrate telepathy, they must repeatedly score a success rate that is significantly higher than 20%.[54] If not conducted properly, this method is vulnerable to sensory leakage and card counting.[54]J. B. Rhine's experiments with Zener cards were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.[55] Once Rhine took precautions in response to criticisms of his methods, he was unable to find any high-scoring subjects.[56] Due to the methodological problems, parapsychologists no longer utilize card-guessing studies.[57]","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dream telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_telepathy"},{"link_name":"Maimonides Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"Stanley Krippner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Krippner"},{"link_name":"Montague Ullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague_Ullman"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ullmanweb-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"James Alcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Alcock"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"C. E. M. Hansel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._E._M._Hansel"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Dream telepathy","text":"Parapsychological studies into dream telepathy were carried out at the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York led by Stanley Krippner and Montague Ullman. They concluded the results from some of their experiments supported dream telepathy.[58] However, the results have not been independently replicated.[59][60][61][62] The psychologist James Alcock has written the dream telepathy experiments at Maimonides have failed to provide evidence for telepathy and \"lack of replication is rampant.\"[63]The picture target experiments that were conducted by Krippner and Ullman were criticized by C. E. M. Hansel. According to Hansel there were weaknesses in the design of the experiments in the way in which the agent became aware of their target picture. Only the agent should have known the target and no other person until the judging of targets had been completed, however, an experimenter was with the agent when the target envelope was opened. Hansel also wrote there had been poor controls in the experiment as the main experimenter could communicate with the subject.[64]An attempt to replicate the experiments that used picture targets was carried out by Edward Belvedere and David Foulkes. The finding was that neither the subject nor the judges matched the targets with dreams above chance level.[65] Results from other experiments by Belvedere and Foulkes were also negative.[66]","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ganzfeld experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganzfeld_experiment"},{"link_name":"deprived of sensory input","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_deprivation"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conscious_Universe-67"},{"link_name":"Ray Hyman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Hyman"},{"link_name":"Charles Honorton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Honorton"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"documentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentation"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyman2007-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyman2007-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyman2007-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hyman2007-69"},{"link_name":"statistically significant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StormEtAl2010-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"}],"sub_title":"Ganzfeld experiment","text":"When using the Ganzfeld experiment to test for telepathy, one individual is designated as the receiver and is placed inside a controlled environment where they are deprived of sensory input, and another person is designated as the sender and is placed in a separate location. The receiver is then required to receive information from the sender. The nature of the information may vary between experiments.[67]The Ganzfeld experiment studies that were examined by Ray Hyman and Charles Honorton had methodological problems that were well documented. Honorton reported only 36% of the studies used duplicate target sets of pictures to avoid handling cues.[68] Hyman discovered flaws in all of the 42 Ganzfeld experiments and to access each experiment, he devised a set of 12 categories of flaws. Six of these concerned statistical defects, the other six covered procedural flaws such as inadequate documentation, randomization and security as well as possibilities of sensory leakage.[69] Over half of the studies failed to safeguard against sensory leakage and all of the studies contained at least one of the 12 flaws. Because of the flaws, Honorton agreed with Hyman the 42 Ganzfeld studies could not support the claim for the existence of psi.[69]Possibilities of sensory leakage in the Ganzfeld experiments included the receivers hearing what was going on in the sender's room next door as the rooms were not soundproof and the sender's fingerprints to be visible on the target object for the receiver to see.[70][71]Hyman also reviewed the autoganzfeld experiments and discovered a pattern in the data that implied a visual cue may have taken place:The most suspicious pattern was that the hit rate for a given target increased with the frequency of occurrence of that target in the experiment. The hit rate for the targets that occurred only once was right at the chance expectation of 25%. For targets that appeared twice the hit rate crept up to 28%. For those that occurred three times it was 38%, and for those targets that occurred six or more times, the hit rate was 52%. Each time a videotape is played its quality can degrade. It is plausible then, that when a frequently used clip is the target for a given session, it may be physically distinguishable from the other three decoy clips that are presented to the subject for judging. Surprisingly, the parapsychological community has not taken this finding seriously. They still include the autoganzfeld series in their meta-analyses and treat it as convincing evidence for the reality of psi.[69]Hyman wrote the autoganzfeld experiments were flawed because they did not preclude the possibility of sensory leakage.[69] In 2010, Lance Storm, Patrizio Tressoldi, and Lorenzo Di Risio analyzed 29 ganzfeld studies from 1997 to 2008. Of the 1,498 trials, 483 produced hits, corresponding to a hit rate of 32.2%. This hit rate is statistically significant with p < .001. Participants selected for personality traits and personal characteristics thought to be psi-conducive were found to perform significantly better than unselected participants in the ganzfeld condition.[72] Hyman (2010) published a rebuttal to Storm et al. According to Hyman \"reliance on meta-analysis as the sole basis for justifying the claim that an anomaly exists and that the evidence for it is consistent and replicable is fallacious. It distorts what scientists mean by confirmatory evidence.\" Hyman wrote the ganzfeld studies have not been independently replicated and have failed to produce evidence for telepathy.[73] Storm et al. published a response to Hyman claiming the ganzfeld experimental design has proved to be consistent and reliable but parapsychology is a struggling discipline that has not received much attention so further research on the subject is necessary.[74] Rouder et al. 2013 wrote that critical evaluation of Storm et al.'s meta-analysis reveals no evidence for telepathy, no plausible mechanism and omitted replication failures.[75] A 2016 paper examined questionable research practices in the ganzfeld experiments.[76]","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"myth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth"},{"link_name":"twins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hupp_2015-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hupp_2015-77"},{"link_name":"Susan Blackmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Blackmore"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Radford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Radford"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"}],"sub_title":"Twin telepathy","text":"Twin telepathy is a belief that has been described as a myth in psychological literature. Psychologists Stephen Hupp and Jeremy Jewell have noted that all experiments on the subject have failed to provide any scientific evidence for telepathy between twins.[77] According to Hupp and Jewell there are various behavioral and genetic factors that contribute to the twin telepathy myth \"identical twins typically spend a lot of time together and are usually exposed to very similar environments. Thus, it's not at all surprising that they act in similar ways and are adept at anticipating and forecasting each other's reactions to events.\"[77]A 1993 study by Susan Blackmore investigated the claims of twin telepathy. In an experiment with six sets of twins one subject would act as the sender and the other the receiver. The sender was given selected objects, photographs or numbers and would attempt to psychically send the information to the receiver. The results from the experiment were negative, no evidence of telepathy was observed.[78]The skeptical investigator Benjamin Radford has noted that \"Despite decades of research trying to prove telepathy, there is no credible scientific evidence that psychic powers exist, either in the general population or among twins specifically. The idea that two people who shared their mother's womb—or even who share the same DNA—have a mysterious mental connection is an intriguing one not borne out in science.\"[79]","title":"In parapsychology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dalkvist1994-9"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"United States National Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"parapsychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Mario Bunge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Bunge"},{"link_name":"laws of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_science"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"John Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Taylor"},{"link_name":"theoretical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Stuart Sutherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Sutherland"},{"link_name":"coincidences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coincidence"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Graham Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Reed_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"anomalistic psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology"},{"link_name":"hypnagogic image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogia"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Planer1980-8"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"confirmation bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias"},{"link_name":"expectancy bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect"},{"link_name":"sensory leakage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_leakage"},{"link_name":"subjective validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_validation"},{"link_name":"wishful thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishful_thinking"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"mediumship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumship"},{"link_name":"cold reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_reading"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Ian Rowland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Rowland"},{"link_name":"Derren Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derren_Brown"},{"link_name":"hot reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_reading"}],"text":"A variety of tests have been performed to demonstrate telepathy, but there is no scientific evidence that the power exists.[9][80][81][82] A panel commissioned by the United States National Research Council to study paranormal claims concluded that \"despite a 130-year record of scientific research on such matters, our committee could find no scientific justification for the existence of phenomena such as extrasensory perception, mental telepathy or 'mind over matter' exercises... Evaluation of a large body of the best available evidence simply does not support the contention that these phenomena exist.\"[83] The scientific community considers parapsychology a pseudoscience.[84][85][86][87] There is no known mechanism for telepathy.[88] Philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge has written that telepathy would contradict laws of science and the claim that \"signals can be transmitted across space without fading with distance is inconsistent with physics\".[89]Physicist John Taylor has written that the experiments that have been claimed by parapsychologists to support evidence for the existence of telepathy are based on the use of shaky statistical analysis and poor design, and attempts to duplicate such experiments by the scientific community have failed. Taylor also wrote the arguments used by parapsychologists for the feasibility of such phenomena are based on distortions of theoretical physics as well as \"complete ignorance\" of relevant areas of physics.[90]Psychologist Stuart Sutherland wrote that cases of telepathy can be explained by people underestimating the probability of coincidences. According to Sutherland, \"most stories about this phenomenon concern people who are close to one another—husband and wife or brother and sister. Since such people have much in common, it is highly probable that they will sometimes think the same thought at the same time.\"[91] Graham Reed, a specialist in anomalistic psychology, noted that experiments into telepathy often involve the subject relaxing and reporting the 'messages' to consist of colored geometric shapes. Reed wrote that these are a common type of hypnagogic image and not evidence for telepathic communication.[92]Outside of parapsychology, telepathy is generally explained as the result of fraud, self-delusion and/or self-deception and not as a paranormal power.[8][93] Psychological research has also revealed other explanations such as confirmation bias, expectancy bias, sensory leakage, subjective validation, and wishful thinking.[94] Virtually all of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena, such as mediumship, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading.[95][96] Magicians such as Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, albeit without claiming paranormal skills. They have identified, described, and developed psychological techniques of cold reading and hot reading.","title":"Scientific reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"delusions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions"},{"link_name":"thought insertion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_insertion"},{"link_name":"removal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_withdrawal"},{"link_name":"thought broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"psychosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis"},{"link_name":"schizophrenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia"},{"link_name":"schizoaffective disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder"},{"link_name":"substance-induced psychosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance-induced_psychosis"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"antipsychotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipsychotic"},{"link_name":"schizotypy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizotypy"},{"link_name":"schizotypal personality disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"}],"text":"The notion of telepathy is not dissimilar to three clinical concepts: delusions of thought insertion/removal and thought broadcasting. This similarity might explain how an individual might come to the conclusion that he or she were experiencing telepathy. Thought insertion/removal is a symptom of psychosis, particularly of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder or substance-induced psychosis.[97] Psychiatric patients who experience this symptom falsely believe that some of their thoughts are not their own and that others (e.g., other people, aliens, demons or fallen angels, or conspiring intelligence agencies, or artificial intelligences) are putting thoughts into their minds (thought insertion). Some patients feel as if thoughts are being taken out of their minds or deleted (thought removal). Schizophrenic patients suffering from the form of alleged telepathy known as thought broadcasting believe that their private thoughts are being broadcast to other people against their informed consent. Along with other symptoms of psychosis, delusions of thought insertion may be reduced by antipsychotic medication. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists believe and empirical findings support the idea that people with schizotypy and schizotypal personality disorder are particularly likely to believe in telepathy.[98][99][100]","title":"Psychiatry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fiction about telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fiction_about_telepathy"},{"link_name":"Fictional telepaths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Fictional_telepaths"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFETelepathy-101"}],"text":"See also the categories Fiction about telepathy and Fictional telepathsTelepathy is a common theme in science fiction.[101]","title":"Use in fiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Marks, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"The 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Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521608343","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521608343"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"telepathy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/telepathy"},{"link_name":"CollinsDictionary.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CollinsDictionary.com"},{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"sympathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy"},{"link_name":"empathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathy"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hamilton121_5-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1845402488","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845402488"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-skepdic1_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-skepdic1_6-1"},{"link_name":"\"The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//skepdic.com/telepath.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-parasocie1_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-parasocie1_7-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-parasocie1_7-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-parasocie1_7-3"},{"link_name":"Glossary of Parapsychological terms – Telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060927060915/http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Parapsychological 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Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Stableford, Brian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Stableford"},{"link_name":"\"Telepathy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/telepathy"},{"link_name":"Clute, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute"},{"link_name":"Langford, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Langford"},{"link_name":"Sleight, Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Sleight"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction"}],"text":"^ Marks, David; Kammann, Richard. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. pp. 97–106. ISBN 1573927988\n\n^ Hyman, Ray. Evaluating Parapsychological Claims. In Robert J. Sternberg, Henry L. Roediger, Diane F. Halpern. (2007). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–231. ISBN 978-0521608343\n\n^ \"telepathy\". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.\n\n^ Following the model of sympathy and empathy.\n\n^ Hamilton, Trevor (2009). Immortal Longings: F.W.H. Myers and the Victorian search for life after death. Imprint Academic. p. 121. ISBN 978-1845402488.\n\n^ a b \nCarroll, Robert Todd (2005). \"The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy\". Skepdic.com. Retrieved 2006-09-13.\n\n^ a b c d Glossary of Parapsychological terms – Telepathy Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine – Parapsychological Association. Retrieved December 19, 2006.\n\n^ a b Felix Planer. (1980). Superstition. Cassell. p. 218. ISBN 0304306916 \"Many experiments have attempted to bring scientific methods to bear on the investigation of the subject. Their results based on literally millions of tests, have made it abundantly clear that there exists no such phenomenon as telepathy, and that the seemingly successful scores have relied either on illusion, or on deception.\"\n\n^ a b Jan Dalkvist (1994). Telepathic Group Communication of Emotions as a Function of Belief in Telepathy. Dept. of Psychology, Stockholm University. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Within the scientific community however, the claim that psi anomalies exist or may exist is in general regarded with skepticism. One reason for this difference between the scientist and the non scientist is that the former relies on his own experiences and anecdotal reports of psi phenomena, whereas the scientist at least officially requires replicable results from well controlled experiments to believe in such phenomena—results which according to the prevailing view among scientists, do not exist.\n\n^ Willem B. Drees (28 November 1998). Religion, Science and Naturalism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0521645621. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Let me take the example of claims in parapsychology regarding telepathy across spatial or temporal distances, apparently without a mediating physical process. Such claims are at odds with the scientific consensus.\n\n^ Spencer Rathus. (2011). Psychology: Concepts and Connections. Cengage Learning. p. 143. ISBN 978-1111344856 \"There is no adequate scientific evidence that people can read other people's minds. Research has not identified one single indisputable telepath or clairvoyant.\"\n\n^ Oppenheim, Janet. (1985). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–249. ISBN 978-0521265058\n\n^ a b Luckhurst, Roger. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy, 1870–1901. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–51. ISBN 978-0199249626\n\n^ Dingwall, Eric. (1985). The Need for Responsibility in Parapsychology: My Sixty Years in Psychical Research. In A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 161–174. ISBN 0879753005 \"Let me give an example, such as thought-transference, which is as good as any. When the British SPR was founded, the public was led to believe that at least a scientific survey was to be made, and I have no doubt that even some of those closely associated with the early days thought so too. But Myers, among others, had no such intention and cherished no such illusion. He knew that the primary aim of the Society was not objective experimentation but the establishment of telepathy. (...) What was wanted was proof that mind could communicate with mind apart from the normal avenues, for if mental sharing was a fact when the persons concerned were incarnate it could plausibly be suggested that the same mechanism might operate when death had occurred. Thus the supernatural might be proved by science, and psychical research might become, in the words of Sir William Barrett, a handmaid to religion.\"\n\n^ Roger Luckhurst. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy: 18701901. Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0199249626\n\n^ Richard Wiseman. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. pp. 140–142. ISBN 978-0230752986\n\n^ Thurschwell, Pamela (2004). \"Chapter 4: George Eliot's Prophecies: Coercive Second Sight and Everyday Though Reading\". In Nicola Bown; Carolyn Burdett; Pamela Thurschwell; Gillian Beer (eds.). The Victorian Supernatural. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–108. ISBN 978-0521810159.\n\n^ Ray Hyman. (1989). The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research. Prometheus Books. pp. 99–106\n\n^ Gordon Stein. (1996). The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 688\n\n^ Neher, Andrew. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. p. 220. ISBN 0486261670\n\n^ Payne, Kenneth Wilcox. (1928). Is Telepathy all Bunk? Popular Science Monthly. p. 119\n\n^ Couttie, Bob. (1988). Forbidden Knowledge: The Paranormal Paradox. Lutterworth Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0718826864 \"In the early 1900s Gilbert Murray, who died in 1957, carried out some experiments in ESP in which he was in one room and the sender in a hallway, often with an open door between them. These experiments were successful. Most of the time the target was spoken aloud. When it was not, there were negative results. This is suggestive of a hyperacuity of hearing, especially since on at least one occasion Murray complained about noise coming from a milk-cart in the street next to the one in which the experiments were being carried out.\"\n\n^ Mauskopf, Seymour H; McVaugh, Michael Rogers. (1980). The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-0801823312\n\n^ Zusne, Leonard; Jones, Warren H. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. p. 155. ISBN 978-0805805079\n\n^ Anderson, Rodger. (2006). Psychics, Sensitives and Somnambules: A Biographical Dictionary with Bibliographies. McFarland. p. 126. ISBN 0786427701\n\n^ Christopher, Milbourne. (1971). ESP, Seers & Psychics. Crowell. p. 19. ISBN 978-0690268157\n\n^ Berger, Arthur S. (1988). Lives and Letters in American Parapsychology: A Biographical History, 1850–1897. McFarland. p. 66. ISBN 0899503454\n\n^ Luckhurst, Roger. (2002). The Invention of Telepathy: 1870–1901. Oxford University Press. p. 269. ISBN 978-0199249626\n\n^ Hannan, Caryn. (2008 edition). Connecticut Biographical Dictionary. State History Publications. p. 526. ISBN 1878592726 \"On his return to Harvard in 1916, one of his first enterprises was an investigation of telepathy in the psychology laboratory, which gave negative results.\"\n\n^ Asprem, Egil. (2014). The Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900–1939. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 362–364. ISBN 978-9004251922\n\n^ John Booth. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 8\n\n^ Gault, Robert H. (August, 1924). Telepathy Put to the Test. Popular Science. pp. 114–115\n\n^ Mauskopf, Seymour H; McVaugh, Michael Rogers. (1980). The Elusive Science: Origins of Experimental Psychical Research. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 36–38. ISBN 978-0801823312\n\n^ Edmunds, Simeon. (1965). Miracles of the Mind: An Introduction to Parapsychology. C. C. Thomas. pp. 26–28\n\n^ a b Martin Gardner, Fads & Fallacies in the Name of Science (Courier Dover Publications, 1957) Chapter 25: ESP and PK, available online; accessed July 25, 2010.\n\n^ a b John Sladek. (1974). The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Sciences and Occult Beliefs. Panther. pp. 172–174\n\n^ Bergen Evans. (1954). The Spoor of Spooks: And Other Nonsense. Knopf. p. 24\n\n^ C. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. pp. 56–58. ISBN 0879755164\n\n^ Simon Nasht. (2006). The Last Explorer: Hubert Wilkins, Hero of the Great Age of Polar Exploration. Arcade Publishing. pp. 267–268\n\n^ Hubert Wilkins, Harold Sherman. (2004). Thoughts through Space: A Remarkable Adventure in the Realm of Mind. Hampton Roads Publishing. ISBN 1571743146\n\n^ John Booth. (1986). Psychic Paradoxes. Prometheus Books. p. 69\n\n^ Steiner, Lee R. (1942). Review of Thoughts Through Space. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 12 (4): 745.\n\n^ Lamont, Peter. (2013). Extraordinary Beliefs: A Historical Approach to a Psychological Problem. Cambridge University Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-1107019331\n\n^ a b Lawrie Reznek. (2010). Delusions and the Madness of the Masses. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers . pp. 54–55\n\n^ C. E. M. Hansel. (1980). ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Reevaluation. Prometheus Books. p. 165\n\n^ Betty Markwick. (1985). The establishment of data manipulation in the Soal-Shackleton experiments. In Paul Kurtz. A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 287–312\n\n^ Taylor, J. G; Balanovski, E. (1979). \"Is There Any Scientific Explanation of the Paranormal?\". Nature. 279 (5714): 631–633. Bibcode:1979Natur.279..631T. doi:10.1038/279631a0. PMID 450111. S2CID 2885230.\n\n^ Schienle, A.; Vaitl, D.; Stark, R. (1996). \"Covariation bias and paranormal belief\". Psychological Reports. 78 (1): 291–305. doi:10.2466/pr0.1996.78.1.291. PMID 8839320. S2CID 34062201.\n\n^ Rudski, J. M. (2002). \"Hindsight and confirmation biases in an exercise in telepathy\". Psychological Reports. 91 (3): 899–906. doi:10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3.899. PMID 12530740. S2CID 24242574.\n\n^ Glossary of Parapsychological terms – ESP Archived 2011-01-11 at the Wayback Machine, Parapsychological Association. Retrieved December 19, 2006.\n\n^ Rennie, John (1845), \"Test for Telepathy\", Scientific American, V3#1 (1847-09-25)\n\n^ Plazo, Joseph R., (2002) \"Psychic Seduction.\" pp. 112–114 ISBN 0978592239\n\n^ St. Claire, David., (1989) \"Instant ESP.\" pp. 40–50\n\n^ a b Carroll, Robert (2006-02-17). \"Zener ESP Cards\". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-07-18.\n\n^ Jonathan C. Smith. (2009). Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405181228. \"Today, researchers discount the first decade of Rhine's work with Zener cards. Stimulus leakage or cheating could account for all his findings. Slight indentations on the backs of cards revealed the symbols embossed on card faces. Subjects could see and hear the experimenter, and note subtle but revealing facial expressions or changes in breathing.\"\n\n^ Milbourne Christopher. (1970). ESP, Seers & Psychics. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. p. 28\n\n^ James Alcock. (2011). Back from the Future: Parapsychology and the Bem Affair. Skeptical Inquirer. \"Despite Rhine's confidence that he had established the reality of extrasensory perception, he had not done so. Methodological problems with his experiments eventually came to light, and as a result parapsychologists no longer run card-guessing studies and rarely even refer to Rhine's work.\"\n\n^ Ullman, Montague (2003). \"Dream telepathy: experimental and clinical findings\". In Totton, Nick (ed.). Psychoanalysis and the paranormal: lands of darkness. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Karnac Books. pp. 14–46. ISBN 978-1855759855.\n\n^ Parker, Adrian. (1975). States of Mind: ESP and Altered States of Consciousness. Taplinger. p. 90. ISBN 0800873742\n\n^ Clemmer, E. J. (1986). \"Not so anomalous observations question ESP in dreams\". American Psychologist. 41 (10): 1173–1174. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1173.b.\n\n^ Hyman, Ray. (1986). \"Maimonides dream-telepathy experiments\". Skeptical Inquirer 11: 91–92.\n\n^ Neher, Andrew. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. p. 145. ISBN 0486261670\n\n^ James, Alcock (2003). \"Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance: Reasons to Remain Doubtful about the Existence of Psi\". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 10: 29–50.\n\n^ Hansel, C. E. M. The Search for a Demonstration of ESP. In Kurtz, Paul. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 97–127. ISBN 0879753005\n\n^ Belvedere, E.; Foulkes, D. (1971). \"Telepathy and Dreams: A Failure to Replicate\". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 33 (3): 783–789. doi:10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783. PMID 4331356. S2CID 974894.\n\n^ Hansel, C. E. M. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. pp. 141–152. ISBN 0879755164\n\n^ The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena by Dean I. Radin Harper Edge, ISBN 0062515020\n\n^ Julie Milton, Richard Wiseman. (2002). A Response to Storm and Ertel (2002). The Journal of Parapsychology. Volume 66: 183–186.\n\n^ a b c d Ray Hyman. Evaluating Parapsychological Claims in Robert J. Sternberg, Henry L. Roediger, Diane F. Halpern. (2007). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–231. ISBN 978-0521608343\n\n^ Richard Wiseman, Matthew Smith, Diana Kornbrot. (1996). Assessing possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld. Journal of Parapsychology. Volume 60: 97–128.\n\n^ Robert Todd Carroll. (2014). \"Ganzfeld\" in The Skeptic's Dictionary.\n\n^ \nStorm, Lance; Tressoldi, Patrizio E.; Di Risio, Lorenzo (July 2010). \"Meta-Analysis of Free-Response Studies, 1992–2008: Assessing the Noise Reduction Model in Parapsychology\" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 471–85. doi:10.1037/a0019457. PMID 20565164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2010-08-18.\n\n^ Hyman, R. (2010). Meta-analysis that conceals more than it reveals: Comment on Storm et al Archived 2013-11-03 at the Wayback Machine. (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 136. pp. 486–490.\n\n^ Storm, L.; Tressoldi, P. E.; Di Risio, L. (2010). \"A meta-analysis with nothing to hide: Reply to Hyman (2010)\". Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 491–494. doi:10.1037/a0019840. PMID 20565166. S2CID 21103309.\n\n^ Rouder, J. N.; Morey, R. D.; Province, J. M. (2013). \"A Bayes factor meta-analysis of recent extrasensory perception experiments: Comment on Storm, Tressoldi, and Di Risio (2010)\". Psychological Bulletin. 139 (1): 241–247. doi:10.1037/a0029008. PMID 23294092.\n\n^ Bierman, DJ; Spottiswoode, JP; Bijl, A (2016), \"Testing for Questionable Research Practices in a Meta-Analysis: An Example from Experimental Parapsychology\", PLOS ONE, 11 (5): 1, Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153049B, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153049, PMC 4856278, PMID 27144889, We consider [questionable research practices] in the context of a meta-analysis database of Ganzfeld–telepathy experiments from the field of experimental parapsychology. The Ganzfeld database is particularly suitable for this study, because the parapsychological phenomenon it investigates is widely believed to be nonexistent.\n\n^ a b Hupp, Stephen; Jewell, Jeremy. (2015). Great Myths of Child Development. Wiley. pp. 10–16. ISBN 978-1118521229\n\n^ Wiseman, Richard. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. p. 54. ISBN 978-0230752986\n\n^ \"The Riddle of Twin Telepathy\". Retrieved 2014-06-06.\n\n^ Simon Hoggart, Mike Hutchinson. (1995). Bizarre Beliefs. Richard Cohen Books. p. 145. ISBN 978-1573921565 \"The trouble is that the history of research into psi is littered with failed experiments, ambiguous experiments, and experiments which are claimed as great successes but are quickly rejected by conventional scientists. There has also been some spectacular cheating.\"\n\n^ Robert Cogan. (1998). Critical Thinking: Step by Step. University Press of America. p. 227. ISBN 978-0761810674 \"When an experiment can't be repeated and get the same result, this tends to show that the result was due to some error in experimental procedure, rather than some real causal process. ESP experiments simply have not turned up any repeatable paranormal phenomena.\"\n\n^ Terence Hines. (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-1573929790 \"It is important to realize that, in one hundred years of parapsychological investigations, there has never been a single adequate demonstration of the reality of any psi phenomenon.\"\n\n^ Thomas Gilovich. (1993). How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life. Free Press. p. 160\n\n^ Daisie Radner, Michael Radner. (1982). Science and Unreason. Wadsworth. pp. 38–66. ISBN 0534011535\n\n^ Bunge, Mario (1987). \"Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science\". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 10 (4): 576–577. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00054595.\n\n^ Michael W. Friedlander. (1998). At the Fringes of Science. Westview Press. p. 119. ISBN 0813322006 \"Parapsychology has failed to gain general scientific acceptance even for its improved methods and claimed successes, and it is still treated with a lopsided ambivalence among the scientific community. Most scientists write it off as pseudoscience unworthy of their time.\"\n\n^ Massimo Pigliucci, Maarten Boudry. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. University Of Chicago Press p. 158. ISBN 978-0226051963 \"Many observers refer to the field as a \"pseudoscience\". When mainstream scientists say that the field of parapsychology is not scientific, they mean that no satisfying naturalistic cause-and-effect explanation for these supposed effects has yet been proposed and that the field's experiments cannot be consistently replicated.\"\n\n^ Charles M. Wynn, Arthur W. Wiggins. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0309073097 \"One of the reasons scientists have difficulty believing that psi effects are real is that there is no known mechanism by which they could occur. PK action-at-a-distance would presumably employ an action-at-a-distance force that is as yet unknown to science... Similarly, there is no known sense (stimulation and receptor) by which thoughts could travel from one person to another by which the mind could project itself elsewhere in the present, future, or past.\"\n\n^ Mario Bunge. (1983). Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World. Springer. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-9027716347\n\"Precognition violates the principle of antecedence (\"causality\"), according to which the effect does not happen before the cause. Psychokinesis violates the principle of conservation of energy as well as the postulate that mind cannot act directly on matter. (If it did no experimenter could trust his own readings of his instruments.) Telepathy and precognition are incompatible with the epistemological principle according to which the gaining of factual knowledge requires sense perception at some point.\"\n\"Parapsychology makes no use of any knowledge gained in other fields, such as physics and physiological psychology. Moreover, its hypotheses are inconsistent with some basic assumptions of factual science. In particular, the very idea of a disembodied mental entity is incompatible with physiological psychology; and the claim that signals can be transmitted across space without fading with distance is inconsistent with physics.\"\n\n^ John Taylor. (1980). Science and the Supernatural: An Investigation of Paranormal Phenomena Including Psychic Healing, Clairvoyance, Telepathy, and Precognition by a Distinguished Physicist and Mathematician. Temple Smith. p. 84. ISBN 0851171915.\n\n^ Sutherland, Stuart. (1994). Irrationality: The Enemy Within. p. 314. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140167269\n\n^ Graham Reed. (1988). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience. Prometheus Books. pp. 38–42. ISBN 0879754354\n\n^ Skepdic.com on ESP. Retrieved February 22, 2007.\n\n^ Leonard Zusne, Warren H. Jones. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0805805086\n\n^ Ian Rowland. (1998). The Full Facts Book of Cold Reading. Ian Rowland Limited: 4th Revised edition. ISBN 978-0955847608\n\n^ Derren Brown. (2007). Tricks of the Mind. Channel 4: New edition. ISBN 978-1905026357\n\n^ Richard Noll. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders. Facts on File. p. 359. ISBN 978-0816064052\n\n^ Graham Pickup. (2006). Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. Volume 11, Number 2, Number 2/March 2006. pp. 117–192\n\n^ Andrew Gumley, Matthias Schwannauer. (2006). Staying Well After Psychosis: A Cognitive Interpersonal Approach to Recovery and Relapse Prevention. Wiley. p. 187. ISBN 978-0470021859 \"Schizotypy refers to a normal personality construct characterised by an enduring tendency to experience attenuated forms of hallucinatory (e.g. hearing one's own thoughts) and delusional experiences (e.g. beliefs in telepathy).\"\n\n^ Mary Townsend. (2013). Essentials of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing: Concepts of Care in Evidence-Based Practice. F. A. Davis Company. p. 613. ISBN 978-0803638761 \"Individuals with schizotypal personality disorder are aloof and isolated and behave in a bland and apathetic manner. Magical thinking, ideas of reference, illusions, and depersonalization are part of their everybody world. Examples include superstitiousness, belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or \"six sense;\" and beliefs that \"others can feel my feelings.\"\n\n^ Langford, David; Nicholls, Peter; Stableford, Brian (2021). \"Telepathy\". In Clute, John; Langford, David; Sleight, Graham (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (4th ed.). Retrieved 2024-03-30.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"James Alcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Alcock"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0080257720","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0080257720"},{"link_name":"Whately Carington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whately_Carington"},{"link_name":"Telepathy: An Outline of its Facts, Theory, and Implications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/telepathy032278mbp#page/n7/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Bergen Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_Evans"},{"link_name":"C. E. M. Hansel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._E._M._Hansel"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0879755164","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0879755164"},{"link_name":"The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/folliesfraudsofs00manniala#page/130/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"David Marks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Marks_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"The Psychology of the Psychic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Psychic"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1573927988","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1573927988"},{"link_name":"Is Telepathy All Bunk?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=VycDAAAAMBAJ&q=Is+Telepathy+All+Bunk%3F+Kenneth&pg=PA32"},{"link_name":"Popular Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Science"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0304306916","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0304306916"},{"link_name":"Graham Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Reed_(psychologist)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0879754354","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0879754354"},{"link_name":"Stuart Sutherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Sutherland"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0140167269","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140167269"}],"text":"James Alcock. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or Magic? A Psychological Perspective. Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080257720\nWhately Carington. (1945). Telepathy: An Outline of its Facts, Theory, and Implications. Methuen & Co.\nBergen Evans. (1954). The Spoor of Spooks: And Other Nonsense. Knopf.\nC. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879755164\nWalter Mann. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co. Chapter XII. pp. 131–191.\nDavid Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic (2nd Edition). Prometheus Books. ISBN 1573927988\nKenneth Wilcox Payne. (1928). Is Telepathy All Bunk? Popular Science.\nFelix Planer. (1980). Superstition. Cassell. ISBN 0304306916\nGraham Reed. (1988). The Psychology of Anomalous Experience. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879754354\nStuart Sutherland. (1994). Irrationality: The Enemy Within. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140167269","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Ganzfeld experiments that aimed to demonstrate telepathy have been criticized for lack of replication and poor controls.[1][2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Ganzfeld.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gilbert Murray conducted early telepathy experiments.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Gilbert_Murray.jpg/220px-Gilbert_Murray.jpg"},{"image_text":"Frederick Marion who was investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in the late 1930–1940s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Frederick_Marion_mentalist.png/220px-Frederick_Marion_mentalist.png"},{"image_text":"Zener cards","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Zener_cards_%28color%29.svg/200px-Zener_cards_%28color%29.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Brain–brain interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93brain_interface"},{"title":"Extended Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Extended_Mind"},{"title":"Ishin-denshin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishin-denshin"},{"title":"Lady Wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Wonder"},{"title":"Microwave auditory effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_auditory_effect"},{"title":"subvocal recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvocal_recognition"},{"title":"Synthetic telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface#Synthetic_telepathy/silent_communication"}]
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[{"reference":"\"telepathy\". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/telepathy","url_text":"\"telepathy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CollinsDictionary.com","url_text":"CollinsDictionary.com"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"}]},{"reference":"Hamilton, Trevor (2009). Immortal Longings: F.W.H. Myers and the Victorian search for life after death. Imprint Academic. p. 121. ISBN 978-1845402488.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845402488","url_text":"978-1845402488"}]},{"reference":"Carroll, Robert Todd (2005). \"The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy\". Skepdic.com. Retrieved 2006-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://skepdic.com/telepath.html","url_text":"\"The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy\""}]},{"reference":"Jan Dalkvist (1994). Telepathic Group Communication of Emotions as a Function of Belief in Telepathy. Dept. of Psychology, Stockholm University. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Within the scientific community however, the claim that psi anomalies exist or may exist is in general regarded with skepticism. One reason for this difference between the scientist and the non scientist is that the former relies on his own experiences and anecdotal reports of psi phenomena, whereas the scientist at least officially requires replicable results from well controlled experiments to believe in such phenomena—results which according to the prevailing view among scientists, do not exist.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lhsRAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Telepathic Group Communication of Emotions as a Function of Belief in Telepathy"}]},{"reference":"Willem B. Drees (28 November 1998). Religion, Science and Naturalism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0521645621. Retrieved 5 October 2011. Let me take the example of claims in parapsychology regarding telepathy across spatial or temporal distances, apparently without a mediating physical process. Such claims are at odds with the scientific consensus.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BxmcHWCv2c4C&pg=PA242","url_text":"Religion, Science and Naturalism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521645621","url_text":"978-0521645621"}]},{"reference":"Thurschwell, Pamela (2004). \"Chapter 4: George Eliot's Prophecies: Coercive Second Sight and Everyday Though Reading\". In Nicola Bown; Carolyn Burdett; Pamela Thurschwell; Gillian Beer (eds.). The Victorian Supernatural. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–108. ISBN 978-0521810159.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zkQV_718ROkC&q=%22Cumberland+himself+always+insisted+that+his+readings%22&pg=PA89","url_text":"\"Chapter 4: George Eliot's Prophecies: Coercive Second Sight and Everyday Though Reading\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521810159","url_text":"978-0521810159"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, J. G; Balanovski, E. (1979). \"Is There Any Scientific Explanation of the Paranormal?\". Nature. 279 (5714): 631–633. Bibcode:1979Natur.279..631T. doi:10.1038/279631a0. PMID 450111. S2CID 2885230.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979Natur.279..631T","url_text":"1979Natur.279..631T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F279631a0","url_text":"10.1038/279631a0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/450111","url_text":"450111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2885230","url_text":"2885230"}]},{"reference":"Schienle, A.; Vaitl, D.; Stark, R. (1996). \"Covariation bias and paranormal belief\". Psychological Reports. 78 (1): 291–305. doi:10.2466/pr0.1996.78.1.291. PMID 8839320. S2CID 34062201.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.1996.78.1.291","url_text":"10.2466/pr0.1996.78.1.291"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8839320","url_text":"8839320"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34062201","url_text":"34062201"}]},{"reference":"Rudski, J. M. (2002). \"Hindsight and confirmation biases in an exercise in telepathy\". Psychological Reports. 91 (3): 899–906. doi:10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3.899. PMID 12530740. S2CID 24242574.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.2002.91.3.899","url_text":"10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3.899"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12530740","url_text":"12530740"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24242574","url_text":"24242574"}]},{"reference":"Carroll, Robert (2006-02-17). \"Zener ESP Cards\". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.skepdic.com/zener.html","url_text":"\"Zener ESP Cards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary","url_text":"The Skeptic's Dictionary"}]},{"reference":"Ullman, Montague (2003). \"Dream telepathy: experimental and clinical findings\". In Totton, Nick (ed.). Psychoanalysis and the paranormal: lands of darkness. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Karnac Books. pp. 14–46. ISBN 978-1855759855.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montague_Ullman","url_text":"Ullman, Montague"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1855759855","url_text":"978-1855759855"}]},{"reference":"Clemmer, E. J. (1986). \"Not so anomalous observations question ESP in dreams\". American Psychologist. 41 (10): 1173–1174. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1173.b.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychologist","url_text":"American Psychologist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.41.10.1173.b","url_text":"10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1173.b"}]},{"reference":"James, Alcock (2003). \"Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance: Reasons to Remain Doubtful about the Existence of Psi\". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 10: 29–50.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Alcock","url_text":"James, Alcock"}]},{"reference":"Belvedere, E.; Foulkes, D. (1971). \"Telepathy and Dreams: A Failure to Replicate\". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 33 (3): 783–789. doi:10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783. PMID 4331356. S2CID 974894.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpms.1971.33.3.783","url_text":"10.2466/pms.1971.33.3.783"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4331356","url_text":"4331356"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:974894","url_text":"974894"}]},{"reference":"Storm, Lance; Tressoldi, Patrizio E.; Di Risio, Lorenzo (July 2010). \"Meta-Analysis of Free-Response Studies, 1992–2008: Assessing the Noise Reduction Model in Parapsychology\" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 471–85. doi:10.1037/a0019457. PMID 20565164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-24. Retrieved 2010-08-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110124055506/http://www.psy.unipd.it/~tressold/cmssimple/uploads/includes/MetaFreeResp010.pdf","url_text":"\"Meta-Analysis of Free-Response Studies, 1992–2008: Assessing the Noise Reduction Model in Parapsychology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0019457","url_text":"10.1037/a0019457"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20565164","url_text":"20565164"},{"url":"http://www.psy.unipd.it/~tressold/cmssimple/uploads/includes/MetaFreeResp010.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Storm, L.; Tressoldi, P. E.; Di Risio, L. (2010). \"A meta-analysis with nothing to hide: Reply to Hyman (2010)\". Psychological Bulletin. 136 (4): 491–494. doi:10.1037/a0019840. PMID 20565166. S2CID 21103309.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0019840","url_text":"10.1037/a0019840"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20565166","url_text":"20565166"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21103309","url_text":"21103309"}]},{"reference":"Rouder, J. N.; Morey, R. D.; Province, J. M. (2013). \"A Bayes factor meta-analysis of recent extrasensory perception experiments: Comment on Storm, Tressoldi, and Di Risio (2010)\". Psychological Bulletin. 139 (1): 241–247. doi:10.1037/a0029008. PMID 23294092.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0029008","url_text":"10.1037/a0029008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23294092","url_text":"23294092"}]},{"reference":"Bierman, DJ; Spottiswoode, JP; Bijl, A (2016), \"Testing for Questionable Research Practices in a Meta-Analysis: An Example from Experimental Parapsychology\", PLOS ONE, 11 (5): 1, Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1153049B, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153049, PMC 4856278, PMID 27144889, We consider [questionable research practices] in the context of a meta-analysis database of Ganzfeld–telepathy experiments from the field of experimental parapsychology. The Ganzfeld database is particularly suitable for this study, because the parapsychological phenomenon it investigates is widely believed to be nonexistent.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PLoSO..1153049B","url_text":"2016PLoSO..1153049B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0153049","url_text":"10.1371/journal.pone.0153049"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4856278","url_text":"4856278"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27144889","url_text":"27144889"}]},{"reference":"Bunge, Mario (1987). \"Why Parapsychology Cannot Become a Science\". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 10 (4): 576–577. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00054595.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Bunge","url_text":"Bunge, Mario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0140525x00054595","url_text":"10.1017/s0140525x00054595"}]},{"reference":"Langford, David; Nicholls, Peter; Stableford, Brian (2021). \"Telepathy\". In Clute, John; Langford, David; Sleight, Graham (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (4th ed.). Retrieved 2024-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Langford","url_text":"Langford, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)","url_text":"Nicholls, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Stableford","url_text":"Stableford, Brian"},{"url":"https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/telepathy","url_text":"\"Telepathy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute","url_text":"Clute, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Langford","url_text":"Langford, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Sleight","url_text":"Sleight, Graham"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/telepathy","external_links_name":"\"telepathy\""},{"Link":"http://skepdic.com/telepath.html","external_links_name":"\"The Skeptic's Dictionary; Telepathy\""},{"Link":"http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html#t","external_links_name":"Glossary of Parapsychological terms – Telepathy"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060927060915/http://parapsych.org/glossary_s_z.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lhsRAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Telepathic Group Communication of Emotions as a Function of Belief in Telepathy"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BxmcHWCv2c4C&pg=PA242","external_links_name":"Religion, Science and Naturalism"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zkQV_718ROkC&q=%22Cumberland+himself+always+insisted+that+his+readings%22&pg=PA89","external_links_name":"\"Chapter 4: George Eliot's Prophecies: Coercive Second Sight and Everyday Though Reading\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TwP3SGAUsnkC","external_links_name":"available online"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979Natur.279..631T","external_links_name":"1979Natur.279..631T"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F279631a0","external_links_name":"10.1038/279631a0"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/450111","external_links_name":"450111"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2885230","external_links_name":"2885230"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.1996.78.1.291","external_links_name":"10.2466/pr0.1996.78.1.291"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8839320","external_links_name":"8839320"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34062201","external_links_name":"34062201"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2466%2Fpr0.2002.91.3.899","external_links_name":"10.2466/pr0.2002.91.3.899"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12530740","external_links_name":"12530740"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24242574","external_links_name":"24242574"},{"Link":"http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html#e","external_links_name":"Glossary of Parapsychological terms – ESP"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110111023207/http://parapsych.org/glossary_e_k.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.skepdic.com/zener.html","external_links_name":"\"Zener ESP Cards\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sJgONrua8IkC&dq=rhine+pseudoscience&pg=PT226","external_links_name":"Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit"},{"Link":"http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/back_from_the_future","external_links_name":"Back from the Future: Parapsychology and the Bem 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Riddle of Twin Telepathy\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0140525x00054595","external_links_name":"10.1017/s0140525x00054595"},{"Link":"http://www.skepdic.com/esp.html","external_links_name":"Skepdic.com on ESP"},{"Link":"https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/telepathy","external_links_name":"\"Telepathy\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/telepathy032278mbp#page/n7/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Telepathy: An Outline of its Facts, Theory, and Implications"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/folliesfraudsofs00manniala#page/130/mode/2up","external_links_name":"The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VycDAAAAMBAJ&q=Is+Telepathy+All+Bunk%3F+Kenneth&pg=PA32","external_links_name":"Is Telepathy All Bunk?"},{"Link":"https://dana.org/article/the-intuitive-magician/","external_links_name":"The Intuitive Magician"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210720073802/https://dana.org/article/the-intuitive-magician/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.skepdic.com/telepath.html","external_links_name":"Telepathy"},{"Link":"http://skepdic.com/soalgoldney.html","external_links_name":"Soal-Goldney Experiment"},{"Link":"http://www.psicoanalisi.it/psicoanalisi/psicosomatica/articoli/psomaing1117.htm","external_links_name":"Dream and Telepathy"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11951756p","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11951756p","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4136651-7","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007565809705171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85133364","external_links_name":"United 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_record
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Storage record
|
["1 See also"]
|
Term used in computer science for a group of related data treated as a meaningful unitIn computer science, a storage record is:
A group of related data, words, or fields treated as a meaningful unit; for instance, a Name, Address, and Telephone Number can be a "Personal Record".
A self-contained collection of information about a single object; a record is made up of a number of distinct items, called fields.
In record-oriented filesystems, a record is a basic unit of device-to-program data transfers. Files in record-oriented filesystems are structured collections of records. Records may have a fixed length or variable length.
In Unix-like systems, a number of programs (for example, awk, join, and sort) are designed to process data consisting of records (called lines) each separated by newlines, where each record may contain a number of fields separated by spaces, commas, or some other character.
See also
Block (data storage)
Object composition
Record (computer science)
Row (database)
User-defined type
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"record-oriented filesystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record-oriented_filesystem"},{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"awk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AWK"},{"link_name":"join","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"sort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sort_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(text_file)"},{"link_name":"newlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newline"}],"text":"In computer science[citation needed], a storage record is:A group of related data, words, or fields treated as a meaningful unit; for instance, a Name, Address, and Telephone Number can be a \"Personal Record\".\nA self-contained collection of information about a single object; a record is made up of a number of distinct items, called fields.In record-oriented filesystems, a record is a basic unit of device-to-program data transfers. Files in record-oriented filesystems are structured collections of records. Records may have a fixed length or variable length.In Unix-like systems, a number of programs (for example, awk, join, and sort) are designed to process data consisting of records (called lines) each separated by newlines, where each record may contain a number of fields separated by spaces, commas, or some other character.","title":"Storage record"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"Block (data storage)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_(data_storage)"},{"title":"Object composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_composition"},{"title":"Record (computer science)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_(computer_science)"},{"title":"Row (database)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_(database)"},{"title":"User-defined type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-defined_type"}]
|
[]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape_adapter
|
Cassette tape adapter
|
["1 Usage","2 Applications","3 Mechanism","4 See also","5 References"]
|
Adapter to allow playback of external sources through a tape player
A typical cassette adapter with a short cable and a 3.5 mm minijack phone connector
A cassette adapter allows another source of music to be played through sound systems with a tape player. This is useful for vehicles without auxiliary (aux) ports or CD players.
Usage
Patented on March 29, 1988, a cassette tape adapter is a device that allows the use of portable audio players in older cassette decks. Originally designed to connect portable CD players to car stereos that only had cassette players, the cassette tape adapter has become popular with portable media players even on cars that have CD players built in. Today, it is primarily used for vehicles without auxiliary ports built into their stereo systems. For vehicles with AM/FM systems, but no cassette playback, FM transmitters are recommended.
A typical cassette adapter uses a single-sided writing tape head (similar to the recording head on a traditional tape deck) connected to a stereo minijack connector with a cord. The cord is connected to the device's output (or headphones) port and the electrical signal is converted into a magnetic signal by the head. This magnetic signal is then received by the tape deck's reading head, converted back into an electrical signal, and amplified by the sound system. Because most cassette adapters use a single-sided head, they only work in one direction. There are, however, some cassette adapters that have double-sided heads that work in either direction. One-way gears within the cassette simulate tape movement from reel to reel, to ensure that the deck does not auto-reverse.
A newer type of adapter is a type of MP3 player shaped like a cassette tape, which can be used as a stand-alone MP3 player with headphones or inserted as a cassette into the cassette player, where it can be used with a remote control. These usually have a double-sided head which means they can work in both directions.
Another type of cassette adapter is the Bluetooth cassette adapter. It has the shape of a standard cassette, but has a built-in audio Bluetooth receiver module, a simple power supply to allow charging and power and a small battery. Usually, they may power on when the cassette player is set on play, and power off when the cassette player is stopped. They have a switch under the head. Some may as well operate as stand-alone adapters, having also a separate power switch. Charging is done externally. Operation is simple, just like the cassette shaped MP3 player. It is simply inserted in the cassette player like any cassette, set on play, and music from a Bluetooth device like a mobile phone or laptop can be played through the cassette player.
A common alternative to cassette adapters is FM transmitters. These devices often require external power and convert the device's electrical signal into radio waves which are then transmitted over an unused FM frequency to a nearby FM tuner. The cassette adapter is usually considered superior as it is much less prone to interference.
Applications
See also: FM transmitter (personal device) § Applications
A cassette adapter could also be used with other audio equipment, such as a microphone, handheld game console, or laptop computer. It can also be used in a home tape deck to play sound from any equipment, such as a personal computer, when computer speakers are in short supply.
Hands-free cell phone, where a microphone and aux cable are connected to the cassette tape which broadcasts the audio from the call to the car's speakers
CD player (the original application for cassette adapters)
FM radio
HD radio (for the large numbers of receivers that do not natively support this broadcast standard)
Laptop computer
Portable media players (iPod, MP3 player, Zune)
Mechanism
A cassette adapter is shaped like a cassette tape. However, instead of having reels of tape inside, it has a transmitting head where the tape is normally read by the reading head. This transmitting head is connected to the input cord, which connects the head to the audio source. A cassette adapter must also include a mechanism that simulates tape movement. Modern cassette players monitor tape movement to detect when the tape ends. This is done using a rolling wheel that rides against the tape. To simulate tape movement, a system of gears or a drive belt connects the tape player's drive motor (via the take-up spindle) to a wheel inside the adapter. This wheel rides against the detection wheel to simulate tape movement. Because the wheel never stops spinning, the deck never senses an end-of-tape and never tries to reverse the tape. Some adapters contain a one way locking mechanism, to stop the detection wheel if the tape is played in the wrong direction (and thus reading the wrong side of the head). The stopped wheel then would cause the cassette player to either stop the tape, or reverse the direction if the player supports it.
See also
FM transmitter (personal device)
FlashPath
Vehicle audio
References
^ US application US4734897 A, Larry Schotz, published 1988-03-29, issued 1986-07-25, assigned to Recoton Corporation
^ Cohen, Peter. "Study: Two thirds of iPod owners use them in cars". Macworld. IDG Communications, Inc. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
^ "AutoTECHCAST". Harris Interactive. Harris Interactive. 21 August 2006. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006. Retrieved 13 April 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Lee, Nicole. "Retro stylin': A cassette tape MP3 player". CNET. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
^ "Wholesale Cassette MP3 Player - Stand Alone or Car Cassette Player From China". Chinavasion. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
^ US patent US6058319, John Thomas Sadler, "Cassette adapter for mobile telephones", issued 2000-05-02, assigned to Ericsson, Inc.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cassette adapter.
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cassette_adapter_iSmart_Car_IC880-4610.jpg"},{"link_name":"minijack phone connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_connector_(audio)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cassette_adapter_patent-1"}],"text":"A typical cassette adapter with a short cable and a 3.5 mm minijack phone connectorA cassette adapter allows another source of music to be played through sound systems with a tape player.[1] This is useful for vehicles without auxiliary (aux) ports or CD players.","title":"Cassette tape adapter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"portable audio players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_audio_players"},{"link_name":"cassette decks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_deck"},{"link_name":"CD players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_players"},{"link_name":"portable media players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autotechcast_macworld_study-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autotechcast_site-3"},{"link_name":"AM/FM systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM/FM_radio"},{"link_name":"FM transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_transmitter_(personal_device)"},{"link_name":"recording head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_head"},{"link_name":"minijack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minijack"},{"link_name":"reading head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_head"},{"link_name":"auto-reverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto-reverse"},{"link_name":"MP3 player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3_player"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnet_mp3_cdeck-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chinavasion_mp3_cdeck-5"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"radio waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave"},{"link_name":"tuner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuner_(radio)"}],"text":"Patented on March 29, 1988, a cassette tape adapter is a device that allows the use of portable audio players in older cassette decks. Originally designed to connect portable CD players to car stereos that only had cassette players, the cassette tape adapter has become popular with portable media players even on cars that have CD players built in. Today, it is primarily used for vehicles without auxiliary ports built into their stereo systems.[2][3] For vehicles with AM/FM systems, but no cassette playback, FM transmitters are recommended.A typical cassette adapter uses a single-sided writing tape head (similar to the recording head on a traditional tape deck) connected to a stereo minijack connector with a cord. The cord is connected to the device's output (or headphones) port and the electrical signal is converted into a magnetic signal by the head. This magnetic signal is then received by the tape deck's reading head, converted back into an electrical signal, and amplified by the sound system. Because most cassette adapters use a single-sided head, they only work in one direction. There are, however, some cassette adapters that have double-sided heads that work in either direction. One-way gears within the cassette simulate tape movement from reel to reel, to ensure that the deck does not auto-reverse.A newer type of adapter is a type of MP3 player shaped like a cassette tape,[4][5] which can be used as a stand-alone MP3 player with headphones or inserted as a cassette into the cassette player, where it can be used with a remote control. These usually have a double-sided head which means they can work in both directions.Another type of cassette adapter is the Bluetooth cassette adapter. It has the shape of a standard cassette, but has a built-in audio Bluetooth receiver module, a simple power supply to allow charging and power and a small battery. Usually, they may power on when the cassette player is set on play, and power off when the cassette player is stopped. They have a switch under the head. Some may as well operate as stand-alone adapters, having also a separate power switch. Charging is done externally. Operation is simple, just like the cassette shaped MP3 player. It is simply inserted in the cassette player like any cassette, set on play, and music from a Bluetooth device like a mobile phone or laptop can be played through the cassette player.A common alternative to cassette adapters is FM transmitters. These devices often require external power and convert the device's electrical signal into radio waves which are then transmitted over an unused FM frequency to a nearby FM tuner. The cassette adapter is usually considered superior as it is much less prone to interference.","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FM transmitter (personal device) § Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_transmitter_(personal_device)#Applications"},{"link_name":"microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"handheld game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"laptop computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_computer"},{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"Hands-free cell phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsfree#Mobile_phones"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"CD player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_player"},{"link_name":"FM radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_radio"},{"link_name":"HD radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_radio"},{"link_name":"Laptop computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_computer"},{"link_name":"Portable media players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"iPod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod"},{"link_name":"Zune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zune"}],"text":"See also: FM transmitter (personal device) § ApplicationsA cassette adapter could also be used with other audio equipment, such as a microphone, handheld game console, or laptop computer. It can also be used in a home tape deck to play sound from any equipment, such as a personal computer, when computer speakers are in short supply.Hands-free cell phone, where a microphone and aux cable are connected to the cassette tape which broadcasts the audio from the call to the car's speakers[6]\nCD player (the original application for cassette adapters)\nFM radio\nHD radio (for the large numbers of receivers that do not natively support this broadcast standard)\nLaptop computer\nPortable media players (iPod, MP3 player, Zune)","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cassette tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Cassette"}],"text":"A cassette adapter is shaped like a cassette tape. However, instead of having reels of tape inside, it has a transmitting head where the tape is normally read by the reading head. This transmitting head is connected to the input cord, which connects the head to the audio source. A cassette adapter must also include a mechanism that simulates tape movement. Modern cassette players monitor tape movement to detect when the tape ends. This is done using a rolling wheel that rides against the tape. To simulate tape movement, a system of gears or a drive belt connects the tape player's drive motor (via the take-up spindle) to a wheel inside the adapter. This wheel rides against the detection wheel to simulate tape movement. Because the wheel never stops spinning, the deck never senses an end-of-tape and never tries to reverse the tape. Some adapters contain a one way locking mechanism, to stop the detection wheel if the tape is played in the wrong direction (and thus reading the wrong side of the head). The stopped wheel then would cause the cassette player to either stop the tape, or reverse the direction if the player supports it.","title":"Mechanism"}]
|
[{"image_text":"A typical cassette adapter with a short cable and a 3.5 mm minijack phone connector","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Cassette_adapter_iSmart_Car_IC880-4610.jpg/200px-Cassette_adapter_iSmart_Car_IC880-4610.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"FM transmitter (personal device)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_transmitter_(personal_device)"},{"title":"FlashPath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlashPath"},{"title":"Vehicle audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_audio"}]
|
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|
[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/patents/US4734897","external_links_name":"US application US4734897 A"},{"Link":"http://www.macworld.com/article/1052160/harris.html","external_links_name":"\"Study: Two thirds of iPod owners use them in cars\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060821213358/http://www.harrisinteractive.com/services/autotechcast.asp","external_links_name":"\"AutoTECHCAST\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnet.com/news/retro-stylin-a-cassette-tape-mp3-player/","external_links_name":"\"Retro stylin': A cassette tape MP3 player\""},{"Link":"https://www.chinavasion.com/china/wholesale/Electronic_Gadgets/Car_Gadgets/Cassette_MP3_Player-Stand_Alone_or_Car_Cassette_Player","external_links_name":"\"Wholesale Cassette MP3 Player - Stand Alone or Car Cassette Player From China\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/patents/US6058319","external_links_name":"US patent US6058319"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_AFC_Futsal_Club_Championship
|
2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship
|
["1 Qualification","2 Venues","3 Group stage","3.1 Group A","3.2 Group B","4 Knockout stage","4.1 Semi-finals","4.2 Third place play-off","4.3 Final","5 Awards","6 Final standing","7 Top scorers","8 References","9 External links"]
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2012 AFC Futsal Club ChampionshipTournament detailsHost countryKuwaitCityKuwait CityDatesJuly 1–6Teams8Venue(s)2 (in 1 host city)Final positionsChampions Giti Pasand (1st title)Runners-up ArdusThird place Nagoya OceansFourth place Al-RayyanTournament statisticsMatches played16Goals scored106 (6.63 per match)Attendance2,185 (137 per match)Top scorer(s) Ahmad Esmaeilpour (9)Best player(s) Mohammad Keshavarz← 2011 2013 → International football competition
The 2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship was the 3rd AFC Futsal Club Championship. It was held in Kuwait City, Kuwait between July 1 and July 6, 2012.
On 21 November 2011 the AFC Futsal Committee, under the chairmanship of Guam's Richard Lai, proposed to award the hosting rights of the 2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship to Kuwait The draw for the tournament was held on 26 April 2012 in Movenpick Hotel, Kuwait City.
Qualification
Main article: 2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship qualification
The national league champions of the three best placed teams in the 2011 Championship received a bye to the final as well as the host nation's champion. The remaining four spots were decided in two Asian qualifying tournaments.
Team
Qualified as
Giti Pasand Isfahan
Iranian Super League 2011–12 Second
Nagoya Oceans
F. League 2011–12 Winner
All Sports
Lebanon Futsal League 2011–12 Winner
Yarmouk
Kuwait Futsal 2011–12 Winner (host)
Government Housing Bank RBAC
East and Southeast 1st
Thái Sơn Nam
East and Southeast 2nd
Ardus Tashkent
South and Central 1st
Al-Rayyan
South and Central 2nd
Venues
Kuwait City
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium
Al-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium
Capacity:
Capacity:
Group stage
Group A
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Giti Pasand
3
3
0
0
20
1
+19
9
Al-Rayyan
3
1
1
1
7
12
−5
4
Yarmouk
3
1
0
2
10
10
0
3
Thái Sơn Nam
3
0
1
2
2
16
−14
1
July 117:30
Giti Pasand 8 – 0 Thái Sơn Nam
Kazemi 3', 35'Xapa 18', 34'Esmaeilpour 29', 36'Sharifzadeh 37'Yousefi 39'
Report
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 120Referee: Naoki Miyatani (Japan)
July 120:00
Yarmouk 3 – 5 Al-Rayyan
Thiago 1', 37'Al-Awadhi 12'
Report
Shamari 5', 14'Vadillo 15'Minamoto 31'Al-Sabah 40'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 150Referee: Scott Kidson (Australia)
July 217:30
Al-Rayyan 0 – 7 Giti Pasand
Report
Esmaeilpour 5'Yousefi 7'Yousuf 7' (o.g.)Kazemi 10', 18'Johar 37' (o.g.)Bandi 40'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Nurdin Bukuev (Kyrgyzstan)
July 220:00
Thái Sơn Nam 0 – 6 Yarmouk
Report
Nguyễn Bảo Quân 19' (o.g.)Mollaali 24'Al-Taweel 29'Hayat 31', 38'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 180Referee: Mohamad Chami (Lebanon)
July 319:30
Yarmouk 1 – 5 Giti Pasand
Thiago 22'
Report
Esmaeilpour 10', 24', 25'Bandi 23'Taghizadeh 34'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 280Referee: Shukhrat Pulatov (Uzbekistan)
July 319:30
Thái Sơn Nam 2 – 2 Al-Rayyan
Phùng Trọng Luân 14'Lê Quốc Nam 30'
Report
Mohssein 7'Al-Sabah 24'
Al-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 90Referee: Tomohiro Kozaki (Japan)
Group B
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Ardus
3
2
0
1
15
11
+4
6
Nagoya Oceans
3
2
0
1
13
8
+5
6
All Sports
3
1
1
1
11
10
+1
4
GH Bank RBAC
3
0
1
2
7
17
−10
1
July 112:30
All Sports 3 – 3 GH Bank RBAC
Willian 18'Kawsan 24'El Homsi 39'
Report
Saisorn 7'Wongkaeo 29' (pen.)Janta 39'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 115Referee: Alireza Sohrabi (Iran)
July 115:00
Nagoya Oceans 3 – 4 Ardus
Morioka 1'Yoshikawa 29'Henmi 36'
Report
Shlema 16'Irsaliev 31', 36'Hernández 32'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Abdulrahman Abdulqader (Bahrain)
July 212:30
Ardus 2 – 6 All Sports
Shlema 14'Hernández 32'
Report
Tneich 24'Takaji 29', 40'El Homsi 31', 40'Marques 40'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Kim Jang-Kwan (South Korea)
July 215:00
GH Bank RBAC 2 – 5 Nagoya Oceans
Saisorn 5'Thueanklang 18'
Report
Morioka 2', 5'Yoshikawa 15'Watanabe 38'Kitahara 39'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Mohammad Al-Haddad (Kuwait)
July 316:00
Nagoya Oceans 5 – 2 All Sports
Henmi 3', 26'Kogure 17'Yoshikawa 30', 35'
Report
Katakeyama 25'Kawahara 27' (o.g.)
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 120Referee: Samsudin Bin Ibrahim (Malaysia)
July 316:00
GH Bank RBAC 2 – 9 Ardus
Saisorn 10'Oliveira 38'
Report
Irsaliev 11', 22', 23', 37'Hernández 12' (pen.), 40'Sharipov 31', 39'Umarov 39'
Al-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 70Referee: Mahmoud Nassirloo (Iran)
Knockout stage
Semi-finalsFinal July 5 – Kuwait City Giti Pasand6 July 6 – Kuwait City Nagoya Oceans3
Giti Pasand2 July 5 – Kuwait City Ardus1
Ardus3 Al-Rayyan1
Third place July 6 – Kuwait City Nagoya Oceans4 Al-Rayyan1
Semi-finals
July 516:00
Giti Pasand 6 – 3 Nagoya Oceans
Esmaeilpour 14', 39', 40'Kazemi 19'Keshavarz 37'Samimi 38'
Report
Mori 7'Yoshikawa 25'Morioka 40'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 140Referee: Nurdin Bukuev (Kyrgyzstan)
July 519:30
Ardus 3 – 1 Al-Rayyan
Yunusov 9'Irsaliev 31'Tojiboev 39'
Report
Bilal 32'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 130Referee: Kim Jang-Kwan (South Korea)
Third place play-off
July 616:00
Nagoya Oceans 4 – 1 Al-Rayyan
Henmi 9', 36'Kitahara 14'Mori 31'
Report
Vadillo 13'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 120Referee: Shukhrat Pulatov (Uzbekistan)
Final
July 619:30
Giti Pasand 2 – 1 Ardus
Kazemi 3'Xapa 24'
Report
Yunusov 21'
Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 270Referee: Naoki Miyatani (Japan)
Awards
AFC Futsal Club Championship 2012 Champions
Giti PasandFirst Title
Most Valuable Player
Mohammad Keshavarz
Top Scorer
Ahmad Esmaeilpour (9 goals)
Fair-Play Award
Nagoya Oceans
All-Star Team
Rustam Umarov (Ardus) (GK)
Mohammad Keshavarz (Giti Pasand)
Rafael Henmi (Nagoya Oceans)
Ahmad Esmaeilpour (Giti Pasand)
Kaoru Morioka (Nagoya Oceans)
Reserve All-Star Team
Alireza Samimi (Giti Pasand) (GK)
Amro Mohssein (Al-Rayyan)
Afshin Kazemi (Giti Pasand)
Dilshod Irsaliev (Ardus)
Khaled Takaji (All Sports)
Coach: Alireza Afzal (Giti Pasand)
Final standing
Rank
Team
Giti Pasand Isfahan
Ardus Tashkent
Nagoya Oceans
4
Al-Rayyan
5
All Sports
6
Yarmouk
7
Government Housing Bank RBAC
8
Thái Sơn Nam
Top scorers
SGPNagoyaAll SportsYarmoukRBACSơn NamArdusAl-Rayyanclass=notpageimage| Locations of clubs in 2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship
Rank
Player
Club
Goals
1
Ahmad Esmaeilpour
Giti Pasand
9
2
Dilshod Irsaliev
Ardus
7
3
Afshin Kazemi
Giti Pasand
6
4
Rafael Henmi
Nagoya Oceans
5
Tomoki Yoshikawa
Nagoya Oceans
6
Carmelo Hernández
Ardus
4
Kaoru Morioka
Nagoya Oceans
8
Ali El Homsi
All Sports
3
Xapa
Giti Pasand
Panomkorn Saisorn
GH Bank RBAC
Thiago
Yarmouk
References
^ "Futsal Club Championship in Kuwait". Asian Football Confederation. 21 November 2011.
^ "Draw set for April 26". Asian Football Confederation. 7 April 2012.
^ Sanaye Giti Pasand book Kuwait ticket
^ a b Thai Son Nam (VIE), GH Bank RBAC (THA) qualify for finals
^ a b AFC Futsal Club Championships Qualifiers
^ "Giti Pasand win Club Futsal Championship". Asian Football Confederation. 7 July 2012. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
External links
Official site
AFC Technical Report
vteAFC Futsal Club ChampionshipTournaments
2006 (trial edition)
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Squads
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Records and statistics
vteInternational club futsal (FIFA)
FIFA
Intercontinental Futsal Cup
Asia
AFC – AFC Futsal Club Championship
Top-division clubs
Africa
CAF – None
Top-division clubs
North AmericaCentral Americaand Caribbean
CONCACAF – CONCACAF Futsal Club Championship
Top-division clubs
South America
CONMEBOL – Copa Libertadores de Futsal
Top-division clubs
Oceania
OFC – OFC Futsal Champions League
Top-division clubs
Europe
UEFA – UEFA Futsal Champions League
Women's European Champions
Cup Winners Cup (defunct)
European Clubs Championship (defunct)
Top-division clubs
|
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CityAttendance: 120Referee: Naoki Miyatani (Japan)July 120:00\nYarmouk 3 – 5 Al-Rayyan\nThiago 1', 37'Al-Awadhi 12'\nReport\nShamari 5', 14'Vadillo 15'Minamoto 31'Al-Sabah 40'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 150Referee: Scott Kidson (Australia)July 217:30\nAl-Rayyan 0 – 7 Giti Pasand\n\nReport\nEsmaeilpour 5'Yousefi 7'Yousuf 7' (o.g.)Kazemi 10', 18'Johar 37' (o.g.)Bandi 40'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Nurdin Bukuev (Kyrgyzstan)July 220:00\nThái Sơn Nam 0 – 6 Yarmouk\n\nReport\nNguyễn Bảo Quân 19' (o.g.)Mollaali 24'Al-Taweel 29'Hayat 31', 38'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 180Referee: Mohamad Chami (Lebanon)July 319:30\nYarmouk 1 – 5 Giti Pasand\nThiago 22'\nReport\nEsmaeilpour 10', 24', 25'Bandi 23'Taghizadeh 34'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 280Referee: Shukhrat Pulatov (Uzbekistan)July 319:30\nThái Sơn Nam 2 – 2 Al-Rayyan\nPhùng Trọng Luân 14'Lê Quốc Nam 30'\nReport\nMohssein 7'Al-Sabah 24'\nAl-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 90Referee: Tomohiro Kozaki (Japan)","title":"Group stage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"All Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Sports_SC&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"GH Bank RBAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattana_Bundit_University_Futsal_Club"},{"link_name":"Willian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Willian_Neris_dos_Santos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kawsan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kassem_Kawsan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"El 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Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Sports_SC&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shlema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrey_Shlema&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hernández","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carmelo_Hern%C3%A1ndez&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6627&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Tneich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Tneich"},{"link_name":"Takaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaled_Takaji"},{"link_name":"El Homsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ali_El_Homsi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Marques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rafael_Marques_Carvalho&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Football_Association"},{"link_name":"GH Bank RBAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattana_Bundit_University_Futsal_Club"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"link_name":"Saisorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panomkorn_Saisorn"},{"link_name":"Thueanklang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suphawut_Thueanklang"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6628&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Morioka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoru_Morioka"},{"link_name":"Yoshikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoki_Yoshikawa"},{"link_name":"Watanabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tomoaki_Watanabe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kitahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wataru_Kitahara"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Kuwait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_Football_Association"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"All Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Sports_SC&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Henmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Henmi"},{"link_name":"Kogure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenichiro_Kogure"},{"link_name":"Yoshikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoki_Yoshikawa"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6629&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Katakeyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bruno_Katakeyama&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kawahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisamitsu_Kawahara"},{"link_name":"o.g.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Own_goal#Association_football"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Association_of_Malaysia"},{"link_name":"GH Bank RBAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattana_Bundit_University_Futsal_Club"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saisorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panomkorn_Saisorn"},{"link_name":"Oliveira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carlos_Oliveira_(futsal)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6630&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Irsaliev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilshod_Irsaliev&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hernández","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carmelo_Hern%C3%A1ndez&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"pen.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penalty_kick_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"Sharipov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jamoliddin_Sharipov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Umarov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rustam_Umarov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Arabi_SC_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Football_Federation"}],"sub_title":"Group B","text":"July 112:30\nAll Sports 3 – 3 GH Bank RBAC\nWillian 18'Kawsan 24'El Homsi 39'\nReport\nSaisorn 7'Wongkaeo 29' (pen.)Janta 39'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 115Referee: Alireza Sohrabi (Iran)July 115:00\nNagoya Oceans 3 – 4 Ardus\nMorioka 1'Yoshikawa 29'Henmi 36'\nReport\nShlema 16'Irsaliev 31', 36'Hernández 32'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Abdulrahman Abdulqader (Bahrain)July 212:30\nArdus 2 – 6 All Sports\nShlema 14'Hernández 32'\nReport\nTneich 24'Takaji 29', 40'El Homsi 31', 40'Marques 40'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Kim Jang-Kwan (South Korea)July 215:00\nGH Bank RBAC 2 – 5 Nagoya Oceans\nSaisorn 5'Thueanklang 18'\nReport\nMorioka 2', 5'Yoshikawa 15'Watanabe 38'Kitahara 39'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 100Referee: Mohammad Al-Haddad (Kuwait)July 316:00\nNagoya Oceans 5 – 2 All Sports\nHenmi 3', 26'Kogure 17'Yoshikawa 30', 35'\nReport\nKatakeyama 25'Kawahara 27' (o.g.)\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 120Referee: Samsudin Bin Ibrahim (Malaysia)July 316:00\nGH Bank RBAC 2 – 9 Ardus\nSaisorn 10'Oliveira 38'\nReport\nIrsaliev 11', 22', 23', 37'Hernández 12' (pen.), 40'Sharipov 31', 39'Umarov 39'\nAl-Arabi SC Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 70Referee: Mahmoud Nassirloo (Iran)","title":"Group stage"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Knockout stage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"link_name":"Esmaeilpour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Esmaeilpour"},{"link_name":"Kazemi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afshin_Kazemi"},{"link_name":"Keshavarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Keshavarz"},{"link_name":"Samimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alireza_Samimi"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6631&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Mori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shuta_Mori&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yoshikawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoki_Yoshikawa"},{"link_name":"Morioka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoru_Morioka"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Kyrgyzstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Federation_of_Kyrgyz_Republic"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Al-Rayyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Rayyan_Futsal_Team"},{"link_name":"Yunusov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artur_Yunusov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Irsaliev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilshod_Irsaliev&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tojiboev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shuhrat_Tojiboev&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6632&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Bilal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saad_Bilal&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_Football_Association"}],"sub_title":"Semi-finals","text":"July 516:00\nGiti Pasand 6 – 3 Nagoya Oceans\nEsmaeilpour 14', 39', 40'Kazemi 19'Keshavarz 37'Samimi 38'\nReport\nMori 7'Yoshikawa 25'Morioka 40'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 140Referee: Nurdin Bukuev (Kyrgyzstan)July 519:30\nArdus 3 – 1 Al-Rayyan\nYunusov 9'Irsaliev 31'Tojiboev 39'\nReport\nBilal 32'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 130Referee: Kim Jang-Kwan (South Korea)","title":"Knockout stage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Al-Rayyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Rayyan_Futsal_Team"},{"link_name":"Henmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Henmi"},{"link_name":"Kitahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wataru_Kitahara"},{"link_name":"Mori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shuta_Mori&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6633&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Vadillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antonio_Vadillo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Uzbekistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan_Football_Federation"}],"sub_title":"Third place play-off","text":"July 616:00\nNagoya Oceans 4 – 1 Al-Rayyan\nHenmi 9', 36'Kitahara 14'Mori 31'\nReport\nVadillo 13'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 120Referee: Shukhrat Pulatov (Uzbekistan)","title":"Knockout stage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kazemi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afshin_Kazemi"},{"link_name":"Xapa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudimar_Ven%C3%A2ncio"},{"link_name":"Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.the-afc.com/en/futsal-club-sched-results?fixtureid=6634&stageid=252&tMode=C&view=ajax&show=matchsummary"},{"link_name":"Yunusov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artur_Yunusov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Yarmouk_Futsal_Stadium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kuwait City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_City"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Football_Association"}],"sub_title":"Final","text":"July 619:30\nGiti Pasand 2 – 1 Ardus\nKazemi 3'Xapa 24'\nReport\nYunusov 21'\nAl-Yarmouk Futsal Stadium, Kuwait CityAttendance: 270Referee: Naoki Miyatani (Japan)","title":"Knockout stage"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Keshavarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Keshavarz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Ahmad Esmaeilpour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Esmaeilpour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Rustam Umarov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rustam_Umarov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Keshavarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Keshavarz"},{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Rafael Henmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Henmi"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Ahmad Esmaeilpour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Esmaeilpour"},{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"Kaoru Morioka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoru_Morioka"},{"link_name":"Nagoya Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Alireza Samimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alireza_Samimi"},{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Amro Mohssein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amro_Mohssein&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Rayyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Rayyan_Futsal_Team"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Afshin Kazemi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afshin_Kazemi"},{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan"},{"link_name":"Dilshod Irsaliev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dilshod_Irsaliev&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Khaled Takaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaled_Takaji"},{"link_name":"All Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Sports_SC&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Alireza Afzal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alireza_Afzal"},{"link_name":"Giti Pasand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"}],"text":"Most Valuable Player\n Mohammad Keshavarz\nTop Scorer\n Ahmad Esmaeilpour (9 goals)\nFair-Play Award\n Nagoya Oceans[6]\nAll-Star Team\n Rustam Umarov (Ardus) (GK)\n Mohammad Keshavarz (Giti Pasand)\n Rafael Henmi (Nagoya Oceans)\n Ahmad Esmaeilpour (Giti Pasand)\n Kaoru Morioka (Nagoya Oceans)\nReserve All-Star Team\n Alireza Samimi (Giti Pasand) (GK)\n Amro Mohssein (Al-Rayyan)\n Afshin Kazemi (Giti Pasand)\n Dilshod Irsaliev (Ardus)\n Khaled Takaji (All Sports)\nCoach: Alireza Afzal (Giti Pasand)","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Final standing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asia_laea_location_map.svg"},{"link_name":"SGP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giti_Pasand_Isfahan_FSC"},{"link_name":"Nagoya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya_Oceans"},{"link_name":"All Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_Sports_SC&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yarmouk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Yarmouk_Kuwait"},{"link_name":"RBAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattana_Bundit_University_Futsal_Club"},{"link_name":"Sơn Nam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Th%C3%A1i_S%C6%A1n_Nam&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ardus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardus_Tashkent&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Al-Rayyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Rayyan_Futsal_Team"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asia_laea_location_map.svg"}],"text":"SGPNagoyaAll SportsYarmoukRBACSơn NamArdusAl-Rayyanclass=notpageimage| Locations of clubs in 2012 AFC Futsal Club Championship","title":"Top scorers"}]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didier_Masson
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Didier Masson
|
["1 Early life and flying career","2 Pioneering barnstormer","3 Mercenary","4 World War I service","5 Post World War I","6 Death","7 See also","8 References","9 External links","10 Endnotes","11 External links"]
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French aviator
Didier MassonBorn23 February 1886Asnières, FranceDied2 June 1950Merida, Yucatan, MexicoAllegianceFrance/United StatesService/branchInfantry; aviationRankAdjutantUnit129eme Regiment d'Infanterie, 36eme Regiment d'Infanterie, Escadrille 18, Escadrille 16, Lafayette Escadrille
Didier Masson (23 February 1886 – 2 June 1950) was a pioneering French aviator. He was born in Asnières, France. He died and was buried in Mérida, Yucatan, Mexico. Among his adventures was his life as a pioneering barnstormer, being the second flier in history to bomb a surface warship, as well as combat service in the Lafayette Escadrille with Edwin C. Parsons and Charles Nungesser. In one of the more unusual aerial victories of history, Masson shot down an enemy plane after his own plane's motor quit running. Later in life, he was a manager for pioneer Pan American World Airways, as well as a French consular officer.
Early life and flying career
Didier Masson apprenticed as a jeweler for a short while in 1903 before joining the French army. He served in the 129e Regiment d'Infanterie from 1904 to 1906. After his enlistment ended, he worked for a magneto manufacturer for some years. In 1909, he hired on as a mechanic with Louis Paulhan. Masson claimed to have soloed in 1909 while still in his native country.
Pioneering barnstormer
When Paulhan made a barnstorming tour of the United States in 1910, Masson went with him. The two of them were advertised as appearing at an air meet in Boston on 19 August 1910. At Garden City, New York, Masson successfully test-hopped a biplane built by aviation pioneer E. Lilian Todd in the latter part of 1910. With Paulhan's help, Masson continued to accumulate both solo and dual flight time even though too poor to own his own airplane.
Masson in Pegasus in January 1911
In January 1911, he set out to simultaneously be the first aviator to deliver newspapers by air and to set a world's nonstop distance record in the process. The projected hour and 45-minute flight was planned to carry the Los Angeles Times to San Bernardino, with an en route flyover of Pomona. On 7 January 1911, Masson took off from Los Angeles in the aircraft Pegasus at 0700 hours. After a navigational error of 180 degrees, high winds, and an eventful forced landing, he finally arrived at San Bernardino at 1240; his actual flight time was about 80 minutes. Also in January 1911, Masson won a prize for amateur pilots at Tanforan Racetrack in San Francisco, California.
He continued to fly in California, including a flight over Santa Barbara and an exhibition at Watsonville for May Day. He then relocated to Hawaii.
On 3 June, Masson arrived in Honolulu accompanied by Clarence H. Walker and the latter's bride and Curtiss biplane. Walker staged an exhibition on 11 June that lost money for its promoter, although the pilot received his contracted fee of $1,250. On 16 June, Masson's two monoplanes arrived on the ship Sierra. At 0611 hours, 18 June 1911, Masson took off on the first of ten promised flights, from Leilehua to Kapiolani Park. As he had promised, he flew over Schofield Barracks to let the army officers see him. The return flight from Kapiolani Park at 1330 hours did not go smoothly. Even after servicing, Masson's new and untested plane did not depart, angering a crowd of spectators. Invidious comparison to an earlier barnstormer, J. C. "Bud" Mars, was made; however, Masson was saved from the perturbed mob by local police and soldiers. Four days later, the French pilot crashed that same plane from 100 feet altitude, destroying the plane but sparing him injury.
In October 1911, Masson wowed Canadians in Alberta with his exhibition of flying despite a paucity of aviation gasoline. After several foiled attempts, on 20 October, he finally succeeded in flying over Victoria Park, and after buzzing several grazing horses to frighten them from a field, landed to greet a crowd of spectators. Towards the end of October, Masson planned a Canadian record distance flight following the railroad from Edmonton to Calgary. A special train full of paying spectators had paid $20 each to accompany Masson's epic flight. After several days of cold windy snowy weather, Masson took off, only to have his fuel tank break its mountings and drop on his head. The dazed aviator managed to land safely.
On 18 and 19 May 1912, Masson appeared at the fairgrounds at Lyons, Iowa, as a member of the Ivan Gates flying circus.
By January 1913, he could qualify for Aero Club of America Certificate No. 202 at the Glenn L. Martin Flying School.
Mercenary
Masson was working as an instructor for Martin in California when he was contracted by an agent of Venustiano Carranza to become a mercenary soldier. Masson hired on with the Mexican revolutionary leader for $5,000 as an airplane purchase fee, an allotment of $750 for equipment costs, $300 per month salary, $50 per flight for sorties flown in Mexico, and at least $250 for every bombing sortie flown. Masson flew a pusher airplane bought from Glenn Martin in 1912 and smuggled into Mexico through Arizona. The armed smugglers who forced their way into Mexico at the Nogales crossing included Masson and his mechanic, as well as Carranza underling Captain Joaquín Bauche Alcalde.
The name of the aeroplane was Sonora. It could carry two people, or one person and 150 lb (68 kg) of bombs. After a reconnaissance flight by Masson over Guaymas Harbor, he and Bauche used the aircraft to attack Federalist gunboats for the first aerial bombing of a surface ship. On 10 May 1913, Masson and Bauche overflew at least five Mexican gunboats and dropping four improvised pipe bombs containing 15 kg (33 lb) of explosives. They missed, but the gunboats, seeing themselves as defenseless, steamed out of Guaymas Harbor to safety; indeed, some crew members leaped overboard in panic caused by the explosions. Masson also flew an unknown number of follow-up bombing missions.
Masson's Mexican adventure came to an end when Masson quit flying for the Mexican Revolutionists on 5 August, claiming he had not been paid in a month, and that he had reservations about bombing cities. Masson returned to his newly adopted United States.
World War I service
On 8 September 1914, Masson re-enlisted in his old unit. After being transferred to the 36eme Regiment d'Infanterie for a short while, Masson began military pilot's training at Pau. He earned his Military Pilot's Brevet on a Caudron on 10 May 1915. He was then assigned to Escadrille 18, which was operating Caudrons. In September 1915, he received additional training, learning to fly Nieuports. He was then forwarded to a Nieuport squadron, Escadrille 16, in April 1916, and passed through to start instructing at Cazeau on the 16th. He was in this assignment only two months, checking into the famed Lafayette Escadrille, Escadrille N124, on 16 June 1916. Though he never became an ace, Masson did manage the remarkable feat of having his Nieuport 17's engine cut out while in a dogfight and still downing his German opponent, gliding to safety near the French front lines afterwards. His hasty departure from the wrecked airplane saved him from the German artillery fire that was rained down upon it. By the time Masson departed N124, he was an Adjutant.
Post World War I
Masson returned to Mexico and married. He worked as an airport manager for Pan American in Central America. He also served as a French consular officer until the German invasion of France in 1940.
Death
Didier Masson died in Mérida, Yucatan, Mexico in June 1950.
See also
List of firsts in aviation
References
Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. Dan Hagedorn. University Press of Florida, 2008. ISBN 0-8130-3249-0, ISBN 978-0-8130-3249-8.
The Lafayette Flying Corps, Volume 1. Edgar G. Hamilton. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. Digitized 27 November 2008. No ISBN available.
SPA124 Lafayette Escadrille: American Volunteer Airmen in World War 1. Jon Guttman. Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-752-2, ISBN 978-1-84176-752-9.
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20120308122853/http://www.dailybulletin.com/ourpast/ci_8684457 is a concise, lively depiction of Masson's life with emphasis on the perils of early aviation
http://azmemory.lib.az.us/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP1=any&CISOFIELD1=CISOSEARCHALL&CISOROOT=/ahfrein&CISOBOX1=pilot's shows Masson in the Sonora preparing for one of his sorties in Mexico
https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172820/http://azmemory.lib.az.us/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP1=any&CISOFIELD1=CISOSEARCHALL&CISOROOT=%2Fahfrein&CISOBOX1=Curtiss contains a photo of Masson's airplane when he was barnstorming in Arizona
https://web.archive.org/web/20110717125607/http://www.neam.org/lafescweb/conflict2.html has photos of the Lafayette Escadrille in France that include Masson
Endnotes
^ "Where is Didier Masson?".
^ a b c d SPA124 Lafayette Escadrille: American Volunteer Airmen in World War 1. p. 14.
^ a b c d e "Pioneering Air-Sea Engagement". www.earlyaviators.com. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
^ "DIDIER MASSON 1886-1950". www.earlyaviators.com. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
^ (New York Herald, 8 November 1910) http://www.earlyaviators.com/emasson.htm Retrieved on 18 September 2010. Note: Article mentions the search for an engine as the final touch to finish the Todd airplane as beginning about four months before publication date: i.e., about July 1910. Allowing time for engine selection and installation moved the completion date of the plane to late 1910.
^ a b c "The flight delivered ... Too late - DailyBulletin.com". Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2010-09-26. Retrieved on 26 September 2010.
^ a b c "Hawaii Aviation". hawaii.gov. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
^ http://indy.liberationmedia.com/news/2009/jan/22/when-did-santa-barbara-get-its-first-airport/ Retrieved on 25 September 2010.
^ http://hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/didier-masson Retrieved on 25 September 2010. Note: The Walker fiasco could not have helped the atmosphere.
^ "The Early Years - Barnstorming". www.abheritage.ca. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
^ "Flying Circus". Archived from the original on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-09-26. Retrieved on 26 September 2010.
^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. p. 75–76.
^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. pp. 76, 549. Note: Conquistadors identifies the ships Guerrero, Democrata, Morelos, Tampico, and Oaxaca. Footnote 113 on p.549 contains a description of the bombs. Although often credited with the first air-to-sea attack in history, he was preceded by Greek ace Aristeidis Moraitinis.
^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. p. 77; 103–105.
^ SPA124 Lafayette Escadrille: American Volunteer Airmen in World War 1. pp. 14, 25.
^ The Lafayette Flying Corps: Volume 1. p. 355.
External links
Early aviators
|
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Later in life, he was a manager for pioneer Pan American World Airways, as well as a French consular officer.","title":"Didier Masson"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-earlyaviators.com-3"},{"link_name":"129e Regiment d'Infanterie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=129e_Regiment_d%27Infanterie&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"},{"link_name":"magneto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneto"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-earlyaviators.com-3"},{"link_name":"Louis Paulhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Paulhan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"}],"text":"Didier Masson apprenticed as a jeweler for a short while in 1903 before joining the French army.[3] He served in the 129e Regiment d'Infanterie from 1904 to 1906.[2] After his enlistment ended, he worked for a magneto manufacturer for some years.[3] In 1909, he hired on as a mechanic with Louis Paulhan. Masson claimed to have soloed in 1909 while still in his native country.[2]","title":"Early life and flying career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Garden City, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_City,_New_York"},{"link_name":"E. 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The projected hour and 45-minute flight was planned to carry the Los Angeles Times to San Bernardino, with an en route flyover of Pomona. On 7 January 1911, Masson took off from Los Angeles in the aircraft Pegasus at 0700 hours. After a navigational error of 180 degrees, high winds, and an eventful forced landing, he finally arrived at San Bernardino at 1240; his actual flight time was about 80 minutes.[6] Also in January 1911, Masson won a prize for amateur pilots at Tanforan Racetrack in San Francisco, California.[7]He continued to fly in California,[7] including a flight over Santa Barbara[8] and an exhibition at Watsonville for May Day.[7] He then relocated to Hawaii.On 3 June, Masson arrived in Honolulu accompanied by Clarence H. Walker and the latter's bride and Curtiss biplane. Walker staged an exhibition on 11 June that lost money for its promoter, although the pilot received his contracted fee of $1,250. On 16 June, Masson's two monoplanes arrived on the ship Sierra. At 0611 hours, 18 June 1911, Masson took off on the first of ten promised flights, from Leilehua to Kapiolani Park. As he had promised, he flew over Schofield Barracks to let the army officers see him. The return flight from Kapiolani Park at 1330 hours did not go smoothly. Even after servicing, Masson's new and untested plane did not depart, angering a crowd of spectators. Invidious comparison to an earlier barnstormer, J. C. \"Bud\" Mars, was made; however, Masson was saved from the perturbed mob by local police and soldiers. Four days later, the French pilot crashed that same plane from 100 feet altitude, destroying the plane but sparing him injury.[9]In October 1911, Masson wowed Canadians in Alberta with his exhibition of flying despite a paucity of aviation gasoline. After several foiled attempts, on 20 October, he finally succeeded in flying over Victoria Park, and after buzzing several grazing horses to frighten them from a field, landed to greet a crowd of spectators. Towards the end of October, Masson planned a Canadian record distance flight following the railroad from Edmonton to Calgary. A special train full of paying spectators had paid $20 each to accompany Masson's epic flight. After several days of cold windy snowy weather, Masson took off, only to have his fuel tank break its mountings and drop on his head. The dazed aviator managed to land safely.[10]On 18 and 19 May 1912, Masson appeared at the fairgrounds at Lyons, Iowa, as a member of the Ivan Gates flying circus.[11]By January 1913, he could qualify for Aero Club of America Certificate No. 202 at the Glenn L. Martin Flying School.[3]","title":"Pioneering barnstormer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Venustiano Carranza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venustiano_Carranza"},{"link_name":"pusher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusher_configuration"},{"link_name":"Nogales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nogales,_Sonora"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Guaymas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaymas"},{"link_name":"gunboats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunboat"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Masson was working as an instructor for Martin in California when he was contracted by an agent of Venustiano Carranza to become a mercenary soldier. Masson hired on with the Mexican revolutionary leader for $5,000 as an airplane purchase fee, an allotment of $750 for equipment costs, $300 per month salary, $50 per flight for sorties flown in Mexico, and at least $250 for every bombing sortie flown. Masson flew a pusher airplane bought from Glenn Martin in 1912 and smuggled into Mexico through Arizona. The armed smugglers who forced their way into Mexico at the Nogales crossing included Masson and his mechanic, as well as Carranza underling Captain Joaquín Bauche Alcalde.[12]The name of the aeroplane was Sonora. It could carry two people, or one person and 150 lb (68 kg) of bombs. After a reconnaissance flight by Masson over Guaymas Harbor, he and Bauche used the aircraft to attack Federalist gunboats for the first aerial bombing of a surface ship. On 10 May 1913, Masson and Bauche overflew at least five Mexican gunboats and dropping four improvised pipe bombs containing 15 kg (33 lb) of explosives. They missed, but the gunboats, seeing themselves as defenseless, steamed out of Guaymas Harbor to safety; indeed, some crew members leaped overboard in panic caused by the explosions. Masson also flew an unknown number of follow-up bombing missions.[13]Masson's Mexican adventure came to an end when Masson quit flying for the Mexican Revolutionists on 5 August, claiming he had not been paid in a month, and that he had reservations about bombing cities.[2] Masson returned to his newly adopted United States.[14]","title":"Mercenary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pau,_Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es-Atlantiques"},{"link_name":"Military Pilot's Brevet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Military_Pilot%27s_Brevet&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Caudron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudron"},{"link_name":"Nieuports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport"},{"link_name":"Cazeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cazeau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lafayette Escadrille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette_Escadrille"},{"link_name":"Nieuport 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Adjutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjutant"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"On 8 September 1914, Masson re-enlisted in his old unit. After being transferred to the 36eme Regiment d'Infanterie for a short while, Masson began military pilot's training at Pau. He earned his Military Pilot's Brevet on a Caudron on 10 May 1915. He was then assigned to Escadrille 18, which was operating Caudrons. In September 1915, he received additional training, learning to fly Nieuports. He was then forwarded to a Nieuport squadron, Escadrille 16, in April 1916, and passed through to start instructing at Cazeau on the 16th. He was in this assignment only two months, checking into the famed Lafayette Escadrille, Escadrille N124, on 16 June 1916. Though he never became an ace, Masson did manage the remarkable feat of having his Nieuport 17's engine cut out while in a dogfight and still downing his German opponent, gliding to safety near the French front lines afterwards. His hasty departure from the wrecked airplane saved him from the German artillery fire that was rained down upon it.[15] By the time Masson departed N124, he was an Adjutant.[16]","title":"World War I service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pan American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailybulletin.com-6"}],"text":"Masson returned to Mexico and married. He worked as an airport manager for Pan American in Central America. He also served as a French consular officer until the German invasion of France in 1940.[6]","title":"Post World War I"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailybulletin.com-6"}],"text":"Didier Masson died in Mérida, Yucatan, Mexico in June 1950.[6]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Where is Didier Masson?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.theaerodrome.com/forum/pioneer-aviation/24884-where-didier-masson.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-3"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-earlyaviators.com_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-earlyaviators.com_3-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-earlyaviators.com_3-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-earlyaviators.com_3-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-earlyaviators.com_3-4"},{"link_name":"\"Pioneering Air-Sea Engagement\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.earlyaviators.com/egrovmas.htm"},{"link_name":"title missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"DIDIER MASSON 1886-1950\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.earlyaviators.com/emasson.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"http://www.earlyaviators.com/emasson.htm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.earlyaviators.com/emasson.htm"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-dailybulletin.com_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-dailybulletin.com_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-dailybulletin.com_6-2"},{"link_name":"\"The flight delivered ... Too late - DailyBulletin.com\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120308122853/http://www.dailybulletin.com/ourpast/ci_8684457"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.dailybulletin.com/ourpast/ci_8684457"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawaii.gov_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawaii.gov_7-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hawaii.gov_7-2"},{"link_name":"\"Hawaii Aviation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/didier-masson"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"http://indy.liberationmedia.com/news/2009/jan/22/when-did-santa-barbara-get-its-first-airport/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//indy.liberationmedia.com/news/2009/jan/22/when-did-santa-barbara-get-its-first-airport/"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"http://hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/didier-masson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/didier-masson"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"The Early Years - Barnstorming\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.abheritage.ca/aviation/history/fairs_barnstormers.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Flying Circus\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110713072117/http://www.jacarst.com/history/hist05-12.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jacarst.com/history/hist05-12.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Aristeidis Moraitinis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristeidis_Moraitinis_(aviator)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"}],"text":"^ \"Where is Didier Masson?\".\n\n^ a b c d SPA124 Lafayette Escadrille: American Volunteer Airmen in World War 1. p. 14.\n\n^ a b c d e \"Pioneering Air-Sea Engagement\". www.earlyaviators.com. Retrieved 18 November 2010.[title missing]\n\n^ \"DIDIER MASSON 1886-1950\". www.earlyaviators.com. Retrieved 23 September 2010.\n\n^ (New York Herald, 8 November 1910) http://www.earlyaviators.com/emasson.htm Retrieved on 18 September 2010. Note: Article mentions the search for an engine as the final touch to finish the Todd airplane as beginning about four months before publication date: i.e., about July 1910. Allowing time for engine selection and installation moved the completion date of the plane to late 1910.\n\n^ a b c \"The flight delivered ... Too late - DailyBulletin.com\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2010-09-26. Retrieved on 26 September 2010.\n\n^ a b c \"Hawaii Aviation\". hawaii.gov. Retrieved 25 September 2010.\n\n^ http://indy.liberationmedia.com/news/2009/jan/22/when-did-santa-barbara-get-its-first-airport/[permanent dead link] Retrieved on 25 September 2010.\n\n^ http://hawaii.gov/hawaiiaviation/hawaii-aviation-pioneers/didier-masson Retrieved on 25 September 2010. Note: The Walker fiasco could not have helped the atmosphere.\n\n^ \"The Early Years - Barnstorming\". www.abheritage.ca. Retrieved 25 September 2010.\n\n^ \"Flying Circus\". Archived from the original on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-09-26. Retrieved on 26 September 2010.\n\n^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. p. 75–76.\n\n^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. pp. 76, 549. Note: Conquistadors identifies the ships Guerrero, Democrata, Morelos, Tampico, and Oaxaca. Footnote 113 on p.549 contains a description of the bombs. Although often credited with the first air-to-sea attack in history, he was preceded by Greek ace Aristeidis Moraitinis.\n\n^ Conquistadors of the Sky: A History of Aviation in Latin America. p. 77; 103–105.\n\n^ SPA124 Lafayette Escadrille: American Volunteer Airmen in World War 1. pp. 14, 25.\n\n^ The Lafayette Flying Corps: Volume 1. p. 355.","title":"Endnotes"}]
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[{"image_text":"Masson in Pegasus in January 1911","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Didier-masson-1911.png/210px-Didier-masson-1911.png"}]
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[{"title":"List of firsts in aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firsts_in_aviation"}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wobbe_index
|
Wobbe index
|
["1 Wobbe index of common fuel gases[5]","2 Usage","3 Limitations","4 References"]
|
Indicator of the interchangeability of fuel gases
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The Wobbe index (WI) or Wobbe number is an indicator of the interchangeability of fuel gases such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and town gas and is frequently defined in the specifications of gas supply and transport utilities.
If
V
C
{\displaystyle V_{C}}
is the higher heating value, or higher calorific value, and
G
S
{\displaystyle G_{S}}
is the specific gravity, the Wobbe index,
I
W
{\displaystyle I_{W}}
, is defined as:
I
W
=
V
C
G
S
.
{\displaystyle I_{W}={\frac {V_{C}}{\sqrt {G_{S}}}}.}
G
S
=
ρ
S
T
P
ρ
a
i
r
,
S
T
P
=
M
M
a
i
r
{\displaystyle G_{S}={\frac {\rho _{STP}}{\rho _{air,STP}}}={\frac {M}{M_{air}}}}
ρ
S
T
P
{\displaystyle \rho _{STP}}
is the density of the gas at standard conditions, the definition of which changed in 1982. Published Wobbe data may be using 0 °C, 15 °C, 15.56 °C, 20 °C or 25 °C. EU directives on gas quality use 15 °C in accordance with ISO 13443 and ISO 6976.
ρ
a
i
r
,
S
T
P
{\displaystyle \rho _{air,STP}}
is the density of air at standard conditions,
M
{\displaystyle M}
is the molar mass of the gas and
M
a
i
r
{\displaystyle M_{air}}
is the molar mass of air which is about 28.96 kg/kmol.
.
The Wobbe index is used to compare the combustion energy output of different composition fuel gases in an appliance (fire, cooker etc.). If two fuels have identical Wobbe indices then for given pressure and valve settings the energy output will also be identical. Typically variations of up to 5% are allowed as these would not be noticeable to the consumer.
The Wobbe index is a critical factor to minimise the impact of the changeover when analyzing the use of substitute natural gas (SNG) fuels such as propane-air mixtures. The Wobbe index also requires the addition of propane to some upgraded biomethane products, particularly in regions where natural gas has a high calorific value such as Sweden.
The Wobbe index has its origins in the 1920's with Italian physicist and engineer Goffredo Wobbe.
Wobbe index of common fuel gases
Note that these Wobbe numbers below are not calculated at 15 °C and so are not correct according to ISO 13443, see Standard temperature and pressure.
Fuel gas
Upper indexkcal/Nm³
Lower indexkcal/Nm³
Upper indexMJ/m³
Lower indexMJ/m³
Hydrogen
11,528
9,715
48.23
40.65
Methane
12,735
11,452
53.28
47.91
Ethane
16,298
14,931
68.19
62.47
Ethylene
15,253
14,344
63.82
60.01
Natural gas
12,837
11,597
53.71
48.52
Propane
19,376
17,817
81.07
74.54
Propylene
18,413
17,180
77.04
71.88
n-butane
22,066
20,336
92.32
85.08
Iso-butane
21,980
20,247
91.96
84.71
Butylene-1
21,142
19,728
88.46
82.54
LPG
20,755
19,106
86.84
79.94
Acetylene
14,655
14,141
61.32
59.16
Carbon monoxide
3,060
3,060
12.80
12.80
Note: 1 Joule = 2.3901×10−4 kcal.
Usage
The Wobbe index is expressed in MJ/Nm³ (where 'Nm³' indicates'm³ in Normal conditions), or sometimes in BTU/scf. In the case of natural gas (molar mass 17 g/mol), the typical heating value is around 39 MJ/Nm³ (1,050 BTU/scf) and the specific gravity is approximately 0.59, giving a typical Wobbe index of 51 MJ/Nm³ (1,367 BTU/scf).
There are three ranges or "families" of fuel gases that have been internationally agreed based on Wobbe index. Family 1 covers manufactured gases, family 2 covers natural gases (with high and low ranges) and family 3 covers liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Combustion equipment is typically designed to burn a fuel gas within a particular family: hydrogen-rich town gas, natural gas or LPG.
Family
Type of gas
Wobbe index range (MJ/Nm3)
Wobbe number range
1
Town gas / Syngas
22.5 – 30.0
24.0 – 29.0
2 L
Natural
39.0 – 45.0
2 H
45.5 – 55.0
48.0 – 53.0
3
LPG
73.5 – 87.5
72.0 – 87.0
Other flame characteristics and composition limits may determine the acceptability of the replacement gas, e.g. flame speed, "yellow tipping" due to incomplete combustion, sulfur content, oxygen content, etc.
Limitations
In spite of its usefulness, Wobbe index alone is not a good indicator of the interchangeability of two or more gases, or mixtures of them. It is necessary to bear in mind other criteria while determining the plenty substitution of a fuel by other, different of the one used to adjust the burning system.
References
"The Wobbe Index and Natural Gas Interchangeability" (PDF). Emerson Process Management. 2007-07-30.
^ a b Treloar, R.D. (2005). Gas Installation Technology. Blackwell. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4051-1880-4.
^ "Bio Gas max" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2012-09-07.
^ Ingemar Gunnarsson
^ "American Gas Association" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-29. Retrieved 2022-03-01.
^ Wobbe Index and Fuel Gases
^ Flórez-Orrego, Daniel, Escola Politécnica da USP. "Fuel Gas Interchangeability". Retrieved 8 Sep 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Treloar,_Gas_Installation_Technology,_Wobbe_number-1"},{"link_name":"fuel gases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_gas"},{"link_name":"natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"liquefied petroleum gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas"},{"link_name":"town gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gas"},{"link_name":"higher heating value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_heating_value"},{"link_name":"calorific value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorific_value"},{"link_name":"specific gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity"},{"link_name":"standard conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure"},{"link_name":"definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure#Definitions"},{"link_name":"molar mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass"},{"link_name":"substitute natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitute_natural_gas"},{"link_name":"propane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane"},{"link_name":"air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Wobbe index (WI) or Wobbe number[1] is an indicator of the interchangeability of fuel gases such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and town gas and is frequently defined in the specifications of gas supply and transport utilities.If \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n C\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{C}}\n \n is the higher heating value, or higher calorific value, and \n \n \n \n \n G\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle G_{S}}\n \n is the specific gravity, the Wobbe index, \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n W\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{W}}\n \n, is defined as:I\n \n W\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n V\n \n C\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{W}={\\frac {V_{C}}{\\sqrt {G_{S}}}}.}G\n \n S\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n S\n T\n P\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n a\n i\n r\n ,\n S\n T\n P\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n M\n \n M\n \n a\n i\n r\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle G_{S}={\\frac {\\rho _{STP}}{\\rho _{air,STP}}}={\\frac {M}{M_{air}}}}ρ\n \n S\n T\n P\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{STP}}\n \n is the density of the gas at standard conditions, the definition of which changed in 1982. Published Wobbe data may be using 0 °C, 15 °C, 15.56 °C, 20 °C or 25 °C. EU directives on gas quality use 15 °C in accordance with ISO 13443 and ISO 6976.ρ\n \n a\n i\n r\n ,\n S\n T\n P\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{air,STP}}\n \n is the density of air at standard conditions, \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n is the molar mass of the gas and \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n a\n i\n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{air}}\n \n is the molar mass of air which is about 28.96 kg/kmol.\n.\nThe Wobbe index is used to compare the combustion energy output of different composition fuel gases in an appliance (fire, cooker etc.). If two fuels have identical Wobbe indices then for given pressure and valve settings the energy output will also be identical. Typically variations of up to 5% are allowed as these would not be noticeable to the consumer.The Wobbe index is a critical factor to minimise the impact of the changeover when analyzing the use of substitute natural gas (SNG) fuels such as propane-air mixtures. The Wobbe index also requires the addition of propane to some upgraded biomethane products,[2] particularly in regions where natural gas has a high calorific value such as Sweden.[3]The Wobbe index has its origins in the 1920's with Italian physicist and engineer Goffredo Wobbe.[4]","title":"Wobbe index"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard temperature and pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure"},{"link_name":"Joule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"kcal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorie"}],"text":"Note that these Wobbe numbers below are not calculated at 15 °C and so are not correct according to ISO 13443, see Standard temperature and pressure.Note: 1 Joule = 2.3901×10−4 kcal.","title":"Wobbe index of common fuel gases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megajoule"},{"link_name":"Nm³","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure"},{"link_name":"BTU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Thermal_Unit"},{"link_name":"scf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_cubic_foot"},{"link_name":"molar mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass"},{"link_name":"LPG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas"},{"link_name":"flame speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_speed"}],"text":"The Wobbe index is expressed in MJ/Nm³ (where 'Nm³' indicates'm³ in Normal conditions), or sometimes in BTU/scf. In the case of natural gas (molar mass 17 g/mol), the typical heating value is around 39 MJ/Nm³ (1,050 BTU/scf) and the specific gravity is approximately 0.59, giving a typical Wobbe index of 51 MJ/Nm³ (1,367 BTU/scf).There are three ranges or \"families\" of fuel gases that have been internationally agreed based on Wobbe index. Family 1 covers manufactured gases, family 2 covers natural gases (with high and low ranges) and family 3 covers liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Combustion equipment is typically designed to burn a fuel gas within a particular family: hydrogen-rich town gas, natural gas or LPG.Other flame characteristics and composition limits may determine the acceptability of the replacement gas, e.g. flame speed, \"yellow tipping\" due to incomplete combustion, sulfur content, oxygen content, etc.","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In spite of its usefulness, Wobbe index alone is not a good indicator of the interchangeability of two or more gases, or mixtures of them. It is necessary to bear in mind other criteria while determining the plenty substitution of a fuel by other, different of the one used to adjust the burning system.[6]","title":"Limitations"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The Wobbe Index and Natural Gas Interchangeability\" (PDF). Emerson Process Management. 2007-07-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.com/groups/public/documents/application_notes-tech._briefs/d301334x012.pdf?&xBusinessUnit=Remote%20Automation%20Solutions","url_text":"\"The Wobbe Index and Natural Gas Interchangeability\""}]},{"reference":"Treloar, R.D. (2005). Gas Installation Technology. Blackwell. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4051-1880-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel","url_text":"Gas Installation Technology"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel/page/n39","url_text":"24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1880-4","url_text":"978-1-4051-1880-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Bio Gas max\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2012-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923190029/http://www.biogasmax.eu/media/d3_3v2biogasmax_iwes_v2f_nov2010__052078600_1109_10022011.pdf","url_text":"\"Bio Gas max\""},{"url":"http://www.biogasmax.eu/media/d3_3v2biogasmax_iwes_v2f_nov2010__052078600_1109_10022011.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"American Gas Association\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-29. Retrieved 2022-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211229225516/https://www.aga.org/sites/default/files/legacy-assets/SiteCollectionDocuments/KnowledgeCenter/OpsEng/CodesStandards/0604GASINTERCHANGEABILITYSTAFFPAPER.pdf","url_text":"\"American Gas Association\""},{"url":"https://www.aga.org/sites/default/files/legacy-assets/SiteCollectionDocuments/KnowledgeCenter/OpsEng/CodesStandards/0604GASINTERCHANGEABILITYSTAFFPAPER.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Flórez-Orrego, Daniel, Escola Politécnica da USP. \"Fuel Gas Interchangeability\". Retrieved 8 Sep 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://unalmed.academia.edu/DanielFl%C3%B3rezOrrego/Papers/1913409/Intercambiabilidad_de_gases_combustibles_Fuel_Gas_Interchangeability_Intercambiabilidade_dos_gases_combustiveis/","url_text":"\"Fuel Gas Interchangeability\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Wobbe+index%22","external_links_name":"\"Wobbe index\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Wobbe+index%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Wobbe+index%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Wobbe+index%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Wobbe+index%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Wobbe+index%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.com/groups/public/documents/application_notes-tech._briefs/d301334x012.pdf?&xBusinessUnit=Remote%20Automation%20Solutions","external_links_name":"\"The Wobbe Index and Natural Gas Interchangeability\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel","external_links_name":"Gas Installation Technology"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel/page/n39","external_links_name":"24"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150923190029/http://www.biogasmax.eu/media/d3_3v2biogasmax_iwes_v2f_nov2010__052078600_1109_10022011.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Bio Gas max\""},{"Link":"http://www.biogasmax.eu/media/d3_3v2biogasmax_iwes_v2f_nov2010__052078600_1109_10022011.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.sgc.se/gasification2011/Resources/Ingemar_Gunnarsson.pdf","external_links_name":"Ingemar Gunnarsson"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211229225516/https://www.aga.org/sites/default/files/legacy-assets/SiteCollectionDocuments/KnowledgeCenter/OpsEng/CodesStandards/0604GASINTERCHANGEABILITYSTAFFPAPER.pdf","external_links_name":"\"American Gas Association\""},{"Link":"https://www.aga.org/sites/default/files/legacy-assets/SiteCollectionDocuments/KnowledgeCenter/OpsEng/CodesStandards/0604GASINTERCHANGEABILITYSTAFFPAPER.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/wobbe-index-d_421.html","external_links_name":"Wobbe Index and Fuel Gases"},{"Link":"https://unalmed.academia.edu/DanielFl%C3%B3rezOrrego/Papers/1913409/Intercambiabilidad_de_gases_combustibles_Fuel_Gas_Interchangeability_Intercambiabilidade_dos_gases_combustiveis/","external_links_name":"\"Fuel Gas Interchangeability\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Canada_(term)
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Little Canada (term)
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["1 History","2 References","3 External links"]
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Little Canada" term – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Little Canada (French: le petit Canada) is a name for any of the various communities where French Canadians congregated upon emigrating to the United States, in particular New England, in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A variant of Canadian French known as New England French is still spoken in parts of New England.
History
Some early emigrants relocated to the United States because they had chosen to side with the Americans during the American Revolution. Parish archives of Old St. Joseph's Church in Philadelphia record trips made by Jesuit Father Ferdinand Steinmeyer (Father Farmer) to the Revolutionary War depot near Fishkill, New York, where he baptized over a dozen children of French-Canadian and Acadian parents. Most of the men were members of the 1st Canadian Regiment of the Continental Army, recruited in 1775 by James Livingston in anticipation of an invasion of northeastern Quebec. As the expedition failed, they, their families, and the American militias were driven out of Canada.
Approximately 900,000 French-Canadians emigrated to the United States in the period of 1840-1930 as part of the Quebec diaspora. The vast majority of these francophones settled in the six New England states: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont, as well as northern New York state.
Distribution of French Americans according to the 2000 census
Emigrants moved to states close to Quebec, particularly those bordering the province, because of their generally impoverished condition and lack of jobs as a result of a poor economy over-reliant on agriculture. In the 19th century, the United States was one of the most industrialised and prosperous nations on earth. The emigrants left behind a traditional rural society to enter an industrial world. Centers of the New England textile and other manufacturing industries such as Lowell, Massachusetts; Gardner, Massachusetts; Holyoke, Massachusetts; Manchester, New Hampshire; Lewiston, Maine; and Woonsocket, Rhode Island were major destinations for Quebec laborers.
French Canadians from other provinces often moved elsewhere: those from Ontario typically emigrated to Illinois and Michigan, while those from Manitoba and other Western provinces usually emigrated to Minnesota and Wisconsin. Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota, boasted a large French Canadian community in 1900.
One of the more famous "Little Canadas" was the West Side of Manchester, New Hampshire, a city with a large French-speaking population due to the recruitment of laborers in Quebec to work in the textile mills in the 19th and 20th centuries. "La Caisse Populaire Ste. Marie", or St. Mary's Bank, located in Manchester's Little Canada, was the first credit union chartered in the United States, specifically founded to serve the French Canadian population. The credit union, or "people's bank" ("la caisse populaire") was a financial institution pioneered in Quebec by Quebecers who had difficulty obtaining credit from banks controlled by anglophone Canadians.
The most noted resident of Manchester's "petit Canada" was Grace Metalious, author of the best-selling novel Peyton Place. Metalious denied her French Canadian heritage and mostly lived in non-French Canadian neighborhoods in Manchester, due to her mother's desire to avoid prejudice. During World War II, Metalious eventually had to live in Little Canada after her husband went off to war due to a housing shortage.
In contrast, novelist Robert Cormier of Leominster, Massachusetts, highlighted the culture of fictitious but representative Little Canadas in New England in many of his works, notably "Frenchtown Summer."
Revlon founder Charles Revson, of Russian-Jewish extraction, grew up in a cold-water tenement in Manchester's Little Canada.
Other prominent Little Canadas were found in Lowell, Massachusetts, the home of novelist Jack Kerouac, and Lewiston, Maine. Another notable Franco-American community sprang up in Fall River in southeastern Massachusetts. As a result, a number of cultural and charitable organizations, such as the Franco-American Civic League, the Club Richelieu, La Fédération Catholique Franco-Américaine de Fall River, and L'Association Culturelle Française de Fall River, were founded to foster French language and culture within the Franco-American community.
Today, New England French (essentially a variety of Canadian French) is spoken in parts of New England, in particular Maine.
References
^ a b Ammon, Ulrich; International Sociological Association (1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 306–308. ISBN 0-89925-356-3. Retrieved February 1, 2012.
^ a b Bélanger, Damien-Claude. "French Canadian Emigration to the United States 1840-1930", Marianopolis College
^ "French Canadians in Holyoke 1900-1940".
^ Brault, Gerard J. (1986). The French-Canadian Heritage in New England. ISBN 9780874513592.
^ Many of the organizational records are housed in the Archives and Special Collections at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. Their finding aids may be found at the following links: http://lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC11.pdf , http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC135.pdf , http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC%20138.pdf , http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC139.pdf
External links
French Canadian Emigration to the United States, 1840-1930
History of St. Mary's Bank
Photo of the first credit union in the U.S.
Excerpt from "Fire and Ice," Andrew Tobias' biography of Charles Revson
Salem as "Little Canada": French-Canadian Connections and Franco-American Heritage in Salem, Massachusetts
Report of the Town and County Historian on the Area Known as "Little Canada" in the Town of Indian Lake
vteEthnic enclaves
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French Canadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Canadians"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England"},{"link_name":"Canadian French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_French"},{"link_name":"New England French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_French"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ammon-1"}],"text":"Little Canada (French: le petit Canada) is a name for any of the various communities where French Canadians congregated upon emigrating to the United States, in particular New England, in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A variant of Canadian French known as New England French is still spoken in parts of New England.[1]","title":"Little Canada (term)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Old St. Joseph's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_St._Joseph%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Fishkill, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishkill,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Acadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadian"},{"link_name":"1st Canadian Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Canadian_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Continental Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Army"},{"link_name":"James Livingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Livingston_(American_Revolution)"},{"link_name":"invasion of northeastern Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Quebec_(1775)"},{"link_name":"Quebec diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_diaspora"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belanger-2"},{"link_name":"Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vermont"},{"link_name":"New York state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_state"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:French1346.gif"},{"link_name":"Distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maps_of_American_ancestries"},{"link_name":"2000 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_United_States_census"},{"link_name":"agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarian_society"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Belanger-2"},{"link_name":"textile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"},{"link_name":"Lowell, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Gardner, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardner,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Holyoke, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holyoke,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Manchester, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"Lewiston, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewiston,_Maine"},{"link_name":"Woonsocket, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woonsocket,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"West Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Side,_Manchester,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"St. Mary's Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Bank"},{"link_name":"credit union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_union"},{"link_name":"Quebecers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people"},{"link_name":"anglophone Canadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglophone_Canadians"},{"link_name":"Grace Metalious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Metalious"},{"link_name":"Peyton Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyton_Place_(novel)"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Robert Cormier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cormier"},{"link_name":"Leominster, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leominster,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Revlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revlon"},{"link_name":"Charles Revson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Revson"},{"link_name":"tenement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenement"},{"link_name":"Lowell, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowell,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Jack Kerouac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Kerouac"},{"link_name":"Lewiston, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewiston,_Maine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Fall River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_River,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"New England French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_French"},{"link_name":"Canadian French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_French"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ammon-1"}],"text":"Some early emigrants relocated to the United States because they had chosen to side with the Americans during the American Revolution. Parish archives of Old St. Joseph's Church in Philadelphia record trips made by Jesuit Father Ferdinand Steinmeyer (Father Farmer) to the Revolutionary War depot near Fishkill, New York, where he baptized over a dozen children of French-Canadian and Acadian parents. Most of the men were members of the 1st Canadian Regiment of the Continental Army, recruited in 1775 by James Livingston in anticipation of an invasion of northeastern Quebec. As the expedition failed, they, their families, and the American militias were driven out of Canada.Approximately 900,000 French-Canadians emigrated to the United States in the period of 1840-1930 as part of the Quebec diaspora.[2] The vast majority of these francophones settled in the six New England states: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont, as well as northern New York state.Distribution of French Americans according to the 2000 censusEmigrants moved to states close to Quebec, particularly those bordering the province, because of their generally impoverished condition and lack of jobs as a result of a poor economy over-reliant on agriculture. In the 19th century, the United States was one of the most industrialised and prosperous nations on earth. The emigrants left behind a traditional rural society to enter an industrial world.[2] Centers of the New England textile and other manufacturing industries such as Lowell, Massachusetts; Gardner, Massachusetts; Holyoke, Massachusetts;[3] Manchester, New Hampshire; Lewiston, Maine; and Woonsocket, Rhode Island were major destinations for Quebec laborers.French Canadians from other provinces often moved elsewhere: those from Ontario typically emigrated to Illinois and Michigan, while those from Manitoba and other Western provinces usually emigrated to Minnesota and Wisconsin. Minneapolis and Saint Paul, Minnesota, boasted a large French Canadian community in 1900.One of the more famous \"Little Canadas\" was the West Side of Manchester, New Hampshire, a city with a large French-speaking population due to the recruitment of laborers in Quebec to work in the textile mills in the 19th and 20th centuries. \"La Caisse Populaire Ste. Marie\", or St. Mary's Bank, located in Manchester's Little Canada, was the first credit union chartered in the United States, specifically founded to serve the French Canadian population. The credit union, or \"people's bank\" (\"la caisse populaire\") was a financial institution pioneered in Quebec by Quebecers who had difficulty obtaining credit from banks controlled by anglophone Canadians.The most noted resident of Manchester's \"petit Canada\" was Grace Metalious, author of the best-selling novel Peyton Place. Metalious denied her French Canadian heritage and mostly lived in non-French Canadian neighborhoods in Manchester, due to her mother's desire to avoid prejudice. During World War II, Metalious eventually had to live in Little Canada after her husband went off to war due to a housing shortage.In contrast, novelist Robert Cormier of Leominster, Massachusetts, highlighted the culture of fictitious but representative Little Canadas in New England in many of his works, notably \"Frenchtown Summer.\"Revlon founder Charles Revson, of Russian-Jewish extraction, grew up in a cold-water tenement in Manchester's Little Canada.Other prominent Little Canadas were found in Lowell, Massachusetts, the home of novelist Jack Kerouac, and Lewiston, Maine.[4] Another notable Franco-American community sprang up in Fall River in southeastern Massachusetts. As a result, a number of cultural and charitable organizations, such as the Franco-American Civic League, the Club Richelieu, La Fédération Catholique Franco-Américaine de Fall River, and L'Association Culturelle Française de Fall River, were founded to foster French language and culture within the Franco-American community.[5]Today, New England French (essentially a variety of Canadian French) is spoken in parts of New England, in particular Maine.[1]","title":"History"}]
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[{"image_text":"Distribution of French Americans according to the 2000 census","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/French1346.gif/300px-French1346.gif"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Ammon, Ulrich; International Sociological Association (1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 306–308. ISBN 0-89925-356-3. Retrieved February 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=geh261xgI8sC","url_text":"Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89925-356-3","url_text":"0-89925-356-3"}]},{"reference":"\"French Canadians in Holyoke 1900-1940\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.terrastories.com/holyoke/french-canadians.html","url_text":"\"French Canadians in Holyoke 1900-1940\""}]},{"reference":"Brault, Gerard J. (1986). The French-Canadian Heritage in New England. ISBN 9780874513592.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZkXdBzYjzcC&q=little+canada+french+canadians&pg=PA60","url_text":"The French-Canadian Heritage in New England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780874513592","url_text":"9780874513592"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Little+Canada%22+term","external_links_name":"\"Little Canada\" term"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Little+Canada%22+term+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Little+Canada%22+term&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Little+Canada%22+term+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Little+Canada%22+term","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Little+Canada%22+term&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=geh261xgI8sC","external_links_name":"Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties"},{"Link":"http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/readings/leaving.htm","external_links_name":"Bélanger, Damien-Claude. \"French Canadian Emigration to the United States 1840-1930\", Marianopolis College"},{"Link":"http://www.terrastories.com/holyoke/french-canadians.html","external_links_name":"\"French Canadians in Holyoke 1900-1940\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZkXdBzYjzcC&q=little+canada+french+canadians&pg=PA60","external_links_name":"The French-Canadian Heritage in New England"},{"Link":"http://lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC11.pdf","external_links_name":"http://lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC11.pdf"},{"Link":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC135.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC135.pdf"},{"Link":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC%20138.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC%20138.pdf"},{"Link":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC139.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.lib.umassd.edu/sites/default/files/archives/findaids/MC139.pdf"},{"Link":"http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/readings/leaving.htm","external_links_name":"French Canadian Emigration to the United States, 1840-1930"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716144433/http://www.stmarysbank.com/about-st-marys-bank/our-history.asp","external_links_name":"History of St. Mary's Bank"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080514151937/http://www.acumuseum.org/tour_firstfloor.html","external_links_name":"Photo of the first credit union in the U.S."},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101119093038/http://andrewtobias.com/fireandice2.html","external_links_name":"Excerpt from \"Fire and Ice,\" Andrew Tobias' biography of Charles Revson"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080719120834/http://www.lrc.salemstate.edu/blood/Salem_as_Little_Canada.htm","external_links_name":"Salem as \"Little Canada\": French-Canadian Connections and Franco-American Heritage in Salem, Massachusetts"},{"Link":"http://prfamerica.org/ReportOnLittleCanada.html","external_links_name":"Report of the Town and County Historian on the Area Known as \"Little Canada\" in the Town of Indian Lake"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Farm_House_(Knapp%E2%80%93Wilson_House)
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The Farm House (Knapp–Wilson House)
|
["1 Description and history","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
|
Coordinates: 42°1′38″N 93°38′38″W / 42.02722°N 93.64389°W / 42.02722; -93.64389Historic house in Iowa, United States
United States historic placeThe Farm House (Knapp-Wilson House)U.S. National Register of Historic PlacesU.S. National Historic Landmark
The Farm House in the early twentieth centuryShow map of IowaShow map of the United StatesLocation601 Farm House Lane, Ames, IowaCoordinates42°1′38″N 93°38′38″W / 42.02722°N 93.64389°W / 42.02722; -93.64389Area1 acre (0.40 ha)Built1861ArchitectMilens BurtNRHP reference No.66000339Significant datesAdded to NRHPOctober 15, 1966Designated NHLJuly 19, 1964
The Farm House, also known as the Knapp–Wilson House, is the oldest building on the campus of Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa. Now a museum open to the general public, this house was built 1861-65 as part of the model farm that eventually became Iowa State. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 for its association with agriculturist and teacher Seaman A. Knapp and with U.S. Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson, both of whom lived here while teaching at Iowa State.
Description and history
The Farm House is located near the center of the Iowa State campus, on the west side of Farmhouse Lane. It is a three-story structure, built primarily out of brick, and set on a stone foundation. The brick walls, fashioned out of locally sourced clay, were clad in limestone stucco in 1909 because they were crumbling. The interior is largely reflective of a major remodeling conducted about the same time. In 1972 the university undertook a major restoration of the building to restore it to its c. 1910 appearance.
The land for what became Iowa State was donated by Story County farmers in 1858 and 1859, and the farm was developed over the following five years, slowed by the ongoing American Civil War. Iowa Agricultural College opened on the farm in 1869. In 1880 Seaman Knapp was appointed farm superintendent and professor of practical and experimental agriculture. Knapp would later become influential in the promotion of modern rice-growing practices in the American South. In 1891 James Wilson moved into the house, which he would occupy until 1897, when he was offered the post of United States Secretary of Agriculture, a post he would hold for thirteen years. The house was occupied for much of the first half of the 20th century by Professor Charles F. Curtiss, under whose tenure the house's major alterations were made. In 1948 the house was converted into a dormitory for women, and its plant was updated again. In 1970 Dean Floyd Andre, whose family occupied it since 1950, moved out. Andre's lobbying to preserve the building from demolition succeeded, and it was opened as the Farm House Museum in 1976.
Farm House Museum
See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places listings in Story County, Iowa
References
^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
^ a b "The Farm House (Knapp-Wilson House)". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
^ a b c d Blanche Higgins Schroer and Ray H. Mattison (May 1975) National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: The Farm House / The Knapp-Wilson House, National Park Service. Accompanying 8 photos, exterior and interior, from c. 1870, 1908, 1963, and 1975.
^ a b "Farm House Timeline". Iowa State University. Retrieved December 17, 2015.
External links
Farm House Museum - Iowa State University
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Farm House (Knapp-Wilson House).
vteIowa State UniversityLocated in: Ames, IowaAcademics
Colleges
Business
Design
Engineering
Human Sciences
Liberal Arts & Sciences
Veterinary Medicine
Athletics
Team
Iowa State Cyclones
Hall of Fame
Men's
Basketball
Cross country
Football
Golf
Track & field
Wrestling
Baseball
Women's
Basketball
Cross Country
Golf
Gymnastics
Soccer
Softball
Swimming & diving
Track & field
Volleyball
Venues
Hilton Coliseum
Jack Trice Stadium
Veenker Memorial Golf Course
Cap Timm Field
Ames/ISU Ice Arena
Rivalries
Iowa
Cy-Hawk Trophy
Iowa Corn Cy-Hawk Series
Iowa "Big Four"
Big Four Classic
Iowa State–Kansas State football rivalry
Iowa State–Missouri football rivalry (defunct)
School Spirit
Cy the Cardinal
ISU Fights
Marching Band
Campus
Buildings
Campanile
Reiman Gardens
Iowa State Center
Alumni Center
Beardshear Hall
Enrollment Services Center
Memorial Union
Morrill Hall
Farm House
Carver Hall
Catt Hall
Fick Observatory
Research
Ames Laboratory
Ames Project
Atanasoff–Berry computer
CYCLONE
Honeywell v. Sperry Rand
Spacecraft Systems and Controls Lab
StrangeSearch
BugGuide
VRAC
Student life
Iowa State Daily
KURE
PrISUm
VEISHEA
CyRide
Cuffs
People
Notable alumni and faculty
ISU Presidents
John Vincent Atanasoff
George Washington Carver
Carrie Chapman Catt
Tom Knudson
Jack Trice
G. Malcolm Trout
Founded: 1858
vteNational Register of Historic Places in Story County, IowaAmes
Ames Main Street Historic District
Agriculture Hall
Alumni Hall
Ames High School
Bandshell Park Historic District
Prof. J.L. Budd, Sarah M., and Etta Budd House
Christian Petersen Courtyard Sculptures, and Dairy Industry Building
Colonials Club House
Cranford Apartment Building
Delta Upsilon Chapter House
Engineering Hall
Iowa Beta Chapter of Sigma Phi Epsilon
Knapp-Wilson House
Gilmour B. and Edith Craig MacDonald House
Marston Water Tower
Masonic Temple
Morrill Hall
Municipal Building
Old Town Historic District
Pleasant Grove Community Church and Cemetery
Roosevelt School
Sigma Sigma-Delta Chi Fraternity House
Skunk River Bridge
Colo
Mulcahy Barn
Gilbert
Keigley Branch Bridge
Iowa Center
Octagon Round Barn, Indian Creek Township
William Kennison Wood House
Maxwell
Calamus Creek Bridge
Nevada
Briggs Terrace
East Indian Creek Bridge
Edwards-Swayze House
Nevada Downtown Historic District
Sheldahl
Sheldahl First Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church
Story City
Grand Auditorium and Hotel Block
Henry T. and Emilie (Wiese) Henryson House
Herschel-Spillman Two-Row Portable Menagerie Carousel
Zearing
Lincoln Township Mausoleum
See also: National Register of Historic Places listings in Story County, Iowa and List of National Historic Landmarks in Iowa
|
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|
[{"image_text":"Farm House Museum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Farm_House_Museum_south_sign.jpg/220px-Farm_House_Museum_south_sign.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"List of National Historic Landmarks in Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Iowa"},{"title":"National Register of Historic Places listings in Story County, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Story_County,_Iowa"}]
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[{"reference":"\"National Register Information System\". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP","url_text":"\"National Register Information System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places","url_text":"National Register of Historic Places"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service","url_text":"National Park Service"}]},{"reference":"\"The Farm House (Knapp-Wilson House)\". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved October 8, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606044453/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=226&ResourceType=Building","url_text":"\"The Farm House (Knapp-Wilson House)\""},{"url":"http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=226&ResourceType=Building","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Farm House Timeline\". Iowa State University. Retrieved December 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.museums.iastate.edu/Farm%20HouseTimeline.html","url_text":"\"Farm House Timeline\""}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine
|
Slant Magazine
|
["1 History","2 In the media","3 Rating system","4 References","5 External links"]
|
American online magazine on entertainment
Not to be confused with Slate (magazine).
Slant MagazineType of siteFilm, music, TV and video games webzineAvailable inEnglishHeadquartersBrooklyn, New YorkOwnerSlant Magazine LLCEditorEd GonzalezSal CinquemaniURLslantmagazine.comRegistrationNo.Launched2001; 23 years ago (2001)Current statusActive
Slant Magazine is an American online publication that features reviews of movies, music, TV, DVDs, theater, and video games, as well as interviews with actors, directors, and musicians. The site covers various film festivals like the New York Film Festival.
History
Slant Magazine was launched in 2001. On January 21, 2010, it was relaunched and absorbed the entertainment blog The House Next Door, founded by Matt Zoller Seitz, a former New York Times and New York Press writer, and maintained by Keith Uhlich, former Time Out New York film critic, who was the blog's editor until 2012.
In the media
Slant's reviews, which A. O. Scott of The New York Times has described as "passionate and often prickly", have occasionally been the source of debate and discourse online and in the media. Ed Gonzalez's review of Kevin Gage's 2005 film Chaos sparked some controversy when Roger Ebert quoted it in his review of the film for the Chicago Sun-Times; The New York Press quoted another Slant writer, Keith Uhlich, in a review of the Michael Bay film The Island; and Gonzalez, who wrote regularly for The Village Voice film section, was praised by former Voice critic Nathan Lee for his attention to politics and pop culture in a lively and interesting way.
KillerStartups.com, a web community that reviews websites for both entrepreneurs and investors, called Slant "one of the most influential online sources of news, comment, opinion and controversy in the world of indie, pop and mainstream entertainment."
On January 21, 2010, MovieMaker named Slant Magazine's blog, The House Next Door, one of the "50 Best Blogs for Moviemakers", and on January 26, 2010, The House Next Door was named one of "18 obsessive, cantankerous, and unstoppable Gotham blogs worth going ape over" by the Village Voice.
Rating system
Slant Magazine employs two different rating systems for its reviews:
Films and television programs are rated using the traditional four-star system.
Albums, DVDs and video games are rated using a five-star system.
References
^ "Slant Magazine". Buzzfile. New York City: Buzzfile Media LLC. Archived from the original on August 4, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
^ Scott, A. O. (September 17, 2006). "Say 'Brian De Palma.' Let the Fighting Start". The New York Times.
^ Ebert, Roger (August 11, 2005). "Chicago Sun-Times: "Chaos" Review". Rogerebert.suntimes.com. Archived from the original on March 17, 2013. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
^ "New York Press: "Supersonic Strap-On"". Archived from the original on November 17, 2006.
^ Yamato, Jen (April 23, 2008). "Meet a Critic: Nathan Lee Weighs in on Leaving the Village Voice, Why Critics are Ineffective, and What's Next". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
^ "SlantMagazine.com – Indie Entertainment And Arts". KillerStartups.com. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
^ "MovieMaker: "50 Best Blogs for Moviemakers"". Archived from the original on January 27, 2010.
^ Roy Edroso (January 26, 2010). "I Blog New York: Your Guide to Gotham's Best". The Village Voice. Archived from the original on May 20, 2015. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
External links
Official website
|
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|
[]
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[{"reference":"\"Slant Magazine\". Buzzfile. New York City: Buzzfile Media LLC. Archived from the original on August 4, 2017. Retrieved August 3, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170804014325/http://www.buzzfile.com/business/Slant-Magazine-917-599-7135","url_text":"\"Slant Magazine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York City"},{"url":"http://www.buzzfile.com/business/Slant-Magazine-917-599-7135","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Scott, A. O. (September 17, 2006). \"Say 'Brian De Palma.' Let the Fighting Start\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/17/movies/17scot.html","url_text":"\"Say 'Brian De Palma.' Let the Fighting Start\""}]},{"reference":"Ebert, Roger (August 11, 2005). \"Chicago Sun-Times: \"Chaos\" Review\". Rogerebert.suntimes.com. Archived from the original on March 17, 2013. Retrieved February 11, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130317065114/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20050811%2FREVIEWS%2F508110303%2F1023","url_text":"\"Chicago Sun-Times: \"Chaos\" Review\""},{"url":"http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050811/REVIEWS/508110303/1023","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"New York Press: \"Supersonic Strap-On\"\". Archived from the original on November 17, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061117144447/http://www.nypress.com/18/30/film/seitz.cfm","url_text":"\"New York Press: \"Supersonic Strap-On\"\""},{"url":"http://www.nypress.com/18/30/film/seitz.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Yamato, Jen (April 23, 2008). \"Meet a Critic: Nathan Lee Weighs in on Leaving the Village Voice, Why Critics are Ineffective, and What's Next\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved February 11, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://editorial.rottentomatoes.com/article/meet-a-critic-nathan-lee-weighs-in-on-leaving-the-village-voice-why-critics-are-ineffective-and-whats-next/","url_text":"\"Meet a Critic: Nathan Lee Weighs in on Leaving the Village Voice, Why Critics are Ineffective, and What's Next\""}]},{"reference":"\"SlantMagazine.com – Indie Entertainment And Arts\". KillerStartups.com. Retrieved February 11, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.killerstartups.com/Site-Reviews/slantmagazine-com-indie-entertainment-and-arts/","url_text":"\"SlantMagazine.com – Indie Entertainment And Arts\""}]},{"reference":"\"MovieMaker: \"50 Best Blogs for Moviemakers\"\". Archived from the original on January 27, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100127015642/http://www.moviemaker.com/producing/article/50_best_blogs_for_moviemakers_moviemaker_magazine_20100121/","url_text":"\"MovieMaker: \"50 Best Blogs for Moviemakers\"\""},{"url":"http://www.moviemaker.com/producing/article/50_best_blogs_for_moviemakers_moviemaker_magazine_20100121/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Roy Edroso (January 26, 2010). \"I Blog New York: Your Guide to Gotham's Best\". The Village Voice. Archived from the original on May 20, 2015. Retrieved February 11, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150520052110/http://www.villagevoice.com/2010-01-26/news/i-blog-new-york-your-guide-to-gotham-s-lesser-known-best/7/","url_text":"\"I Blog New York: Your Guide to Gotham's Best\""},{"url":"http://www.villagevoice.com/2010-01-26/news/i-blog-new-york-your-guide-to-gotham-s-lesser-known-best/7","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Britain_campaign
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New Britain campaign
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["1 Background","1.1 Geography","1.2 Japanese occupation","1.3 Opposing forces","2 Preliminary operations","3 Invasion of western New Britain","3.1 Opposing plans","3.2 Arawe","3.3 Cape Gloucester","3.4 Talasea","4 Australian operations","4.1 Transfer to Australian responsibility","4.2 Central New Britain","5 Aftermath","6 See also","7 References","7.1 Citations","7.2 Bibliography","8 Further reading"]
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World War II campaign between Allied and Imperial Japanese forces
New Britain campaignPart of the Pacific Theater of World War IIUS Army soldiers returning from a patrol near Arawe, December 1943Date15 December 1943 – 21 August 1945LocationNew Britain, Territory of New GuineaResult
Allied victoryBelligerents
United States Australia
Territory of New Guinea
New Zealand
JapanCommanders and leaders
Douglas MacArthur Julian Cunningham William H. Rupertus Rapp Brush Alan Ramsay Horace Robertson
Hitoshi ImamuraStrength
20,000
100,000Casualties and losses
502 killed1,575 wounded4 missing
~30,000 killed (mostly from disease and starvation)vteNew Britain campaign
Arawe
Cape Gloucester
Neutralisation of Rabaul
Talasea
Jacquinot Bay
Wide Bay–Open Bay
vte New Guinea campaign
1942
Battle of Rabaul
1st Lae-Salamaua
Coral Sea
Kokoda Track
Milne Bay
Goodenough Island
Buna–Gona
Lilliput
Merauke
1943
Wau
Bismarck Sea
I-Go
2nd Lae-Salamaua
Chronicle
Markham-Ramu-Finisterres
Wewak Raid
Huon Peninsula
New Britain
Bombing of Rabaul
1944–45
Neutralisation of Rabaul
Admiralties
Emirau
Take Ichi
Bombing of Hollandia
Western New Guinea
vtePacific War
Central Pacific
Pearl Harbor
Marshalls–Gilberts raids
K
Doolittle Raid
Midway
Gilberts and Marshalls
Marianas and Palau
Volcano and Ryukyu
Truk
Ocean Island
Indian Ocean (1941–1945)
Japanese merchant raids
Andaman Islands
Homfreyganj massacre
Christmas Island
1st Indian Ocean
Ceylon
Bay of Bengal
2nd Indian Ocean
Southeast Asia
Indochina (1940)
Franco-Thai War
Thailand
Malaya
Hong Kong
Singapore
Indochina (1945)
Malacca Strait
Vietnam
Jurist
Tiderace
Zipper
Strategic bombing (1944–45)
Burma and India
Burma (1941–42)
Burma (1942–43)
Burma and India (1944)
Burma (1944–45)
Southwest Pacific
Dutch East Indies (1941–42)
Philippines (1941–42)
RY
Solomon Islands
Coral Sea
Timor
Australia
New Guinea
New Britain
Philippines (1944–45)
Borneo (1945)
North America
Ellwood
Aleutian Islands
Estevan Point Lighthouse
Fort Stevens
Lookout Air Raids
Fire balloon bombs
Project Hula
PX
Japan
Air raids
Tokyo
Yokosuka
Kure
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Mariana Islands
Volcano and Ryukyu Islands
Starvation
Naval bombardments
Sagami Bay
South Sakhalin
Kuril Islands
Shumshu
Downfall
Japanese surrender
Manchuria and Northern Korea
Kantokuen
Manchuria (1945)
Mutanchiang
Chongjin
Second Sino-Japanese War
The New Britain campaign was a World War II campaign fought between Allied and Imperial Japanese forces. The campaign was initiated by the Allies in late 1943 as part of a major offensive which aimed to neutralise the important Japanese base at Rabaul, the capital of New Britain, and was conducted in two phases between December 1943 and the end of the war in August 1945.
Initial fighting on New Britain took place around the western end of the island in December 1943 and January 1944, with US forces landing and securing bases around Arawe and Cape Gloucester. This was followed by a further landing in March 1944 around Talasea, after which little fighting took place between the ground forces on the island. In October 1944, the Australian 5th Division took over from the US troops and undertook a Landing at Jacquinot Bay the following month, before beginning a limited offensive to secure a defensive line across the island between Wide Bay and Open Bay behind which they contained the numerically superior Japanese forces for the remainder of the war. The Japanese regarded the New Britain Campaign as a delaying action, and kept their forces concentrated around Rabaul in expectation of a ground assault which never came.
The operations on New Britain are considered by historians to have been a success for the Allied forces. However, some have questioned the necessity of the campaign. In addition, Australian historians have been critical of the limited air and naval support allocated to support operations on the island between October 1944 and the end of the war.
Background
Geography
New Britain is a crescent-shaped island north east of the mainland of New Guinea. It is approximately 595 kilometres (370 mi) long, and its width varies from around 30 kilometres (19 mi) to 100 kilometres (62 mi); this makes it the largest island in the Bismarck Archipelago. The interior of New Britain is rugged, with a range of volcanic mountains over 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high running for most of its length. The island's coast is indented by a large number of bays.
The island has a tropical climate. At the time of World War II the mountains were covered by a rainforest of tall trees. The coastal plains which ring most of the island were covered in dense jungle. Most of the beaches on New Britain were backed by forested swamps, and a large number of rivers and streams ran from the mountains to the sea. All of these characteristics greatly complicated the movement of military units on New Britain. The number of sites suitable for amphibious landings was also constrained by the coral reefs which lay off most of the island's coastline.
The island's population in 1940 was estimated as over 101,000 New Guineans and 4,674 Europeans and Asians. Rabaul, located on the north-east coast of New Britain, was the main settlement on the island and the largest in the Bismarcks. The town had served as the capital of the Australian-administered Territory of New Guinea since Australian forces had captured the region from Germany during 1914.
Japanese occupation
The disposition of Japanese forces on New Britain and nearby islands in November 1943
Japanese forces captured New Britain in January 1942 as part of efforts to secure Rabaul, quickly overwhelming the small Australian garrison during the Battle of Rabaul. This invasion was undertaken to both prevent Allied forces from using Rabaul to attack the important Japanese base at Truk in the central Pacific, and to capture the town so that it could be used to support potential further Japanese offensives in the region. While hundreds of Australian soldiers and airmen managed to escape and were evacuated between February and May, around 900 became prisoners of war and were treated harshly. The 500 European civilians captured by the Japanese were interned. On 1 July 1942, 849 POWs and 208 civilian men who had been captured on New Britain were killed when the Montevideo Maru was torpedoed by an American submarine en route to Japan. Most of the remaining European internees were transported to the Solomon Islands where they died due to poor conditions.
The Japanese authorities adopted the Australian system of administering the island through village chiefs, and many villages shifted their loyalties to the Japanese to survive or to gain an advantage against other groups. The few chiefs who refused to cooperate with the Japanese were severely punished, with several being killed. While the European women and children had been evacuated to Australia prior to the war, Asian people had not been assisted to leave. The Chinese-ethnic community feared that it would be massacred by Japanese forces, as had happened elsewhere in the Pacific, but this did not occur. However, men were forced to work as labourers and some women were raped and, in several cases forced to become "comfort women".
Following the invasion, the Japanese established a large base at Rabaul. The facilities located near the town were attacked by Allied air units from early 1942, but these operations were generally unsuccessful. By mid-1943, a network of four airfields had been constructed at Rabaul which could accommodate 265 fighters and 166 bombers in protective revetments. More aircraft could also be accommodated in unprotected parking areas. Aircraft based at these facilities operated against Allied forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The town was also developed into a major port, with extensive dock and ship repair facilities. Large stockpiles of supplies were stored in warehouses and open air dumps in and around Rabaul. Few other Japanese facilities were constructed on New Britain, though a forward airfield was developed at Gasmata on the island's south coast. Both the Japanese and Australians maintained small parties of coastwatchers at other locations on New Britain; the Australians were civilians who had volunteered to remain on the island following the invasion.
During 1943 small parties of Allied Intelligence Bureau (AIB) personnel, which comprised both Australian and New Guinean troops, were landed on New Britain. The AIB units sought to gather intelligence, re-assert Australian sovereignty and rescue downed Allied airmen. The Japanese attempted to hunt down the Allied coastwatchers and AIB patrols, and committed atrocities against civilians who assisted them. The AIB also trained and equipped New Guineans to serve as guerrillas, which led to a successful low-intensity campaign against the Japanese garrison. However, it also sparked tribal warfare with the guerrillas attacking villages they believed to have collaborated with the Japanese.
Opposing forces
By 1943, there were more than 100,000 Japanese military and civilian personnel on New Britain and a smaller nearby island, New Ireland. These were centred on the headquarters of the Eighth Area Army, under the command of General Hitoshi Imamura: the 17th Division (11,429 personnel at the end of the war); the 38th Division (13,108); the 39th Brigade (5,073); the 65th Brigade (2,729); the 14th Regiment (2,444); the 34th Regiment (1,879) and the 35th Regiment (1,967). Together, these formations amounted to a force equivalent to four divisions. Naval troops provided the equivalent of another division. By the end of the war, these Japanese forces were restricted to Rabaul and the surrounding Gazelle Peninsula. These forces lacked naval and air support, and were increasingly isolated and eventually cut-off from resupply due to Allied interdiction efforts, which meant that the garrison was largely left to its own devices. Indeed, direct communications between Rabaul and Japan were severed in February 1943 and not reestablished until after the war.
In contrast, United States, Australian and New Guinean forces, assisted by local civilians, were always a division-level command or smaller; the US "Director" Task Force which secured Arawe was effectively a regimental combat team based on the 112th Cavalry Regiment. It was later followed by the 1st Marine Division before it handed over to the 40th Infantry Division, which in turn handed over to the Australian 5th Division. This was due partly to a miscalculation of the size of the Japanese forces holding the island, as well as broader Allied strategy, which dictated a limited operation for New Britain, focused initially upon seizing and defending suitable locations for airbases, and then containment of the larger Japanese force.
Preliminary operations
Allied and Japanese operations associated with Operation Cartwheel between June 1943 and April 1944
From mid-1942 Allied plans for the Pacific had a strong focus on capturing or neutralising Rabaul. In July 1942 the US military's Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered a two-pronged offensive against Rabaul. The forces assigned to the South Pacific Area were directed to capture the Solomon Islands, starting with Guadalcanal. Simultaneously, the units assigned to the South West Pacific Area, commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, were to secure Lae and Salamaua on the north coast of New Guinea. Once these operations were complete, forces from both commands would land on New Britain and capture Rabaul. This plan proved premature, however, as MacArthur lacked the forces needed to execute his elements of it. The Japanese offensive towards Port Moresby, which was defeated after months of heavy fighting in the Kokoda Track campaign, Battle of Milne Bay and Battle of Buna–Gona, also disrupted the Allied plans but left them in control of the territory needed to mount their own offensives.
The Allies re-cast their plans in early 1943. Following a major conference, on 28 March the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a new plan for reducing Rabaul, which was designated Operation Cartwheel. Under this plan, MacArthur's forces were to establish airfields on two islands off the coast of New Guinea, capture the Huon Peninsula region of the mainland and land in western New Britain. The South Pacific Area was to continue its advance through the Solomon Islands towards Rabaul, culminating with a landing on Bougainville Island. While the initial plans for Operation Cartwheel directed MacArthur to capture Rabaul, in June 1943 the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that this was unnecessary as the Japanese base there could be neutralized by blockade and aerial bombardment. MacArthur initially opposed this change in plans, but it was endorsed by the British and United States Combined Chiefs of Staff during the Quebec Conference in August.
The United States Fifth Air Force, the main American air unit assigned to the South West Pacific Area, began a campaign against Rabaul in October 1943. The goal of the attacks was to prevent the Japanese from using Rabaul as an air or naval base and to provide support for the planned landing on Bougainville scheduled for 1 November, as well as landings in western New Britain planned for December. The first raid took place on 12 October, and involved 349 aircraft. Further attacks were made whenever weather conditions were suitable during October and early November. On 5 November, two United States Navy aircraft carriers also attacked the town and its harbour. Following this attack the Imperial Japanese Navy ceased using Rabaul as a fleet base. The campaign against Rabaul was intensified from November when air units operating from airfields on recently captured islands in the Solomons joined the attacks.
Invasion of western New Britain
Opposing plans
On 22 September 1943 MacArthur's General Headquarters issued orders for the invasion of New Britain, which was designated Operation Dexterity. These directed the US Sixth Army (which at the time was typically designated 'Alamo Force') to land forces in the Cape Gloucester region of western New Britain and at Gasmata to secure all of New Britain west of the line between Gasmata and Talasea on the north coast. MacArthur's air commander, Lieutenant General George Kenney, opposed this operation as he believed that it would take too long to develop airfields at Cape Gloucester given the rapid pace of the Allied advances in the New Guinea region, and existing airfields were adequate to support the attacks on Rabaul and planned landings at other locations. However, Lieutenant General Walter Krueger, the commander of Alamo Force, and MacArthur's naval commanders believed that it was necessary to invade New Britain to gain control of the strategic Vitiaz Strait through which it was planned to send convoys carrying Allied forces to locations in western New Guinea. However, the planned landing at Gasmata was cancelled in November due to concerns over the Japanese reinforcing the region and its proximity to the airfields at Rabaul, as well as the terrain being judged too swampy. Instead, on 21 November it was decided to capture the Arawe area on the south-west coast of New Britain to establish a base for PT boats and hopefully divert Japanese attention away from the main landing at Cape Gloucester. After taking into account the availability of shipping and air cover, the landing at Arawe was scheduled for 15 December and that at Cape Gloucester for the 26th of that month.
Movements of Japanese forces in western New Britain during late 1943 and early 1944 and locations of Allied landings
Alamo Force was responsible for developing plans for Operation Dexterity, with work on this having commenced in August 1943. Intelligence to inform these plans was sourced from Marine and Alamo Scout patrols which were landed in New Britain between September and December, as well as from aerial photography. The US 1st Marine Division was the main formation selected for the Cape Gloucester landing; combined with artillery, transport, construction and logistics units this force was designated the Backhander Task Force. The force selected for Arawe was built around the 112th Cavalry Regiment, which had been dismounted and was serving as infantry. The cavalry regiment was augmented with artillery and engineer units, with the overall force being designated the Director Task Force.
The Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assessed the strategic situation in the Southwest Pacific in late September 1943, and concluded that the Allies would attempt to break through the northern Solomon Islands and Bismarck Archipelago in the coming months en route to Japan's inner perimeter in the western and central Pacific. Accordingly, reinforcements were dispatched to strategic locations in the area in an attempt to slow the Allied advance. Strong forces were retained at Rabaul, however, as it was believed that the Allies would attempt to capture the town. At the time, Japanese positions in western New Britain were limited to airfields at Cape Gloucester on the island's western tip and several small way stations which provided small boats travelling between Rabaul and New Guinea with shelter from Allied aerial attacks. As New Britain lay well to the east of the "Absolute National Defence Zone" which had been adopted by the Japanese military on 15 September, the overall goal for the forces there was to delay any Allied advances to buy time to improve the defences of more strategically important regions.
During October the commander of the Eighth Area Army, Imamura, judged that the Allies next move would probably be an invasion of western New Britain. In response, he decided to dispatch further units to the area to reinforce its garrison, which was based around the under-strength 65th Brigade and designated Matsuda Force after its commander, Major General Iwao Matsuda. The 17th Division was selected to provide troops for this purpose; the main body of this unit arrived in Rabaul from China on 4 and 5 October, having suffered around 1,400 casualties due to submarine and air attacks while en route to New Britain. The commander of the 17th Division, Lieutenant General Yasushi Sakai was appointed the new commander of the Japanese forces in western New Britain, but the division's battalions were spread across this region, southern New Britain and Bougainville.
Arawe
Main article: Battle of Arawe
US Army soldiers land at Arawe
For the Arawe operation, the Director Task Force, under the command of Brigadier General Julian Cunningham, concentrated on Goodenough Island where they carried out training prior to embarking on 13 December 1943. In the weeks prior to the operation, Allied aircraft had carried out heavy attacks across New Britain, but the area around the landing beaches was purposefully left alone until the day prior to the landing in order not to alert the Japanese. The ships carrying the invasion force arrived off the Arawe Peninsula, near Cape Merkus, around 03:00 on 15 December. Two small advanced elements set off almost immediately under the cover of darkness with orders to destroy a radio transmitter on Pilelo Island to the south-east and to sever the track leading towards the peninsula around Umtingalu village. The subsidiary landing around Umtingalu met with heavy resistance and was subsequently repulsed, while the landing on Pilelo proved more successful with the cavalrymen quickly overwhelming a small Japanese force before securing their objective.
Meanwhile, after a deal of confusion while the troops embarked in their landing craft, the main assault began after 06:25, supported by a heavy naval and aerial bombardment. Opposition ashore was limited as there were very few Japanese in the vicinity, although the first wave experienced machine-gun fire that was quickly dealt with. Japanese aircraft from Rabaul sortied over the landing beach, but were chased away by US fighters flying combat air patrols. Further confusion resulted in a delay in bringing the second wave in, while the final three waves got mixed up and landed at the same time. Nevertheless, the US cavalrymen quickly secured a beachhead and by the afternoon they had secured the Amalut Plantation and established a strong defensive position across the base of the Arawe Peninsula. In the days that followed Japanese reinforcements arrived and they subsequently launched a counterattack, but the Americans also brought in reinforcements, including tanks, and the counterattack was repelled. In the aftermath, the Japanese withdrew further inland towards a nearby airfield and the fighting around Arawe petered out.
Cape Gloucester
US Marines landing at Cape Gloucester, New Britain, 26 December 1943
Main article: Battle of Cape Gloucester
The landing at Cape Gloucester took place on 26 December 1943, following the diversionary action around Arawe, and a series of practice landings around Cape Sudest a few days earlier. The 1st Marine Division, under the command of Major General William H. Rupertus was selected for the attack. For the landing, two beaches were chosen to the east of the airfields at Cape Gloucester, which was the main goal of the operation. A subsidiary landing site was also chosen on the opposite side of the cape to the west of the airfields. Troops from the 7th Marines embarked from Oro Bay. Escorted by US and Australian warships from Task Force 74, en route they were reinforced by the 1st Marines and artillery from the 11th Marines. A heavy aerial bombardment was directed against Cape Gloucester's garrison in the weeks before the landing which destroyed many of the fixed defences and affected the soldiers' morale. The strikes continued on 26 December prior to the assault, resulting in heavy smoke which partially obscured the beaches. The American landing was successful, with counter-attacks by Japanese forces on 26 December being defeated. The next day the 1st Marine Regiment advanced west, towards the airfields. A Japanese blocking position was reduced that afternoon, but the American advance was halted while reinforcements were landed. It resumed on 29 December, with the airfields being captured. During the first two weeks of January 1944 the Marines advanced south from their beachhead to locate and defeat the Japanese force they believed was in the area. This led to some heavy fighting, with the Japanese 141st Infantry Regiment attempting to defend positions located on high ground. The Marines eventually secured the area on 16 January.
With the successful landing, the Allies effectively gained control of the sea lanes of communication to the Bismarck Sea, having secured lodgements on either side of the Vitiaz Strait, after earlier capturing Finschhafen. In January 1944, the Allies sought to press their advantage further, launching another Dexterity operation on the New Guinea coast with a landing at Saidor as the Huon Peninsula was cleared by Australian and US forces. In response, the Japanese high command at Rabaul ordered their forces that were withdrawing from the Huon Peninsula to bypass Saidor, and they subsequently began withdrawing towards Madang.
In mid-January, Sakai requested permission to withdraw his command from western New Britain, and this was granted by Imamura on the 21st of the month. The Japanese forces subsequently sought to disengage from the Americans, and move towards the Talasea area. Marine patrols pursued the Japanese, and a large number of small engagements were fought in the centre of the island and along its north coast.
Talasea
Main article: Battle of Talasea
US Marines advance towards Talasea airstrip
In the months following the operations to secure Arawe and Cape Gloucester, there was only limited fighting on New Britain as Japanese forces largely chose to avoid combat during this period and continued their withdrawal towards Rabaul. US forces secured Rooke Island in February 1944, but by then the island's garrison had already been withdrawn. The following month, a further landing was undertaken at Talasea, on the Willaumez Peninsula. Conceived as a follow-up operation to cut off the withdrawing Japanese, the operation involved a regimental combat team formed primarily from the 5th Marines landing on the Willaumez Peninsula, on the western side of a narrow isthmus near the Volupai Plantation. Following the initial landing, the Marines advanced east towards the emergency landing strip at Talasea on the opposite coast. A small group of Japanese defenders held up the US troops and prevented them from advancing quickly enough to cut off the withdrawal of the main Japanese force falling back from Cape Gloucester.
The Allied air attacks on Rabaul were further intensified following the completion of airfields on Bougainville during January 1944. All of the town was destroyed, along with a large number of aircraft and ships. The Japanese Army lost relatively little equipment though, as its stockpiles had been moved into volcanic caves during November. Due to the shipping losses, the Japanese stopped sending any further surface vessels to the town from February. The Japanese air units stationed at Rabaul made their last attempt to intercept an Allied raid on the area on 19 February. Following this, the air raids which continued to the end of the war were contested only by anti-aircraft gunfire. As a result of its prolonged bombardment, the town ceased to be a base from which the Japanese could contest the Allied advance. However, it remained very well defended by a garrison of around 98,000 men and hundreds of artillery and anti-aircraft guns. Extensive fortifications were constructed around the Gazelle Peninsula, where rugged terrain would have also favoured the defenders. On 14 March 1944 the Imperial General Headquarters directed the Eighth Area Army to "hold the area around Rabaul for as long as possible" to divert Allied forces away from other regions.
In April 1944, once Arawe and Cape Gloucester had been secured, the US 40th Infantry Division under Major General Rapp Brush arrived to relieve the Marines and cavalrymen that had landed in December 1943. After this, a period of relative inactivity followed as the US and Japanese forces occupied opposite ends of the island, while guerilla actions were fought in the centre by Australian-led forces of the AIB. Patrols from the AIB were subsequently successful in pushing back Japanese outposts to Ulamona on the north coast, and to Kamandran in the south. In mid-1944, the headquarters of the Eighth Area Army re-assessed Allied intentions on New Britain. While up to this time it had been believed that the Allies were planning a major assault on Rabaul, the advance of Allied forces towards the Philippines was interpreted to mean that this was no longer likely. Instead, the Japanese judged that the Allies would advance slowly across New Britain towards the town and attack it only if their campaign towards Japan became bogged down or concluded, or if the size of Australian forces on the island was increased.
Australian operations
Australian operations in central New Britain between October 1944 and March 1945
Transfer to Australian responsibility
In October 1944, the decision was made to transfer the US 40th Infantry Division to fight in the Philippines, with responsibility for New Britain passing to the Australians in line with the Australian government's desire to use their own troops to recapture the Australian territory the Japanese had taken earlier in the war. The Australian 5th Division, commanded by Major General Alan Ramsay, was chosen for this operation, having concentrated around Madang in May 1944 following operations to secure the Huon Peninsula.
Allied intelligence at the time had underestimated Japanese strength on the island, believing it to be held by around 38,000 men. While this was incorrect by a factor of two, Allied assessments of Japanese intentions were more accurate, with planners believing that Imamura's force would adopt a defensive posture, remaining largely inside the fortifications that had been established around Rabaul. In fact Japanese combat strength was approximately 69,000 men, including 53,000 army troops and 16,000 sailors, and while they were mainly located in the Gazelle Peninsula in the north around Rabaul, there were watching-stations established as far forward as Awul. Due to the garrison's increasing isolation many were involved in growing rice and gardening. With American enclaves at Talasea–Cape Hoskins, Arawe and Cape Gloucester, the two sides were geographically separated and observing a tacit truce. Allied bombing had heavily reduced Japanese air and naval forces to the extent that there were only two operational aircraft left, and the only vessels that remained were 150 barges that could move small amounts of supplies or troops around the coast.
Ramsay's force was ordered to carry out a containment operation designed to isolate the Japanese garrison on the Gazelle Peninsula. In doing so, Ramsay was ordered to keep the pressure on the Japanese while avoiding committing large-scale forces. Nevertheless, it was decided that the Australians would carry out a limited offensive, consisting largely of patrol actions, with the goal of advancing beyond the western tip of the island where the US garrison had remained. To achieve this, the Australian commanders decided to establish two bases: one around Jacquinot Bay on the southern coast, with a supporting base on the north coast around Cape Hoskins.
Central New Britain
Soldiers from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion on a transport ship near Jacquinot Bay in November 1944
In early October 1944, the 36th Infantry Battalion was landed at Cape Hoskins to begin taking over from the US garrison. Early the next month, the remaining elements of the Australian 6th Infantry Brigade landed at Jacquinot Bay. In the weeks that followed, large amounts of stores and equipment were landed, along with support personnel and labourers to begin construction on facilities including roads, an airstrip, dock facilities, and a general hospital. This work would last until May 1945. Two squadrons of Royal New Zealand Air Force Corsair fighter bombers were later flown in to support Allied operations on the island, and US landing craft from the 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment provided support until the Australian Landing Craft Company arrived in February 1945.
Due to limited shipping resources, the transfer of the 5th Division was delayed significantly and was not completed until April 1945. Nevertheless, in December, the Australian advance began with the goal of moving along the northern and southern coasts towards the Gazelle Peninsula to capture a line between Wide Bay and Open Bay, along which to contain the larger Japanese force, which remained largely static around the Rabaul fortress, with only about 1,600 troops deployed in the forward areas. This saw a series of amphibious landings, river crossings and small-scale actions. The 36th Infantry Battalion began expanding their foothold around Cape Hoskins in early December pushing forward towards Bialla via barge, where two companies established a forward base from where they began patrolling east. After establishing that the Japanese had withdrawn behind the Pandi River, a new base was established around Ea Ea, with the troops again being moved forward by barge. The 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion arrived to reinforce them in January 1945. After this, the Australians on the north coast pushed their line towards Open Bay, establishing an outpost around Baia and patrolling the Mavelo Plantation, during which several minor skirmishes were fought.
The 37th/52nd Infantry Battalion coming ashore at Open Bay, May 1945
Meanwhile, on the southern coast, the main advance towards Wide Bay had begun in late December. This involved establishing a forward base around Milim in mid-February 1945 by the 14th/32nd Infantry Battalion, which was moved by barge via Sampun. On 15 February, Kamandran was captured following a brief fight during which a patrol from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion carried out a successful ambush. At this point, Japanese resistance on the southern coast began to grow and in the final phase of the advance, the Australians began advancing on foot around Henry Reid Bay, to secure the Waitavalo–Tol area, which was held by a Japanese force around battalion strength.
After this, a series of engagements took place over a six-week period to reduce the main Japanese position around Mount Sugi, commencing with the 19th Infantry Battalion's assault across the Wulwut River on 5 March. The position around Mount Sugi, which stretched across a number of ridges to the west of the Wulwut, was strongly defended with mortars, machine guns and pillboxes, and heavy rain also frustrated Australian attempts to reduce the Japanese stronghold. Fierce fighting followed, culminating with the 14th/32nd's attack on Bacon Hill on 18 March. Following the capture of Waitavalo–Tol area in March and April, the Australians exploited towards Jammer Bay and sent patrols to link up their northern and southern drives. They also brought in reinforcements, first from the 13th Infantry Brigade and then the 4th, as the offensive part of their campaign effectively came to an end. In the months that followed, the Australians mounted a series of patrols aimed at maintaining the line around the neck of the Gazelle Peninsula to prevent any attempt by the Japanese to break out from Rabaul. This lasted until the end of the war in August 1945. The 2/2nd Commando Squadron conducted a patrol which penetrated close to Rabaul, and judged that the terrain was so rough it would not be possible for large Japanese units to move over it to attack the Australian forces.
A series of command changes had occurred around this time. In April, Major General Horace Robertson took over command from Ramsay, while Major General Kenneth Eather assumed control in early August.
Aftermath
Rabaul was secured by the 29th/46th Infantry Battalion, which formed part of the 4th Infantry Brigade, on 6 September 1945, at which time over 8,000 former prisoners of war were liberated from Japanese camps on the island. Australian losses during the fighting on New Britain between October 1944 and the end of the war were limited, amounting to 53 killed and 140 wounded. A further 21 died from non-battle injuries or illnesses. Losses amongst the US 1st Marine Division amounted to 310 killed and 1,083 wounded. In addition, casualties for all Allied units during the fighting around Arawe came to 118 killed and 352 wounded, with four missing. Total Japanese losses in New Britain and the other islands in the Bismarck Archipelago are estimated at around 30,000 dead, mostly from disease and starvation.
Australian soldiers posing with captured Japanese tanks at Rabaul in September 1945
In the aftermath of the campaign, there are mixed opinions among historians as to whether the US landings around Arawe, and even around Cape Gloucester were necessary. While according to Henry Shaw and Douglas Kane, authors of the Marine Corps official history, the landing around Arawe arguably made the landing at Cape Gloucester easier, US naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison argues that the landing at Arawe was of "small value" pointing out that it was never developed into a naval base and that potentially the resources and manpower could have been employed elsewhere. US Army historian John Miller also concluded that the operations to secure Arawe and Cape Gloucester "were probably not essential to the reduction of Rabaul or the approach to the Philippines", while there were some benefits to the offensive in western New Britain and comparatively few casualties.
In summarising the Australian involvement in the campaign, Gavin Long, the Australian official historian, wrote that it was inadequately resourced, particularly in terms of air and sea power, with the latter delaying the concentration of the 5th Division until very late in the campaign. Regardless, Long writes that the Australian force, which was relatively inexperienced and matched against a Japanese force of around five divisions, achieved a remarkable result in the circumstances. Lachlan Grant also reaches a similar conclusion, highlighting the limited casualties that were sustained in the campaign in comparison to those in other locations such as Aitape–Wewak. Retired General John Coates judged that "in many respects Australian operations on New Britain had been a classic containment campaign", but contrasted the insufficient air and naval support for them with the excesses of both which had been allocated to the Borneo Campaign. Peter Charlton also regarded the Australian operations as successful, but was critical of both the decision to deploy the 5th Division against a much more powerful Japanese force and the limited support provided for the campaign.
The defensive tactics of the Japanese commander, Imamura, were likely a factor in ensuring the successful containment by the much smaller Australian force. According to Japanese historian Kengoro Tanaka, Imamura had been under orders to preserve his strength until mutual action could be achieved with the Imperial Japanese Navy and had as such, chosen to deploy only a small portion of his troops forward of the fortress of Rabaul. Eustace Keogh concurs with this assessment, arguing that any offensive would have lacked strategic purpose without sufficient naval and air support, which at the time was unavailable to the Japanese. Gregory Blake has written that the extremely rugged terrain made a large Japanese offensive impossible.
See also
Attack! The Battle of New Britain: a documentary/propaganda film produced by the US military in 1944.
References
Citations
^ a b Australian War Memorial. "Australia-Japan Research Project: Dispositions and deaths". Citing figures of the Relief Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare, March 1964. 30,500 Japanese troops are listed as dying in the Bismarck Archipelago.
^ Rottman 2002, p. 184.
^ a b c Rottman 2002, p. 185.
^ Rottman 2002, p. 188.
^ a b c d e Moremon, John. "Rabaul, 1942 (Longer text)". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
^ a b c d e f g Grant 2016, p. 225.
^ Keogh 1965, pp. 100–111.
^ Frei, Henry. "Why the Japanese were in New Guinea (Symposium paper)". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
^ a b c Moremon, John. "New Britain, 1944–45 (Longer text)". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
^ Mortensen 1950, p. 312.
^ Shindo 2001.
^ Mortensen 1950, pp. 312–313.
^ Long 1963, pp. 268–270.
^ a b Dennis et al 2008, p. 390.
^ Tanaka 1980, pp. 127–130.
^ Hiromi 2004, pp. 138 & 146.
^ Rottman 2009, pp. 21–22.
^ a b Horner, David. "Strategy and Command in Australia's New Guinea Campaigns (Symposium paper)". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 224–225.
^ Mortensen 1950, pp. 316, 318.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 230–232.
^ Miller 1959, p. 253.
^ a b Miller 1959, p. 270.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 273–274.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 274–275.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 276–277.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 278–279.
^ a b Miller 1959, p. 277.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 324–325.
^ Shindo 2016, p. 52.
^ Miller 1959, p. 280.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 326–327.
^ Keogh 1965, p. 338.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 338–339.
^ Keogh 1965, p. 339.
^ Keogh 1965, pp. 339–340.
^ Keogh 1965, p. 340.
^ a b Miller 1959, p. 289.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 277–279.
^ a b Miller 1959, pp. 290–292.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 443–444.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 290–294.
^ a b Miller 1959, p. 294.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 389.
^ Keogh 1965, pp. 340–341.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 398.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 399–408.
^ Hough & Crown 1952, p. 152.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, pp. 411–427.
^ Hough & Crown 1952, pp. 152–171.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 309–310.
^ Miller 1959, p. 311.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 311–312.
^ Shindo 2016, p. 59.
^ Hough & Crown 1952, p. 183.
^ Keogh 1965, p. 408.
^ Powell 1996, pp. 239–245.
^ Long 1963, pp. 266–267.
^ Dennis et al 2008, p. 387.
^ Keogh 1965, pp. 395, 410–411.
^ a b Keogh 1965, p. 410.
^ Long 1963, pp. 249–250.
^ Mallett 2007, pp. 288–289.
^ Bradley 2012, p. 408.
^ Long 1963, p. 250.
^ a b c Long 1963, p. 270.
^ a b Grant 2016, pp. 225–226.
^ a b Keogh 1965, p. 411.
^ a b Long 1963, p. 253.
^ Long 1963, pp. 255–256.
^ Long 1963, pp. 256–257.
^ a b Keogh 1965, p. 412.
^ Long 1963, pp. 260–261.
^ a b Blake 2019, p. 253.
^ Long 1963, p. 265.
^ Grant 2016, pp. 226–227.
^ Miller 1959, p. 295.
^ Shaw & Kane 1963, p. 343.
^ Morison 2001, p. 377.
^ Miller 1959, pp. 294–295.
^ Long 1963, pp. 250 & 269.
^ Grant 2016, p. 226.
^ Coates 2006, p. 276.
^ Charlton 1983, pp. 97–98.
^ Tanaka 1980, p. 127.
Bibliography
Blake, Gregory (2019). Jungle Cavalry: Australian Independent Companies and Commandos 1941-1945. Warwick, United Kingdom: Helion & Company. ISBN 978-1-911628-82-8.
Bradley, Philip (2012). Hell's Battlefield: The Australians in New Guinea in World War II. Crow's Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-270-9.
Charlton, Peter (1983). The Unnecessary War: Island Campaigns of the South-West Pacific, 1944–45. South Melbourne: Macmillan Company of Australia. ISBN 978-0-333-35628-9.
Coates, John (2006). An Atlas of Australia's Wars (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-555914-9.
Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin; Bou, Jean (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
Grant, Lachlan (2016). "Campaigns in Aitape–Wewak and New Britain, 1944–45". In Dean, Peter J. (ed.). Australia 1944–45: Victory in the Pacific. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–231. ISBN 978-1-107-08346-2.
Hiromi, Tanaka (2004). "Chapter 7: Japanese force in post-surrender Rabaul" (PDF). From a Hostile Shore: Australia and Japan at War in New Guinea. Bullard, Steven and Akemi, Inoue (translators). Canberra: Australia–Japan Research Project, Australian War Memorial. pp. 138–152. ISBN 978-0-975-19040-1.
Hough, Frank O.; Crown, John A. (1952). The Campaign on New Britain. Washington, DC: Historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 63151382. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Keogh, Eustace (1965). South West Pacific 1941–45. Melbourne: Grayflower Publications. OCLC 7185705.
Long, Gavin (1963). "Chapter 10: Operations on New Britain". The Final Campaigns. Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army. Vol. VII (1st ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. pp. 241–270. OCLC 1297619.
Mallett, Ross A. (2007). Australian Army Logistics 1943–1945 (PhD thesis) (online ed.). University of New South Wales. OCLC 271462761. Retrieved 29 March 2016.
Miller, John Jr. (1959). Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Department of the Army. OCLC 63151382. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Morison, Samuel Eliot (2001) . Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06997-0.
Mortensen, Bernhardt L. (1950). "Rabaul and Cape Gloucester". In Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea (eds.). The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. IV. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 978-0-912799-03-2.
Powell, Alan (1996). War by Stealth: Australians and the Allied Intelligence Bureau 1942–1945. Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-522-84691-1.
Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-military Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0.
Rottman, Gordon L. (2009). World War II US Cavalry Units. Pacific Theater. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-451-0.
Shaw, Henry I.; Kane, Douglas T. (1963). Isolation of Rabaul. Vol. II. Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 482891390. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
Shindo, Hiroyuki (2001). "Japanese Air Operations Over New Guinea During the Second World War". Journal of the Australian War Memorial (34). ISSN 1327-0141.
Shindo, Hiroyuki (2016). "Holding on to the Finish: The Japanese Army in the South and South West Pacific 1944–45". In Dean, Peter J. (ed.). Australia 1944–45: Victory in the Pacific. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–76. ISBN 978-1-107-08346-2.
Tanaka, Kengoro (1980). Operations of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces in the Papua New Guinea Theater During World War II. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Papua New Guinea Goodwill Society. OCLC 9206229.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of New Britain.
Gamble, Bruce (2013). Target Rabaul: The Allied Siege of Japan's Most Infamous Stronghold, March 1943 – August 1945. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-4407-1.
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campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"Battle of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rabaul_(1942)"},{"link_name":"1st Lae-Salamaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Salamaua%E2%80%93Lae"},{"link_name":"Coral Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea"},{"link_name":"Kokoda Track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign"},{"link_name":"Milne Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Milne_Bay"},{"link_name":"Goodenough Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Goodenough_Island"},{"link_name":"Buna–Gona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Buna%E2%80%93Gona"},{"link_name":"Lilliput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Lilliput"},{"link_name":"Merauke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_of_Merauke"},{"link_name":"Wau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wau"},{"link_name":"Bismarck Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bismarck_Sea"},{"link_name":"I-Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_I-Go"},{"link_name":"2nd Lae-Salamaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamaua%E2%80%93Lae_campaign"},{"link_name":"Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"Markham-Ramu-Finisterres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markham,_Ramu_and_Finisterre_campaigns"},{"link_name":"Wewak Raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Wewak"},{"link_name":"Huon Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huon_Peninsula_campaign"},{"link_name":"New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rabaul_(November_1943)"},{"link_name":"Neutralisation of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralisation_of_Rabaul"},{"link_name":"Admiralties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Emirau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_on_Emirau"},{"link_name":"Take Ichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_Ichi_convoy"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Hollandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hollandia"},{"link_name":"Western New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"Pacific War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"Central Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"Marshalls–Gilberts raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshalls%E2%80%93Gilberts_raids"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_K"},{"link_name":"Doolittle Raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doolittle_Raid"},{"link_name":"Midway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway"},{"link_name":"Gilberts and Marshalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Marianas and Palau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Volcano and Ryukyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Truk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Inmate"},{"link_name":"Ocean Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Island_massacre"},{"link_name":"Indian Ocean (1941–1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Japanese merchant raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_raiders_in_the_Indian_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Andaman Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands"},{"link_name":"Homfreyganj massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homfreyganj_massacre"},{"link_name":"Christmas Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Christmas_Island"},{"link_name":"1st Indian Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid"},{"link_name":"Ceylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Raid"},{"link_name":"Bay of Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Stab"},{"link_name":"2nd Indian Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_raid_(1944)"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Indochina (1940)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina"},{"link_name":"Franco-Thai War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Thai_War"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand"},{"link_name":"Malaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_campaign"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"Indochina (1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina"},{"link_name":"Malacca Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Malacca_Strait"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Jurist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Jurist"},{"link_name":"Tiderace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tiderace"},{"link_name":"Zipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Zipper"},{"link_name":"Strategic bombing (1944–45)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_South-East_Asia_(1944%E2%80%9345)"},{"link_name":"Burma and India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign"},{"link_name":"Burma (1941–42)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma"},{"link_name":"Burma (1942–43)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1942%E2%80%931943)"},{"link_name":"Burma and India (1944)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944)"},{"link_name":"Burma (1944–45)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"Southwest Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Dutch East Indies (1941–42)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies_campaign"},{"link_name":"Philippines (1941–42)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)"},{"link_name":"RY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_RY"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Coral Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea"},{"link_name":"Timor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Timor"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_naval_activity_in_Australian_waters"},{"link_name":"New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea_campaign"},{"link_name":"New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Philippines (1944–45)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"Borneo (1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Ellwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardment_of_Ellwood"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Estevan Point Lighthouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)#Bombardment_of_Estevan_Point_Lighthouse"},{"link_name":"Fort Stevens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardment_of_Fort_Stevens"},{"link_name":"Lookout Air Raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookout_Air_Raids"},{"link_name":"Fire balloon bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu-Go_balloon_bomb"},{"link_name":"Project Hula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula"},{"link_name":"PX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_PX"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_campaign"},{"link_name":"Air raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Yokosuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Yokosuka"},{"link_name":"Kure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_Kure_and_the_Inland_Sea_(July_1945)"},{"link_name":"Hiroshima and Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"Mariana Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_air_attacks_on_the_Mariana_Islands"},{"link_name":"Volcano and Ryukyu Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Starvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Starvation"},{"link_name":"Naval bombardments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Sagami Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sagami_Bay"},{"link_name":"South Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"Kuril Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands"},{"link_name":"Shumshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu"},{"link_name":"Downfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Downfall"},{"link_name":"Japanese surrender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Manchuria and Northern Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Kantokuen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantokuen"},{"link_name":"Manchuria (1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Mutanchiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mutanchiang"},{"link_name":"Chongjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seishin_Operation"},{"link_name":"Second Sino-Japanese War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabaul"},{"link_name":"New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Britain"},{"link_name":"Arawe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arawe"},{"link_name":"Cape Gloucester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Gloucester"},{"link_name":"Talasea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Talasea"},{"link_name":"Australian 5th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Division_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Landing at Jacquinot Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_at_Jacquinot_Bay"},{"link_name":"Wide Bay and Open Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wide_Bay%E2%80%93Open_Bay"}],"text":"World War II campaign between Allied and Imperial Japanese forcesNew Britain campaignPart of the Pacific Theater of World War IIUS Army soldiers returning from a patrol near Arawe, December 1943Date15 December 1943 – 21 August 1945LocationNew Britain, Territory of New GuineaResult\nAllied victoryBelligerents\n United States Australia\n\n Territory of New Guinea\n New Zealand\n JapanCommanders and leaders\n Douglas MacArthur Julian Cunningham William H. Rupertus Rapp Brush Alan Ramsay Horace Robertson\n Hitoshi ImamuraStrength\n20,000\n100,000Casualties and losses\n502 killed1,575 wounded4 missing\n~30,000 killed (mostly from disease and starvation)[1]vteNew Britain campaign\nArawe\nCape Gloucester\nNeutralisation of Rabaul\nTalasea\nJacquinot Bay\nWide Bay–Open Bay\n\nvte New Guinea campaign \n1942\n\nBattle of Rabaul\n1st Lae-Salamaua\nCoral Sea\nKokoda Track\nMilne Bay\nGoodenough Island\nBuna–Gona\nLilliput\nMerauke\n1943\n\nWau\nBismarck Sea\nI-Go\n2nd Lae-Salamaua\nChronicle\nMarkham-Ramu-Finisterres\nWewak Raid\nHuon Peninsula\nNew Britain\nBombing of Rabaul\n1944–45\n\nNeutralisation of Rabaul\nAdmiralties\nEmirau\nTake Ichi\nBombing of Hollandia\nWestern New Guinea\n\nvtePacific War\nCentral Pacific\nPearl Harbor\nMarshalls–Gilberts raids\nK\nDoolittle Raid\nMidway\nGilberts and Marshalls\nMarianas and Palau\nVolcano and Ryukyu\nTruk\nOcean Island\nIndian Ocean (1941–1945)\nJapanese merchant raids\nAndaman Islands\nHomfreyganj massacre\nChristmas Island\n1st Indian Ocean\nCeylon\nBay of Bengal\n2nd Indian Ocean\nSoutheast Asia\nIndochina (1940)\nFranco-Thai War\nThailand\nMalaya\nHong Kong\nSingapore\nIndochina (1945)\nMalacca Strait\nVietnam\nJurist\nTiderace\nZipper\nStrategic bombing (1944–45)\nBurma and India\nBurma (1941–42)\nBurma (1942–43)\nBurma and India (1944)\nBurma (1944–45)\nSouthwest Pacific\nDutch East Indies (1941–42)\nPhilippines (1941–42)\nRY\nSolomon Islands\nCoral Sea\nTimor\nAustralia\nNew Guinea\nNew Britain\nPhilippines (1944–45)\nBorneo (1945)\nNorth America\nEllwood\nAleutian Islands\nEstevan Point Lighthouse\nFort Stevens\nLookout Air Raids\nFire balloon bombs\nProject Hula\nPX\nJapan\nAir raids\nTokyo\nYokosuka\nKure\nHiroshima and Nagasaki\nMariana Islands\nVolcano and Ryukyu Islands\nStarvation\nNaval bombardments\nSagami Bay\nSouth Sakhalin\nKuril Islands\nShumshu\nDownfall\nJapanese surrender\nManchuria and Northern Korea\nKantokuen\nManchuria (1945)\nMutanchiang\nChongjin\n\nSecond Sino-Japanese WarThe New Britain campaign was a World War II campaign fought between Allied and Imperial Japanese forces. The campaign was initiated by the Allies in late 1943 as part of a major offensive which aimed to neutralise the important Japanese base at Rabaul, the capital of New Britain, and was conducted in two phases between December 1943 and the end of the war in August 1945.Initial fighting on New Britain took place around the western end of the island in December 1943 and January 1944, with US forces landing and securing bases around Arawe and Cape Gloucester. This was followed by a further landing in March 1944 around Talasea, after which little fighting took place between the ground forces on the island. In October 1944, the Australian 5th Division took over from the US troops and undertook a Landing at Jacquinot Bay the following month, before beginning a limited offensive to secure a defensive line across the island between Wide Bay and Open Bay behind which they contained the numerically superior Japanese forces for the remainder of the war. The Japanese regarded the New Britain Campaign as a delaying action, and kept their forces concentrated around Rabaul in expectation of a ground assault which never came.The operations on New Britain are considered by historians to have been a success for the Allied forces. However, some have questioned the necessity of the campaign. In addition, Australian historians have been critical of the limited air and naval support allocated to support operations on the island between October 1944 and the end of the war.","title":"New Britain campaign"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Britain"},{"link_name":"New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Bismarck Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman2002184-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman2002185-3"},{"link_name":"rainforest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainforest"},{"link_name":"amphibious landings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_warfare"},{"link_name":"coral reefs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman2002185-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman2002188-4"},{"link_name":"Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabaul"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman2002185-3"},{"link_name":"Territory of New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_Rabaul_1942-5"}],"sub_title":"Geography","text":"New Britain is a crescent-shaped island north east of the mainland of New Guinea. It is approximately 595 kilometres (370 mi) long, and its width varies from around 30 kilometres (19 mi) to 100 kilometres (62 mi); this makes it the largest island in the Bismarck Archipelago. The interior of New Britain is rugged, with a range of volcanic mountains over 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) high running for most of its length.[2] The island's coast is indented by a large number of bays.[3]The island has a tropical climate. At the time of World War II the mountains were covered by a rainforest of tall trees. The coastal plains which ring most of the island were covered in dense jungle. Most of the beaches on New Britain were backed by forested swamps, and a large number of rivers and streams ran from the mountains to the sea. All of these characteristics greatly complicated the movement of military units on New Britain. The number of sites suitable for amphibious landings was also constrained by the coral reefs which lay off most of the island's coastline.[3]The island's population in 1940 was estimated as over 101,000 New Guineans and 4,674 Europeans and Asians.[4] Rabaul, located on the north-east coast of New Britain, was the main settlement on the island and the largest in the Bismarcks.[3] The town had served as the capital of the Australian-administered Territory of New Guinea since Australian forces had captured the region from Germany during 1914.[5]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_Ground_Dispositions.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"Battle of Rabaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rabaul_(1942)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965100%E2%80%93111-7"},{"link_name":"Truk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Frei_Why_the_Japanese_were_in_New_Guinea-8"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_of_war"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_Rabaul_1942-5"},{"link_name":"Montevideo Maru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Montevideo_Maru"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_Rabaul_1942-5"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_New_Britain,_1944%E2%80%9345-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_Rabaul_1942-5"},{"link_name":"comfort women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_Rabaul_1942-5"},{"link_name":"from early 1942","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rabaul_(1942)"},{"link_name":"revetments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revetment"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen1950312-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShindo2001-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen1950312%E2%80%93313-12"},{"link_name":"Gasmata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasmata"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_New_Britain,_1944%E2%80%9345-9"},{"link_name":"Allied Intelligence Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Intelligence_Bureau"},{"link_name":"guerrillas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare"},{"link_name":"collaborated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborationism"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJRP_New_Britain,_1944%E2%80%9345-9"}],"sub_title":"Japanese occupation","text":"The disposition of Japanese forces on New Britain and nearby islands in November 1943Japanese forces captured New Britain in January 1942 as part of efforts to secure Rabaul,[6] quickly overwhelming the small Australian garrison during the Battle of Rabaul.[7] This invasion was undertaken to both prevent Allied forces from using Rabaul to attack the important Japanese base at Truk in the central Pacific, and to capture the town so that it could be used to support potential further Japanese offensives in the region.[8] While hundreds of Australian soldiers and airmen managed to escape and were evacuated between February and May, around 900 became prisoners of war and were treated harshly. The 500 European civilians captured by the Japanese were interned.[5] On 1 July 1942, 849 POWs and 208 civilian men who had been captured on New Britain were killed when the Montevideo Maru was torpedoed by an American submarine en route to Japan.[5] Most of the remaining European internees were transported to the Solomon Islands where they died due to poor conditions.[9]The Japanese authorities adopted the Australian system of administering the island through village chiefs, and many villages shifted their loyalties to the Japanese to survive or to gain an advantage against other groups. The few chiefs who refused to cooperate with the Japanese were severely punished, with several being killed.[5] While the European women and children had been evacuated to Australia prior to the war, Asian people had not been assisted to leave. The Chinese-ethnic community feared that it would be massacred by Japanese forces, as had happened elsewhere in the Pacific, but this did not occur. However, men were forced to work as labourers and some women were raped and, in several cases forced to become \"comfort women\".[5]Following the invasion, the Japanese established a large base at Rabaul. The facilities located near the town were attacked by Allied air units from early 1942, but these operations were generally unsuccessful. By mid-1943, a network of four airfields had been constructed at Rabaul which could accommodate 265 fighters and 166 bombers in protective revetments. More aircraft could also be accommodated in unprotected parking areas.[10] Aircraft based at these facilities operated against Allied forces in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.[11] The town was also developed into a major port, with extensive dock and ship repair facilities. Large stockpiles of supplies were stored in warehouses and open air dumps in and around Rabaul.[12] Few other Japanese facilities were constructed on New Britain, though a forward airfield was developed at Gasmata on the island's south coast. Both the Japanese and Australians maintained small parties of coastwatchers at other locations on New Britain; the Australians were civilians who had volunteered to remain on the island following the invasion.[9]During 1943 small parties of Allied Intelligence Bureau (AIB) personnel, which comprised both Australian and New Guinean troops, were landed on New Britain. The AIB units sought to gather intelligence, re-assert Australian sovereignty and rescue downed Allied airmen. The Japanese attempted to hunt down the Allied coastwatchers and AIB patrols, and committed atrocities against civilians who assisted them. The AIB also trained and equipped New Guineans to serve as guerrillas, which led to a successful low-intensity campaign against the Japanese garrison. However, it also sparked tribal warfare with the guerrillas attacking villages they believed to have collaborated with the Japanese.[9]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Ireland_(island)"},{"link_name":"Eighth Area Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Eighth_Area_Army"},{"link_name":"Hitoshi Imamura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitoshi_Imamura"},{"link_name":"17th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"38th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/38th_Infantry_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"39th Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=39th_Brigade_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"65th Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65th_Independent_Mixed_Brigade_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963268%E2%80%93270-13"},{"link_name":"Gazelle Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazelle_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennis_et_al2008390-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETanaka1980127%E2%80%93130-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiromi2004138_&_146-16"},{"link_name":"division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(military)"},{"link_name":"regimental combat team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regimental_combat_team"},{"link_name":"112th Cavalry Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/112th_Cavalry_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERottman200921%E2%80%9322-17"},{"link_name":"1st Marine Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"40th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Australian 5th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_5th_Division_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"}],"sub_title":"Opposing forces","text":"By 1943, there were more than 100,000 Japanese military and civilian personnel on New Britain and a smaller nearby island, New Ireland. These were centred on the headquarters of the Eighth Area Army, under the command of General Hitoshi Imamura: the 17th Division (11,429 personnel at the end of the war); the 38th Division (13,108); the 39th Brigade (5,073); the 65th Brigade (2,729); the 14th Regiment (2,444); the 34th Regiment (1,879) and the 35th Regiment (1,967). Together, these formations amounted to a force equivalent to four divisions. Naval troops provided the equivalent of another division.[13] By the end of the war, these Japanese forces were restricted to Rabaul and the surrounding Gazelle Peninsula.[6] These forces lacked naval and air support,[14] and were increasingly isolated and eventually cut-off from resupply due to Allied interdiction efforts, which meant that the garrison was largely left to its own devices.[15] Indeed, direct communications between Rabaul and Japan were severed in February 1943 and not reestablished until after the war.[16]In contrast, United States, Australian and New Guinean forces, assisted by local civilians, were always a division-level command or smaller; the US \"Director\" Task Force which secured Arawe was effectively a regimental combat team based on the 112th Cavalry Regiment.[17] It was later followed by the 1st Marine Division before it handed over to the 40th Infantry Division, which in turn handed over to the Australian 5th Division.[6] This was due partly to a miscalculation of the size of the Japanese forces holding the island, as well as broader Allied strategy, which dictated a limited operation for New Britain, focused initially upon seizing and defending suitable locations for airbases, and then containment of the larger Japanese force.[6]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operation_Cartwheel_-_Map02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"South Pacific Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pacific_Area"},{"link_name":"Guadalcanal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal"},{"link_name":"South West Pacific Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_Area_(command)"},{"link_name":"Douglas MacArthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur"},{"link_name":"Lae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lae"},{"link_name":"Salamaua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamaua"},{"link_name":"Port Moresby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Moresby"},{"link_name":"Kokoda Track campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokoda_Track_campaign"},{"link_name":"Battle of Milne Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Milne_Bay"},{"link_name":"Battle of Buna–Gona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Buna%E2%80%93Gona"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horner_Strategy_and_Command-18"},{"link_name":"Operation Cartwheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cartwheel"},{"link_name":"Huon Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huon_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Bougainville Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_Island"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horner_Strategy_and_Command-18"},{"link_name":"blockade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade"},{"link_name":"Combined Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Quebec Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_Conference,_1943"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959224%E2%80%93225-19"},{"link_name":"Fifth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"landing on Bougainville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bougainville_Campaign"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMortensen1950316,_318-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959230%E2%80%93232-21"},{"link_name":"attacked the town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rabaul_(November_1943)"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959253-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959270-23"}],"text":"Allied and Japanese operations associated with Operation Cartwheel between June 1943 and April 1944From mid-1942 Allied plans for the Pacific had a strong focus on capturing or neutralising Rabaul. In July 1942 the US military's Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered a two-pronged offensive against Rabaul. The forces assigned to the South Pacific Area were directed to capture the Solomon Islands, starting with Guadalcanal. Simultaneously, the units assigned to the South West Pacific Area, commanded by General Douglas MacArthur, were to secure Lae and Salamaua on the north coast of New Guinea. Once these operations were complete, forces from both commands would land on New Britain and capture Rabaul. This plan proved premature, however, as MacArthur lacked the forces needed to execute his elements of it. The Japanese offensive towards Port Moresby, which was defeated after months of heavy fighting in the Kokoda Track campaign, Battle of Milne Bay and Battle of Buna–Gona, also disrupted the Allied plans but left them in control of the territory needed to mount their own offensives.[18]The Allies re-cast their plans in early 1943. Following a major conference, on 28 March the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a new plan for reducing Rabaul, which was designated Operation Cartwheel. Under this plan, MacArthur's forces were to establish airfields on two islands off the coast of New Guinea, capture the Huon Peninsula region of the mainland and land in western New Britain. The South Pacific Area was to continue its advance through the Solomon Islands towards Rabaul, culminating with a landing on Bougainville Island.[18] While the initial plans for Operation Cartwheel directed MacArthur to capture Rabaul, in June 1943 the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that this was unnecessary as the Japanese base there could be neutralized by blockade and aerial bombardment. MacArthur initially opposed this change in plans, but it was endorsed by the British and United States Combined Chiefs of Staff during the Quebec Conference in August.[19]The United States Fifth Air Force, the main American air unit assigned to the South West Pacific Area, began a campaign against Rabaul in October 1943. The goal of the attacks was to prevent the Japanese from using Rabaul as an air or naval base and to provide support for the planned landing on Bougainville scheduled for 1 November, as well as landings in western New Britain planned for December.[20] The first raid took place on 12 October, and involved 349 aircraft. Further attacks were made whenever weather conditions were suitable during October and early November.[21] On 5 November, two United States Navy aircraft carriers also attacked the town and its harbour. Following this attack the Imperial Japanese Navy ceased using Rabaul as a fleet base.[22] The campaign against Rabaul was intensified from November when air units operating from airfields on recently captured islands in the Solomons joined the attacks.[23]","title":"Preliminary operations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Invasion of western New Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Dexterity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dexterity"},{"link_name":"Sixth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Cape Gloucester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Gloucester_(Papua_New_Guinea)"},{"link_name":"Talasea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talasea"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959270-23"},{"link_name":"George Kenney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kenney"},{"link_name":"Walter Krueger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Krueger"},{"link_name":"Vitiaz Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitiaz_Strait"},{"link_name":"Arawe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arawe"},{"link_name":"PT boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PT_boat"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959273%E2%80%93274-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959274%E2%80%93275-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Western_New_Britain_Operation.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alamo Scout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo_Scouts"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959276%E2%80%93277-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959278%E2%80%93279-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959277-28"},{"link_name":"Imperial General Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"way stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layover"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963324%E2%80%93325-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShindo201652-30"},{"link_name":"Iwao Matsuda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwao_Matsuda_(general)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959280-31"},{"link_name":"Yasushi Sakai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yasushi_Sakai&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963326%E2%80%93327-32"}],"sub_title":"Opposing plans","text":"On 22 September 1943 MacArthur's General Headquarters issued orders for the invasion of New Britain, which was designated Operation Dexterity. These directed the US Sixth Army (which at the time was typically designated 'Alamo Force') to land forces in the Cape Gloucester region of western New Britain and at Gasmata to secure all of New Britain west of the line between Gasmata and Talasea on the north coast.[23] MacArthur's air commander, Lieutenant General George Kenney, opposed this operation as he believed that it would take too long to develop airfields at Cape Gloucester given the rapid pace of the Allied advances in the New Guinea region, and existing airfields were adequate to support the attacks on Rabaul and planned landings at other locations. However, Lieutenant General Walter Krueger, the commander of Alamo Force, and MacArthur's naval commanders believed that it was necessary to invade New Britain to gain control of the strategic Vitiaz Strait through which it was planned to send convoys carrying Allied forces to locations in western New Guinea. However, the planned landing at Gasmata was cancelled in November due to concerns over the Japanese reinforcing the region and its proximity to the airfields at Rabaul, as well as the terrain being judged too swampy. Instead, on 21 November it was decided to capture the Arawe area on the south-west coast of New Britain to establish a base for PT boats and hopefully divert Japanese attention away from the main landing at Cape Gloucester.[24] After taking into account the availability of shipping and air cover, the landing at Arawe was scheduled for 15 December and that at Cape Gloucester for the 26th of that month.[25]Movements of Japanese forces in western New Britain during late 1943 and early 1944 and locations of Allied landingsAlamo Force was responsible for developing plans for Operation Dexterity, with work on this having commenced in August 1943. Intelligence to inform these plans was sourced from Marine and Alamo Scout patrols which were landed in New Britain between September and December, as well as from aerial photography.[26] The US 1st Marine Division was the main formation selected for the Cape Gloucester landing; combined with artillery, transport, construction and logistics units this force was designated the Backhander Task Force.[27] The force selected for Arawe was built around the 112th Cavalry Regiment, which had been dismounted and was serving as infantry. The cavalry regiment was augmented with artillery and engineer units, with the overall force being designated the Director Task Force.[28]The Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assessed the strategic situation in the Southwest Pacific in late September 1943, and concluded that the Allies would attempt to break through the northern Solomon Islands and Bismarck Archipelago in the coming months en route to Japan's inner perimeter in the western and central Pacific. Accordingly, reinforcements were dispatched to strategic locations in the area in an attempt to slow the Allied advance. Strong forces were retained at Rabaul, however, as it was believed that the Allies would attempt to capture the town. At the time, Japanese positions in western New Britain were limited to airfields at Cape Gloucester on the island's western tip and several small way stations which provided small boats travelling between Rabaul and New Guinea with shelter from Allied aerial attacks.[29] As New Britain lay well to the east of the \"Absolute National Defence Zone\" which had been adopted by the Japanese military on 15 September, the overall goal for the forces there was to delay any Allied advances to buy time to improve the defences of more strategically important regions.[30]During October the commander of the Eighth Area Army, Imamura, judged that the Allies next move would probably be an invasion of western New Britain. In response, he decided to dispatch further units to the area to reinforce its garrison, which was based around the under-strength 65th Brigade and designated Matsuda Force after its commander, Major General Iwao Matsuda.[31] The 17th Division was selected to provide troops for this purpose; the main body of this unit arrived in Rabaul from China on 4 and 5 October, having suffered around 1,400 casualties due to submarine and air attacks while en route to New Britain. The commander of the 17th Division, Lieutenant General Yasushi Sakai was appointed the new commander of the Japanese forces in western New Britain, but the division's battalions were spread across this region, southern New Britain and Bougainville.[32]","title":"Invasion of western New Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arawe_landing_craft_Dec_43.jpg"},{"link_name":"Julian Cunningham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Cunningham"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959277-28"},{"link_name":"Goodenough Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodenough_Island"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965338-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963338%E2%80%93339-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965339-35"},{"link_name":"combat air patrols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_air_patrol"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965339%E2%80%93340-36"}],"sub_title":"Arawe","text":"US Army soldiers land at AraweFor the Arawe operation, the Director Task Force, under the command of Brigadier General Julian Cunningham,[28] concentrated on Goodenough Island where they carried out training prior to embarking on 13 December 1943. In the weeks prior to the operation, Allied aircraft had carried out heavy attacks across New Britain, but the area around the landing beaches was purposefully left alone until the day prior to the landing in order not to alert the Japanese.[33] The ships carrying the invasion force arrived off the Arawe Peninsula, near Cape Merkus, around 03:00 on 15 December. Two small advanced elements set off almost immediately under the cover of darkness with orders to destroy a radio transmitter on Pilelo Island to the south-east and to sever the track leading towards the peninsula around Umtingalu village. The subsidiary landing around Umtingalu met with heavy resistance and was subsequently repulsed, while the landing on Pilelo proved more successful with the cavalrymen quickly overwhelming a small Japanese force before securing their objective.[34]Meanwhile, after a deal of confusion while the troops embarked in their landing craft, the main assault began after 06:25, supported by a heavy naval and aerial bombardment.[35] Opposition ashore was limited as there were very few Japanese in the vicinity, although the first wave experienced machine-gun fire that was quickly dealt with. Japanese aircraft from Rabaul sortied over the landing beach, but were chased away by US fighters flying combat air patrols. Further confusion resulted in a delay in bringing the second wave in, while the final three waves got mixed up and landed at the same time. Nevertheless, the US cavalrymen quickly secured a beachhead and by the afternoon they had secured the Amalut Plantation and established a strong defensive position across the base of the Arawe Peninsula. In the days that followed Japanese reinforcements arrived and they subsequently launched a counterattack, but the Americans also brought in reinforcements, including tanks, and the counterattack was repelled. In the aftermath, the Japanese withdrew further inland towards a nearby airfield and the fighting around Arawe petered out.[36]","title":"Invasion of western New Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beach_at_Cape_Gloucester.jpg"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965340-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959289-38"},{"link_name":"William H. Rupertus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Rupertus"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959277%E2%80%93279-39"},{"link_name":"7th Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Oro Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oro_Bay"},{"link_name":"Task Force 74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_Force_74"},{"link_name":"1st Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"11th Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959290%E2%80%93292-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963443%E2%80%93444-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959290%E2%80%93292-40"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959290%E2%80%93294-42"},{"link_name":"141st Infantry Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=141st_Infantry_Regiment_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959294-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963389-44"},{"link_name":"Finschhafen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Finschhafen"},{"link_name":"landing at Saidor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_at_Saidor"},{"link_name":"Huon Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huon_Peninsula_campaign"},{"link_name":"Madang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Madang"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965340%E2%80%93341-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963398-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963399%E2%80%93408-47"}],"sub_title":"Cape Gloucester","text":"US Marines landing at Cape Gloucester, New Britain, 26 December 1943The landing at Cape Gloucester took place on 26 December 1943, following the diversionary action around Arawe,[37] and a series of practice landings around Cape Sudest a few days earlier.[38] The 1st Marine Division, under the command of Major General William H. Rupertus was selected for the attack.[39] For the landing, two beaches were chosen to the east of the airfields at Cape Gloucester, which was the main goal of the operation. A subsidiary landing site was also chosen on the opposite side of the cape to the west of the airfields. Troops from the 7th Marines embarked from Oro Bay. Escorted by US and Australian warships from Task Force 74, en route they were reinforced by the 1st Marines and artillery from the 11th Marines.[40] A heavy aerial bombardment was directed against Cape Gloucester's garrison in the weeks before the landing which destroyed many of the fixed defences and affected the soldiers' morale.[41] The strikes continued on 26 December prior to the assault, resulting in heavy smoke which partially obscured the beaches.[40] The American landing was successful, with counter-attacks by Japanese forces on 26 December being defeated. The next day the 1st Marine Regiment advanced west, towards the airfields. A Japanese blocking position was reduced that afternoon, but the American advance was halted while reinforcements were landed. It resumed on 29 December, with the airfields being captured.[42] During the first two weeks of January 1944 the Marines advanced south from their beachhead to locate and defeat the Japanese force they believed was in the area. This led to some heavy fighting, with the Japanese 141st Infantry Regiment attempting to defend positions located on high ground.[43] The Marines eventually secured the area on 16 January.[44]With the successful landing, the Allies effectively gained control of the sea lanes of communication to the Bismarck Sea, having secured lodgements on either side of the Vitiaz Strait, after earlier capturing Finschhafen. In January 1944, the Allies sought to press their advantage further, launching another Dexterity operation on the New Guinea coast with a landing at Saidor as the Huon Peninsula was cleared by Australian and US forces. In response, the Japanese high command at Rabaul ordered their forces that were withdrawing from the Huon Peninsula to bypass Saidor, and they subsequently began withdrawing towards Madang.[45]In mid-January, Sakai requested permission to withdraw his command from western New Britain, and this was granted by Imamura on the 21st of the month. The Japanese forces subsequently sought to disengage from the Americans, and move towards the Talasea area.[46] Marine patrols pursued the Japanese, and a large number of small engagements were fought in the centre of the island and along its north coast.[47]","title":"Invasion of western New Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarinesNearTalasea.jpg"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959294-43"},{"link_name":"Willaumez Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willaumez_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoughCrown1952152-48"},{"link_name":"5th Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Marine_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963411%E2%80%93427-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoughCrown1952152%E2%80%93171-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959309%E2%80%93310-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959311-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959311%E2%80%93312-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShindo201659-54"},{"link_name":"Rapp Brush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapp_Brush"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoughCrown1952183-55"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965408-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowell1996239%E2%80%93245-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963266%E2%80%93267-58"}],"sub_title":"Talasea","text":"US Marines advance towards Talasea airstripIn the months following the operations to secure Arawe and Cape Gloucester, there was only limited fighting on New Britain as Japanese forces largely chose to avoid combat during this period and continued their withdrawal towards Rabaul. US forces secured Rooke Island in February 1944, but by then the island's garrison had already been withdrawn.[43] The following month, a further landing was undertaken at Talasea, on the Willaumez Peninsula. Conceived as a follow-up operation to cut off the withdrawing Japanese,[48] the operation involved a regimental combat team formed primarily from the 5th Marines landing on the Willaumez Peninsula, on the western side of a narrow isthmus near the Volupai Plantation. Following the initial landing, the Marines advanced east towards the emergency landing strip at Talasea on the opposite coast. A small group of Japanese defenders held up the US troops and prevented them from advancing quickly enough to cut off the withdrawal of the main Japanese force falling back from Cape Gloucester.[49][50]The Allied air attacks on Rabaul were further intensified following the completion of airfields on Bougainville during January 1944. All of the town was destroyed, along with a large number of aircraft and ships. The Japanese Army lost relatively little equipment though, as its stockpiles had been moved into volcanic caves during November. Due to the shipping losses, the Japanese stopped sending any further surface vessels to the town from February.[51] The Japanese air units stationed at Rabaul made their last attempt to intercept an Allied raid on the area on 19 February. Following this, the air raids which continued to the end of the war were contested only by anti-aircraft gunfire.[52] As a result of its prolonged bombardment, the town ceased to be a base from which the Japanese could contest the Allied advance. However, it remained very well defended by a garrison of around 98,000 men and hundreds of artillery and anti-aircraft guns. Extensive fortifications were constructed around the Gazelle Peninsula, where rugged terrain would have also favoured the defenders.[53] On 14 March 1944 the Imperial General Headquarters directed the Eighth Area Army to \"hold the area around Rabaul for as long as possible\" to divert Allied forces away from other regions.[54]In April 1944, once Arawe and Cape Gloucester had been secured, the US 40th Infantry Division under Major General Rapp Brush[55] arrived to relieve the Marines and cavalrymen that had landed in December 1943. After this, a period of relative inactivity followed as the US and Japanese forces occupied opposite ends of the island, while guerilla actions were fought in the centre by Australian-led forces of the AIB.[6] Patrols from the AIB were subsequently successful in pushing back Japanese outposts to Ulamona on the north coast, and to Kamandran in the south.[56][57] In mid-1944, the headquarters of the Eighth Area Army re-assessed Allied intentions on New Britain. While up to this time it had been believed that the Allies were planning a major assault on Rabaul, the advance of Allied forces towards the Philippines was interpreted to mean that this was no longer likely. Instead, the Japanese judged that the Allies would advance slowly across New Britain towards the town and attack it only if their campaign towards Japan became bogged down or concluded, or if the size of Australian forces on the island was increased.[58]","title":"Invasion of western New Britain"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Australian_operations_on_New_Britain_October_1944-March_1945.jpg"}],"text":"Australian operations in central New Britain between October 1944 and March 1945","title":"Australian operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennis_et_al2008387-59"},{"link_name":"Australian 5th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Division_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Alan Ramsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Ramsay"},{"link_name":"Madang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madang"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965395,_410%E2%80%93411-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965410-61"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDennis_et_al2008390-14"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225-6"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965410-61"}],"sub_title":"Transfer to Australian responsibility","text":"In October 1944, the decision was made to transfer the US 40th Infantry Division to fight in the Philippines, with responsibility for New Britain passing to the Australians in line with the Australian government's desire to use their own troops to recapture the Australian territory the Japanese had taken earlier in the war.[59] The Australian 5th Division, commanded by Major General Alan Ramsay, was chosen for this operation, having concentrated around Madang in May 1944 following operations to secure the Huon Peninsula.[60]Allied intelligence at the time had underestimated Japanese strength on the island, believing it to be held by around 38,000 men. While this was incorrect by a factor of two, Allied assessments of Japanese intentions were more accurate, with planners believing that Imamura's force would adopt a defensive posture, remaining largely inside the fortifications that had been established around Rabaul.[61] In fact Japanese combat strength was approximately 69,000 men, including 53,000 army troops and 16,000 sailors, and while they were mainly located in the Gazelle Peninsula in the north around Rabaul, there were watching-stations established as far forward as Awul. Due to the garrison's increasing isolation many were involved in growing rice and gardening. With American enclaves at Talasea–Cape Hoskins, Arawe and Cape Gloucester, the two sides were geographically separated and observing a tacit truce. Allied bombing had heavily reduced Japanese air and naval forces to the extent that there were only two operational aircraft left, and the only vessels that remained were 150 barges that could move small amounts of supplies or troops around the coast.[14]Ramsay's force was ordered to carry out a containment operation designed to isolate the Japanese garrison on the Gazelle Peninsula.[6] In doing so, Ramsay was ordered to keep the pressure on the Japanese while avoiding committing large-scale forces. Nevertheless, it was decided that the Australians would carry out a limited offensive, consisting largely of patrol actions, with the goal of advancing beyond the western tip of the island where the US garrison had remained. To achieve this, the Australian commanders decided to establish two bases: one around Jacquinot Bay on the southern coast, with a supporting base on the north coast around Cape Hoskins.[6][61]","title":"Australian operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Soldiers_from_the_1st_New_Guinea_Infantry_Battalion_on_board_the_transport_Frances_Peat_in_November_1944.JPG"},{"link_name":"1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_New_Guinea_Infantry_Battalion"},{"link_name":"36th Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36th_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963249%E2%80%93250-62"},{"link_name":"6th Infantry Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Brigade_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"at Jacquinot Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_at_Jacquinot_Bay"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMallett2007288%E2%80%93289-63"},{"link_name":"Royal New Zealand Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Corsair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vought_F4U_Corsair"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradley2012408-64"},{"link_name":"594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/594th_Engineer_Boat_and_Shore_Regiment"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963250-65"},{"link_name":"line between Wide Bay and Open Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Wide_Bay%E2%80%93Open_Bay"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963270-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225%E2%80%93226-67"},{"link_name":"1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_New_Guinea_Infantry_Battalion"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965411-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963253-69"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Australian_37th-52nd_Infantry_at_Open_Bay_New_Britain_(AWM_image_093077).jpg"},{"link_name":"37th/52nd Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/37th/52nd_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"14th/32nd Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th/32nd_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963253-69"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965411-68"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963255%E2%80%93256-70"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963270-66"},{"link_name":"19th Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963256%E2%80%93257-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965412-72"},{"link_name":"13th Infantry Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_Brigade_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Brigade_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963260%E2%80%93261-73"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016225%E2%80%93226-67"},{"link_name":"2/2nd Commando Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2/2nd_Commando_Squadron_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake2019253-74"},{"link_name":"Horace Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Eather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Eather"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963265-75"}],"sub_title":"Central New Britain","text":"Soldiers from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion on a transport ship near Jacquinot Bay in November 1944In early October 1944, the 36th Infantry Battalion was landed at Cape Hoskins to begin taking over from the US garrison.[62] Early the next month, the remaining elements of the Australian 6th Infantry Brigade landed at Jacquinot Bay. In the weeks that followed, large amounts of stores and equipment were landed, along with support personnel and labourers to begin construction on facilities including roads, an airstrip, dock facilities, and a general hospital. This work would last until May 1945.[63] Two squadrons of Royal New Zealand Air Force Corsair fighter bombers were later flown in to support Allied operations on the island,[64] and US landing craft from the 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment provided support until the Australian Landing Craft Company arrived in February 1945.[65]Due to limited shipping resources, the transfer of the 5th Division was delayed significantly and was not completed until April 1945. Nevertheless, in December, the Australian advance began with the goal of moving along the northern and southern coasts towards the Gazelle Peninsula to capture a line between Wide Bay and Open Bay, along which to contain the larger Japanese force, which remained largely static around the Rabaul fortress, with only about 1,600 troops deployed in the forward areas.[66] This saw a series of amphibious landings, river crossings and small-scale actions.[67] The 36th Infantry Battalion began expanding their foothold around Cape Hoskins in early December pushing forward towards Bialla via barge, where two companies established a forward base from where they began patrolling east. After establishing that the Japanese had withdrawn behind the Pandi River, a new base was established around Ea Ea, with the troops again being moved forward by barge. The 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion arrived to reinforce them in January 1945.[68] After this, the Australians on the north coast pushed their line towards Open Bay, establishing an outpost around Baia and patrolling the Mavelo Plantation, during which several minor skirmishes were fought.[69]The 37th/52nd Infantry Battalion coming ashore at Open Bay, May 1945Meanwhile, on the southern coast, the main advance towards Wide Bay had begun in late December. This involved establishing a forward base around Milim in mid-February 1945 by the 14th/32nd Infantry Battalion, which was moved by barge via Sampun.[69] On 15 February, Kamandran was captured following a brief fight during which a patrol from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion carried out a successful ambush.[68][70] At this point, Japanese resistance on the southern coast began to grow and in the final phase of the advance, the Australians began advancing on foot around Henry Reid Bay, to secure the Waitavalo–Tol area, which was held by a Japanese force around battalion strength.[66]After this, a series of engagements took place over a six-week period to reduce the main Japanese position around Mount Sugi, commencing with the 19th Infantry Battalion's assault across the Wulwut River on 5 March.[71] The position around Mount Sugi, which stretched across a number of ridges to the west of the Wulwut, was strongly defended with mortars, machine guns and pillboxes, and heavy rain also frustrated Australian attempts to reduce the Japanese stronghold. Fierce fighting followed, culminating with the 14th/32nd's attack on Bacon Hill on 18 March. Following the capture of Waitavalo–Tol area in March and April, the Australians exploited towards Jammer Bay and sent patrols to link up their northern and southern drives.[72] They also brought in reinforcements, first from the 13th Infantry Brigade and then the 4th,[73] as the offensive part of their campaign effectively came to an end. In the months that followed, the Australians mounted a series of patrols aimed at maintaining the line around the neck of the Gazelle Peninsula to prevent any attempt by the Japanese to break out from Rabaul. This lasted until the end of the war in August 1945.[67] The 2/2nd Commando Squadron conducted a patrol which penetrated close to Rabaul, and judged that the terrain was so rough it would not be possible for large Japanese units to move over it to attack the Australian forces.[74]A series of command changes had occurred around this time. In April, Major General Horace Robertson took over command from Ramsay, while Major General Kenneth Eather assumed control in early August.[75]","title":"Australian operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"29th/46th Infantry Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/29th/46th_Battalion_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016226%E2%80%93227-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959295-77"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959289-38"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AWM-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amph_tank_2_(AWM_096634).jpg"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShawKane1963343-78"},{"link_name":"Samuel Eliot Morison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorison2001377-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1959294%E2%80%93295-80"},{"link_name":"Gavin Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Long"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963250_&_269-81"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELong1963270-66"},{"link_name":"Aitape–Wewak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitape%E2%80%93Wewak_campaign"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant2016226-82"},{"link_name":"John Coates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Coates_(general)"},{"link_name":"Borneo Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo_campaign_(1945)"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoates2006276-83"},{"link_name":"Peter Charlton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Charlton&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharlton198397%E2%80%9398-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETanaka1980127-85"},{"link_name":"Eustace Keogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustace_Keogh"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeogh1965412-72"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlake2019253-74"}],"text":"Rabaul was secured by the 29th/46th Infantry Battalion, which formed part of the 4th Infantry Brigade, on 6 September 1945, at which time over 8,000 former prisoners of war were liberated from Japanese camps on the island. Australian losses during the fighting on New Britain between October 1944 and the end of the war were limited, amounting to 53 killed and 140 wounded. A further 21 died from non-battle injuries or illnesses.[76] Losses amongst the US 1st Marine Division amounted to 310 killed and 1,083 wounded.[77] In addition, casualties for all Allied units during the fighting around Arawe came to 118 killed and 352 wounded, with four missing.[38] Total Japanese losses in New Britain and the other islands in the Bismarck Archipelago are estimated at around 30,000 dead, mostly from disease and starvation.[1]Australian soldiers posing with captured Japanese tanks at Rabaul in September 1945In the aftermath of the campaign, there are mixed opinions among historians as to whether the US landings around Arawe, and even around Cape Gloucester were necessary. While according to Henry Shaw and Douglas Kane, authors of the Marine Corps official history, the landing around Arawe arguably made the landing at Cape Gloucester easier,[78] US naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison argues that the landing at Arawe was of \"small value\" pointing out that it was never developed into a naval base and that potentially the resources and manpower could have been employed elsewhere.[79] US Army historian John Miller also concluded that the operations to secure Arawe and Cape Gloucester \"were probably not essential to the reduction of Rabaul or the approach to the Philippines\", while there were some benefits to the offensive in western New Britain and comparatively few casualties.[80]In summarising the Australian involvement in the campaign, Gavin Long, the Australian official historian, wrote that it was inadequately resourced, particularly in terms of air and sea power, with the latter delaying the concentration of the 5th Division until very late in the campaign.[81] Regardless, Long writes that the Australian force, which was relatively inexperienced and matched against a Japanese force of around five divisions, achieved a remarkable result in the circumstances.[66] Lachlan Grant also reaches a similar conclusion, highlighting the limited casualties that were sustained in the campaign in comparison to those in other locations such as Aitape–Wewak.[82] Retired General John Coates judged that \"in many respects Australian operations on New Britain had been a classic containment campaign\", but contrasted the insufficient air and naval support for them with the excesses of both which had been allocated to the Borneo Campaign.[83] Peter Charlton also regarded the Australian operations as successful, but was critical of both the decision to deploy the 5th Division against a much more powerful Japanese force and the limited support provided for the campaign.[84]The defensive tactics of the Japanese commander, Imamura, were likely a factor in ensuring the successful containment by the much smaller Australian force. According to Japanese historian Kengoro Tanaka, Imamura had been under orders to preserve his strength until mutual action could be achieved with the Imperial Japanese Navy and had as such, chosen to deploy only a small portion of his troops forward of the fortress of Rabaul.[85] Eustace Keogh concurs with this assessment, arguing that any offensive would have lacked strategic purpose without sufficient naval and air support, which at the time was unavailable to the Japanese.[72] Gregory Blake has written that the extremely rugged terrain made a large Japanese offensive impossible.[74]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of New 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Target Rabaul: The Allied Siege of Japan's Most Infamous Stronghold, March 1943 – August 1945. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-4407-1.vteWorld War II\nOutline\nBattles\nOperations\nLeaders\nAllied\nAxis\nCommanders\nCasualties\nConferences\nGeneralTopics\nAir warfare of World War II\nIn Europe\nBlitzkrieg\nComparative military ranks\nCryptography\nDeclarations of war\nDiplomacy\nGovernments in exile\nHome front\nAustralian\nUnited Kingdom\nUnited States\nLend-Lease\nManhattan Project\nBritish contribution\nMilitary awards\nMilitary equipment\nMilitary production\nNaval history\nNazi plunder\nOpposition\nTechnology\nAllied cooperation\nMulberry harbour\nTotal war\nStrategic bombing\nPuppet states\nWomen\nArt and World War II\nMusic in World War II\nTheaters\nAsia and Pacific\nChina\nSouth-East Asia\nPacific\nNorth and Central Pacific\nSouth-West Pacific\nIndian Ocean\nEurope\nWestern Front\nEastern Front\nMediterranean and Middle East\nNorth Africa\nEast Africa\nItaly\nWest Africa\nAtlantic\ntimeline\nAmericas\nAftermath\nChinese Civil War\nCold War\nDecolonization\nDivision of Korea\nFirst Indochina War\nExpulsion of Germans\nGreek Civil War\nIndonesian National Revolution\nKeelhaul\nMarshall Plan\nOccupation of Germany\nOccupation of Japan\nOsoaviakhim\nPaperclip\nSoviet occupations\nBaltic\nHungary\nPoland\nRomania\nTerritorial changes of Germany\nTreaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany\nUnited Nations\nWar crimes\nAllied war crimes\nSoviet war crimes\nBritish war crimes\nUnited States war crimes\nGerman war crimes\nforced labour\nWehrmacht war crimes\nThe Holocaust\nAftermath\nResponse\nNuremberg trials\nItalian war crimes\nJapanese war crimes\nNanjing Massacre\nUnit 731\nProsecution\nCroatian war crimes\nGenocide of Serbs\nPersecution of Jews\nRomanian war crimes\nSexual violence\nGerman military brothels\nCamp brothels\nRape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland\nRape during the liberation of France / Serbia\nSook Ching\nComfort women\nRape of Manila\nMarocchinate\nParticipantsAllies\nAlgeria\nAustralia\nBelgium\nBrazil\nBulgaria (from September 1944)\nCanada\nChina\nCuba\nCzechoslovakia\nDenmark\nEthiopia\nEswatini (formerly Swaziland)\nFinland (from September 1944)\nFrance\nFree France\nGreece\nIndia\nItaly (from September 1943)\nLuxembourg\nMexico\nNetherlands\nNewfoundland\nNew Zealand\nNorway\nPhilippines\nPoland\nRomania (from August 1944)\nSierra Leone\nSouth Africa\nSouthern Rhodesia\nSoviet Union\nTuva\nUnited Kingdom\nBritish Empire\nUnited States\nPuerto Rico\nYugoslavia\nAxis\nAlbania protectorate\nBulgaria (until September 1944)\nWang Jingwei regime\nIndependent State of Croatia\nFinland (until September 1944)\nGerman Reich\nHungary\nAzad Hind\nFrench Indochina\nIraq\nItaly (until September 1943)\nItalian Social Republic\nEmpire of Japan\nManchukuo\nPhilippines\nRomania (until August 1944)\nSlovak Republic\nThailand\nVichy France\nNeutral\nAfghanistan\nAndorra\nBhutan\nIreland\nLiechtenstein\nPortugal\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nTibet\nVatican City\nResistance\nAlbania\nAustria\nBelgium\nBulgaria\nCzech lands\nDenmark\nDutch East Indies\nEstonia\nEthiopia\nFrance\nGermany\nGreece\nHong Kong\nItaly\nJapan\nJews\nKorea\nKorean Liberation Army\nKorean Volunteer Army\nLatvia\nLithuania\nLuxembourg\nMalaya\nNetherlands\nNortheast China\nNorway\nPhilippines\nPoland\nRomania\nThailand\nSoviet Union\nSlovakia\nWestern Ukraine\nVietnam\nQuốc dân Đảng\nViet Minh\nYugoslavia\nPOWs\nFinnish prisoners in the Soviet Union\nGerman prisoners\nSoviet Union\nAzerbaijan\nUnited States\nUnited Kingdom\nItalian prisoners in the Soviet Union\nJapanese prisoners\nSoviet Union\nSoviet prisoners\nFinland\natrocities by Germans\nPolish prisoners in the Soviet Union\nRomanian prisoners in the Soviet Union\nTimelinePrelude\nAfrica\nSecond Italo-Ethiopian War\nAsia\nSecond Sino-Japanese War\nBattles of Khalkhin Gol\nEurope\nAnschluss\nMunich Agreement\nOccupation of Czechoslovakia\nOperation Himmler\nItalian invasion of Albania\n1939\nInvasion of Poland\nBattle of the Atlantic\nPhoney War\nFirst Battle of Changsha\nBattle of South Guangxi\nWinter War\n1939–1940 Winter Offensive\n1940\nNorwegian campaign\nGerman invasion of Denmark\nBattle of Zaoyang–Yichang\nGerman invasion of Luxembourg\nGerman invasion of the Netherlands\nGerman invasion of Belgium\nBattle of France\nDunkirk evacuation\nBattle of Britain\nBattle of the Mediterranean\nNorth Africa\nWest Africa\nBritish Somaliland\nHundred Regiments Offensive\nBaltic states\nEastern Romania\nJapanese invasion of French Indochina\nItalian invasion of Greece\nCompass\n1941\nBattle of South Henan\nBattle of Shanggao\nInvasion of Yugoslavia\nGerman invasion of Greece\nBattle of Crete\nAnglo-Iraqi War\nBattle of South Shanxi\nSyria–Lebanon campaign\nEast African campaign\nInvasion of the Soviet Union\nSummer War\nFinland (Silver Fox)\nLithuania\nBattle of Kiev\nAnglo-Soviet invasion of Iran\nSecond Battle of Changsha\nSiege of Leningrad\nBattle of Moscow\nBombing of Gorky\nSiege of Sevastopol\nAttack on Pearl Harbor\nJapanese invasion of Thailand\nFall of Hong Kong\nFall of the Philippines\nBattle of Guam\nBattle of Wake Island\nMalayan campaign\nBattle of Borneo\nJapanese invasion of Burma\nThird Battle of Changsha\nGreek famine of 1941–1944\n1942\nFall of Singapore\nBattle of the Java Sea\nSt Nazaire Raid\nBattle of Christmas Island\nBattle of the Coral Sea\nBattle of Madagascar\nZhejiang-Jiangxi campaign\nBattle of Gazala\nBattle of Dutch Harbor\nBattle of Midway\nAleutian Islands campaign\nKiska\n Attu\nBlue\nFirst Battle of El Alamein\nBattle of Stalingrad\nRzhev\nJubilee\nSecond Battle of El Alamein\nGuadalcanal campaign\nTorch\nChinese famine of 1942–1943\n1943\nTunisian campaign\nBattle of West Hubei\nBattle of Attu\nBombing of Gorky\nBattle of Kursk\nAllied invasion of Sicily\nSmolensk\nSolomon Islands campaign\nCottage\nBattle of the Dnieper\nAllied invasion of Italy\nArmistice of Cassibile\nBurma\nNorthern Burma and Western Yunnan\nChangde\nSecond Battle of Kiev\nGilbert and Marshall Islands campaign\nTarawa\nMakin\nBengal famine of 1943\n1944\nTempest\nMonte Cassino / Anzio\nKorsun–Cherkassy\nNarva\nIchi-Go\nOverlord\nNeptune\nMariana and Palau\nBagration\nWestern Ukraine\nSecond Battle of Guam\nTannenberg Line\nWarsaw Uprising\nEastern Romania\nLiberation of Paris\nDragoon\nGothic Line\nBelgrade offensive\nLapland\nMarket Garden\nEstonia\nCrossbow\nPointblank\nVietnamese famine of 1944–1945\nPhilippines (1944–1945)\nLeyte\nSyrmian Front\nHungary\nBudapest\nBurma (1944–1945)\nArdennes\nBodenplatte\nDutch famine of 1944–1945\n1945\nVistula–Oder\nBattle of Manila\nBattle of Iwo Jima\nIndochina\nVienna offensive\nProject Hula\nWestern invasion of Germany\nBratislava–Brno offensive\nBattle of Okinawa\nSecond Guangxi campaign\nWest Hunan\nItaly (Spring 1945)\nBattle of Berlin\nPrague offensive\nSurrender of Germany\ndocument\nBorneo\nTaipei\nNaval bombardment of Japan\nManchuria\nAtomic bombings\nDebate\nSouth Sakhalin\nKuril Islands\nShumshu\nSurrender of Japan\nPotsdam Declaration\ndocument\nEnd of World War II in Asia\n\n World portal\nBibliography\nCategory","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The disposition of Japanese forces on New Britain and nearby islands in November 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Japanese_Ground_Dispositions.jpg/290px-Japanese_Ground_Dispositions.jpg"},{"image_text":"Allied and Japanese operations associated with Operation Cartwheel between June 1943 and April 1944","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Operation_Cartwheel_-_Map02.jpg/290px-Operation_Cartwheel_-_Map02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Movements of Japanese forces in western New Britain during late 1943 and early 1944 and locations of Allied landings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Western_New_Britain_Operation.jpg/350px-Western_New_Britain_Operation.jpg"},{"image_text":"US Army soldiers land at Arawe","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Arawe_landing_craft_Dec_43.jpg/220px-Arawe_landing_craft_Dec_43.jpg"},{"image_text":"US Marines landing at Cape Gloucester, New Britain, 26 December 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Beach_at_Cape_Gloucester.jpg/170px-Beach_at_Cape_Gloucester.jpg"},{"image_text":"US Marines advance towards Talasea airstrip","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/MarinesNearTalasea.jpg/220px-MarinesNearTalasea.jpg"},{"image_text":"Australian operations in central New Britain between October 1944 and March 1945","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map_of_Australian_operations_on_New_Britain_October_1944-March_1945.jpg/350px-Map_of_Australian_operations_on_New_Britain_October_1944-March_1945.jpg"},{"image_text":"Soldiers from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion on a transport ship near Jacquinot Bay in November 1944","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Soldiers_from_the_1st_New_Guinea_Infantry_Battalion_on_board_the_transport_Frances_Peat_in_November_1944.JPG/220px-Soldiers_from_the_1st_New_Guinea_Infantry_Battalion_on_board_the_transport_Frances_Peat_in_November_1944.JPG"},{"image_text":"The 37th/52nd Infantry Battalion coming ashore at Open Bay, May 1945","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Australian_37th-52nd_Infantry_at_Open_Bay_New_Britain_%28AWM_image_093077%29.jpg/220px-Australian_37th-52nd_Infantry_at_Open_Bay_New_Britain_%28AWM_image_093077%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Australian soldiers posing with captured Japanese tanks at Rabaul in September 1945","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Amph_tank_2_%28AWM_096634%29.jpg/220px-Amph_tank_2_%28AWM_096634%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Attack! The Battle of New Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack!_The_Battle_of_New_Britain"}]
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[{"reference":"Moremon, John. \"Rabaul, 1942 (Longer text)\". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 22 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/C6FD73CC5C579789CA256AC000135979?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"Rabaul, 1942 (Longer text)\""}]},{"reference":"Frei, Henry. \"Why the Japanese were in New Guinea (Symposium paper)\". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 23 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/D879E4837E327092CA256A99001B7456?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"Why the Japanese were in New Guinea (Symposium paper)\""}]},{"reference":"Moremon, John. \"New Britain, 1944–45 (Longer text)\". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 23 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/7049627F377EF5BACA256B5A001A736D?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"New Britain, 1944–45 (Longer text)\""}]},{"reference":"Horner, David. \"Strategy and Command in Australia's New Guinea Campaigns (Symposium paper)\". Australia-Japan Research Project. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 24 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Horner","url_text":"Horner, David"},{"url":"http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/remember.nsf/Web-Printer/1DF59316AF151586CA256A99001B7454?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"Strategy and Command in Australia's New Guinea Campaigns (Symposium paper)\""}]},{"reference":"Blake, Gregory (2019). Jungle Cavalry: Australian Independent Companies and Commandos 1941-1945. Warwick, United Kingdom: Helion & Company. ISBN 978-1-911628-82-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911628-82-8","url_text":"978-1-911628-82-8"}]},{"reference":"Bradley, Philip (2012). Hell's Battlefield: The Australians in New Guinea in World War II. Crow's Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-270-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74237-270-9","url_text":"978-1-74237-270-9"}]},{"reference":"Charlton, Peter (1983). The Unnecessary War: Island Campaigns of the South-West Pacific, 1944–45. South Melbourne: Macmillan Company of Australia. ISBN 978-0-333-35628-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-35628-9","url_text":"978-0-333-35628-9"}]},{"reference":"Coates, John (2006). An Atlas of Australia's Wars (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-555914-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Coates_(general)","url_text":"Coates, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-555914-9","url_text":"978-0-19-555914-9"}]},{"reference":"Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin; Bou, Jean (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-551784-2","url_text":"978-0-19-551784-2"}]},{"reference":"Grant, Lachlan (2016). \"Campaigns in Aitape–Wewak and New Britain, 1944–45\". In Dean, Peter J. (ed.). Australia 1944–45: Victory in the Pacific. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–231. ISBN 978-1-107-08346-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08346-2","url_text":"978-1-107-08346-2"}]},{"reference":"Hiromi, Tanaka (2004). \"Chapter 7: Japanese force in post-surrender Rabaul\" (PDF). From a Hostile Shore: Australia and Japan at War in New Guinea. Bullard, Steven and Akemi, Inoue (translators). Canberra: Australia–Japan Research Project, Australian War Memorial. pp. 138–152. ISBN 978-0-975-19040-1.","urls":[{"url":"http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/ajrp2.nsf/WebI/Chapters/$file/Chapter7.pdf?OpenElement","url_text":"\"Chapter 7: Japanese force in post-surrender Rabaul\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-975-19040-1","url_text":"978-0-975-19040-1"}]},{"reference":"Hough, Frank O.; Crown, John A. (1952). The Campaign on New Britain. Washington, DC: Historical Division, Division of Public Information, Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 63151382.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-NBrit/index.html","url_text":"The Campaign on New Britain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63151382","url_text":"63151382"}]},{"reference":"Keogh, Eustace (1965). South West Pacific 1941–45. Melbourne: Grayflower Publications. OCLC 7185705.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7185705","url_text":"7185705"}]},{"reference":"Long, Gavin (1963). \"Chapter 10: Operations on New Britain\". The Final Campaigns. Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 1 – Army. Vol. VII (1st ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. pp. 241–270. OCLC 1297619.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Long","url_text":"Long, Gavin"},{"url":"https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070078/","url_text":"\"Chapter 10: Operations on New Britain\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1297619","url_text":"1297619"}]},{"reference":"Mallett, Ross A. (2007). Australian Army Logistics 1943–1945 (PhD thesis) (online ed.). University of New South Wales. OCLC 271462761. Retrieved 29 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unsworks.unsw.edu.au/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=UNSWORKS&docId=unsworks_3243&fromSitemap=1&afterPDS=true","url_text":"Australian Army Logistics 1943–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/271462761","url_text":"271462761"}]},{"reference":"Miller, John Jr. (1959). Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Department of the Army. OCLC 63151382.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Rabaul/index.html","url_text":"Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Chief_of_Military_History","url_text":"Office of the Chief of Military History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63151382","url_text":"63151382"}]},{"reference":"Morison, Samuel Eliot (2001) [1958]. Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06997-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison","url_text":"Morison, Samuel Eliot"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3A5tmLpVlEoC","url_text":"Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_Naval_Operations_in_World_War_II","url_text":"History of United States Naval Operations in World War II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06997-0","url_text":"978-0-252-06997-0"}]},{"reference":"Mortensen, Bernhardt L. (1950). \"Rabaul and Cape Gloucester\". In Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea (eds.). The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. IV. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 978-0-912799-03-2.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html","url_text":"The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-912799-03-2","url_text":"978-0-912799-03-2"}]},{"reference":"Powell, Alan (1996). War by Stealth: Australians and the Allied Intelligence Bureau 1942–1945. Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 978-0-522-84691-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-522-84691-1","url_text":"978-0-522-84691-1"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-military Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31395-0","url_text":"978-0-313-31395-0"}]},{"reference":"Rottman, Gordon L. (2009). World War II US Cavalry Units. Pacific Theater. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-451-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-451-0","url_text":"978-1-84603-451-0"}]},{"reference":"Shaw, Henry I.; Kane, Douglas T. (1963). Isolation of Rabaul. Vol. II. Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. OCLC 482891390.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/II/index.html","url_text":"Isolation of Rabaul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/482891390","url_text":"482891390"}]},{"reference":"Shindo, Hiroyuki (2001). \"Japanese Air Operations Over New Guinea During the Second World War\". Journal of the Australian War Memorial (34). ISSN 1327-0141.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j34/shindo.asp","url_text":"\"Japanese Air Operations Over New Guinea During the Second World War\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1327-0141","url_text":"1327-0141"}]},{"reference":"Shindo, Hiroyuki (2016). \"Holding on to the Finish: The Japanese Army in the South and South West Pacific 1944–45\". In Dean, Peter J. (ed.). Australia 1944–45: Victory in the Pacific. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. pp. 51–76. ISBN 978-1-107-08346-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08346-2","url_text":"978-1-107-08346-2"}]},{"reference":"Tanaka, Kengoro (1980). Operations of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces in the Papua New Guinea Theater During World War II. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Papua New Guinea Goodwill Society. OCLC 9206229.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9206229","url_text":"9206229"}]},{"reference":"Gamble, Bruce (2013). Target Rabaul: The Allied Siege of Japan's Most Infamous Stronghold, March 1943 – August 1945. Minneapolis, MN: Zenith Press. ISBN 978-0-7603-4407-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-4407-1","url_text":"978-0-7603-4407-1"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline_ticket
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Airline ticket
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["1 Details","2 Issuing an air ticket","3 Paper tickets","3.1 Resale","3.2 Replacement of paper tickets","4 Modification and cancellation","5 Overbooking","6 Further steps","6.1 Reconfirmation","6.2 Check-in","7 See also","8 Notes","9 External links"]
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Entrance ticket used for air travel
A ticket cover from Austrian Airlines, circa 1960s
Air China's ticket for Domestic Service (from Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport to Kunming Wujiaba International Airport)
An airline ticket is a document or electronic record, issued by an airline or a travel agency, that confirms that an individual is entitled to a seat on a flight on an aircraft. The airline ticket may be one of two types: a paper ticket, which comprises coupons or vouchers; and an electronic ticket (commonly referred to as an e-ticket).
The ticket, in either form, is required to obtain a boarding pass during check-in at the airport. Then with the boarding pass and the attached ticket, the passenger is allowed to board the aircraft.
Details
Regardless of the type, tickets contain the following information:
The passenger's name
The issuing airline
A ticket number, including the airline's three-digit code at the start of the number
The cities between which the ticket is valid for travel
Flight for which the ticket is valid (unless the ticket is "open")
Baggage allowance. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)
Fare. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)
Taxes. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)
The "Fare Basis", an alphabetic or alphanumeric code that identifies the fare
Restrictions on changes and refunds (not always shown in detail, but referred to)
Dates for which the ticket is valid
"Form of payment", i.e. details of how the ticket was paid for, which will in turn affect how it would be refunded.
The exchange rate used to calculate any international parts of the fare and tax
A "Fare Construction" or "Linear" showing the breakdown of the total fare
Times on airline tickets are generally for the local time zone where the flight will be at that moment.
A ticket is generally only good on the airline for which it was purchased. However, an airline can endorse the ticket, so that it may be accepted by other airlines, sometimes on a standby basis or with a confirmed seat. Usually the ticket is for a specific flight. It is also possible to purchase an 'open' ticket, which allows travel on any flight between the destinations listed on the ticket. The cost of this is greater than a ticket for a specific flight. Some tickets are refundable. However, the lower cost tickets are usually not refundable and may carry many additional restrictions.
The carrier (airline) is represented by a standardized two-character alphanumeric code. In the example above, Thai Airways is TG. The departure and destination cities are represented by International Air Transport Association airport codes. In the example above, Munich is MUC and Bangkok is BKK. The International Air Transport Association is the standard setting organization.
Only one passenger can use a ticket. If multiple passengers are traveling together, the tickets are linked together by the same record locator or reservation number, which are assigned, if the tickets were purchased at the same time. If not, most airlines can cross-reference the tickets together in their reservation systems. This allows all members in a party to be processed in a group, allowing seat assignments to be together (if available at the time of the assignment).
Issuing an air ticket
An itinerary where multiple passengers are in same reservation with a ticket number for each passenger
A revenue passenger on an airline must hold a valid issued ticket. In order for a ticket to be issued, there are two distinct processes; both of these are required:
Reservation
A reservation for an itinerary is made in the airline system, either directly by the passenger or by an agent. The itinerary includes all the above details needed for the issuance of an air ticket, except the ticket number.
When the reservation is made, a passenger name record (PNR) will be created which is used to manage the reservation and check in. There can be multiple passengers in a single passenger name record provided that all passengers have the same itinerary and fare type.
Issuance
Having a reservation does not itself entitle the passenger to travel. Only when the airline receives the payment or a passenger redeems miles/points, a ticket is issued which is linked to the reservation and allows the passenger to travel.
Historically, reservation and payment are separate steps, with the allowed time between booking and payment being defined in the fare rules when the reservation is made. With modern booking systems, it has become more common to require immediate payment before a reservation is made.
Each passenger must have his/her own air ticket, as shown by an individual ticket number, even when the reservations are linked by a single PNR.
Paper tickets
A handwritten flight coupon for Biman Bangladesh Airlines
A sample Northwest Airlines ticket, computer-printed on ARC-style stock. The ticket's full designation is "passenger ticket and baggage check".
For most of the history of commercial aviation, tickets for air travel were printed on paper. In time, the form of the paper ticket was standardized, with particular information shown in particular places on the ticket coupon. The Airlines Reporting Corporation (ARC) printed many of the standard ticket forms used by airlines and travel agents, and paper tickets were sometimes known as "ARC coupons" as a result.
The tickets could be written by hand, or typed or printed. The individual sheets comprising the ticket, one per flight segment, could then be stapled together into a booklet with a cover and often with other documents, such as legal notices to the traveler. The ticket doubled as the official baggage check under the Warsaw Convention and Hague Protocol (see photo).
Resale
When paper tickets were still frequently used, some travellers resold their (person-specific) tickets to other travellers (often at discount prices) when their travel plans changed. The seller would then accompany the buyer to the airport at the time of departure. The original owner would check in under his own name, and would check in the buyer's baggage. The buyer then boarded the airplane. However, since nowadays most airlines check identification on boarding, this procedure is rarely functional. Using another person's ticket is also illegal in many jurisdictions.
Replacement of paper tickets
IATA announced that as of June 1, 2008, IATA-member airlines would no longer issue any paper tickets.
Modification and cancellation
Airline tickets can be modified or cancelled by the traveler subject to terms, conditions and sometimes fees imposed by the carrier.
In many jurisdictions, the traveler has a right to free modification or cancellation during the period immediately after purchase:
In the United States the traveler is entitled to a free reimbursement within 24 hours of purchase for every flight taking off or landing in the country, except if booked via a travel agency.
In Colombia the same right applies for a period of 5 days after purchase.
In the European Union the law does not impose any free reimbursement but rights to free reimbursement similar to those in the United States are acknowledged by certain airlines:
In France, the 24-hour free reimbursement right is applied by Air France whereas EasyJet charges a cancellation fee and Ryanair allows only minor changes for free.
Overbooking
Most airlines overbook their flights, which means that they sell more tickets than the flight can carry.
If more ticketholders arrive at the airport than the plane can carry the airline will refuse to board some passengers (colloquially known as "bumping" them) and provide them compensation based on the regulations that apply to that flight. Usually in this scenario a carrier will ask if there are any passengers willing to volunteer to be "bumped" before involuntarily refusing to board passengers. If there are volunteers, the airline will negotiate compensation with those passengers, usually in the form of vouchers good towards future flights.
Further steps
After issuance, the passenger must follow two more procedures to obtain the right to take the flight: reconfirmation and check-in.
Reconfirmation
Main article: Reconfirmation
Several airlines require the ticketholder to reconfirm their reservation, that is, they must call the airline and tell that they still intend to take the reserved flight. Reconfirmation must be done within a specified range of time before each flight, twice for a roundtrip, for example. Failing to reconfirm may result in their reservations being cancelled.
Check-in
Main article: Airport check-in
To board the aircraft, an airline ticket is not sufficient. The passenger needs to check-in and obtain a boarding pass, a ticket-like form but is not called "ticket" in this industry.
See also
Airline consolidator
Alternate air ticket purchasing order system
Computer reservation system
Miscellaneous charges order
Variable pricing
Notes
^ "Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ Airline and Airport Code Search
^ a b c d "Overbooking". Fly Rights – A Consumer Guide to Air Travel. US Department of Transportation. 2019-10-04. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-08-03.
^ Airlines Reporting Corporation, "About Us"
^ Timmerhuis, Frans (2007). Handboek Voor De Wereldreiziger (in Dutch). Rijswijk: Elmar. ISBN 978-9038917597.
^ Matarese, John (2019-08-12). "Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?". WXYZ. Retrieved 2021-01-05.
^ "Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
^ "Refunds". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
^ "¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?". El Tiempo (in Spanish). 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
^ "Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais". Le Figaro (in French). 2024-02-07. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
^ a b c "IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms" (xlsx). IATA. 2018-07-15. Row 146:"Check-in Process"; Row 560:"Over-booking"; Row 665:"Reconfirmation". Archived from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-03. (link can be found on the right bar under "Related Links" on IATA Passenger Standards Conference (PSC))
External links
The dictionary definition of paper ticket at Wiktionary
Media related to Air tickets at Wikimedia Commons
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Austrian_Airlines_air_ticket_cover.jpg"},{"link_name":"Austrian Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Airlines"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_China_Domestic_Service_Check.JPG"},{"link_name":"Air China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_China"},{"link_name":"Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu_Shuangliu_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Kunming Wujiaba International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunming_Wujiaba_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"airline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline"},{"link_name":"travel agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_agency"},{"link_name":"electronic ticket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_ticket"},{"link_name":"boarding pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boarding_pass"},{"link_name":"check-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check-in"},{"link_name":"airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport"},{"link_name":"ticket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticket_(admission)"}],"text":"A ticket cover from Austrian Airlines, circa 1960sAir China's ticket for Domestic Service (from Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport to Kunming Wujiaba International Airport)An airline ticket is a document or electronic record, issued by an airline or a travel agency, that confirms that an individual is entitled to a seat on a flight on an aircraft. The airline ticket may be one of two types: a paper ticket, which comprises coupons or vouchers; and an electronic ticket (commonly referred to as an e-ticket).The ticket, in either form, is required to obtain a boarding pass during check-in at the airport. Then with the boarding pass and the attached ticket, the passenger is allowed to board the aircraft.","title":"Airline ticket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Fare Basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fare_basis_code"},{"link_name":"alphanumeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric"},{"link_name":"exchange rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate"},{"link_name":"time zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_zone"},{"link_name":"International Air Transport Association airport codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association_airport_code"},{"link_name":"International Air Transport Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association"},{"link_name":"record locator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_locator"}],"text":"Regardless of the type, tickets contain the following information:[1]The passenger's name\nThe issuing airline\nA ticket number, including the airline's three-digit code[2] at the start of the number\nThe cities between which the ticket is valid for travel\nFlight for which the ticket is valid (unless the ticket is \"open\")\nBaggage allowance. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)\nFare. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)\nTaxes. (Not always visible on a printout but recorded electronically for the airline)\nThe \"Fare Basis\", an alphabetic or alphanumeric code that identifies the fare\nRestrictions on changes and refunds (not always shown in detail, but referred to)\nDates for which the ticket is valid\n\"Form of payment\", i.e. details of how the ticket was paid for, which will in turn affect how it would be refunded.\nThe exchange rate used to calculate any international parts of the fare and tax\nA \"Fare Construction\" or \"Linear\" showing the breakdown of the total fareTimes on airline tickets are generally for the local time zone where the flight will be at that moment.A ticket is generally only good on the airline for which it was purchased. However, an airline can endorse the ticket, so that it may be accepted by other airlines, sometimes on a standby basis or with a confirmed seat. Usually the ticket is for a specific flight. It is also possible to purchase an 'open' ticket, which allows travel on any flight between the destinations listed on the ticket. The cost of this is greater than a ticket for a specific flight. Some tickets are refundable. However, the lower cost tickets are usually not refundable and may carry many additional restrictions.The carrier (airline) is represented by a standardized two-character alphanumeric code. In the example above, Thai Airways is TG. The departure and destination cities are represented by International Air Transport Association airport codes. In the example above, Munich is MUC and Bangkok is BKK. The International Air Transport Association is the standard setting organization.Only one passenger can use a ticket. If multiple passengers are traveling together, the tickets are linked together by the same record locator or reservation number, which are assigned, if the tickets were purchased at the same time. If not, most airlines can cross-reference the tickets together in their reservation systems. This allows all members in a party to be processed in a group, allowing seat assignments to be together (if available at the time of the assignment).","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_ticket_with_multiple_passengers_in_single_record.png"},{"link_name":"passenger name record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passenger_name_record"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USDOT_FlyRights-3"}],"text":"An itinerary where multiple passengers are in same reservation with a ticket number for each passengerA revenue passenger on an airline must hold a valid issued ticket. In order for a ticket to be issued, there are two distinct processes; both of these are required:ReservationA reservation for an itinerary is made in the airline system, either directly by the passenger or by an agent. The itinerary includes all the above details needed for the issuance of an air ticket, except the ticket number.When the reservation is made, a passenger name record (PNR) will be created which is used to manage the reservation and check in. There can be multiple passengers in a single passenger name record provided that all passengers have the same itinerary and fare type.IssuanceHaving a reservation does not itself entitle the passenger to travel. Only when the airline receives the payment or a passenger redeems miles/points, a ticket is issued which is linked to the reservation and allows the passenger to travel.Historically, reservation and payment are separate steps, with the allowed time between booking and payment being defined in the fare rules when the reservation is made.[3] With modern booking systems, it has become more common to require immediate payment before a reservation is made.Each passenger must have his/her own air ticket, as shown by an individual ticket number, even when the reservations are linked by a single PNR.","title":"Issuing an air ticket"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Handwritten_flight_coupon_Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines.jpg"},{"link_name":"Biman Bangladesh Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NWA_Airline_Ticket_JL2703.jpg"},{"link_name":"Northwest Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Airlines"},{"link_name":"Airlines Reporting Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlines_Reporting_Corporation"},{"link_name":"travel agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_agents"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Warsaw Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Convention"},{"link_name":"Hague Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Protocol"}],"text":"A handwritten flight coupon for Biman Bangladesh AirlinesA sample Northwest Airlines ticket, computer-printed on ARC-style stock. The ticket's full designation is \"passenger ticket and baggage check\".For most of the history of commercial aviation, tickets for air travel were printed on paper. In time, the form of the paper ticket was standardized, with particular information shown in particular places on the ticket coupon. The Airlines Reporting Corporation (ARC) printed many of the standard ticket forms used by airlines and travel agents, and paper tickets were sometimes known as \"ARC coupons\" as a result.[4]The tickets could be written by hand, or typed or printed. The individual sheets comprising the ticket, one per flight segment, could then be stapled together into a booklet with a cover and often with other documents, such as legal notices to the traveler. The ticket doubled as the official baggage check under the Warsaw Convention and Hague Protocol (see photo).","title":"Paper tickets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Resale","text":"When paper tickets were still frequently used, some travellers resold their (person-specific) tickets to other travellers (often at discount prices) when their travel plans changed. The seller would then accompany the buyer to the airport at the time of departure. The original owner would check in under his own name, and would check in the buyer's baggage. The buyer then boarded the airplane.[5] However, since nowadays most airlines check identification on boarding, this procedure is rarely functional.[6] Using another person's ticket is also illegal in many jurisdictions.","title":"Paper tickets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airline_ticket&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Replacement of paper tickets","text":"IATA announced that as of June 1, 2008,[update] IATA-member airlines would no longer issue any paper tickets.[7]","title":"Paper tickets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"travel agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travel_agency"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Air France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_France"},{"link_name":"EasyJet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EasyJet"},{"link_name":"Ryanair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryanair"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Airline tickets can be modified or cancelled by the traveler subject to terms, conditions and sometimes fees imposed by the carrier.In many jurisdictions, the traveler has a right to free modification or cancellation during the period immediately after purchase:In the United States the traveler is entitled to a free reimbursement within 24 hours of purchase for every flight taking off or landing in the country, except if booked via a travel agency.[8]\nIn Colombia the same right applies for a period of 5 days after purchase.[9]\nIn the European Union the law does not impose any free reimbursement but rights to free reimbursement similar to those in the United States are acknowledged by certain airlines:\nIn France, the 24-hour free reimbursement right is applied by Air France whereas EasyJet charges a cancellation fee and Ryanair allows only minor changes for free.[10]","title":"Modification and cancellation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"overbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overselling"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IATA2018-11"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USDOT_FlyRights-3"}],"text":"Most airlines overbook their flights, which means that they sell more tickets than the flight can carry.[11]If more ticketholders arrive at the airport than the plane can carry the airline will refuse to board some passengers (colloquially known as \"bumping\" them) and provide them compensation based on the regulations that apply to that flight. Usually in this scenario a carrier will ask if there are any passengers willing to volunteer to be \"bumped\" before involuntarily refusing to board passengers. If there are volunteers, the airline will negotiate compensation with those passengers, usually in the form of vouchers good towards future flights.[3]","title":"Overbooking"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"After issuance, the passenger must follow two more procedures to obtain the right to take the flight: reconfirmation and check-in.","title":"Further steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reconfirm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconfirmation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IATA2018-11"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USDOT_FlyRights-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USDOT_FlyRights-3"}],"sub_title":"Reconfirmation","text":"Several airlines require the ticketholder to reconfirm their reservation, that is, they must call the airline and tell that they still intend to take the reserved flight.[11] Reconfirmation must be done within a specified range of time before each flight,[3] twice for a roundtrip, for example. Failing to reconfirm may result in their reservations being cancelled.[3]","title":"Further steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IATA2018-11"}],"sub_title":"Check-in","text":"To board the aircraft, an airline ticket is not sufficient. The passenger needs to check-in[11] and obtain a boarding pass, a ticket-like form but is not called \"ticket\" in this industry.","title":"Further steps"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx"},{"link_name":"International Air Transport Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Airline and Airport Code Search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iata.org/publications/Pages/code-search.aspx"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-USDOT_FlyRights_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-USDOT_FlyRights_3-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-USDOT_FlyRights_3-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-USDOT_FlyRights_3-3"},{"link_name":"\"Overbooking\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking"},{"link_name":"US Department of Transportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Department_of_Transportation"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210719124912/https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"About Us","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www2.arccorp.com/about-us/our-story/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-9038917597","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9038917597"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wxyz.com/money/consumer/dont-waste-your-money/heres-why-you-cant-resell-your-unwanted-airline-ticket"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx"},{"link_name":"International Air Transport Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Refunds\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.transportation.gov/individuals/aviation-consumer-protection/refunds"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.eltiempo.com/justicia/servicios/puedo-pedir-el-reembolso-de-mi-dinero-si-no-puedo-realizar-un-viaje-577072"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.lefigaro.fr/voyages/conseils/vous-avez-reserve-votre-billet-d-avion-trop-vite-ce-droit-meconnu-vous-permet-de-l-annuler-sans-frais-20240207"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-IATA2018_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-IATA2018_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-IATA2018_11-2"},{"link_name":"\"IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx"},{"link_name":"IATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IATA"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210803065520/https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx"},{"link_name":"IATA Passenger Standards Conference (PSC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iata.org/en/programs/workgroups/passenger-standards-conference/"}],"text":"^ \"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2013.\n\n^ Airline and Airport Code Search\n\n^ a b c d \"Overbooking\". Fly Rights – A Consumer Guide to Air Travel. US Department of Transportation. 2019-10-04. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-08-03.\n\n^ Airlines Reporting Corporation, \"About Us\"\n\n^ Timmerhuis, Frans (2007). Handboek Voor De Wereldreiziger (in Dutch). Rijswijk: Elmar. ISBN 978-9038917597.\n\n^ Matarese, John (2019-08-12). \"Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?\". WXYZ. Retrieved 2021-01-05.\n\n^ \"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2013.\n\n^ \"Refunds\". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 18 February 2024.\n\n^ \"¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?\". El Tiempo (in Spanish). 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2024-02-18.\n\n^ \"Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais\". Le Figaro (in French). 2024-02-07. Retrieved 2024-02-18.\n\n^ a b c \"IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms\" (xlsx). IATA. 2018-07-15. Row 146:\"Check-in Process\"; Row 560:\"Over-booking\"; Row 665:\"Reconfirmation\". Archived from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-03. (link can be found on the right bar under \"Related Links\" on IATA Passenger Standards Conference (PSC))","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A ticket cover from Austrian Airlines, circa 1960s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Austrian_Airlines_air_ticket_cover.jpg/220px-Austrian_Airlines_air_ticket_cover.jpg"},{"image_text":"Air China's ticket for Domestic Service (from Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport to Kunming Wujiaba International Airport)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Air_China_Domestic_Service_Check.JPG/220px-Air_China_Domestic_Service_Check.JPG"},{"image_text":"An itinerary where multiple passengers are in same reservation with a ticket number for each passenger","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Air_ticket_with_multiple_passengers_in_single_record.png/220px-Air_ticket_with_multiple_passengers_in_single_record.png"},{"image_text":"A handwritten flight coupon for Biman Bangladesh Airlines","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Handwritten_flight_coupon_Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines.jpg/220px-Handwritten_flight_coupon_Biman_Bangladesh_Airlines.jpg"},{"image_text":"A sample Northwest Airlines ticket, computer-printed on ARC-style stock. The ticket's full designation is \"passenger ticket and baggage check\".","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/NWA_Airline_Ticket_JL2703.jpg/220px-NWA_Airline_Ticket_JL2703.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Airline consolidator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline_consolidator"},{"title":"Alternate air ticket purchasing order system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternate_air_ticket_purchasing_order_system"},{"title":"Computer reservation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_reservation_system"},{"title":"Miscellaneous charges order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscellaneous_charges_order"},{"title":"Variable pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_pricing"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx","url_text":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association","url_text":"International Air Transport Association"}]},{"reference":"\"Overbooking\". Fly Rights – A Consumer Guide to Air Travel. US Department of Transportation. 2019-10-04. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-08-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking","url_text":"\"Overbooking\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"US Department of Transportation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210719124912/https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Timmerhuis, Frans (2007). Handboek Voor De Wereldreiziger (in Dutch). Rijswijk: Elmar. ISBN 978-9038917597.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9038917597","url_text":"978-9038917597"}]},{"reference":"Matarese, John (2019-08-12). \"Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?\". WXYZ. Retrieved 2021-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wxyz.com/money/consumer/dont-waste-your-money/heres-why-you-cant-resell-your-unwanted-airline-ticket","url_text":"\"Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\" (Press release). International Air Transport Association. 31 May 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx","url_text":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association","url_text":"International Air Transport Association"}]},{"reference":"\"Refunds\". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 18 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.transportation.gov/individuals/aviation-consumer-protection/refunds","url_text":"\"Refunds\""}]},{"reference":"\"¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?\". El Tiempo (in Spanish). 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2024-02-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eltiempo.com/justicia/servicios/puedo-pedir-el-reembolso-de-mi-dinero-si-no-puedo-realizar-un-viaje-577072","url_text":"\"¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais\". Le Figaro (in French). 2024-02-07. Retrieved 2024-02-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lefigaro.fr/voyages/conseils/vous-avez-reserve-votre-billet-d-avion-trop-vite-ce-droit-meconnu-vous-permet-de-l-annuler-sans-frais-20240207","url_text":"\"Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais\""}]},{"reference":"\"IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms\" (xlsx). IATA. 2018-07-15. Row 146:\"Check-in Process\"; Row 560:\"Over-booking\"; Row 665:\"Reconfirmation\". Archived from the original on 2021-08-03. Retrieved 2021-08-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx","url_text":"\"IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IATA","url_text":"IATA"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210803065520/https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airline_ticket&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\""},{"Link":"https://www.iata.org/publications/Pages/code-search.aspx","external_links_name":"Airline and Airport Code Search"},{"Link":"https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking","external_links_name":"\"Overbooking\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210719124912/https://www.transportation.gov/airconsumer/fly-rights#Overbooking","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www2.arccorp.com/about-us/our-story/","external_links_name":"About Us"},{"Link":"https://www.wxyz.com/money/consumer/dont-waste-your-money/heres-why-you-cant-resell-your-unwanted-airline-ticket","external_links_name":"\"Can you resell an unwanted airline ticket?\""},{"Link":"http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2008-31-05-01.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Industry Bids Farewell to Paper Ticket\""},{"Link":"https://www.transportation.gov/individuals/aviation-consumer-protection/refunds","external_links_name":"\"Refunds\""},{"Link":"https://www.eltiempo.com/justicia/servicios/puedo-pedir-el-reembolso-de-mi-dinero-si-no-puedo-realizar-un-viaje-577072","external_links_name":"\"¿Puedo pedir el reembolso de mi dinero si no puedo realizar un viaje?\""},{"Link":"https://www.lefigaro.fr/voyages/conseils/vous-avez-reserve-votre-billet-d-avion-trop-vite-ce-droit-meconnu-vous-permet-de-l-annuler-sans-frais-20240207","external_links_name":"\"Vous avez réservé votre billet d'avion trop vite ? Ce droit méconnu vous permet de l'annuler sans frais\""},{"Link":"https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx","external_links_name":"\"IATA Passenger Glossary of Terms\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210803065520/https://www.iata.org/contentassets/c33c192da39a42fcac34cb5ac81fd2ea/iata-passenger-glossary-of-terms.xlsx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.iata.org/en/programs/workgroups/passenger-standards-conference/","external_links_name":"IATA Passenger Standards Conference (PSC)"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4738711-7","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction
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Women in speculative fiction
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["1 Writers","2 Fans","3 Gender","4 Influence of political movements","5 Media adaptations","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]
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Overview about the women in speculative fiction
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Part of a series onSex and sexuality inspeculative fiction
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vte
The role of women in speculative fiction has changed a great deal since the early to mid-20th century. There are several aspects to women's roles, including their participation as authors of speculative fiction and their role in science fiction fandom. Regarding authorship, in 1948, 10–15% of science fiction writers were female. Women's role in speculative fiction (including science fiction) has grown since then, and in 1999, women comprised 36% of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America's professional members. Frankenstein (1818) by Mary Shelley has been called the first science fiction novel, although women wrote utopian novels even before that, with Margaret Cavendish publishing the first (The Blazing World) in the seventeenth century. Early published fantasy was written by and for any gender. However, speculative fiction, with science fiction in particular, has traditionally been viewed as a male-oriented genre.
Women have been active in science fiction fandom for a number of decades.
Writers
Science fiction originally had a reputation of being created by men for other men, though the genre had women writers, such as Clare Winger Harris, Miriam Allen deFord, and Gertrude Barrows Bennett, from the beginning. Until the late 1960s, women did not win major science fiction awards, such as the Hugos. The 1966 "Analog Science Fiction and Fact All-Time Poll" did not list any novels by women and the 1973 "Locus All-Time Favorite Authors Poll" was over 90% male. One of the two women in Locus's poll, Andre Norton, had been "gender ambiguous" for many of her readers. Other female writers of the era, such as C. L. Moore and Leigh Brackett, also used ambiguous or male names. Women who wrote under their own names, such as Zenna Henderson, initially wrote more "domestic" material concerning teachers and mothers. A partial exception was Katherine MacLean, who wrote sociology- and psychology-oriented fiction and rarely used a male name.
Eric Leif Davin argues in Partners in Wonder that science fiction's "male-oriented" reputation is unjustified and that it was a "safe haven" for outsiders, including women. Davin reports that only L. Taylor Hansen concealed her sex in early years, and that C. L. Moore wanted to hide her career as a science fiction author from her job.
Women writers were in a minority: during the '50s and '60s, almost 1,000 stories published in science fiction magazines by over 200 female-identified authors between 1926 and 1960 were documented, making women writers 10-15% of contributors. His is a minority view, "at odds with the common perception of science fiction".
The advent of second wave feminism in the 1960s, combined with the growing view of science fiction as the literature of ideas, led to an influx of female science fiction writers, and some saw this influx as the first appearance of women into the genre. In the 1960s and 1970s, authors such as Ursula K. Le Guin (who debuted in 1963) and Joanna Russ (who debuted in the 1950s) began to consciously explore feminist themes in works such as The Left Hand of Darkness and The Female Man, creating a self-consciously feminist science fiction.
As of 2013, publisher statistics indicate that men still outnumber women about two to one among English-language speculative fiction writers aiming for professional publication, but that the percentages vary considerably by genre. The following numbers are based on the 503 submissions received by Tor Books, a major science fiction and fantasy publisher, between January and July 2013.
Submissions by genre
Women
Men
Historical, epic or high fantasy
33%
67%
Urban fantasy or paranormal romance
57%
43%
Horror
17%
83%
Science fiction
22%
78%
Young adult fiction
68%
32%
Other or unclassifiable
27%
73%
Overall
37%
63%
Ten women have been named Grand Master of science fiction by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America:
Andre Norton (1984)
Ursula K. Le Guin (2003)
Anne McCaffrey (2005)
Connie Willis (2012)
C.J. Cherryh (2016)
Jane Yolen (2017)
Lois McMaster Bujold (2020)
Nalo Hopkinson (2021)
Mercedes Lackey (2022)
Robin McKinley (2023)
Doris Lessing, who wrote the five-novel science fiction series Canopus in Argos, received the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature.
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction lists three notable women authors of military science fiction: Lois McMaster Bujold; Elizabeth Moon (particularly her Familias Regnant stories such as Hunting Party (1993)), and Karen Traviss.
This list has no precise inclusion criteria as described in the Manual of Style for standalone lists. Please improve this article by adding inclusion criteria, or discuss this issue on the talk page. (December 2023)
Below is an evolving list of women authors in science fiction emphasizing diversity and innovation across various subgenres:
Terry Ann Adams
Linda Addison
Charlie Jane Anders
Ryka Aoki
Catherine Asaro
Pauline Ashwell
Margaret Atwood
Wilhelmina Baird
Kage Baker
Celeste Rita Baker
Gwen Benaway
Gertrude Barrows Bennet
Marcia Joanne Bennett
Lauren Beukes
Imogen Binnie
Jay D. Blakeney (real name Deborah Chester)
Maya Kathryn Bohnhoff
Margaret Wander Bonnano
Amanda Bouchet
Leigh Brackett (successfully authored her own titles and ghost wrote for George Sanders)
Mary E. Bradley Lane
Marion Zimmer Bradley
Jennifer Marie Brissett
Rosel George Brown
adrienne maree brown
Dorothy Bryant
Lois McMaster Bujold
Emma Bull
Otis Kidwell Burger
Chesya Burke
Octavia E. Butler
Maria Campbell
Margaret Cavendish
Becky Chambers
Suzy McKee Charnas
Carolyn Janice Cherry (pen name C. J. Cherryh)
Deborah Chester (pen name Jay D. Blakeney)
Jo Clayton
Mildred Clingerman
Suzanne Collins
Storm Constantine
Susan Coon
Susan Cooper
Ann C. Crispin
Myrna Culbreath
Julie E. Czerneda
Miriam Allen DeFord
Grace Dillon
Cherie Dimaline
Ariel Djanikian
Paula E. Downing
Aliette de Bodard
Debra Doyle
Diane Duane
Tananarive Due
Phyllis Eisenstein
Suzette Haden Elgin
Meg Elison
Amal El-Mohtar
Sylvia Engdahl
Louise Erdrich
Heid E. Erdrich
Isabel Fall
Jane S. Fancher
Cynthia Felice
Sheila Finch
Magnus Flight (writing duo Christina Lynch and Meg Showery)
Karen Joy Fowler
Leslie Gadallah
Alexis Gilliland
Jaymee Goh
Jewelle Gomez
Phyllis Gotlieb
Susan Grant
Gayle Greeno
Pauline Margaret Griffin (pen name P.M. Griffin)
Cherry Barbara Grimm (real name Cherry Wilder)
Andrea Hairston
Barbara Hambley
Virginia Hamilton
Lucile Taylor Hanson (pen name L. Taylor Hanson)
Thea Von Harbou
Joy Harjo
Tara Harper
Clare Winger Harris
Zenna Henderson
Nathalie Henneberg (pen name N.C. Henneberg collaborating with husband Charlie Henneberg)
Lynn Hightower
Nalo Hopkinson
Monica Hughes
Kameron Hurley
N.K. Jemisin
Jane Jeppson (pen name J.O. Jeppson)
Alaya Dawn Johnson
Diane Wynn Jones
Cyril Judd (pen name for writing collaboration between Judith Merril and Cyril M. Kornbluth)
Melanie Kent
Les Killough
Katherine Eliska Kimbriel
Robin Wall Kimmerer
Melanie Kent
Aditi Khorana
Mary Robinette Kowal
Mercedes Lackey
Larissa Lai
Joy Leach
Ann Leckie
Tanith Lee
Fonda Lee
Ursula K. Le Guin
Deborah Lessing
Jacqueline Lichtenberg
Malinda Lo
Karen Lord
Karin Lowachee
Judith Merril (pen name Cyril Judd for writing collaboration with Cyril M. Kornbluth)
Christina Lynch (pen name Magnus Flight)
Elizabeth A. Lynn
C.C. MacApp (real name Carol MacApp)
Katherine Maclean
Susan Cooper Mandrake
Sondra Marshak
Adrienne Marten-Barnes
Arkady Martine
Ann Maxwell
Janet McAdams
Ann McCaffrey
Ashley McConnell
Vonda N. McIntyre
Helen Merrick
Judith Merril
Melisa Michaels
Elizabeth Moon
Catherine Lucille Moore (pen name C.L. Moore)
Janet Morris
Tamsyn Muir
Pat Murphy
Nichelle Nichols
Jeanette Ng
Alice Andre Norton (born Alice Mary Norton, pen names include Andre Norton, Andrew North, and Allen Weston)
Nnedi Okorafor
Malka Older
Kathleen O’Malley
Nene Ormes
An Owomoyela
Barbara Paul
Marge Piercy
Casey Plett
Susan Power
Roberta Rambelli (pen name Robert Rainbell)
Marta Randall
Kit Reed
Jane Rice
Rebecca Roanhorse
Eden Robinson
Eleanor Robinson
Jeanne Robinson
Kelly Robson
Janet Rogers
Mary Rosenblum
Kristine Kathryn Rusch
Joanna Russ
Maria Russell
Kiini Ibura Salaam
Sophia Samatar
Pamela Sargent
Josephine Saxton
Melissa Scott
Idris Seabright (real name Margaret St. Clair)
Nisi Shawl
Alice Sheldon (pen name James Tiptree Jr.)
Mary Shelly
Meg Showery
Susan Shwartz
Leslie Marmon Silko
Leanne Betasamosake Simpson
Vandana Singh
Kathleen Sky
Melinda M. Snodgrass
Evelyn Smith
Mary Staton
Margaret St. Clair (pen name Idris Seabright)
Marti Steussy
Emily St. John Mandel
Tricia Sullivan
Sherry Tepper
Kai Cheng Thom
Sheree Renée Thomas
Karin Tidbeck
Lisa Tuttle
Rena Vale
Catherynne M. Valente
Sydney Van Scyoc
Mary Vigiliante
Joan D. Vinge
Thea Von Harbou
Anne Walker
Barbara Walton
Sharon Webb
Aliya Whiteley
Cherry Wilder (real name Cherry Barbara Grimm)
Kate Wilhelm
Tess Williams
Connie Willis
G. Willow Wilson (Gwendolyn Willow Wilson)
Pauline Winslow
Patricia Wrightson
Isabel Yap
Jane Yolen
Sarah Zettle
Bibiana Krall
Fans
Women have been active in science fiction fandom for some time, and the Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction dates the coinage "femfan" (sometimes: "femme fan") to as early as 1944. Leigh Brackett says of the history of women in SF "There always were a certain number of women fans and women readers." Labalestier quotes the editor of Startling Stories, writing in 1953, as saying
Ten years ago stf fans were practically all male, today with or without benefit of fan activities, a lot of girls and housewives and other members of the sex are quietly reading science fiction and beginning to add their voices to the bable... We honestly never expected such a surge of female women into science fiction
A 1958 self-reported If survey found that 31% of respondents were women, which the editors said was "surprisingly high (at least to us)". Robert Silverberg said "probably the first appearance of the 'Women in Science Fiction' panel soon to become a fixture of these conventions" was at the 10th World Science Fiction Convention in 1953; which was also the first World Science Fiction Convention chaired by a woman, author Julian May.
While science fiction fandom has been an organized phenomenon for decades—presaging the organized fandoms of other genres and media—the study of science fiction fandom within cultural studies and science fiction studies is relatively new. Consequently, assertions about the prevalence of women in fandom are largely anecdotal and personal, and sometimes contradictory. Most prominent among these assertions is the claim that it was the advent of the original Star Trek television series which brought large quantities of women into fandom. This claim is critically analyzed by Davin, who finds it poorly founded, and cites a long history of female involvement in fandom decades prior to Star Trek; Larbalestier also cites women active in science fiction fandom before the late 1960s and early 1970s.
However, women became more visibly present in fandom, and more organized, in the 1970s. The slash movement among fans began, as far as anyone can tell, with Diane Marchant's publication of the first known Star Trek "Kirk/Spock" story in Grup #3 in 1974. 1974 also saw the creation of The Witch and the Chameleon, the first explicitly feminist fanzine. The fanzine Khatru published a "Women in Science Fiction" symposium in 1975 (one of the "males" who participated was James Tiptree, Jr.). In 1976, Susan Wood set up a panel on "women and science fiction" at MidAmericon, the 1976 Worldcon; this ultimately led to the founding of A Women's APA, the first women's amateur press association. Also in 1976, WisCon, the world's leading—and for many years, only—feminist science fiction convention and conference was founded: an annual conference in Madison, Wisconsin. In turn, as a result of discussions at WisCon, institutions such as the Tiptree Awards and Broad Universe arose to address questions of gender in speculative fiction and issues peculiar to women writers of speculative fiction. Some of the same people involved in creating WisCon also founded the feminist fanzine Janus, which was thrice nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Fanzine (1978–1980).
However, the perception of speculative fiction as mainly a men's genre continues to be widespread. As the inclusion of women within science fiction and fantasy more broadly has become obvious, the specificity of the perception has evolved. For instance, the still widely held view that "science fiction and fantasy are men's genres" has been refined by some to distinguish between science fiction as a genre mainly appealing to men, and fantasy, which is generally seen as being more accommodating to women (some subgenres, particularly urban fantasy, with female protagonists, and paranormal romance are seen as being more popular with women than with men). Little formal study has supported any of these distinctions, whether based on readers, writers, or characters.
This perception has often been upheld and enforced by men, perhaps to protect themselves from what fandom researcher Henry Jenkins called the stereotype that “men are feminized and/or desexualized through their intimate engagement with mass culture”. Women fans of speculative fiction are called pejorative terms like “fake geek girl”and are chastised for their love of “Mary Sue” characters, while at the same time male characters with the same qualities are beloved, and can even face harassment for their participation in fandom. However, Jenkins writes, speculative fiction is especially popular with women who identify with feminism because they reject the gender roles that are traditionally seen in other types of fiction.
Gender
A 1911 illustration from Camille Flammarion's La Fin du monde. It depicts a fictional future society in which all women are beautiful and have lovely voices.
science fiction and fantasy pulp magazines were directed mainly at boys. Female characters were only occasionally included in science fiction pulp stories; the male protagonists' lengthy explanations to the women with limited knowledge revealed the plots
Garber, Eric and Paleo, Lyn "Preface" in Uranian worlds.
Main article: Gender in speculative fiction
The highlighting of gender in science fiction has varied widely throughout the genre's history. Some writers and artists have challenged their society's gender norms in producing their work; others have not. Speculative and science fiction fandoms have generally become less proportionately male over time. In step with this, so have the casts of characters portrayed in fiction; similarly, considerations of gender in speculative and science fiction have increased in frequency and nuance over time.
Influence of political movements
The study of women within science fiction in the last decades of the twentieth century was driven in part by the feminist and gay liberation movements, and has included strands of the various related and spin-off movements, such as gender studies and queer theory.
In the 1970s, a number of events began to focus on women in fandom, professional science fiction, and as characters. In 1974, Pamela Sargent published an influential anthology, Women of Wonder: Science Fiction Stories by Women, About Women—the first of many anthologies to come that focused on women or gender rules. Additionally, movement among writers concerned with feminism and gender roles sprang up, leading to a genre of "feminist science fiction" including Joanna Russ' 1975 The Female Man, Samuel R. Delany's 1976 Trouble on Triton: An Ambiguous Heterotopia, and Marge Piercy's 1976 Woman on the Edge of Time.
The 1970s also saw a vibrant gay liberation movement, which made its presence known in science fiction, with gay/lesbian and gay/lesbian-friendly panels at conventions and articles in fanzines; gay/lesbian content increasingly present in the fiction itself; the gay/lesbian bookstore "A Different Light", which took its name from Elizabeth A. Lynn's novel of the same name; and a focus on LGBT issues in the pages of feminist publications.
More recently, the 2010s have sparked a rebirth for speculative fiction. This revival of the genre can be attributed to the political chaos that came with the 2016 election in which Donald J. Trump won the U.S. presidency. Margaret Atwood's speculative science fiction novel The Handmaid's Tale was adapted into a television series Hulu special and saw such success that it was renewed for a second season. Many critics made the connection between The Handmaid's Tale and President Trump's America in multiple reviews of the series. The fears that came with such a controversial election have given way to a revival of speculative fiction in the 2010s.
Media adaptations
Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale was adapted into a film in 1990, directed by Volker Schlöndorff. The film received a 31% positive review on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 4.8/10.
The Handmaid's Tale was also adapted into a ten-episode television series Hulu special released on April 26, 2017. The series saw such success that it was renewed for a second season set to release in April 2018.
Octavia Butler's speculative science/fantasy fiction novel Dawn, the first in her trilogy titled Lilith's Brood, is currently being adapted for television by producers Ava DuVernay and Charles D. King's Macro Ventures alongside writer Victoria Mahoney. There is no projected release date for the adaptation yet.
See also
Feminist science fiction
Janus (science fiction magazine)
The Witch and the Chameleon
Wiscon
Notes
^ Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder: Women And the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9780739112670.
^ Aldiss, Brian W. (1973). Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction (1st ed.). Garden city: N.Y. ISBN 978-0385088879.
^ Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder. Lexington Books. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780575123625.
^ Clute, John; Nicholls, Peter (1999). "Sex". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Orbit. p. 1088. ISBN 1-85723-897-4.
^ a b Tuttle, Lisa. "Women as portrayed in Science Fiction". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]. p. 1343.
^ See the bio of Clare Winger Harris for a case of a lesser one.
^ Kelly, Mark R. "1966 Astounding/Analog All-Time Poll". The LOCUS Index to SF Awards. Locus Publications. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010.
^ "1973 All-Time Favorite Author (Locus Poll Award)". The Internet Speculative Fiction Database. Retrieved 16 May 2022.
^ a b Davin, pp. 3-5
^ Crisp, Julie (10 July 2013). "SEXISM IN GENRE PUBLISHING: A PUBLISHER'S PERSPECTIVE". Tor Books. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
^ "SFWA Grand Master page". sfwa.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ "Military SF". sf-encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
^ Jeff Prucher, Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, "Femfan," page 62. Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 978-0-19-530567-8
^ Davin 2006, page 82
^ a b Justine Larbalestier, "The Women Men Don't See," in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction, p. 159, Wesleyan University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8195-6527-3
^ "Editor's Report". If (editorial). June 1958. pp. 3–5.
^ Robert Silverberg, "Reflections: Problems of Time Travel," Asimov's Science Fiction, issue 0206 (2002))
^ Davin 2006, Chapter 4
^ Phillips, Julie. James Tiptree, Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon; New York: Macmillan, 2007; p. 402
^ See generally Merrick, Helen. "From Female Man to Feminist Fan: Uncovering 'Herstory' in the Annals of SF Fandom," in Women of Other Worlds: Excursions through Science Fiction and Feminism, ed. by Helen Merrick and Tess Williams, University of Western Australia Press: Nedlands, 1999: pp. 115–139.
^ "Hugo Nominee List". locusmag.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ Tuttle, Lisa. "Gender"; Clute, John and Grant, John The Encyclopedia of Fantasy; United Kingdom; Orbit Books, 1997; p. 393
^ Arthur, Keri (2007). "Paranormal Romance and Urban Fantasy--defining two popular subgenres". The Romance Writers of Australia. Retrieved 2007-04-30.
^ Jenkins, Henry (1992). Textual Poachers: Television Fans & Participatory Culture. Studies in culture and communication. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90571-0.
^ "It's-A Me, Mary Sue: Why She's An Important Figure For Fanfic And Fangirls". www.themarysue.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ Faircloth, Kelly. "San Diego Comic Con Attendees Fight Back Against Sexual Harassment". jezebel.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
^ Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo. Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror, G K Hall: 1983. ISBN 0-8161-8573-5; p. viii
^ Bainbridge, William. “Women in Science Fiction.” Sex Roles, vol. 8, no. 10, 1982, pp. 1081–1093.
^ Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror, "Preface" p. x G K Hall: 1983 ISBN 0-8161-8573-5. "The prevalence of homosexual imagery in contemporary science fiction and fantasy can be directly attributed to the influence of the lesbian-feminist and gay liberation movements."
^ "Elizabeth A Lynn". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-02-28.
^ "Locus: Elizabeth A. Lynn interview". Locusmag.com. Retrieved 2009-02-28.
References
(Archive.org) Index to Female Writers In Science Fiction, Fantasy & Utopia: 18th Century to the Present
Badami, Mary Kenny. "A Feminist Critique of Science Fiction," Extrapolation 18 (Dec. 1978), pp. 6–19.
Davin, Eric Leif (2005). Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1267-0.
Larbalestier, Justine. The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction. Wesleyan University Press, Middleton, Connecticut, 2002.
Merrick, Helen. "From Female Man to Feminist fan: Uncovering 'Herstory' in the Annals of SF Fandom." in Women of Other Worlds: Excursions through Science Fiction and Feminism, edited by Helen Merrick and Tess Williams, University of Western Australia Press: Nedlands, 1999: pp. 115–139.
-- The Secret Feminist Cabal: A Cultural History of Science Fiction Feminisms. Seattle: Aqueduct Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1-933500-33-1
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Jemisin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._K._Jemisin"},{"link_name":"Jane Jeppson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Asimov"},{"link_name":"Alaya Dawn Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaya_Dawn_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Diane Wynn Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Wynne_Jones"},{"link_name":"Judith Merril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Merril"},{"link_name":"Cyril M. Kornbluth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_M._Kornbluth"},{"link_name":"Les Killough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Killough"},{"link_name":"Robin Wall Kimmerer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Wall_Kimmerer"},{"link_name":"Mary Robinette Kowal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Robinette_Kowal"},{"link_name":"Mercedes Lackey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes_Lackey"},{"link_name":"Ursula K. Le Guin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin"},{"link_name":"Karen Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Lord"},{"link_name":"Karin Lowachee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karin_Lowachee"},{"link_name":"Judith Merril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Merril"},{"link_name":"Cyril M. Kornbluth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_M._Kornbluth"},{"link_name":"Christina Lynch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Flyte"},{"link_name":"C.C. MacApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._C._MacApp"},{"link_name":"Katherine Maclean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_MacLean"},{"link_name":"Sondra Marshak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sondra_Marshak"},{"link_name":"Arkady Martine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkady_Martine"},{"link_name":"Ann Maxwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Maxwell"},{"link_name":"Ann McCaffrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_McCaffrey"},{"link_name":"Ashley McConnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashley_McConnell"},{"link_name":"Vonda N. McIntyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vonda_N._McIntyre"},{"link_name":"Judith Merril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Merril"},{"link_name":"Melisa Michaels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melisa_Michaels"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Moon"},{"link_name":"Catherine Lucille Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._L._Moore"},{"link_name":"C.L. Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._L._Moore"},{"link_name":"Janet Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Morris"},{"link_name":"Alice Andre Norton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Norton"},{"link_name":"Andre Norton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Norton"},{"link_name":"Nnedi Okorafor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nnedi_Okorafor"},{"link_name":"Malka Older","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malka_Older"},{"link_name":"Barbara Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Paul"},{"link_name":"Marge Piercy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marge_Piercy"},{"link_name":"Casey Plett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_Plett"},{"link_name":"Marta Randall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marta_Randall"},{"link_name":"Kit Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit_Reed"},{"link_name":"Jane Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Rice"},{"link_name":"Rebecca Roanhorse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Roanhorse"},{"link_name":"Eden Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eden_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Kelly Robson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Robson"},{"link_name":"Janet Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Rogers_(novelist)"},{"link_name":"Mary Rosenblum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Rosenblum"},{"link_name":"Kristine Kathryn Rusch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristine_Kathryn_Rusch"},{"link_name":"Joanna Russ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Russ"},{"link_name":"Maria Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marta_Russell"},{"link_name":"Sophia Samatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Samatar"},{"link_name":"Pamela Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_Sargent"},{"link_name":"Josephine Saxton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Douglas"},{"link_name":"Melissa Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melissa_Scott"},{"link_name":"Idris Seabright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_St._Clair"},{"link_name":"Margaret St. Clair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_St._Clair"},{"link_name":"Nisi Shawl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisi_Shawl"},{"link_name":"Alice Sheldon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr."},{"link_name":"James Tiptree Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr."},{"link_name":"Mary Shelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley"},{"link_name":"Leslie Marmon Silko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Marmon_Silko"},{"link_name":"Leanne Betasamosake Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leanne_Betasamosake_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Vandana Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandana_Singh"},{"link_name":"Kathleen Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Sky"},{"link_name":"Melinda M. Snodgrass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melinda_M._Snodgrass"},{"link_name":"Evelyn Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_E._Smith"},{"link_name":"Mary Staton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Stanton"},{"link_name":"Margaret St. Clair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_St._Clair"},{"link_name":"Idris Seabright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_St._Clair"},{"link_name":"Emily St. John Mandel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_St._John_Mandel"},{"link_name":"Sherry Tepper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheri_S._Tepper"},{"link_name":"Kai Cheng Thom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai_Cheng_Thom"},{"link_name":"Sheree Renée Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheree_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Karin Tidbeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karin_Tidbeck"},{"link_name":"Lisa Tuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Tuttle"},{"link_name":"Rena Vale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rena_Vale"},{"link_name":"Catherynne M. Valente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherynne_M._Valente"},{"link_name":"Sydney Van Scyoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_J._Van_Scyoc"},{"link_name":"Joan D. Vinge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_D._Vinge"},{"link_name":"Thea Von Harbou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thea_von_Harbou"},{"link_name":"Sharon Webb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Webb"},{"link_name":"Cherry Wilder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_Wilder"},{"link_name":"Kate Wilhelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Wilhelm"},{"link_name":"Connie Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connie_Willis"},{"link_name":"Jane Yolen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Yolen"},{"link_name":"Sarah Zettle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Zettel"}],"text":"Science fiction originally had a reputation of being created by men for other men, though the genre had women writers, such as Clare Winger Harris, Miriam Allen deFord, and Gertrude Barrows Bennett, from the beginning.[5] Until the late 1960s, women did not win major[6] science fiction awards, such as the Hugos. The 1966 \"Analog Science Fiction and Fact All-Time Poll\" did not list any novels by women[7] and the 1973 \"Locus All-Time Favorite Authors Poll\" was over 90% male.[8] One of the two women in Locus's poll, Andre Norton, had been \"gender ambiguous\" for many of her readers. Other female writers of the era, such as C. L. Moore and Leigh Brackett, also used ambiguous or male names. Women who wrote under their own names, such as Zenna Henderson, initially wrote more \"domestic\" material concerning teachers and mothers. A partial exception was Katherine MacLean, who wrote sociology- and psychology-oriented fiction and rarely used a male name.[5]Eric Leif Davin argues in Partners in Wonder that science fiction's \"male-oriented\" reputation is unjustified and that it was a \"safe haven\" for outsiders, including women.[9] Davin reports that only L. Taylor Hansen concealed her sex in early years, and that C. L. Moore wanted to hide her career as a science fiction author from her job.Women writers were in a minority: during the '50s and '60s, almost 1,000 stories published in science fiction magazines by over 200 female-identified authors between 1926 and 1960 were documented, making women writers 10-15% of contributors. His is a minority view, \"at odds with the common perception of science fiction\".[9]The advent of second wave feminism in the 1960s, combined with the growing view of science fiction as the literature of ideas, led to an influx of female science fiction writers, and some saw this influx as the first appearance of women into the genre. In the 1960s and 1970s, authors such as Ursula K. Le Guin (who debuted in 1963) and Joanna Russ (who debuted in the 1950s) began to consciously explore feminist themes in works such as The Left Hand of Darkness and The Female Man, creating a self-consciously feminist science fiction.As of 2013, publisher statistics indicate that men still outnumber women about two to one among English-language speculative fiction writers aiming for professional publication, but that the percentages vary considerably by genre. The following numbers are based on the 503 submissions received by Tor Books, a major science fiction and fantasy publisher, between January and July 2013.[10]Ten women have been named Grand Master of science fiction by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America:[11]Andre Norton (1984)\nUrsula K. Le Guin (2003)\nAnne McCaffrey (2005)\nConnie Willis (2012)\nC.J. Cherryh (2016)\nJane Yolen (2017)\nLois McMaster Bujold (2020)\nNalo Hopkinson (2021)\nMercedes Lackey (2022)\nRobin McKinley (2023)Doris Lessing, who wrote the five-novel science fiction series Canopus in Argos, received the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature.The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction lists three notable women authors of military science fiction: Lois McMaster Bujold; Elizabeth Moon (particularly her Familias Regnant stories such as Hunting Party (1993)), and Karen Traviss.[12]Below is an evolving list of women authors in science fiction emphasizing diversity and innovation across various subgenres:Terry Ann Adams\nLinda Addison\nCharlie Jane Anders\nRyka Aoki\nCatherine Asaro\nPauline Ashwell\nMargaret Atwood\nWilhelmina Baird\nKage Baker\nCeleste Rita Baker\nGwen Benaway\nGertrude Barrows Bennet\nMarcia Joanne Bennett\nLauren Beukes\nImogen Binnie\nJay D. Blakeney (real name Deborah Chester)\nMaya Kathryn Bohnhoff\nMargaret Wander Bonnano\nAmanda Bouchet\nLeigh Brackett (successfully authored her own titles and ghost wrote for George Sanders)\nMary E. Bradley Lane\nMarion Zimmer Bradley\nJennifer Marie Brissett\nRosel George Brown\nadrienne maree brown\nDorothy Bryant\nLois McMaster Bujold\nEmma Bull\nOtis Kidwell Burger\nChesya Burke\nOctavia E. Butler\nMaria Campbell\nMargaret Cavendish\nBecky Chambers\nSuzy McKee Charnas\nCarolyn Janice Cherry (pen name C. J. Cherryh)\nDeborah Chester (pen name Jay D. Blakeney)\nJo Clayton\nMildred Clingerman\nSuzanne Collins\nStorm Constantine\nSusan Coon\nSusan Cooper\nAnn C. Crispin\nMyrna Culbreath\nJulie E. Czerneda\nMiriam Allen DeFord\nGrace Dillon\nCherie Dimaline\nAriel Djanikian\nPaula E. Downing\nAliette de Bodard\nDebra Doyle\nDiane Duane\nTananarive Due\nPhyllis Eisenstein\nSuzette Haden Elgin\nMeg Elison\nAmal El-Mohtar\nSylvia Engdahl\nLouise Erdrich\nHeid E. Erdrich\nIsabel Fall\nJane S. Fancher\nCynthia Felice\nSheila Finch\nMagnus Flight (writing duo Christina Lynch and Meg Showery)\nKaren Joy Fowler\nLeslie Gadallah\nAlexis Gilliland\nJaymee Goh\nJewelle Gomez\nPhyllis Gotlieb\nSusan Grant\nGayle Greeno\nPauline Margaret Griffin (pen name P.M. Griffin)\nCherry Barbara Grimm (real name Cherry Wilder)\nAndrea Hairston\nBarbara Hambley\nVirginia Hamilton\nLucile Taylor Hanson (pen name L. Taylor Hanson)\nThea Von Harbou\nJoy Harjo\nTara Harper\nClare Winger Harris\nZenna Henderson\nNathalie Henneberg (pen name N.C. Henneberg collaborating with husband Charlie Henneberg)\nLynn Hightower\nNalo Hopkinson\nMonica Hughes\nKameron Hurley\nN.K. Jemisin\nJane Jeppson (pen name J.O. Jeppson)\nAlaya Dawn Johnson\nDiane Wynn Jones\nCyril Judd (pen name for writing collaboration between Judith Merril and Cyril M. Kornbluth)\nMelanie Kent\nLes Killough\nKatherine Eliska Kimbriel\nRobin Wall Kimmerer\nMelanie Kent\nAditi Khorana\nMary Robinette Kowal\nMercedes Lackey\nLarissa Lai\nJoy Leach\nAnn Leckie\nTanith Lee\nFonda Lee\nUrsula K. Le Guin\nDeborah Lessing\nJacqueline Lichtenberg\nMalinda Lo\nKaren Lord\nKarin Lowachee\nJudith Merril (pen name Cyril Judd for writing collaboration with Cyril M. Kornbluth)\nChristina Lynch (pen name Magnus Flight)\nElizabeth A. Lynn\nC.C. MacApp (real name Carol MacApp)\nKatherine Maclean\nSusan Cooper Mandrake\nSondra Marshak\nAdrienne Marten-Barnes\nArkady Martine\nAnn Maxwell\nJanet McAdams\nAnn McCaffrey\nAshley McConnell\nVonda N. McIntyre\nHelen Merrick\nJudith Merril\nMelisa Michaels\nElizabeth Moon\nCatherine Lucille Moore (pen name C.L. Moore)\nJanet Morris\nTamsyn Muir\nPat Murphy\nNichelle Nichols\nJeanette Ng\nAlice Andre Norton (born Alice Mary Norton, pen names include Andre Norton, Andrew North, and Allen Weston)\nNnedi Okorafor\nMalka Older\nKathleen O’Malley\nNene Ormes\nAn Owomoyela\nBarbara Paul\nMarge Piercy\nCasey Plett\nSusan Power\nRoberta Rambelli (pen name Robert Rainbell)\nMarta Randall\nKit Reed\nJane Rice\nRebecca Roanhorse\nEden Robinson\nEleanor Robinson\nJeanne Robinson\nKelly Robson\nJanet Rogers\nMary Rosenblum\nKristine Kathryn Rusch\nJoanna Russ\nMaria Russell\nKiini Ibura Salaam\nSophia Samatar\nPamela Sargent\nJosephine Saxton\nMelissa Scott\nIdris Seabright (real name Margaret St. Clair)\nNisi Shawl\nAlice Sheldon (pen name James Tiptree Jr.)\nMary Shelly\nMeg Showery\nSusan Shwartz\nLeslie Marmon Silko\nLeanne Betasamosake Simpson\nVandana Singh\nKathleen Sky\nMelinda M. Snodgrass\nEvelyn Smith\nMary Staton\nMargaret St. Clair (pen name Idris Seabright)\nMarti Steussy\nEmily St. John Mandel\nTricia Sullivan\nSherry Tepper\nKai Cheng Thom\nSheree Renée Thomas\nKarin Tidbeck\nLisa Tuttle\nRena Vale\nCatherynne M. Valente\nSydney Van Scyoc\nMary Vigiliante\nJoan D. Vinge\nThea Von Harbou\nAnne Walker\nBarbara Walton\nSharon Webb\nAliya Whiteley\nCherry Wilder (real name Cherry Barbara Grimm)\nKate Wilhelm\nTess Williams\nConnie Willis\nG. Willow Wilson (Gwendolyn Willow Wilson)\nPauline Winslow\nPatricia Wrightson\nIsabel Yap\nJane Yolen\nSarah Zettle\nBibiana Krall","title":"Writers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"science fiction fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom"},{"link_name":"Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Startling Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startling_Stories"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battle-15"},{"link_name":"If","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-if195806-16"},{"link_name":"Robert Silverberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Silverberg"},{"link_name":"10th World Science Fiction Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th_World_Science_Fiction_Convention"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"World Science Fiction Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Science_Fiction_Convention"},{"link_name":"Julian May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_May"},{"link_name":"science fiction fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom"},{"link_name":"cultural studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies"},{"link_name":"science fiction studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_studies"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battle-15"},{"link_name":"slash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_fiction"},{"link_name":"Kirk/Spock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk/Spock"},{"link_name":"The Witch and the Chameleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witch_and_the_Chameleon"},{"link_name":"fanzine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fanzine"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"James Tiptree, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tiptree,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Susan Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Wood_(science_fiction)"},{"link_name":"MidAmericon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/34th_World_Science_Fiction_Convention"},{"link_name":"amateur press association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_press_association"},{"link_name":"WisCon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WisCon"},{"link_name":"Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Tiptree Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tiptree,_Jr._Award"},{"link_name":"Broad Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Universe"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Janus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janus_(science_fiction_magazine)"},{"link_name":"Hugo Award for Best Fanzine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Fanzine"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"urban fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_fantasy"},{"link_name":"paranormal romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranormal_romance"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arthur-23"},{"link_name":"Henry Jenkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Jenkins"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"fake geek girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_geek_girl"},{"link_name":"Mary Sue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Sue"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Women have been active in science fiction fandom for some time, and the Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction dates the coinage \"femfan\" (sometimes: \"femme fan\") to as early as 1944.[13] Leigh Brackett says of the history of women in SF \"There always were a certain number of women fans and women readers.\"[14] Labalestier quotes the editor of Startling Stories, writing in 1953, as sayingTen years ago [i.e., 1943] stf fans were practically all male, today with or without benefit of fan activities, a lot of girls and housewives and other members of the sex are quietly reading science fiction and beginning to add their voices to the bable... We honestly never expected such a surge of female women into science fiction[15]A 1958 self-reported If survey found that 31% of respondents were women, which the editors said was \"surprisingly high (at least to us)\".[16] Robert Silverberg said \"probably the first appearance of the 'Women in Science Fiction' panel soon to become a fixture of these conventions\" was at the 10th World Science Fiction Convention in 1953;[17] which was also the first World Science Fiction Convention chaired by a woman, author Julian May.While science fiction fandom has been an organized phenomenon for decades—presaging the organized fandoms of other genres and media—the study of science fiction fandom within cultural studies and science fiction studies is relatively new. Consequently, assertions about the prevalence of women in fandom are largely anecdotal and personal, and sometimes contradictory. Most prominent among these assertions is the claim that it was the advent of the original Star Trek television series which brought large quantities of women into fandom. This claim is critically analyzed by Davin, who finds it poorly founded, and cites a long history of female involvement in fandom decades prior to Star Trek;[18] Larbalestier also cites women active in science fiction fandom before the late 1960s and early 1970s.[15]However, women became more visibly present in fandom, and more organized, in the 1970s. The slash movement among fans began, as far as anyone can tell, with Diane Marchant's publication of the first known Star Trek \"Kirk/Spock\" story in Grup #3 in 1974. 1974 also saw the creation of The Witch and the Chameleon, the first explicitly feminist fanzine.[19] The fanzine Khatru published a \"Women in Science Fiction\" symposium in 1975 (one of the \"males\" who participated was James Tiptree, Jr.). In 1976, Susan Wood set up a panel on \"women and science fiction\" at MidAmericon, the 1976 Worldcon; this ultimately led to the founding of A Women's APA, the first women's amateur press association. Also in 1976, WisCon, the world's leading—and for many years, only—feminist science fiction convention and conference was founded: an annual conference in Madison, Wisconsin. In turn, as a result of discussions at WisCon, institutions such as the Tiptree Awards and Broad Universe arose to address questions of gender in speculative fiction and issues peculiar to women writers of speculative fiction.[20] Some of the same people involved in creating WisCon also founded the feminist fanzine Janus, which was thrice nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Fanzine (1978–1980).[21]However, the perception of speculative fiction as mainly a men's genre continues to be widespread. As the inclusion of women within science fiction and fantasy more broadly has become obvious, the specificity of the perception has evolved. For instance, the still widely held view that \"science fiction and fantasy are men's genres\" has been refined by some to distinguish between science fiction as a genre mainly appealing to men, and fantasy, which is generally seen as being more accommodating to women[22] (some subgenres, particularly urban fantasy, with female protagonists, and paranormal romance are seen as being more popular with women than with men[23]). Little formal study has supported any of these distinctions, whether based on readers, writers, or characters.This perception has often been upheld and enforced by men, perhaps to protect themselves from what fandom researcher Henry Jenkins called the stereotype that “men are feminized and/or desexualized through their intimate engagement with mass culture”.[24] Women fans of speculative fiction are called pejorative terms like “fake geek girl”and are chastised for their love of “Mary Sue” characters, while at the same time male characters with the same qualities are beloved,[25] and can even face harassment for their participation in fandom.[26] However, Jenkins writes, speculative fiction is especially popular with women who identify with feminism because they reject the gender roles that are traditionally seen in other types of fiction.","title":"Fans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Science_fiction_women.jpg"},{"link_name":"Camille Flammarion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Flammarion"},{"link_name":"La Fin du monde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega:_The_Last_Days_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"Garber, Eric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garber,_Eric"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Uranian_Worlds-27"},{"link_name":"gender in science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_in_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"A 1911 illustration from Camille Flammarion's La Fin du monde. It depicts a fictional future society in which all women are beautiful and have lovely voices.[...] science fiction and fantasy pulp magazines were directed mainly at boys[...]. Female characters were only occasionally included in science fiction pulp stories; the male protagonists' lengthy explanations to the women with limited knowledge revealed the plots\n\nGarber, Eric and Paleo, Lyn \"Preface\" in Uranian worlds.[27]The highlighting of gender in science fiction has varied widely throughout the genre's history. Some writers and artists have challenged their society's gender norms in producing their work; others have not. Speculative and science fiction fandoms have generally become less proportionately male over time. In step with this, so have the casts of characters portrayed in fiction; similarly, considerations of gender in speculative and science fiction have increased in frequency and nuance over time.[28]","title":"Gender"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"feminist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism"},{"link_name":"gay liberation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay_liberation"},{"link_name":"gender studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_studies"},{"link_name":"queer theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queer_theory"},{"link_name":"Pamela Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_Sargent"},{"link_name":"Joanna Russ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Russ"},{"link_name":"The Female Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Man"},{"link_name":"Samuel R. Delany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany"},{"link_name":"Trouble on Triton: An Ambiguous Heterotopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Marge Piercy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marge_Piercy"},{"link_name":"Woman on the Edge of Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_on_the_Edge_of_Time"},{"link_name":"gay liberation movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay_Liberation"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UW_p._x-29"},{"link_name":"conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_conventions"},{"link_name":"fanzines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fanzines"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth A. Lynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_A._Lynn"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"LGBT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT"},{"link_name":"2016 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_election"},{"link_name":"The Handmaid's Tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale"}],"text":"The study of women within science fiction in the last decades of the twentieth century was driven in part by the feminist and gay liberation movements, and has included strands of the various related and spin-off movements, such as gender studies and queer theory.In the 1970s, a number of events began to focus on women in fandom, professional science fiction, and as characters. In 1974, Pamela Sargent published an influential anthology, Women of Wonder: Science Fiction Stories by Women, About Women—the first of many anthologies to come that focused on women or gender rules. Additionally, movement among writers concerned with feminism and gender roles sprang up, leading to a genre of \"feminist science fiction\" including Joanna Russ' 1975 The Female Man, Samuel R. Delany's 1976 Trouble on Triton: An Ambiguous Heterotopia, and Marge Piercy's 1976 Woman on the Edge of Time.The 1970s also saw a vibrant gay liberation movement, which made its presence known in science fiction,[29] with gay/lesbian and gay/lesbian-friendly panels at conventions and articles in fanzines; gay/lesbian content increasingly present in the fiction itself; the gay/lesbian bookstore \"A Different Light\", which took its name from Elizabeth A. Lynn's novel of the same name;[30][31] and a focus on LGBT issues in the pages of feminist publications.More recently, the 2010s have sparked a rebirth for speculative fiction. This revival of the genre can be attributed to the political chaos that came with the 2016 election in which Donald J. Trump won the U.S. presidency. Margaret Atwood's speculative science fiction novel The Handmaid's Tale was adapted into a television series Hulu special and saw such success that it was renewed for a second season. Many critics made the connection between The Handmaid's Tale and President Trump's America in multiple reviews of the series. The fears that came with such a controversial election have given way to a revival of speculative fiction in the 2010s.","title":"Influence of political movements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Margaret Atwood's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Atwood"},{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale_(film)"},{"link_name":"Volker Schlöndorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volker_Schl%C3%B6ndorff"},{"link_name":"Rotten Tomatoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotten_Tomatoes"},{"link_name":"series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Handmaid%27s_Tale_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Octavia Butler's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavia_E._Butler"},{"link_name":"Lilith's Brood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilith%27s_Brood"},{"link_name":"Ava DuVernay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ava_DuVernay"},{"link_name":"Victoria Mahoney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Mahoney"}],"text":"Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale was adapted into a film in 1990, directed by Volker Schlöndorff. The film received a 31% positive review on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 4.8/10.The Handmaid's Tale was also adapted into a ten-episode television series Hulu special released on April 26, 2017. The series saw such success that it was renewed for a second season set to release in April 2018.Octavia Butler's speculative science/fantasy fiction novel Dawn, the first in her trilogy titled Lilith's Brood, is currently being adapted for television by producers Ava DuVernay and Charles D. King's Macro Ventures alongside writer Victoria Mahoney. There is no projected release date for the adaptation yet.","title":"Media adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Partners in Wonder: Women And the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi"},{"link_name":"69–70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi/page/69"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780739112670","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739112670"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-aldiss73_2-0"},{"link_name":"Aldiss, Brian W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Aldiss"},{"link_name":"Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/billionyearspree00bria_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0385088879","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385088879"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-davin06_3-0"},{"link_name":"Partners in Wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi"},{"link_name":"54–55","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi/page/54"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780575123625","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780575123625"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-EoSF_4-0"},{"link_name":"Clute, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute"},{"link_name":"Nicholls, Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-85723-897-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85723-897-4"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-tuttle_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-tuttle_5-1"},{"link_name":"Tuttle, Lisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Tuttle"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Clare Winger Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clare_Winger_Harris"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"1966 Astounding/Analog All-Time Poll\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100114120146/http://locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/AsfAT1966.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/LocusAT1973.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"1973 All-Time Favorite Author (Locus Poll Award)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/award_category_year.cgi?326+1973"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Davin3_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Davin3_9-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"SEXISM IN GENRE PUBLISHING: A PUBLISHER'S PERSPECTIVE\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.torbooks.co.uk/blog/2013/07/10/sexism-in-genre-publishing-a-publishers-perspective"},{"link_name":"Tor Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_Books"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"SFWA Grand Master page\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sfwa.org/nebula-awards/nebula-weekend/events-program/grandmaster/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"Military SF\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/military_sf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave_New_Words:_The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-530567-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530567-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Battle_15-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Battle_15-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8195-6527-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8195-6527-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-if195806_16-0"},{"link_name":"\"Editor's Report\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/stream/1958-06_IF#page/n3/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"\"Hugo Nominee List\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/HugoNomList.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Fantasy"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-arthur_23-0"},{"link_name":"\"Paranormal Romance and Urban Fantasy--defining two popular subgenres\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.romanceaustralia.com/articles/urban.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-90571-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-90571-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"\"It's-A Me, Mary Sue: Why She's An Important Figure For Fanfic And Fangirls\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.themarysue.com/why-the-mary-sue-is-important/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"\"San Diego Comic Con Attendees Fight Back Against Sexual Harassment\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//jezebel.com/san-diego-comic-con-attendees-fight-back-against-sexual-1612082933"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Uranian_Worlds_27-0"},{"link_name":"Eric Garber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Garber"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8161-8573-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8161-8573-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-UW_p._x_29-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8161-8573-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8161-8573-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"\"Elizabeth A Lynn\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/l/elizabeth-a-lynn/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"\"Locus: Elizabeth A. Lynn interview\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.locusmag.com/1997/Issues/10/Lynn.html"}],"text":"^ Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder: Women And the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9780739112670.\n\n^ Aldiss, Brian W. (1973). Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction (1st ed.). Garden city: N.Y. ISBN 978-0385088879.[page needed]\n\n^ Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder. Lexington Books. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780575123625.\n\n^ Clute, John; Nicholls, Peter (1999). \"Sex\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Orbit. p. 1088. ISBN 1-85723-897-4.\n\n^ a b Tuttle, Lisa. \"Women as portrayed in Science Fiction\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]. p. 1343.\n\n^ See the bio of Clare Winger Harris for a case of a lesser one.\n\n^ Kelly, Mark R. \"1966 Astounding/Analog All-Time Poll\". The LOCUS Index to SF Awards. Locus Publications. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010.\n\n^ \"1973 All-Time Favorite Author (Locus Poll Award)\". The Internet Speculative Fiction Database. Retrieved 16 May 2022.\n\n^ a b Davin, pp. 3-5\n\n^ Crisp, Julie (10 July 2013). \"SEXISM IN GENRE PUBLISHING: A PUBLISHER'S PERSPECTIVE\". Tor Books. Retrieved 29 April 2015.\n\n^ \"SFWA Grand Master page\". sfwa.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.\n\n^ \"Military SF\". sf-encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2023.\n\n^ Jeff Prucher, Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, \"Femfan,\" page 62. Oxford University Press, 2007; ISBN 978-0-19-530567-8\n\n^ Davin 2006, page 82\n\n^ a b Justine Larbalestier, \"The Women Men Don't See,\" in The Battle of the Sexes in Science Fiction, p. 159, Wesleyan University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8195-6527-3\n\n^ \"Editor's Report\". If (editorial). June 1958. pp. 3–5.\n\n^ Robert Silverberg, \"Reflections: Problems of Time Travel,\" Asimov's Science Fiction, issue 0206 (2002))\n\n^ Davin 2006, Chapter 4\n\n^ Phillips, Julie. James Tiptree, Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon; New York: Macmillan, 2007; p. 402\n\n^ See generally Merrick, Helen. \"From Female Man to Feminist Fan: Uncovering 'Herstory' in the Annals of SF Fandom,\" in Women of Other Worlds: Excursions through Science Fiction and Feminism, ed. by Helen Merrick and Tess Williams, University of Western Australia Press: Nedlands, 1999: pp. 115–139.\n\n^ \"Hugo Nominee List\". locusmag.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.\n\n^ Tuttle, Lisa. \"Gender\"; Clute, John and Grant, John The Encyclopedia of Fantasy; United Kingdom; Orbit Books, 1997; p. 393\n\n^ Arthur, Keri (2007). \"Paranormal Romance and Urban Fantasy--defining two popular subgenres\". The Romance Writers of Australia. Retrieved 2007-04-30.\n\n^ Jenkins, Henry (1992). Textual Poachers: Television Fans & Participatory Culture. Studies in culture and communication. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90571-0.\n\n^ \"It's-A Me, Mary Sue: Why She's An Important Figure For Fanfic And Fangirls\". www.themarysue.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.\n\n^ Faircloth, Kelly. \"San Diego Comic Con Attendees Fight Back Against Sexual Harassment\". jezebel.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.\n\n^ Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo. Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror, G K Hall: 1983. ISBN 0-8161-8573-5; p. viii\n\n^ Bainbridge, William. “Women in Science Fiction.” Sex Roles, vol. 8, no. 10, 1982, pp. 1081–1093.\n\n^ Eric Garber, Lyn Paleo Uranian Worlds: A Guide to Alternative Sexuality in Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror, \"Preface\" p. x G K Hall: 1983 ISBN 0-8161-8573-5. \"The prevalence of homosexual imagery in contemporary science fiction and fantasy can be directly attributed to the influence of the lesbian-feminist and gay liberation movements.\"\n\n^ \"Elizabeth A Lynn\". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-02-28.\n\n^ \"Locus: Elizabeth A. Lynn interview\". Locusmag.com. Retrieved 2009-02-28.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A 1911 illustration from Camille Flammarion's La Fin du monde. It depicts a fictional future society in which all women are beautiful and have lovely voices.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Science_fiction_women.jpg/200px-Science_fiction_women.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Feminist science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction"},{"title":"Janus (science fiction magazine)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janus_(science_fiction_magazine)"},{"title":"The Witch and the Chameleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witch_and_the_Chameleon"},{"title":"Wiscon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiscon"}]
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[{"reference":"Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder: Women And the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 69–70. ISBN 9780739112670.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi","url_text":"Partners in Wonder: Women And the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi/page/69","url_text":"69–70"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739112670","url_text":"9780739112670"}]},{"reference":"Aldiss, Brian W. (1973). Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction (1st ed.). Garden city: N.Y. ISBN 978-0385088879.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Aldiss","url_text":"Aldiss, Brian W."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/billionyearspree00bria_0","url_text":"Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0385088879","url_text":"978-0385088879"}]},{"reference":"Davin, Eric Leif (2006). Partners in Wonder. Lexington Books. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780575123625.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi","url_text":"Partners in Wonder"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi/page/54","url_text":"54–55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780575123625","url_text":"9780575123625"}]},{"reference":"Clute, John; Nicholls, Peter (1999). \"Sex\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Orbit. p. 1088. ISBN 1-85723-897-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clute","url_text":"Clute, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Nicholls_(writer)","url_text":"Nicholls, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_of_Science_Fiction","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85723-897-4","url_text":"1-85723-897-4"}]},{"reference":"Tuttle, Lisa. \"Women as portrayed in Science Fiction\". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]. p. 1343.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa_Tuttle","url_text":"Tuttle, Lisa"}]},{"reference":"Kelly, Mark R. \"1966 Astounding/Analog All-Time Poll\". The LOCUS Index to SF Awards. Locus Publications. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100114120146/http://locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/AsfAT1966.html","url_text":"\"1966 Astounding/Analog All-Time Poll\""},{"url":"http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/LocusAT1973.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"1973 All-Time Favorite Author (Locus Poll Award)\". The Internet Speculative Fiction Database. Retrieved 16 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/award_category_year.cgi?326+1973","url_text":"\"1973 All-Time Favorite Author (Locus Poll Award)\""}]},{"reference":"Crisp, Julie (10 July 2013). \"SEXISM IN GENRE PUBLISHING: A PUBLISHER'S PERSPECTIVE\". Tor Books. Retrieved 29 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.torbooks.co.uk/blog/2013/07/10/sexism-in-genre-publishing-a-publishers-perspective","url_text":"\"SEXISM IN GENRE PUBLISHING: A PUBLISHER'S PERSPECTIVE\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_Books","url_text":"Tor Books"}]},{"reference":"\"SFWA Grand Master page\". sfwa.org. Retrieved 4 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfwa.org/nebula-awards/nebula-weekend/events-program/grandmaster/","url_text":"\"SFWA Grand Master page\""}]},{"reference":"\"Military SF\". sf-encyclopedia.com. Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/military_sf","url_text":"\"Military SF\""}]},{"reference":"\"Editor's Report\". If (editorial). June 1958. pp. 3–5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/1958-06_IF#page/n3/mode/2up","url_text":"\"Editor's Report\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hugo Nominee List\". locusmag.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/HugoNomList.html","url_text":"\"Hugo Nominee List\""}]},{"reference":"Arthur, Keri (2007). \"Paranormal Romance and Urban Fantasy--defining two popular subgenres\". The Romance Writers of Australia. Retrieved 2007-04-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.romanceaustralia.com/articles/urban.htm","url_text":"\"Paranormal Romance and Urban Fantasy--defining two popular subgenres\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's-A Me, Mary Sue: Why She's An Important Figure For Fanfic And Fangirls\". www.themarysue.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.themarysue.com/why-the-mary-sue-is-important/","url_text":"\"It's-A Me, Mary Sue: Why She's An Important Figure For Fanfic And Fangirls\""}]},{"reference":"Faircloth, Kelly. \"San Diego Comic Con Attendees Fight Back Against Sexual Harassment\". jezebel.com. Retrieved 4 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://jezebel.com/san-diego-comic-con-attendees-fight-back-against-sexual-1612082933","url_text":"\"San Diego Comic Con Attendees Fight Back Against Sexual Harassment\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elizabeth A Lynn\". Fantasticfiction.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/l/elizabeth-a-lynn/","url_text":"\"Elizabeth A Lynn\""}]},{"reference":"\"Locus: Elizabeth A. Lynn interview\". Locusmag.com. Retrieved 2009-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.locusmag.com/1997/Issues/10/Lynn.html","url_text":"\"Locus: Elizabeth A. Lynn interview\""}]},{"reference":"Davin, Eric Leif (2005). Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1267-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/partnersinwonder0000davi","url_text":"Partners in Wonder: Women and the Birth of Science Fiction, 1926-1965"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1267-0","url_text":"978-0-7391-1267-0"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D/CAS
|
D/CAS
|
["1 See also","2 Sources"]
|
A D/CAS, aka "streamer" cassette, for data storage, adapted from the audio Compact Cassette format
D/CAS (Data/CASsette), also known as a streamer cassette, is a now-obsolete data backup technology that used an upgraded version of the common audio cassette tape and a specialized tape drive derived from an audio tape transport. Holding anywhere from 200 KB to 600 MB (in 1990), it was superseded by newer data backup formats such as Travan, QIC, DDS, and LTO.
Streamer cassettes look almost like a standard audio cassette, with the addition of a notch about one quarter inch wide and deep, situated slightly off-center at the top edge of the cassette. They also have a reusable write-protect tab on one side of the top edge, with the other side having either only an open rectangular hole, or no hole at all. Data was recorded across four tracks in a serpentine manner across the whole width of the tape, much like newer formats such as QIC or Travan, making them single-sided.
Streamer cassettes can be used in an audio cassette deck, but the formulation of tape they contain is optimized only for full-saturation square wave digital data, resulting in audio recordings made on them having very poor audio quality and a large amount of noise and distortion.
See also
Magnetic tape data storage
Sources
"YourDictionary D/CAS definition". Your Dictionary (yourdictionary.com). Retrieved 5 December 2013.
"Teac D/CAS cassettes catalogue". Pacific Data (pacificdatastorage.com). Retrieved 5 December 2013.
"Tape backup explanation". ThinkQuest (thinkquest.org). Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
Museum of Obsolete Media's page on streamer cassettes
This computer-storage-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
[{"image_text":"A D/CAS, aka \"streamer\" cassette, for data storage, adapted from the audio Compact Cassette format","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Verbatim_ST-600_XD_Streamer_Cassette.jpg/170px-Verbatim_ST-600_XD_Streamer_Cassette.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Magnetic tape data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape_data_storage"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"YourDictionary D/CAS definition\". Your Dictionary (yourdictionary.com). Retrieved 5 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://computer.yourdictionary.com/d-cas","url_text":"\"YourDictionary D/CAS definition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Teac D/CAS cassettes catalogue\". Pacific Data (pacificdatastorage.com). Retrieved 5 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pacificdatastorage.com/teac_tapedrive.asp","url_text":"\"Teac D/CAS cassettes catalogue\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tape backup explanation\". ThinkQuest (thinkquest.org). Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120629100407/http://library.thinkquest.org/11309/data/tape.htm","url_text":"\"Tape backup explanation\""},{"url":"http://library.thinkquest.org/11309/data/tape.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meena_Upadhyaya
|
Meena Upadhyaya
|
["1 Biography","2 References"]
|
Indian-born Welsh medical geneticist
Professor Meena Upadhyaya OBE
Meena Upadhyaya OBE, FRCPath, FLSW is an Indian-born Welsh medical geneticist and a Professor emerita at Cardiff University. Her research has focused on the genes that cause various genetic disorders, in particular neurofibromatosis type I and facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy.
Biography
Upadhyaya was born in India. She entered an arranged marriage and joined her husband in the United Kingdom. Having studied an honours bachelor's degree in biology at the University of Delhi, she completed a Master of Science at the University of Edinburgh followed by a doctorate at Cardiff University.
Upadhyaya completed a fellowship with the Royal College of Pathologists in 2000, becoming one of the first people to do so in the field of medical genetics. Her research career focused on genetic disorders, especially neurofibromatosis type I and facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. She was involved in identifying the genetic mutations responsible for these two diseases and evaluating whether certain mutation was associated with specific clinical features. She developed molecular tests to aid in the diagnosis of more than 20 genetic diseases including neurofibromatosis type 1. She has also researched the reasons that in some people with neurofibromatosis type I, the benign tumours can become malignant. Using high-throughput techniques, she was able to identify molecular targets which would be important for the treatment of the patients. Over her career, she authored more than 200 scientific articles, wrote 24 book chapters and edited four textbooks and received awards from the Muscular Dystrophy Association (2009), the Inspire Wales Awards (2010), the Theodor Schwann award from the European Neurofibromatosis Group (2013), and the recognition award from Welsh Assembly (2011). She was a professor in Cardiff University's Institute of Cancer Genetics and directed the All Wales Medical Genetics Service Research and Development Laboratory until her retirement in 2014, thereafter serving as an honorary distinguished professor at Cardiff until 2023. In 2016, for her "services to medical genetics and the Welsh Asian Communityy", she was awarded an OBE. She received the St David Award in 2017, under the Innovation, Science and Technology category, for her outstanding contribution to medical genetics. Additionally, she was presented with the Welsh Muslim Council award in 2019 for her contributions to academia, and the Legacy Maker Community Achievement Award (2019) from Race Council Cymru. In 2017, Upadhyaya became the first female British-Indian professor to receive Honorary Fellowship at University of Wales Trinity Saint David. She was later appointed as an Honorary Professor in Practice in 2021. She is listed as one of the 100 Wales's brilliant women by Wales Online. She also made to the list of 100 Welsh Women, created by Women's Equality Network, to mark the centenary of the Representation of the People Act 1918. She was awarded the prestigious fellowship of Learned Society of Wales in 2018. She has been an International Advisor for the Organisation of the Rare Diseases, India (2016) and also sits on the Advisory Board of Genome India international forum, Philadelphia, USA and on the Medical Advisory Board as well as a trustee of Nerve Tumours, UK. Upadhyaya is a co-director of the project titled "70 Years of Struggle and Achievement: Life Stories of Ethnic Minority Women in Wales 2019" which is funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. She co-edited a book on this project, which was published by Parthians in 2021. Upadhyaya collaborated with the Welsh Government to organise the inaugural Festival of Communities in Cardiff in 2023.
She organised the First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and Advances of New Therapeutics in Kochi, Kerala, India in 2017.
She was elected to be a Council Member of the regional RCPath in 2014 and the Learning Society of Wales in 2020. Upadhyaya also served as a mentor on Dame Rosemary Butler's Women in Public Life Scheme (2014-2015). She is a trustee for Race Equality First, Race Council Cymru, the European NF Association and sits on the Advisory Committee of Cardiff University's BME+ Staff Network, NWAMI, Purple Plaques, Monumental Welsh Women and Equity in STEM. Upadhyaya was appointed as a Non-Executive Director (NED) on the Welsh Government Civil Service Board (2020-2024). She was appointed as an Honorary Professor of Amrita School of Medical Sciences, Kochi, Kerala, India (2020), Visiting Professor at the Institute of Medical Genetics and Genomics at Sir Gangaram Medical Hospital, Delhi in 2023 and an Honorary Executive Director of Chhaya Public School, India in 2020.
Upadhyaya is also an advocate for women of ethnic minorities; she is the founder and Chair of Welsh Asian Women Achievement Awards, now Ethnic Minority Welsh Women Achievement Association (EMWWAA) and the organisation Ethnic Minority Women in Welsh Healthcare (EMWWH). She sits on many committees focusing on equality, diversity and academia.
References
^ Wightwick, Abbie (20 October 2014). "India Week: How India treats its women by those who really know". WalesOnline. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
^ Gabriel, Clare (29 April 2013). "Welsh Asian women's achievements celebrated with awards". BBC News. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
^ a b c "Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE". Association for Clinical Genetic Science. 12 January 2016. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
^ a b "Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE". Cardiff University. 5 January 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
^ St David Award Winners and Finalists 2017 http://www.wales.com/news-and-blog/st-david-award-winners-and-finalists-2017
^ Professor Meena Upadhyaya receives Honorary Fellowship at UWTSD https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2017/uks-first-female-british-indian-professor-receives-honorary-fellowship-at-uwtsd.html Archived 17 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine
^ A celebration of Wales's brilliant women http://100women.walesonline.co.uk/index.html
^ 100 Welsh Women http://www.100welshwomen.wales/
^ Meena Upadhyaya; 100 Welsh Women http://www.100welshwomen.wales/100-women/meena_upadhyaya/
^ Learned Society of Wales in 2018 https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2018/learned-society-of-wales-elects-new-fellow-from-uwtsd.html
^ "International Advisors | ORD India". 27 October 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
^ Rauen, Katherine A.; Alsaegh, Abeer; Ben-Shachar, Shay; Berman, Yemima; Blakeley, Jaishri; Cordeiro, Isabel; Elgersma, Ype; Evans, D. Gareth; Fisher, Michael J.; Frayling, Ian M.; George, Joshi (June 2019). "First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and advances of new therapeutics". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 179 (6): 1091–1097. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.61125. ISSN 1552-4833. PMC 8279388. PMID 30908877.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Israel
United States
Other
IdRef
|
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Her research has focused on the genes that cause various genetic disorders, in particular neurofibromatosis type I and facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy.","title":"Meena Upadhyaya"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arranged marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arranged_marriage"},{"link_name":"University of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wales-1"},{"link_name":"Master of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Science"},{"link_name":"University of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Cardiff University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-2"},{"link_name":"Royal College of Pathologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_College_of_Pathologists"},{"link_name":"medical genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_genetics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acgs-3"},{"link_name":"genetic disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder"},{"link_name":"neurofibromatosis type I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_I"},{"link_name":"facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facioscapulohumeral_muscular_dystrophy"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acgs-3"},{"link_name":"Welsh Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acgs-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cardiff-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cardiff-4"},{"link_name":"OBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OBE"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ethnic Minority Welsh Women Achievement Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//emwwaa.org.uk/"},{"link_name":"Ethnic Minority Women in Welsh Healthcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//emwwh.org/"}],"text":"Upadhyaya was born in India. She entered an arranged marriage and joined her husband in the United Kingdom. Having studied an honours bachelor's degree in biology at the University of Delhi,[1] she completed a Master of Science at the University of Edinburgh followed by a doctorate at Cardiff University.[2]Upadhyaya completed a fellowship with the Royal College of Pathologists in 2000, becoming one of the first people to do so in the field of medical genetics.[3] Her research career focused on genetic disorders, especially neurofibromatosis type I and facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. She was involved in identifying the genetic mutations responsible for these two diseases and evaluating whether certain mutation was associated with specific clinical features. She developed molecular tests to aid in the diagnosis of more than 20 genetic diseases including neurofibromatosis type 1.[3] She has also researched the reasons that in some people with neurofibromatosis type I, the benign tumours can become malignant. Using high-throughput techniques, she was able to identify molecular targets which would be important for the treatment of the patients. Over her career, she authored more than 200 scientific articles, wrote 24 book chapters and edited four textbooks and received awards from the Muscular Dystrophy Association (2009), the Inspire Wales Awards (2010), the Theodor Schwann award from the European Neurofibromatosis Group (2013), and the recognition award from Welsh Assembly (2011).[3] She was a professor in Cardiff University's Institute of Cancer Genetics and directed the All Wales Medical Genetics Service Research and Development Laboratory until her retirement in 2014, thereafter serving as an honorary distinguished professor at Cardiff until 2023.[4] In 2016, for her \"services to medical genetics and the Welsh Asian Communityy\",[4] she was awarded an OBE. She received the St David Award in 2017, under the Innovation, Science and Technology category, for her outstanding contribution to medical genetics.[5] Additionally, she was presented with the Welsh Muslim Council award in 2019 for her contributions to academia, and the Legacy Maker Community Achievement Award (2019) from Race Council Cymru. In 2017, Upadhyaya became the first female British-Indian professor to receive Honorary Fellowship at University of Wales Trinity Saint David.[6] She was later appointed as an Honorary Professor in Practice in 2021. She is listed as one of the 100 Wales's brilliant women by Wales Online. [7] She also made to the list of 100 Welsh Women,[8] created by Women's Equality Network, to mark the centenary of the Representation of the People Act 1918.[9] She was awarded the prestigious fellowship of Learned Society of Wales in 2018.[10] She has been an International Advisor for the Organisation of the Rare Diseases, India (2016)[11] and also sits on the Advisory Board of Genome India international forum, Philadelphia, USA and on the Medical Advisory Board as well as a trustee of Nerve Tumours, UK. Upadhyaya is a co-director of the project titled \"70 Years of Struggle and Achievement: Life Stories of Ethnic Minority Women in Wales 2019\" which is funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. She co-edited a book on this project, which was published by Parthians in 2021. Upadhyaya collaborated with the Welsh Government to organise the inaugural Festival of Communities in Cardiff in 2023.She organised the First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and Advances of New Therapeutics in Kochi, Kerala, India in 2017.[12]She was elected to be a Council Member of the regional RCPath in 2014 and the Learning Society of Wales in 2020. Upadhyaya also served as a mentor on Dame Rosemary Butler's Women in Public Life Scheme (2014-2015). She is a trustee for Race Equality First, Race Council Cymru, the European NF Association and sits on the Advisory Committee of Cardiff University's BME+ Staff Network, NWAMI, Purple Plaques, Monumental Welsh Women and Equity in STEM. Upadhyaya was appointed as a Non-Executive Director (NED) on the Welsh Government Civil Service Board (2020-2024). She was appointed as an Honorary Professor of Amrita School of Medical Sciences, Kochi, Kerala, India (2020), Visiting Professor at the Institute of Medical Genetics and Genomics at Sir Gangaram Medical Hospital, Delhi in 2023 and an Honorary Executive Director of Chhaya Public School, India in 2020.Upadhyaya is also an advocate for women of ethnic minorities; she is the founder and Chair of Welsh Asian Women Achievement Awards, now Ethnic Minority Welsh Women Achievement Association (EMWWAA) and the organisation Ethnic Minority Women in Welsh Healthcare (EMWWH). She sits on many committees focusing on equality, diversity and academia.","title":"Biography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Professor Meena Upadhyaya OBE","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Asian-awardsJPG.jpg/256px-Asian-awardsJPG.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Wightwick, Abbie (20 October 2014). \"India Week: How India treats its women by those who really know\". WalesOnline. Retrieved 1 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/arts-culture-news/india-week-how-india-treats-7954237","url_text":"\"India Week: How India treats its women by those who really know\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WalesOnline","url_text":"WalesOnline"}]},{"reference":"Gabriel, Clare (29 April 2013). \"Welsh Asian women's achievements celebrated with awards\". BBC News. Retrieved 1 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-22310502","url_text":"\"Welsh Asian women's achievements celebrated with awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\". Association for Clinical Genetic Science. 12 January 2016. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160413221041/http://www.acgs.uk.com/news-events/news/pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe/","url_text":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\""},{"url":"http://www.acgs.uk.com/news-events/news/pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\". Cardiff University. 5 January 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/news/view/183193-pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe","url_text":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_University","url_text":"Cardiff University"}]},{"reference":"\"International Advisors | ORD India\". 27 October 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://ordindia.in/about-us/advisors/international-advisors/","url_text":"\"International Advisors | ORD India\""}]},{"reference":"Rauen, Katherine A.; Alsaegh, Abeer; Ben-Shachar, Shay; Berman, Yemima; Blakeley, Jaishri; Cordeiro, Isabel; Elgersma, Ype; Evans, D. Gareth; Fisher, Michael J.; Frayling, Ian M.; George, Joshi (June 2019). \"First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and advances of new therapeutics\". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 179 (6): 1091–1097. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.61125. ISSN 1552-4833. PMC 8279388. PMID 30908877.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279388","url_text":"\"First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and advances of new therapeutics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajmg.a.61125","url_text":"10.1002/ajmg.a.61125"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1552-4833","url_text":"1552-4833"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279388","url_text":"8279388"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30908877","url_text":"30908877"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://emwwaa.org.uk/","external_links_name":"Ethnic Minority Welsh Women Achievement Association"},{"Link":"https://emwwh.org/","external_links_name":"Ethnic Minority Women in Welsh Healthcare"},{"Link":"http://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/arts-culture-news/india-week-how-india-treats-7954237","external_links_name":"\"India Week: How India treats its women by those who really know\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-22310502","external_links_name":"\"Welsh Asian women's achievements celebrated with awards\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160413221041/http://www.acgs.uk.com/news-events/news/pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe/","external_links_name":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\""},{"Link":"http://www.acgs.uk.com/news-events/news/pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/news/view/183193-pioneering-medical-geneticist,-professor-meena-upadhyaya,-receives-obe","external_links_name":"\"Pioneering medical geneticist, Professor Meena Upadhyaya, receives OBE\""},{"Link":"http://www.wales.com/news-and-blog/st-david-award-winners-and-finalists-2017","external_links_name":"http://www.wales.com/news-and-blog/st-david-award-winners-and-finalists-2017"},{"Link":"https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2017/uks-first-female-british-indian-professor-receives-honorary-fellowship-at-uwtsd.html","external_links_name":"https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2017/uks-first-female-british-indian-professor-receives-honorary-fellowship-at-uwtsd.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190817225008/https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2017/uks-first-female-british-indian-professor-receives-honorary-fellowship-at-uwtsd.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://100women.walesonline.co.uk/index.html","external_links_name":"http://100women.walesonline.co.uk/index.html"},{"Link":"http://www.100welshwomen.wales/","external_links_name":"http://www.100welshwomen.wales/"},{"Link":"http://www.100welshwomen.wales/100-women/meena_upadhyaya/","external_links_name":"http://www.100welshwomen.wales/100-women/meena_upadhyaya/"},{"Link":"https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2018/learned-society-of-wales-elects-new-fellow-from-uwtsd.html","external_links_name":"https://www.uwtsd.ac.uk/news/press-releases/press-2018/learned-society-of-wales-elects-new-fellow-from-uwtsd.html"},{"Link":"https://ordindia.in/about-us/advisors/international-advisors/","external_links_name":"\"International Advisors | ORD India\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279388","external_links_name":"\"First International Conference on RASopathies and Neurofibromatoses in Asia: Identification and advances of new therapeutics\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajmg.a.61125","external_links_name":"10.1002/ajmg.a.61125"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1552-4833","external_links_name":"1552-4833"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8279388","external_links_name":"8279388"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30908877","external_links_name":"30908877"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/31622347","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmtxv8FrYQkKdGMGqtFrq","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007437593505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no98128596","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/185264263","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe
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List of air operations during the Battle of Europe
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[]
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Timelines of World War II
Chronological
Prelude (in Asiain Europe)
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945 onwards
By topic
Diplomacy
Declarations of war
BattlesOperations
By theatre
Battle of Europe air operations
Eastern FrontManhattan Project
United Kingdom home front
Surrender of the Axis armies
vte
Symbols
German Luftwaffe
German OKW V-2 forces
Polish Air Force
French Air Force
United Kingdom Royal Air Force
Italian Regia Aeronautica
Soviet Union Red Army Air Force
Finnish Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
Romanian Air Force
Royal Hungarian Air Force
United States Army Air Forces
United States Artillery Observers
Royal Bulgarian Air Force
Main articles: List of World War II battles and List of World War II military operations
This World War II timeline of European Air Operations lists notable military events in the skies of the European Theater of Operations of World War II from the Invasion of Poland to Victory in Europe Day. The list includes combined arms operations, defensive anti-aircraft warfare, and encompasses areas within the territorial waters of belligerent European states.
1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945
1939
1 September: At 4:40am the Luftwaffe starts World War II with the terror bombing of the Polish city of Wieluń. At 8:00am German ground forces cross the Polish border launching the invasion of Poland.
1 September: The Luftwaffe begins Operation Wasserkante as part of the invasion of Poland. The first air attacks against Warsaw start.
2 September: Single PZL.23B of the 21st Squadron of Polish Air Force bombs a factory in Ohlau. The attack represented the first Allied bombing raid to be conducted against a target in territory within the Third Reich.
3 September: Flying officer Andrew McPherson is the first Royal Air Force pilot to cross the German coast after the United Kingdom declared war on Nazi Germany. Flying a Bristol Blenheim from 139 Squadron, his mission is to identify German maritime targets around Wilhelmshaven.
3 September: The RAF launches its first raid of the war over Germany territory. Eighteen Handley Page Hampdens and nine Vickers Wellingtons are sent to attack the German warships moored at the Wilhelmshaven naval base. However poor visibility prevents the bombers from finding any targets before nightfall so they return.
4 September: The RAF launches another bombing operation against German shipping. Fourteen Wellingtons from 9 and 149 Squadrons attack Brunsbuttel and 15 Bristol Blenheims from 107 and 110 Squadrons raid Wilhelmshaven bay. Five Blenheims and three Vickers Wellingtons are shot down through a combination of Messerschmitt Bf 109s and flak. They become the first British aircraft losses on the Western Front. Among those killed was pilot Flying Officer Brian Lightoller, the youngest son of Titanic survivor Charles Lightoller.
4 September: The first British airman to be taken prisoner was Sergeant George Booth, a RAF Observer from 107 Squadron. He was captured after his Bristol Blenheim was shot down over the German coast.
13 September: The Bombing of Frampol was the war's first area bombardment
20 September: The first recorded RAF "kill" of the Second World War is the shooting down of a Messerschmitt Bf 109 by air observer Sergeant F Letchford aboard a Fairey Battle flown by Flying Officer LH Baker from 88 Squadron.
20 September: The first recorded kill of the French Armee de l'Air is credited to Sergeant André-Armand Legrand, flying a Curtis H75A-1 in the Groupe de Chasse II/5 La Fayette, for downing a Messerschmitt Bf 109E of the Luftwaffe 3/JG 53 over Überherrn.
27 September: The Luftwaffe ceases its bombing campaign against Warsaw after its Polish garrison surrenders to German forces. Approximately 1,150 sorties were flown by a wide variety of aircraft, including obsolete Junkers Ju 52/3m bombers.
30 November: The Winter War between Soviet Union and Finland starts. Three hours after the Red Army had crossed the border and started the Winter War, Helsinki is bombed. Throughout the war, the Soviet Air Force has the air superiority and several cities in Finland are targeted.
18 December: The first use of radar for defence (an "experimental Freya radar") gave warning of RAF bombers near the German Bight as they made an attack on Wilhelmshaven.: 20 However the German fighters were not permitted to intercept until visual confirmation was made - the bombers were attacked after they had dropped their bombs.
1940
21 April: A bombing raid on Norway kills the first American military officer killed in World War II.
13 May: Luftflotte 3 (supported by Luftflotte 2) in the Battle of France executed the heaviest air bombardment to date (300 sorties)--the most intense by World War II Luftwaffe.
People in London look at a map illustrating how the RAF is striking back at Germany during 1940
14 May: Under cover of Adolf Galland's air wing and after dummy paratroopers were airdropped (imitating battle noises after landing), Fort Eben-Emael was taken by glider troops during the Battle of Belgium.: 3
14 May: The Rotterdam Blitz ended the Battle of the Netherlands
15 May: A kill shared by French pilot René Mouchotte and Englishman Jack Charles becomes the 1,000th victim of RAF Biggin Hill fighters--Vickers threw a "fabulous party"
15 May: The RAF lost the 100th of its France-based bombers. In 72 hours, it had lost half of its offensive force.
15/16 May: In the first large-scale World War II strategic bombing: 53 and the first attack on the German "backcountry", just 24 of 96 dispatched bombers found the Ruhr Area power stations and refineries.
19 May: French fighters strafed advanced columns of Operation Abendsegen: 4
27 May 1940: Heinkels bombarded the Dunkirk perimeter followed by Stukas and Dorniers: opposition included the "first major encounter" by Spitfires of No. 74 Squadron RAF.: 71
27/28 May: A No. 10 Squadron RAF Armstrong Whitworth Whitley tail gunner was the first in the RAF to down a German fighter.
2 June: Robert Stanford Tuck led a wing of Spitfires from RAF Martlesham Heath, the first "big formation" of the war, against eight Heinkel He IIIs and about 25 Messerschmitt Bf 109s over the Calais area.: 108
3 June: Operation Paula was Nazi Germany's "single attempt at strategic air warfare during the French campaign.": 7
7-8 June: French Air Force raid is the first air raid against Berlin.
9 June: Germany attains air supremacy in the Battle of France
June 11/12: First British bombing of Italy with a raid on Turin.
26 June: The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force disbanded after beginning operations in France in May
24 July: Ferrying of Luftwaffe aircraft to the Channel Coast ended the first phase of the Battle of Britain: 15
9 August: The Birmingham Blitz began and (along with Hull Blitz) became the basis for the RAF dehousing bombing policy in 1942.
25 August: First RAF raid on Berlin
7 September: The Blitz bombing of Britain began with 57 nights of air raids
8 September: Three Dornier Do 17 bombers are downed by a single shot from a "Territorial gun crew" near Farnington.: 129
9 September: A bombing raid on Tel Aviv caused 137 deaths.
19 October: Four SM.82 bombers attacked American-operated oil refineries in the British Protectorate of Bahrain, damaging the local refineries. The raid also struck Dhahran in Saudi Arabia, but causing little damage.
15 September: In a single day, the Luftwaffe loses 60 aircraft over England during the Battle of Britain: 68
14 November: In the Coventry Blitz Luftwaffe aircraft cause significant, and infamous, damage to Coventry, killing nearly 700 people and destroying Coventry Cathedral.
30 November: The second phase of The Blitz began against British industrial and port cities
1941
10 February : Operation Colossus, the first British paratrooper raid, blew up a strategic aqueduct in Calitri southern Italy.
31 March/1 April: A bombing raid on Emden is the first use of the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) HC "cookie" blockbuster bomb
15 April: The Belfast Blitz kills 1000, the greatest loss of British lives outside London from a night raid.
10 May: The longest blitz air raid on london killing 2324 people and 11,000 houses.
22 June - 3 July: In the opening phase of Operation Barbarossa, the Luftwaffe achieved air superiority by destroying some 2,000 Soviet aircraft, at a loss of only 35 aircraft (of which 15 were non-combat-related).
8 July First use of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress in Europe; against Wilhelmshaven
8–9 August: The Red Army Air Force began a limited bombing offensive with a raid on Berlin.
15 August: Robert Stanford Tuck led the first air mission by fighters based in eastern England against enemy-occupied territories in a "Rhubarb" sweep of the Netherlands for ground targets by two Hawker Hurricanes .: 215–219
18 August: A 18 Squadron Blenheim dropped an artificial leg over France for captured Wing Commander Douglas Bader.
7/8 September: The heaviest RAF raid on Berlin to date, with 197 bombers, with 15 bombers lost.
7 November: A large raid on Berlin lost 20 bombers and caused little damage. The head of Bomber Command, Richard Peirse, was subsequently replaced in February 1942 by Arthur Harris.
7/8 December: 251 bombers target Aachen and Brest—the Brest attack was the first operational use of the Oboe navigation system
18 December: Blenheim aircraft conducted the first night intruder attack, successfully striking Soesterberg airfield in the Netherlands with bombs and attacking two German bombers in the air with guns
1942
16 February: The first regular operations with the American Douglas Boston bomber were conducted.
8/9 March: The first city raid following 14 February Area bombing directive bombed Essen.
13/14 March: Gee radio navigation was first used during a bombing of Cologne.
25/26 March: In the largest force (254 aircraft) sent to a single target to date, bombers of an Essen mission were drawn off by decoy fire from Rheinberg.
28/29 March: The Bombing of Lübeck was the 1st major success for RAF Bomber Command against a German city.
8/9 April: The largest force to date (272 aircraft) bomb Hamburg.
17 April: The Augsburg Raid is the first to attempt low-level daylight bombing for accuracy - in this case against the factory producing engines for U-boats. Half of the 12 bombers were shot down for little damage caused.
23–29 April: The first period of the Baedeker Blitz bomb the provincial cities of Exeter, Bath, Norwich, and York.
23–27 April: Bombing of Rostock.
30 May: The first use of the bomber stream and the first British large scale operation, as part of Operation Millennium the first "Thousand Bomber" raid is sent against Cologne, Germany. Of the 1,047 aircraft sent, nearly 900 bombed the target area - the whole raid passing over in 90 minutes.
11–12 June: First American daylight raid over European soil, against petroleum wells in Ploiești, Romania, along with objectives in Bulgaria, the first stages of American Bombing offensive.
25/26 June: The third "Thousand bomber" raid bombs Bremen, a new record of RAF Bomber Command losses (48 of 1,067 aircraft).
4 July: The first American bombing mission over enemy-occupied territory in Europe used 20 Boston bombers (plus 6 RAF-crewed Bostons) to attack the Alkmaar, Hammsted, and Valkenburg airfields --: 106 only two reached the target area (two shot down, the others heavily damaged).: 111
14 August: First German warplane downed by the USAAF. A German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor reconnaissance-bomber is shot down by two US fighter pilots, flying a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and a Lockheed P-38 Lightning, off the coast of Reykjavík, Iceland. All six German airmen are killed as the plane explodes and goes into the sea.
15 August: 82nd Airborne is the first US airborne division. (the first combat jumps were 8 November 1942 by the 509th Parachute Battalion in the North Africa Operation Torch).: 106, 107
17 August: 12 B-17s of the 97 BG (including one with Eaker aboard) escorted by RAF Spitfires bombed the Sotteville railyard 3 miles (4.8 km) South of Rouen, France, in the "first combat action" of the Eighth Air Force and the first B-17 bombing of Europe.
19 August: 22 B-17's drop 34 tons of bombs on Abbeville/Drucat A/F in France causing extensive damage.
20 August: 11 of 12 B-17's bomb Amiens/Longeau Marshilling Yard, France at 1801 hours without loss.
21 August: 12 B-17's are dispatched to bomb the shipyards in Rotterdam, Netherlands but is aborted due to an attack by Bf 109s and Fw 190s; 1 bomber is damaged; lack of proper coordination with the Spitfire escorts is a major factor in the failure of the mission.
24 August: 12 B-17s bomb the Ateliers et Chantiers de France shipyard in Dunkirk.
August: An intense air raid damages Diehl's plant in Stephanstraße, Nuremberg.
August/September: Case Blue included area bombardment during the Battle of Stalingrad.
2/3 September: The first use of the 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) High Capacity bomb (Blockbuster bomb) was against Karlsruhe.: 1441
9 October: First Eighth Air Force B-24 Bombing raid, bombed Industrial Plants at Lille, France.
24 October: 88 aircraft use independent routes over France to rendezvous at Lake Annecy for a daylight raid on Milan.
12 December: B-17 303d Bombardment Group#Wulf Hound surrendered to the Luftwaffe and was assigned to Kampfgeschwader 200 in September 1943.
22 December: An unsuccessful Bombing of Frankfurt am Main in World War II was the first use of the Master Bomber tactic.
1943
Main article: Timeline of World War II (1943)
27 January: The first World War II US mission flown against the German homeland bombs Kriegsmarine submarine pens in Wilhelmshaven.: 107
5/6 March: The first raid of the Battle of the Ruhr flew RAF Bomber Command's 100,000th sortie of World War II, with 160 acres destroyed and 53 Krupps buildings bombed at Essen.
13 April: The Eighth Air Force's largest mission to date (115 B-17s) destroys half of the Focke-Wulf factory buildings in Bremen
16/17 April: A force of 327 Lancasters and Halifaxes set out to destroy the Škoda arms factory at Plzeň, in German occupied Czechoslovakia. 271 aircraft raided Mannheim as a diversion the same night. The force mistook the mental hospital near Dobřany to be the factory at Plzeň. The raid sustained the heaviest losses until that point in the air war.
23 June 1943 RAF reconnaissance photo of Peenemünde Test Stand VII
3 May Ramrod 16 bombing of steelworks at IJmuiden
5 May: Republic P-47 Thunderbolts are first used for escorting bombers.
17 May: Operation Chastise bouncing bombs breached the Möhne and Eder Dams
11/12 June: The first two Operation Pointblank raids included a successful mass trial of H2S radar on Münster
13 June: The heaviest fighter attacks to date against the Eighth Air Force claim 26 B-17s bombing Bremen and Kiel U-boat facilities.
26 June: A 100 BG B-17 surrendered and then escaped.
20/21 June: Operation Bellicose targets Würzburg radar production and is the first bombing of a V-2 rocket facility.
19 July: The first Allied World War II bombing of Rome drops 800 tons of bombs on Littoro and Clampino airports, causing immense damage and 2000 deaths: 110
24 July: After the US developed an airborne radar immune to Window, the first use of the countermeasure (40 tonnes—92 million strips) were dropped during a Hamburg bombing mission.: 145
29 July: First use of unguided air-to-air rockets against American combat box formations of heavy bombers by JG 1 Oesau and JG 11, attacking with Bf 109Gs and Fw 190As each armed with pairs of Werfer-Granate 21 rocket ordnance, developed from the 21 cm Nebelwerfer 42 ground barrage rocket system.
1 August: Flying from North Africa Operation Tidal Wave bombs the oil refineries at Ploiești. A large number of the bombers are lost for little strategic benefit. Five Medals of Honor are awarded to American aircrew.
13 August: The first Ninth Air Force raid on Austria bombed the Wiener Neustadt Bf 109 factory
17 August: The double-strike USAAF Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission was the third shuttle bombing. British aircraft operate diversionary attacks.
17/18 August: The Operation Hydra bombing of V-2 facilities at Peenemünde began Operation Crossbow.
18 August: The counterattack against Operation Hydra included the first operational use of Schräge Musik by German fighters
25 August: The first use of a guided anti-ship missile in wartime occurs over the Bay of Biscay, as HMS Bideford and HMS Landguard are damaged by Luftwaffe-deployed Henschel Hs 293 rocket-boosted, MCLOS-guidance glide bombs.
27 August: The first mission against a "Heavy" Crossbow site bombed the Watten V-2 rocket bunker
9 September: The Luftwaffe's KG 100 bomber wing is involved with the world's first successful use of a precision-guided munition in modern military history, through their sinking of the Italian battleship Roma, using the Fritz X armored gravity-propulsion PGM munition.
10 October: As a result of the June "surrender/escape" of a 100 BG B-17, out of the 13 B-17s of 100 BG attacking a railyard in Münster, only the B-17F of Robert Rosenthal survives to return safely to RAF Thorpe Abbotts in England.
14 October: The Second Raid on Schweinfurt (Black Thursday) resulted in 122 damaged bombers and 650 MIA/KIA.
1 November: A Combined Bomber Offensive progress report estimates that 19/19/9 German towns & cities have been virtually destroyed/severely damaged/more effectively damaged – another report claims 10% of German war potential had been destroyed
2 November: The USAAF 12th Air Force conducted the first large Allied aerial attack against Zadar, Italy
2 November: A raid targeting the Wiener Neustadt Messerschmitt plant damaged the nearby Raxwerke V-2 rocket facility.
3 November: A Wilhelmshaven raid is the first Eighth Air Force blind-bombing mission to completely destroy the aiming point, the Eighth's first 500-plane mission, and the first use by the US of H2X radar
18/19 November: The "Battle of Berlin" aerial campaign bombing began
22/23 November: The largest force sent to bomb Berlin to date (764 aircraft) conducted the most effective World War II raid on Berlin
2 December: 100 Ju-88s bombed the port of Bari, sinking 28 ships including the American cargo ship SS John Harvey which was secretly carrying mustard gas. There were 83 military casualties from the poison. Autopsies indicated excess white blood cells, and the discovery led to the use of the gas to combat leukemia. Records were completely declassified in 1959.: 149
5 December: B-26s of the Ninth Air Force attacked three V-1 ski sites near Ligescourt, the first No-Ball missions.: 29
1944
21 January: The unsuccessful Operation Steinbock, the first mass bombing of London, began the Baby Blitz
30 January: The first U.S. Intruder operation was conducted by P-47s and accurately preceded the bombers to strike fighters at Villaorba airfield.
6–27 February: The Soviet Air Force launched bombing raids against several Finnish cities. The greatest air raids once again targeted Helsinki. In this manner the USSR hoped to force Finland to break its ties with Germany and agree to a peace settlement.
19/20 February: After 14.9% of Halifaxes that crossed the coast were lost on a raid to Leipzig, Handley Page Halifax Merlin engintober 1943 Second Raid on Schweinfurt
6 March: The first large scale US attack on Berlin (some 600 bombers) dropped 1600 tons of bombs - 160-170 of 800-900 fighters are shot down: 113
24 April: The APS-15 "Mickey" radar was first used on a Ploiești mission.
2 June: The first US shuttle bombing mission, Operation Frantic Joe, bombed Debrecen( German fighters subsequently attack the bombers on Soviet airfields at Focşani)
2–5 June: In preparation for Operation Overlord, Operation Cover bombed transportation and airfield targets in Northern France and "coastal deed V-1 flying bombs that reached Britain (of about 1,200) were air-launched from Heinkel He 111s (403 were downed)
23/24 July: The first major raid (629 aircraft) on a German city for two months bombs Kiel
25 July: Mission 494 (1581/500 bombers/fighters) supporting Operation Cobra was the most effective saturation bombing/carpet bombing/area bombardment of the Normandy Campaign, killing US General McNair.
26 July: The first aerial victory for a jet fighter in air combat history occurs as a Messerschmitt Me 262A-1a of Erprobungskommando 262 mortally damages a de Havilland Mosquito reconnaissance aircraft of No. 540 Squadron RAF.
28 July: The first operational use of rocket-powered point-defense interceptors occurs as Me 163Bs of I. Gruppe/JG 400 take off from Brandis to defend against a USAAF strategic bombing raid on the Merseburg/Leuna synthetic fuel production complex.
July: An air raid wipes out a factory making prototype Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 helicopters in Laupheim.
27 August: The RAF restarted daylight bombing of Germany (first since 12 August 1941) with an attack on the Homberg Fischer-Tropsch plant in Hamburg.: 149
13 & 17 August: Le Havre (Mission 549) and La Pallice (Mission 559) were the targets for the first uses of the BAT guided bomb
8 September: Operation Penguin began with the first V-2 rocket launches against Paris and London
17 September: The last UK-USSR-Italy-UK shuttle bombing was completed as 72 B-17s and 59 P-51s flew from Italy without bombs to the UK; 70 B-17s 57 P-51s land safely in the UK.
18 September: Stalin finally gives permission for Allied planes to use Soviet airfields. The planes conducted air drops during the Warsaw Uprising and Operation Frantic.
1945
Dortmund city center in April 1945.
1 January: Operation Bodenplatte supported the last major German offensive, Operation Nordwind, with inconclusive results.
5 January: The first mission of Operation Cornflakes begins when a mail train to Linz was bombed. Fake mailbags containing anti-Nazi propaganda were then dropped on the wreckage in the hope the letters would be unwittingly delivered by the Reichspost. The OSS dropped two million Das Neue Deutschland (German: The New Germany) propaganda newspapers during this psychological warfare operation; which ended in February.: 104
3 February: The USAAF conducts its largest raid of the war against Berlin. The attack is led by Major Robert Rosenthal of the 100th Bombardment Group (Heavy). Judge-President of the People's Court Roland Freisler is killed in the bombing.
8-19 February: Allies begin attacks on 200 targets with 20,000 bombers and escort fighters to assist with Operation Veritable, Grenade, and Operation Clarion.: 2059
13–15 February: The Allied Bombing of Dresden causes a firestorm that kills up to 25,000 people in the city.
3 March: The RAF mistakenly bombed the densely populated Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in the Dutch city of The Hague. The bomber crews had intended to bomb the Haagse Bos district, where the Germans had installed V-2 launching facilities that had been used to attack English cities. 511 residents were killed and approximately 30,000 were left homeless.
12 March: The RAF drop 4,851 tonnes of bombs on Dortmund using 1108 aircraft (748 Lancasters, 292 Halifaxes, 68 Mosquitos). Up to 98% of buildings in the city center are destroyed. It would be the heaviest raid on a single target in World War II.
14 March: A railway viaduct at Bielefeld is destroyed by the first Grand Slam bomb to be dropped in combat by an Avro Lancaster. The attack by No. 617 Squadron RAF succeeds after 54 attacks using smaller bombs had failed.
17 March: Adolf Hitler orders the SS to fire V-2 rockets at the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen. All 11 missiles miss; none land closer than 500 m (1,600 ft) from the bridge.
18 March: The largest number of Me 262s to date launch their most concentrated attacks against Allied bomber formation. Mission 894 attacking Berlin (1,329 bombers and 733 fighters) loses 13 bombers and 6 fighters. The AAF claim 25 Luftwaffe aircraft.
22 March: Two hundred L-4 Grasshopper spotter planes each carrying one armed infantryman (instead of an observer) cross the Rhine to form a bridgehead for the US 3rd Army near Oppenheim.: 2068 (Light aviation became a major part of the US Army's Field Artillery fire detection center on 4 June 1942).: 104
29 March: At 9am, the last V-1 flying bomb to hit Britain struck a field near Datchworth a village in Hertfordshire, England.
10 April: An Arado Ar 234, based in Nazi-occupied Denmark, conducts an unmolested reconnaissance mission over northern Scotland. It is the final Luftwaffe operation over the British Isles.
19 April: The last RAF air operation using Grand Slam bombs in Europe takes place over Heligoland. Twenty aircraft from 617 Squadron, six with Grand Slams and the remainder with smaller Tallboy bombs, along with 16 aircraft from 9 Squadron attack the island's coastal gun-batteries. No aircraft were lost. A total of 42 Grand Slams were dropped in air operations over Germany.
25 April: The last Eighth Air Force full-scale mission in the ETO hit the Škoda Works at Pilsen in Czechoslovakia (B-17s), while B-24s bombed rail complexes surrounding Hitler's Berchtesgaden.
2 May: A RAF mosquito from 608 squadron in Norfolk conducts the last British bombing raid of the war over Nazi Germany. It dropped a 4,000lb bomb on the naval port at Kiel.
3 May: Typhoons of 83 Group from the 2nd Tactical Air Force attack the passenger liners Cap Arcona, Thielbek, Athen, and Deutschland moored in the Bay of Lübeck (Baltic Sea). Hundreds of concentration camp prisoners are killed on the sinking ships because intelligence they are on board is not passed on to the flight crews.
7 May: The final European dogfight of World War II, between a small American L-4 Grasshopper liaison aircraft using personal .45 caliber pistols, and a small German liaison aircraft, a Fieseler Fi 156 Storch, forced the German aircrew to land and surrender.
References
Notes
^ Air offensive or defensive operations does not include cargo operations such as Operation Carpetbagger or reconnaissance from air.
Citations
^ Irving, David (1964). The Mare's Nest. London: William Kimber and Co. p. 223. ISBN 0-586-06368-4. NOTE: V-2 rocket air operations were conducted by various German Army units, but operational orders were issued by a Joint Services (OKW) command.
^ a b c d Bomber Command Campaign diary
^ a b
McKillop, Jack. "Combat Chronology of the USAAF". Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2007.1942:
January Archived 2009-02-04 at the Wayback Machine,
February Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
March Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
April Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
May Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
June Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
July Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
August Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
September Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
October Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
November Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
December Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine1943:
January Archived 2012-05-31 at the Wayback Machine,
February Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
March Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
April Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
May Archived 2009-02-28 at the Wayback Machine,
June Archived 2009-02-28 at the Wayback Machine,
July Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
August Archived 2009-02-12 at the Wayback Machine,
September Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
October Archived 2012-05-31 at the Wayback Machine,
November Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
December Archived 2006-10-07 at the Wayback Machine1944:
January Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
February Archived 2014-12-27 at the Wayback Machine,
March Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
April Archived 2009-02-16 at the Wayback Machine,
May Archived 2012-06-06 at the Wayback Machine,
June Archived 2009-02-16 at the Wayback Machine,
July Archived 2013-05-27 at the Wayback Machine,
August Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
September Archived 2009-02-13 at the Wayback Machine,
October Archived 2010-03-07 at the Wayback Machine,
November Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
December Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine1945:
January Archived 2009-02-16 at the Wayback Machine,
February Archived 2013-09-29 at the Wayback Machine,
March Archived 2013-06-02 at the Wayback Machine,
April Archived 2010-03-07 at the Wayback Machine,
May Archived 2010-03-07 at the Wayback Machine,
June Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
July Archived 2010-03-07 at the Wayback Machine,
August Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine,
September Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine NOTE: The Chronicles for August 13, 1944 inaccurately list the BATTY mission as an Aphrodite mission
^ Falconer, Jonathon (1998). The Bomber Command Handbook 1939-1945. Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7509-1819-0.
^ "Sgt. (Pilot) Albert Stanley Prince - The First of the Ten Thousand". bombercommandmuseum.ca. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
^ Haarr, Geirr H. (2013). The Gathering Storm: The Naval War in Northern Europe September 1939 - April 1940. Seaforth Publishing. pp. 227–230. ISBN 9781473832732.
^ "Flying Officer HERBERT BRIAN LIGHTOLLER". www.cwgc.org. 15 May 2023.
^ Northway, B.S., ed. (1963). A History of 107 Squadron. Tuddenham, UK: No. 107 Squadron RAF. p. 22.
^ 88 Squadron history Archived 24 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Ministry of Defence
^ Brindley, John F. (1971). French Fighters of World War Two, p. 52. Hylton Lacy, London.
^ "Bombing of Warsaw". University of Richmond. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
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^ "German and Allied Air Forces". bc.edu. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
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Miller, Donald L. (2006). Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7432-3544-0.
^ Overy, Richard (1997). Why the Allies Won. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-393-31619-3.
^ Jablonski, Edward (1971). Volume 1 (Tragic Victories), Book II (The Big League). p. 71. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
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Forrester, Larry (1973) . Fly for Your Life: The Story of R. R. Stanford Tuck, D.S.O, D.F.C. and Two Bars. Sir Max Aitken (Foreword). Garden City, New York: Nelson Doubleday. ISBN 0-553-11642-8.
^ Jones, Reginald Victor (1978). Most Secret War. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. ISBN 0-2418-9746-7.
^ Michael Omer-Man (9 September 2011). "This Week in History: Italy bombs Tel Aviv". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
^ a b Air Raid! A Sequel Archived 29 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Aramco World Magazine, Volume 27, Number 4, July/August 1976.
^
Seversky, Alexander P. de (1942). Victory Through Air Power. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 145. "Destruction of enemy morale from the air can be accomplished only by precision bombing."
^ McBride, Gisela R.: Through my eyes: memoirs of Hitler's Berlin. Hamilton Books, 2006, page 209. ISBN 0-7618-3394-3
^ "RAF History - Bomber Command 60th Anniversary". 28 March 2006. Archived from the original on 28 March 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
^ "Whirlwind: Bombing Germany (September 1939 – April 1944)", The World at War, 1974
^ "April 1942: Bombenhagel auf Rostock". www.ndr.de.
^ "U.S. Air Forces Central Command". www.afcent.af.mil.
^ a b c d e f Lang, Walter (1998) . United States Military Almanac: a Chronological Compendium of Over 200 Years of American History. Avenel NJ: Random House. p. 102,106–7. ISBN 1-84065-001-X.
^ Hammel, Eric. Air War Europa: America's Air War against Germany in Europe and North Africa 1942-1945. Pacifica Press, 1994, p. 56.
^ "History | Diehl Group". Archived from the original on 23 August 2021.
^ a b c Bauer, Eddy (original text) (1966) . Illustrated World War II Encyclopedia. H. S. Stuttman Inc. p. 1478 (Vol 11), 1999 (Vol 15), 2059,2068. ISBN 0-87475-520-4.
^ Cunliffe, Peter W. (2011). A Shaky Do: The Skoda Works Raid 16/17th April 1943. Accycunliffes Publications. ISBN 978-0955795725.
^ a b c Russell, Francis; et al. (1981). The Secret War. World War II. Chicago: Time-Life Books Inc. p. 104, 145,149. ISBN 0-16-049376-5.
^ Middlebrook, Martin (1982). The Peenemünde Raid: The Night of 17–18 August 1943. New York: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52759-6.
^
Zaloga, Steven J. (2008) . German V-Weapon Sites 1943-45. Fortress (72). illustrated by Johnson, Hugh & Taylor, Chris. New York: Osprey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84603-247-9.
^
Collier, Basil (1976) . The Battle of the V-Weapons, 1944–1945. Yorkshire: The Emfield Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-7057-0070-4.
^ Levine, Alan J (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood Publishing. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6. Retrieved 30 June 2006.
^ Radinger, Will and Walter Schick. (1996). Me 262 (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH. p. 51.
^ de Bie, Rob. "Me 163B Komet - Me 163B Airfields". Retrieved 22 January 2013.
^ Air International June 1984, p.291.
^ Air International June 1984, p.292.
^
Levine, Alan J (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6. Retrieved 30 June 2006.
^ Stalin's Private Airfields; The diplomacy surrounding the AAF mission to aid the Poles and the mission itself is extensively covered in Richard C. Lukas's The Strange Allies: The United States and Poland, 1941-1945, pp. 61-85. Warsaw Rising Museum
^ "LT COL Robert ROSENTHAL". 100thbg.com. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
^ Dresden was a civilian town with no military significance. Why did we burn its people? Archived 21 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine By Dominic Selwood. The Telegraph, 13 February 2015
^ Tinschert, Carlo (2005). Boodschap aan de bevolking van Den Haag : oorzaken, gevolgen en nasleep van het mislukte bombardement op het Bezuidenhout, 3 maart 1945 (in Dutch). Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers. ISBN 90-12-11188-9. OCLC 71711568.
^ "1944 air raids". Historisches Centrum Hagen. historisches-centrum.de. Retrieved 24 June 2009. 1944, 1945
^ "Ten Tonner - video of a Grand Slam being dropped on the Bielefeld Viaduct". Movietone News/youtube.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
^ "V-2s on Remagen; Attacks on the Ludendorff Bridge". V2Rocket.com. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
^ "Mission 894". www.8thafhs.com. Retrieved 7 July 2019.
^ King, Benjamin; Timothy Kutta (2003). Impact: The History of Germany's V-Weapons in World War II. Da Capo Press. p. 309. ISBN 0-306-81292-4.
^ Smith, J. Richard & Eddie J. Creek (1997). Blitz!: Germany's Arado Ar 234 Jet Bomber. Merriam Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781576380079.
^ Flower, Stephen (2004). Barnes Wallis' Bombs. Researched from the original records and interviews with those involved with the development and use of the bombs. Stroud: Tempus. pp. 362–64. ISBN 0-7524-2987-6.
^ "Remembering the last raid on Nazi Germany". BBC News. 9 June 2015.
^ Till, Major Noel O (September 1945). Report on Investigations, WO 309/1592. No. 2 War Crimes Investigation Team. From the Till report of June 1945: "The Intelligence Officer with 83 Group RAF has admitted on two occasions; first to Lt H. F. Ansell of this Team (when it was confirmed by a Wing Commander present), and on a second occasion to the Investigating Officer when he was accompanied by Lt. H. F. Ansell, that a message was received on 2 May 1945 that these ships were loaded with KZ prisoners but that, although there was ample time to warn the pilots of the planes who attacked these ships on the following day, by some oversight the message was never passed on... From the facts and from the statement volunteered by the RAF Intelligence Officer, it appears that the primary responsibility for this great loss of life must fall on the British RAF personnel who failed to pass to the pilots the message they received concerning the presence of KZ prisoners on board these ships." See: Jacobs and Pool, 2004 and Till, 1945
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Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balkenkreuz.svg"},{"link_name":"OKW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht"},{"link_name":"V-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irving-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Poland_(1921%E2%80%931993).svg"},{"link_name":"Polish Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Air_Force#1939"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_France.svg"},{"link_name":"French Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_(1909%E2%80%931942)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diary-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Italy_(1940%E2%80%931943).svg"},{"link_name":"Regia Aeronautica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regia_Aeronautica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_star.svg"},{"link_name":"Red Army Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_operations_of_the_Red_Army_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Finnish_air_force_roundel_1934-1945_border.svg"},{"link_name":"Finnish Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Air_Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Canada_(1946%E2%80%931965).svg"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_Romanian_Air_Force,_1941-1944.svg"},{"link_name":"Romanian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_Air_Force#World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Hungary_(1942%E2%80%931945).svg"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Air_Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_States_(1942%E2%80%931943).svg"},{"link_name":"United States Army Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usaaf-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USA_-_Army_Field_Artillery_Insignia.png"},{"link_name":"United States Artillery Observers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Bulgaria_(1941%E2%80%931944).svg"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"skies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_warfare"},{"link_name":"European Theater of Operations of World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland_(1939)#German_invasion"},{"link_name":"Victory in Europe Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day"},{"link_name":"anti-aircraft warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1939"},{"link_name":"1940","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1940"},{"link_name":"1941","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1941"},{"link_name":"1942","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1942"},{"link_name":"1943","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1943"},{"link_name":"1944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1944"},{"link_name":"1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#1945"}],"text":"Symbols\n German Luftwaffe\n German OKW V-2 forces[1]\n Polish Air Force\n French Air Force\n United Kingdom Royal Air Force[2]\n Italian Regia Aeronautica\n Soviet Union Red Army Air Force\n Finnish Air Force\n Royal Canadian Air Force\n Romanian Air Force\n Royal Hungarian Air Force\n United States Army Air Forces[3]\n United States Artillery Observers\n Royal Bulgarian Air ForceThis World War II timeline of European Air Operations lists notable military events in the skies of the European Theater of Operations of World War II from the Invasion of Poland to Victory in Europe Day. The list includes combined arms operations, defensive anti-aircraft warfare, and encompasses areas within the territorial waters of belligerent European states.[note 1]1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945","title":"List of air operations during the Battle of Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"link_name":"terror bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_bombing"},{"link_name":"Wieluń","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Wielu%C5%84"},{"link_name":"German ground forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army_(1935%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"Polish border","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Border"},{"link_name":"invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland_(1939)#German_invasion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"air attacks against Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Warsaw_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Poland_(1921%E2%80%931993).svg"},{"link_name":"PZL.23B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL.23_Kara%C5%9B"},{"link_name":"Polish Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Air_Force#1939"},{"link_name":"Ohlau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C5%82awa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Flying officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_officer"},{"link_name":"Andrew McPherson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_McPherson_(RAF_officer)"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"declared war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Bristol Blenheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim"},{"link_name":"139 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._139_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Wilhelmshaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmshaven_World_War_II_bombings"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Handbook-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Handley Page Hampdens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Hampden"},{"link_name":"Vickers Wellingtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Wellington"},{"link_name":"German warships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_pocket_battleship_Admiral_Scheer#World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._9_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"149 Squadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._149_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Brunsbuttel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunsbuttel"},{"link_name":"Bristol Blenheims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim"},{"link_name":"107","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._107_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"110 Squadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._110_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Wilhelmshaven bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schillig_Roads"},{"link_name":"Vickers Wellingtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Wellington"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Bf 109s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"link_name":"flak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8.8_cm_Flak_18/36/37/41"},{"link_name":"Western Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Flying Officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Officer"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic"},{"link_name":"Charles Lightoller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lightoller"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"RAF Observer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_observer"},{"link_name":"107 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._107_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Bristol Blenheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Blenheim"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Frampol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Frampol"},{"link_name":"area bombardment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_bombardment"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Bf 109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"link_name":"Sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant"},{"link_name":"Fairey Battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey_Battle"},{"link_name":"Flying Officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Officer"},{"link_name":"88 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._88_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_France.svg"},{"link_name":"Armee de l'Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Arm%C3%A9e_de_l%27Air_(1909%E2%80%931942)"},{"link_name":"Curtis H75A-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-36_Hawk"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Bf 109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"link_name":"Überherrn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cberherrn"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"},{"link_name":"Ju 52/3m bombers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkers_Ju_52"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_star.svg"},{"link_name":"Winter War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Red Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"bombed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Helsinki_in_World_War_II#Winter_War"},{"link_name":"Soviet Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Air_Forces"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Freya radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freya_radar"},{"link_name":"German Bight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Bight"},{"link_name":"an attack on Wilhelmshaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Heligoland_Bight_(1939)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"}],"text":"1 September: At 4:40am the Luftwaffe starts World War II with the terror bombing of the Polish city of Wieluń. At 8:00am German ground forces cross the Polish border launching the invasion of Poland.1 September: The Luftwaffe begins Operation Wasserkante as part of the invasion of Poland. The first air attacks against Warsaw start.2 September: Single PZL.23B of the 21st Squadron of Polish Air Force bombs a factory in Ohlau. The attack represented the first Allied bombing raid to be conducted against a target in territory within the Third Reich.3 September: Flying officer Andrew McPherson is the first Royal Air Force pilot to cross the German coast after the United Kingdom declared war on Nazi Germany. Flying a Bristol Blenheim from 139 Squadron, his mission is to identify German maritime targets around Wilhelmshaven.[4]3 September: The RAF launches its first raid of the war over Germany territory. Eighteen Handley Page Hampdens and nine Vickers Wellingtons are sent to attack the German warships moored at the Wilhelmshaven naval base. However poor visibility prevents the bombers from finding any targets before nightfall so they return.[5]4 September: The RAF launches another bombing operation against German shipping. Fourteen Wellingtons from 9 and 149 Squadrons attack Brunsbuttel and 15 Bristol Blenheims from 107 and 110 Squadrons raid Wilhelmshaven bay. Five Blenheims and three Vickers Wellingtons are shot down through a combination of Messerschmitt Bf 109s and flak. They become the first British aircraft losses on the Western Front.[6] Among those killed was pilot Flying Officer Brian Lightoller, the youngest son of Titanic survivor Charles Lightoller.[7]4 September: The first British airman to be taken prisoner was Sergeant George Booth, a RAF Observer from 107 Squadron. He was captured after his Bristol Blenheim was shot down over the German coast.[8]13 September: The Bombing of Frampol was the war's first area bombardment20 September: The first recorded RAF \"kill\" of the Second World War is the shooting down of a Messerschmitt Bf 109 by air observer Sergeant F Letchford aboard a Fairey Battle flown by Flying Officer LH Baker from 88 Squadron.[9]20 September: The first recorded kill of the French Armee de l'Air is credited to Sergeant André-Armand Legrand, flying a Curtis H75A-1 in the Groupe de Chasse II/5 La Fayette, for downing a Messerschmitt Bf 109E of the Luftwaffe 3/JG 53 over Überherrn.[10]27 September: The Luftwaffe ceases its bombing campaign against Warsaw after its Polish garrison surrenders to German forces. Approximately 1,150 sorties were flown by a wide variety of aircraft, including obsolete Junkers Ju 52/3m bombers.[11]30 November: The Winter War between Soviet Union and Finland starts. Three hours after the Red Army had crossed the border and started the Winter War, Helsinki is bombed. Throughout the war, the Soviet Air Force has the air superiority and several cities in Finland are targeted.18 December: The first use of radar for defence (an \"experimental Freya radar\") gave warning of RAF bombers near the German Bight as they made an attack on Wilhelmshaven.[12]: 20 However the German fighters were not permitted to intercept until visual confirmation was made - the bombers were attacked after they had dropped their bombs.","title":"1939"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"the first American military officer killed in World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Losey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Luftflotte 3 (supported by Luftflotte 2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Air_Fleets_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Battle of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France#Battle_of_Sedan"},{"link_name":"air bombardment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_France_during_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_British_airman_is_amongst_a_group_of_civilians_crowded_around_the_window_of_a_shop_in_Holborn,_London,_to_look_at_a_map_illustrating_how_the_RAF_is_striking_back_at_Germany_during_1940._D1254.jpg"},{"link_name":"RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Adolf Galland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Galland"},{"link_name":"Fort Eben-Emael was taken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Eben-Emael"},{"link_name":"Battle of Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Rotterdam Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Blitz"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Netherlands"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"René Mouchotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mouchotte"},{"link_name":"RAF Biggin Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Biggin_Hill"},{"link_name":"Vickers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"World War II strategic bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-15"},{"link_name":"backcountry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/backcountry"},{"link_name":"Ruhr Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr_Area"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Overy-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_France.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Abendsegen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Abendsegen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"No. 74 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._74_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jablonski-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"No. 10 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._10_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Armstrong Whitworth Whitley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_Whitley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Robert Stanford Tuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stanford_Tuck"},{"link_name":"RAF Martlesham Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Martlesham_Heath"},{"link_name":"\"big formation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Wing"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Bf 109s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"link_name":"Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forrester-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Operation Paula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paula"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"French campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_France.svg"},{"link_name":"air raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Germany attains air supremacy in the Battle of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France#German_air_supremacy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)"},{"link_name":"raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Turin_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diary-2"},{"link_name":"specify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"RAF Advanced Air Striking Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Advanced_Air_Striking_Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Battle of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Birmingham Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Blitz"},{"link_name":"Hull Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull_Blitz"},{"link_name":"dehousing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehousing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"raid on Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II#1940_to_1942"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"The Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Dornier Do 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dornier_Do_17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones-19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Italy_(1940%E2%80%931943).svg"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Italy_(1940%E2%80%931943).svg"},{"link_name":"SM.82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoia-Marchetti_SM.82"},{"link_name":"Bahrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aramco-21"},{"link_name":"Dhahran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhahran"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aramco-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Battle of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain#Raids_on_British_cities"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seversky-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Coventry Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry_Blitz"},{"link_name":"Coventry Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry_Cathedral"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"}],"text":"21 April: A bombing raid on Norway kills the first American military officer killed in World War II.13 May: Luftflotte 3 (supported by Luftflotte 2) in the Battle of France executed the heaviest air bombardment to date (300 sorties)--the most intense by World War II Luftwaffe.People in London look at a map illustrating how the RAF is striking back at Germany during 194014 May: Under cover of Adolf Galland's air wing and after dummy paratroopers were airdropped (imitating battle noises after landing), Fort Eben-Emael was taken by glider troops during the Battle of Belgium.[12]: 314 May: The Rotterdam Blitz ended the Battle of the Netherlands15 May: A kill shared by French pilot René Mouchotte and Englishman Jack Charles becomes the 1,000th victim of RAF Biggin Hill fighters--Vickers threw a \"fabulous party\"15 May: The RAF lost the 100th of its France-based bombers. In 72 hours, it had lost half of its offensive force.[13]15/16 May: In the first large-scale World War II strategic bombing[14]: 53 and the first attack on the German \"backcountry\", just 24 of 96 dispatched bombers found the Ruhr Area power stations and refineries.[15]19 May: French fighters strafed advanced columns of Operation Abendsegen[12]: 427 May 1940: Heinkels bombarded the Dunkirk perimeter followed by Stukas and Dorniers: opposition included the \"first major encounter\" by Spitfires of No. 74 Squadron RAF.[16]: 7127/28 May: A No. 10 Squadron RAF Armstrong Whitworth Whitley tail gunner was the first in the RAF to down a German fighter.2 June: Robert Stanford Tuck led a wing of Spitfires from RAF Martlesham Heath, the first \"big formation\" of the war, against eight Heinkel He IIIs and about 25 Messerschmitt Bf 109s over the Calais area.[17]: 1083 June: Operation Paula was Nazi Germany's \"single attempt at strategic air warfare during the French campaign.\"[12]: 77-8 June: French Air Force raid is the first air raid against Berlin.[citation needed]9 June: Germany attains air supremacy in the Battle of FranceJune 11/12: First British bombing of Italy with a raid on Turin.[2][specify]26 June: The RAF Advanced Air Striking Force disbanded after beginning operations in France in May24 July: Ferrying of Luftwaffe aircraft to the Channel Coast ended the first phase of the Battle of Britain[12]: 159 August: The Birmingham Blitz began and (along with Hull Blitz) became the basis for the RAF dehousing bombing policy in 1942.25 August: First RAF raid on Berlin7 September: The Blitz bombing of Britain began with 57 nights of air raids8 September: Three Dornier Do 17 bombers are downed by a single shot from a \"Territorial gun crew\" near Farnington.[18]: 1299 September: A bombing raid on Tel Aviv caused 137 deaths.[19]19 October: Four SM.82 bombers attacked American-operated oil refineries in the British Protectorate of Bahrain, damaging the local refineries.[20] The raid also struck Dhahran in Saudi Arabia, but causing little damage.[20]15 September: In a single day, the Luftwaffe loses 60 aircraft over England during the Battle of Britain[21]: 6814 November: In the Coventry Blitz Luftwaffe aircraft cause significant, and infamous, damage to Coventry, killing nearly 700 people and destroying Coventry Cathedral.30 November: The second phase of The Blitz began against British industrial and port cities","title":"1940"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Colossus"},{"link_name":"Calitri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calitri"},{"link_name":"southern Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Italy"},{"link_name":"specify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Emden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emden"},{"link_name":"blockbuster bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Belfast Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Blitz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"opening phase of Operation Barbarossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa#Opening_phase_(June_22,_1941_%E2%80%93_July_3,_1941)"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress"},{"link_name":"Wilhelmshaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmshaven"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_star.svg"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Robert Stanford Tuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Stanford_Tuck"},{"link_name":"eastern England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_of_England"},{"link_name":"Rhubarb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_RAF_code_names#rhubarb"},{"link_name":"Hawker Hurricanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hurricanes"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forrester-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"18 Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._18_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Douglas Bader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Bader"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diary-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"large raid on Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II#1940_to_1942"},{"link_name":"Bomber Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command"},{"link_name":"Richard Peirse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Peirse"},{"link_name":"Arthur Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Harris,_1st_Baronet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Aachen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen"},{"link_name":"Brest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest,_France"},{"link_name":"Oboe navigation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboe_(navigation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Soesterberg airfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soesterberg_Air_Base"}],"text":"10 February : Operation Colossus, the first British paratrooper raid, blew up a strategic aqueduct in Calitri southern Italy.[specify]31 March/1 April: A bombing raid on Emden is the first use of the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) HC \"cookie\" blockbuster bomb15 April: The Belfast Blitz kills 1000, the greatest loss of British lives outside London from a night raid.10 May: The longest blitz air raid on london killing 2324 people and 11,000 houses.22 June - 3 July: In the opening phase of Operation Barbarossa, the Luftwaffe achieved air superiority by destroying some 2,000 Soviet aircraft, at a loss of only 35 aircraft (of which 15 were non-combat-related).8 July First use of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress in Europe; against Wilhelmshaven8–9 August: The Red Army Air Force began a limited bombing offensive with a raid on Berlin.[22]15 August: Robert Stanford Tuck led the first air mission by fighters based in eastern England against enemy-occupied territories in a \"Rhubarb\" sweep of the Netherlands for ground targets by two Hawker Hurricanes .[17]: 215–21918 August: A 18 Squadron Blenheim dropped an artificial leg over France for captured Wing Commander Douglas Bader.[2]7/8 September: The heaviest RAF raid on Berlin to date, with 197 bombers, with 15 bombers lost.[23]7 November: A large raid on Berlin lost 20 bombers and caused little damage. The head of Bomber Command, Richard Peirse, was subsequently replaced in February 1942 by Arthur Harris.7/8 December: 251 bombers target Aachen and Brest—the Brest attack was the first operational use of the Oboe navigation system18 December: Blenheim aircraft conducted the first night intruder attack, successfully striking Soesterberg airfield in the Netherlands with bombs and attacking two German bombers in the air with guns","title":"1941"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Douglas Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Area bombing directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_bombing_directive"},{"link_name":"Essen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Essen_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Gee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gee_(navigation)"},{"link_name":"bombing of Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Cologne"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Essen mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Essen_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Rheinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinberg"},{"link_name":"specify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_L%C3%BCbeck_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"RAF Bomber Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"bomb Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"The Augsburg Raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Augsburg_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Baedeker Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baedeker_Blitz"},{"link_name":"Exeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter"},{"link_name":"Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath,_Somerset"},{"link_name":"Norwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich"},{"link_name":"York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"bomber stream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomber_stream"},{"link_name":"Operation Millennium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Cologne_in_World_War_II#First_1,000_bomber_raid"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Ploiești","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"bombs Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Bremen_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"RAF Bomber Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Alkmaar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkmaar"},{"link_name":"Hammsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haamstede"},{"link_name":"Valkenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valkenburg_aan_de_Geul"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galland-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_200_Condor"},{"link_name":"Curtiss P-40 Warhawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_P-40_Warhawk"},{"link_name":"Lockheed P-38 Lightning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_P-38_Lightning"},{"link_name":"Reykjavík","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:82_ABD_SSI.svg"},{"link_name":"82nd Airborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82nd_Airborne"},{"link_name":"509th Parachute Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=509th_Parachute_Battalion&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Operation Torch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Rouen, France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Abbeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbeville"},{"link_name":"Drucat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drucat"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Ateliers et Chantiers de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateliers_et_Chantiers_de_France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Diehl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diehl_Metall"},{"link_name":"Nuremberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Case Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Blue"},{"link_name":"area bombardment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_bombardment"},{"link_name":"Battle of Stalingrad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"specify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Blockbuster bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb"},{"link_name":"Karlsruhe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bauer-31"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Eighth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Lille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lille"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Lake Annecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Annecy"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"303d Bombardment Group#Wulf Hound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/303d_Bombardment_Group#Wulf_Hound"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe and was assigned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dornier_Do_200"},{"link_name":"Kampfgeschwader 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampfgeschwader_200#Special_missions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Frankfurt am Main in World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Frankfurt_am_Main_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Master Bomber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathfinder_Force#Tactics"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"16 February: The first regular operations with the American Douglas Boston bomber were conducted.8/9 March: The first city raid following 14 February Area bombing directive bombed Essen.13/14 March: Gee radio navigation was first used during a bombing of Cologne.[24]25/26 March: In the largest force (254 aircraft) sent to a single target to date, bombers of an Essen mission were drawn off by decoy fire from Rheinberg.[specify]28/29 March: The Bombing of Lübeck was the 1st major success for RAF Bomber Command against a German city.8/9 April: The largest force to date (272 aircraft) bomb Hamburg.17 April: The Augsburg Raid is the first to attempt low-level daylight bombing for accuracy - in this case against the factory producing engines for U-boats. Half of the 12 bombers were shot down for little damage caused.23–29 April: The first period of the Baedeker Blitz bomb the provincial cities of Exeter, Bath, Norwich, and York.23–27 April: Bombing of Rostock.[25]30 May: The first use of the bomber stream and the first British large scale operation, as part of Operation Millennium the first \"Thousand Bomber\" raid is sent against Cologne, Germany. Of the 1,047 aircraft sent, nearly 900 bombed the target area - the whole raid passing over in 90 minutes.11–12 June: First American daylight raid over European soil, against petroleum wells in Ploiești, Romania, along with objectives in Bulgaria, the first stages of American Bombing offensive.[26]25/26 June: The third \"Thousand bomber\" raid bombs Bremen, a new record of RAF Bomber Command losses (48 of 1,067 aircraft).4 July: The first American bombing mission over enemy-occupied territory in Europe used 20 Boston bombers (plus 6 RAF-crewed Bostons) to attack the Alkmaar, Hammsted, and Valkenburg airfields --[27]: 106 only two reached the target area (two shot down, the others heavily damaged).[12]: 11114 August: First German warplane downed by the USAAF. A German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor reconnaissance-bomber is shot down by two US fighter pilots, flying a Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and a Lockheed P-38 Lightning, off the coast of Reykjavík, Iceland. All six German airmen are killed as the plane explodes and goes into the sea.[28]15 August: 82nd Airborne is the first US airborne division. (the first combat jumps were 8 November 1942 by the 509th Parachute Battalion in the North Africa Operation Torch).[27]: 106, 10717 August: 12 B-17s of the 97 BG (including one with Eaker aboard) escorted by RAF Spitfires bombed the Sotteville railyard 3 miles (4.8 km) South of Rouen, France, in the \"first combat action\" of the Eighth Air Force and the first B-17 bombing of Europe.19 August: 22 B-17's drop 34 tons of bombs on Abbeville/Drucat A/F in France causing extensive damage.20 August: 11 of 12 B-17's bomb Amiens/Longeau Marshilling Yard, France at 1801 hours without loss.21 August: 12 B-17's are dispatched to bomb the shipyards in Rotterdam, Netherlands but is aborted due to an attack by Bf 109s and Fw 190s; 1 bomber is damaged; lack of proper coordination with the Spitfire escorts is a major factor in the failure of the mission.24 August: 12 B-17s bomb the Ateliers et Chantiers de France shipyard in Dunkirk.August: An intense air raid damages Diehl's plant in Stephanstraße, Nuremberg.[29]August/September: Case Blue included area bombardment during the Battle of Stalingrad.2/3 September:[specify] The first use of the 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) High Capacity bomb (Blockbuster bomb) was against Karlsruhe.[30]: 14419 October: First Eighth Air Force B-24 Bombing raid, bombed Industrial Plants at Lille, France.24 October: 88 aircraft use independent routes over France to rendezvous at Lake Annecy for a daylight raid on Milan.12 December: B-17 303d Bombardment Group#Wulf Hound surrendered to the Luftwaffe and was assigned to Kampfgeschwader 200 in September 1943.22 December: An unsuccessful Bombing of Frankfurt am Main in World War II was the first use of the Master Bomber tactic.[citation needed]","title":"1942"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Kriegsmarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriegsmarine"},{"link_name":"submarine pens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_pen"},{"link_name":"Wilhelmshaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmshaven"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Ruhr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ruhr"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diary-2"},{"link_name":"RAF Bomber Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Bomber_Command"},{"link_name":"160 acres destroyed and 53 Krupps buildings bombed at Essen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Essen_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Eighth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force#United_States_Strategic_Air_Forces_(1944%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"Focke-Wulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Wulf"},{"link_name":"in Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Bremen_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Škoda arms factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0koda_Works"},{"link_name":"Plzeň","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plze%C5%88"},{"link_name":"German occupied Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Mannheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannheim"},{"link_name":"Dobřany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dob%C5%99any"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peenemunde-165515.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peenemünde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde"},{"link_name":"Test Stand VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_Stand_VII"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Ramrod 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ramrod_16"},{"link_name":"IJmuiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJmuiden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Republic P-47 Thunderbolts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Chastise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Chastise"},{"link_name":"bouncing bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing_bomb"},{"link_name":"Möhne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6hne_Reservoir"},{"link_name":"Eder Dams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edersee"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Pointblank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Pointblank"},{"link_name":"H2S radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H2S_radar"},{"link_name":"Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnster"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Bremen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen"},{"link_name":"Kiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel"},{"link_name":"U-boat facilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_pen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"100 BG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Air_Refueling_Wing#World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Bellicose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bellicose"},{"link_name":"Würzburg radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_radar"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"bombing of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Rome_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Littoro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Urbe_Airport"},{"link_name":"Clampino airports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciampino%E2%80%93G._B._Pastine_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Hamburg bombing mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russell-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"combat box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_box"},{"link_name":"JG 1 Oesau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagdgeschwader_1_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"JG 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JG_11"},{"link_name":"Werfer-Granate 21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werfer-Granate_21"},{"link_name":"21 cm Nebelwerfer 42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21_cm_Nebelwerfer_42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Tidal Wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tidal_Wave"},{"link_name":"Ploiești","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploie%C8%99ti"},{"link_name":"Medals of Honor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medal_of_Honor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Ninth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force#US_Army_Middle_East_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"Wiener Neustadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiener_Neustadt"},{"link_name":"Bf 109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweinfurt-Regensburg_mission"},{"link_name":"shuttle bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_bombing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Hydra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Peenem%C3%BCnde_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"V-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"Peenemünde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peenem%C3%BCnde"},{"link_name":"Operation Crossbow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Hydra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Peenem%C3%BCnde_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Schräge Musik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%A4ge_Musik"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Middlebrook-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"anti-ship missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-ship_missile"},{"link_name":"Bay of Biscay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Biscay"},{"link_name":"HMS Bideford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Bideford_(L43)"},{"link_name":"HMS Landguard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC_Shoshone"},{"link_name":"Henschel Hs 293","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henschel_Hs_293"},{"link_name":"MCLOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCLOS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Watten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockhaus_d%27%C3%89perlecques"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"KG 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KG_100"},{"link_name":"precision-guided munition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision-guided_munition"},{"link_name":"Italian battleship Roma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_battleship_Roma_(1940)"},{"link_name":"Fritz X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"100 BG B-17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Air_Refueling_Wing#World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"Robert Rosenthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rosenthal_(USAF_officer)"},{"link_name":"RAF Thorpe Abbotts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF_Thorpe_Abbotts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Second Raid on Schweinfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Raid_on_Schweinfurt"},{"link_name":"Black Thursday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Thursday"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Combined Bomber Offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Bomber_Offensive"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usaaf-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"USAAF 12th Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Zadar, Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Zadar_in_World_War_II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Wiener Neustadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiener_Neustadt"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt"},{"link_name":"Raxwerke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raxwerke"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Wilhelmshaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmshaven_World_War_II_bombings"},{"link_name":"Eighth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force#United_States_Strategic_Air_Forces_(1944%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"H2X radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H2X_radar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"\"Battle of Berlin\" aerial campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin_(air)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"bomb Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin_(air)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"bombed the port of Bari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_raid_on_Bari"},{"link_name":"SS John Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_John_Harvey"},{"link_name":"mustard gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_gas"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russell-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"V-1 ski sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb_(facilities)"},{"link_name":"Ligescourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligescourt"},{"link_name":"No-Ball missions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow#Named_activities"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaloga-35"}],"text":"27 January: The first World War II US mission flown against the German homeland bombs Kriegsmarine submarine pens in Wilhelmshaven.[27]: 1075/6 March: The first raid of the Battle of the Ruhr[2] flew RAF Bomber Command's 100,000th sortie of World War II, with 160 acres destroyed and 53 Krupps buildings bombed at Essen.13 April: The Eighth Air Force's largest mission to date (115 B-17s) destroys half of the Focke-Wulf factory buildings in Bremen16/17 April: A force of 327 Lancasters and Halifaxes set out to destroy the Škoda arms factory at Plzeň, in German occupied Czechoslovakia. 271 aircraft raided Mannheim as a diversion the same night. The force mistook the mental hospital near Dobřany to be the factory at Plzeň. The raid sustained the heaviest losses until that point in the air war.[31]23 June 1943 RAF reconnaissance photo of Peenemünde Test Stand VII3 May Ramrod 16 bombing of steelworks at IJmuiden5 May: Republic P-47 Thunderbolts are first used for escorting bombers.17 May: Operation Chastise bouncing bombs breached the Möhne and Eder Dams11/12 June: The first two Operation Pointblank raids included a successful mass trial of H2S radar on Münster13 June: The heaviest fighter attacks to date against the Eighth Air Force claim 26 B-17s bombing Bremen and Kiel U-boat facilities.26 June: A 100 BG B-17 surrendered and then escaped.20/21 June: Operation Bellicose targets Würzburg radar production and is the first bombing of a V-2 rocket facility.19 July: The first Allied World War II bombing of Rome drops 800 tons of bombs on Littoro and Clampino airports, causing immense damage and 2000 deaths[27]: 11024 July: After the US developed an airborne radar immune to Window, the first use of the countermeasure (40 tonnes—92 million strips) were dropped during a Hamburg bombing mission.[32]: 14529 July: First use of unguided air-to-air rockets against American combat box formations of heavy bombers by JG 1 Oesau and JG 11, attacking with Bf 109Gs and Fw 190As each armed with pairs of Werfer-Granate 21 rocket ordnance, developed from the 21 cm Nebelwerfer 42 ground barrage rocket system.1 August: Flying from North Africa Operation Tidal Wave bombs the oil refineries at Ploiești. A large number of the bombers are lost for little strategic benefit. Five Medals of Honor are awarded to American aircrew.13 August: The first Ninth Air Force raid on Austria bombed the Wiener Neustadt Bf 109 factory17 August: The double-strike USAAF Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission was the third shuttle bombing. British aircraft operate diversionary attacks.17/18 August: The Operation Hydra bombing of V-2 facilities at Peenemünde began Operation Crossbow.18 August: The counterattack against Operation Hydra included the first operational use of Schräge Musik by German fighters[33]25 August: The first use of a guided anti-ship missile in wartime occurs over the Bay of Biscay, as HMS Bideford and HMS Landguard are damaged by Luftwaffe-deployed Henschel Hs 293 rocket-boosted, MCLOS-guidance glide bombs.27 August: The first mission against a \"Heavy\" Crossbow site bombed the Watten V-2 rocket bunker9 September: The Luftwaffe's KG 100 bomber wing is involved with the world's first successful use of a precision-guided munition in modern military history, through their sinking of the Italian battleship Roma, using the Fritz X armored gravity-propulsion PGM munition.10 October: As a result of the June \"surrender/escape\" of a 100 BG B-17, out of the 13 B-17s of 100 BG attacking a railyard in Münster, only the B-17F of Robert Rosenthal survives to return safely to RAF Thorpe Abbotts in England.14 October: The Second Raid on Schweinfurt (Black Thursday) resulted in 122 damaged bombers and 650 MIA/KIA.1 November: A Combined Bomber Offensive progress report estimates that 19/19/9 German towns & cities have been virtually destroyed/severely damaged/more effectively damaged – another report claims 10% of German war potential had been destroyed[3]2 November: The USAAF 12th Air Force conducted the first large Allied aerial attack against Zadar, Italy2 November: A raid targeting the Wiener Neustadt Messerschmitt plant damaged the nearby Raxwerke V-2 rocket facility.3 November: A Wilhelmshaven raid is the first Eighth Air Force blind-bombing mission to completely destroy the aiming point, the Eighth's first 500-plane mission, and the first use by the US of H2X radar18/19 November: The \"Battle of Berlin\" aerial campaign bombing began22/23 November: The largest force sent to bomb Berlin to date (764 aircraft) conducted the most effective World War II raid on Berlin2 December: 100 Ju-88s bombed the port of Bari, sinking 28 ships including the American cargo ship SS John Harvey which was secretly carrying mustard gas. There were 83 military casualties from the poison. Autopsies indicated excess white blood cells, and the discovery led to the use of the gas to combat leukemia. Records were completely declassified in 1959.[32]: 1495 December: B-26s of the Ninth Air Force attacked three V-1 ski sites near Ligescourt, the first No-Ball missions.[34]: 29","title":"1943"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Operation Steinbock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Steinbock"},{"link_name":"Baby Blitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz#Baby_Blitz"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Intruder operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Pointblank"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_star.svg"},{"link_name":"targeted Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Helsinki_in_World_War_II#The_great_raids_of_February_1944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Handley Page Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Halifax"},{"link_name":"Second Raid on Schweinfurt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Raid_on_Schweinfurt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"APS-15 \"Mickey\" radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radars#AN/APS_Series"},{"link_name":"Ploiești mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Romania_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"shuttle bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_bombing"},{"link_name":"Operation Frantic Joe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Frantic_Joe"},{"link_name":"Debrecen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debrecen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Focşani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foc%C5%9Fani"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Overlord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_war_during_Operation_Overlord"},{"link_name":"Operation Cover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Cover&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"coastal deed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Wall"},{"link_name":"V-1 flying bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb"},{"link_name":"Heinkel He 111s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Collier-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Kiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Cobra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cobra"},{"link_name":"carpet bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpet_bombing"},{"link_name":"area bombardment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_bombardment"},{"link_name":"Normandy Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"General McNair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesley_J._McNair"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"jet fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fighter"},{"link_name":"Messerschmitt Me 262","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262"},{"link_name":"Erprobungskommando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erprobungskommando"},{"link_name":"de Havilland Mosquito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito"},{"link_name":"No. 540 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._540_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"Me 163","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me_163"},{"link_name":"JG 400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JG_400"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Focke-Achgelis Fa 223","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focke-Achgelis_Fa_223"},{"link_name":"Laupheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laupheim"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AI_Jun_84_p291-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AI_Jun_84_p292-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Levine-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Le Havre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Havre"},{"link_name":"La Pallice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Pallice_(harbour)"},{"link_name":"BAT guided bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_(guided_bomb)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regulation_WW_II_Underwing_Balkenkreuz.png"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"shuttle bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_bombing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_star.svg"},{"link_name":"Stalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin"},{"link_name":"air drops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_airlift"},{"link_name":"Warsaw Uprising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising"},{"link_name":"Operation Frantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Frantic"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WUairfields-43"}],"text":"21 January: The unsuccessful Operation Steinbock, the first mass bombing of London, began the Baby Blitz30 January: The first U.S. Intruder operation was conducted by P-47s and accurately preceded the bombers to strike fighters at Villaorba airfield.6–27 February: The Soviet Air Force launched bombing raids against several Finnish cities. The greatest air raids once again targeted Helsinki. In this manner the USSR hoped to force Finland to break its ties with Germany and agree to a peace settlement.19/20 February: After 14.9% of Halifaxes that crossed the coast were lost on a raid to Leipzig, Handley Page Halifax Merlin engintober 1943 Second Raid on Schweinfurt6 March: The first large scale US attack on Berlin (some 600 bombers) dropped 1600 tons of bombs - 160-170 of 800-900 fighters are shot down[27]: 11324 April: The APS-15 \"Mickey\" radar was first used on a Ploiești mission.[14]2 June: The first US shuttle bombing mission, Operation Frantic Joe, bombed Debrecen( German fighters subsequently attack the bombers on Soviet airfields at Focşani)2–5 June: In preparation for Operation Overlord, Operation Cover bombed transportation and airfield targets in Northern France and \"coastal deed V-1 flying bombs that reached Britain (of about 1,200) were air-launched from Heinkel He 111s (403 were downed)[35]23/24 July: The first major raid (629 aircraft) on a German city for two months bombs Kiel25 July: Mission 494 (1581/500 bombers/fighters) supporting Operation Cobra was the most effective saturation bombing/carpet bombing/area bombardment of the Normandy Campaign,[36] killing US General McNair.26 July: The first aerial victory for a jet fighter in air combat history occurs as a Messerschmitt Me 262A-1a of Erprobungskommando 262 mortally damages a de Havilland Mosquito reconnaissance aircraft of No. 540 Squadron RAF.[37]28 July: The first operational use of rocket-powered point-defense interceptors occurs as Me 163Bs of I. Gruppe/JG 400 take off from Brandis to defend against a USAAF strategic bombing raid on the Merseburg/Leuna synthetic fuel production complex.[38]July: An air raid wipes out a factory making prototype Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 helicopters in Laupheim.[39][40]27 August: The RAF restarted daylight bombing of Germany (first since 12 August 1941) with an attack on the Homberg Fischer-Tropsch plant in Hamburg.[41]: 14913 & 17 August: Le Havre (Mission 549) and La Pallice (Mission 559) were the targets for the first uses of the BAT guided bomb [citation needed]8 September: Operation Penguin began with the first V-2 rocket launches against Paris and London17 September: The last UK-USSR-Italy-UK shuttle bombing was completed as 72 B-17s and 59 P-51s flew from Italy without bombs to the UK; 70 B-17s 57 P-51s land safely in the UK.18 September: Stalin finally gives permission for Allied planes to use Soviet airfields. The planes conducted air drops during the Warsaw Uprising and Operation Frantic.[42]","title":"1944"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reconnaissance_Photo_Aerial_View_Dortmund.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dortmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dortmund"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Bodenplatte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unternehmen_Bodenplatte"},{"link_name":"Operation Nordwind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Nordwind"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Cornflakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cornflakes"},{"link_name":"Linz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linz"},{"link_name":"Reichspost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichspost"},{"link_name":"OSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services"},{"link_name":"Das Neue Deutschland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Neue_Deutschland"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"psychological warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_warfare"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russell-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Berlin_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Robert Rosenthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Rosenthal_(USAF_officer)"},{"link_name":"100th Bombardment Group (Heavy)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100th_Bomb_Group"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"People's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Court_(Germany)"},{"link_name":"Roland Freisler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Freisler"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Operation Veritable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Veritable"},{"link_name":"Grenade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Grenade"},{"link_name":"Operation Clarion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Hildesheim_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bauer-31"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Bombing of Dresden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Dresden_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"bombed the densely populated Bezuidenhout neighbourhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_the_Bezuidenhout"},{"link_name":"The Hague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hague"},{"link_name":"Haagse Bos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haagse_Bos"},{"link_name":"Germans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"V-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Dortmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dortmund"},{"link_name":"Lancasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"Halifaxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handley_Page_Halifax"},{"link_name":"Mosquitos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historisches-47"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Bielefeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bielefeld"},{"link_name":"Grand Slam bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_bomb"},{"link_name":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"No. 617 Squadron RAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._617_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balkenkreuz.svg"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"SS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS"},{"link_name":"V-2 rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"Ludendorff Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludendorff_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Battle of Remagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Remagen"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-v2rocket-49"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Germany_%E2%80%93_Type_1_%E2%80%93_Border.svg"},{"link_name":"Me 262s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_262"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USA_-_Army_Field_Artillery_Insignia.png"},{"link_name":"L-4 Grasshopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piper_J-3_Cub"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"US 3rd Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Central"},{"link_name":"Oppenheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppenheim"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bauer-31"},{"link_name":"US Army's Field Artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Artillery_Branch_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lang-28"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balkenkreuz.svg"},{"link_name":"V-1 flying bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb"},{"link_name":"Datchworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datchworth"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balkenkreuz.svg"},{"link_name":"Arado Ar 234","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arado_Ar_234"},{"link_name":"Nazi-occupied Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"northern Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Heligoland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heligoland"},{"link_name":"Tallboy bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallboy_(bomb)"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RAF-April-53"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Army_Air_Corps_Hap_Arnold_Wings.svg"},{"link_name":"Eighth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"ETO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations"},{"link_name":"Škoda Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0koda_Works"},{"link_name":"Berchtesgaden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berchtesgaden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"mosquito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Havilland_Mosquito"},{"link_name":"608 squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._608_Squadron_RAF"},{"link_name":"Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk"},{"link_name":"4,000lb bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb"},{"link_name":"Kiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roundel_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg"},{"link_name":"Typhoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Typhoon"},{"link_name":"83 Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._83_Expeditionary_Air_Group_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"2nd Tactical Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_Tactical_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Cap Arcona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_Arcona"},{"link_name":"Thielbek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Thielbek_(1940)"},{"link_name":"Athen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athen"},{"link_name":"Deutschland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Deutschland_(1923)"},{"link_name":"Bay of Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_L%C3%BCbeck"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"concentration camp prisoners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USA_-_Army_Field_Artillery_Insignia.png"},{"link_name":"L-4 Grasshopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-4_Grasshopper"},{"link_name":"liaison aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaison_aircraft"},{"link_name":".45 caliber pistols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1911"},{"link_name":"Fieseler Fi 156","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieseler_Fi_156"}],"text":"Dortmund city center in April 1945.1 January: Operation Bodenplatte supported the last major German offensive, Operation Nordwind, with inconclusive results.5 January: The first mission of Operation Cornflakes begins when a mail train to Linz was bombed. Fake mailbags containing anti-Nazi propaganda were then dropped on the wreckage in the hope the letters would be unwittingly delivered by the Reichspost. The OSS dropped two million Das Neue Deutschland (German: The New Germany) propaganda newspapers during this psychological warfare operation; which ended in February.[32]: 1043 February: The USAAF conducts its largest raid of the war against Berlin. The attack is led by Major Robert Rosenthal of the 100th Bombardment Group (Heavy).[43] Judge-President of the People's Court Roland Freisler is killed in the bombing.8-19 February: Allies begin attacks on 200 targets with 20,000 bombers and escort fighters to assist with Operation Veritable, Grenade, and Operation Clarion.[30]: 205913–15 February: The Allied Bombing of Dresden causes a firestorm that kills up to 25,000 people in the city.[44]3 March: The RAF mistakenly bombed the densely populated Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in the Dutch city of The Hague. The bomber crews had intended to bomb the Haagse Bos district, where the Germans had installed V-2 launching facilities that had been used to attack English cities. 511 residents were killed and approximately 30,000 were left homeless.[45]12 March: The RAF drop 4,851 tonnes of bombs on Dortmund using 1108 aircraft (748 Lancasters, 292 Halifaxes, 68 Mosquitos). Up to 98% of buildings in the city center are destroyed. It would be the heaviest raid on a single target in World War II.[46]14 March: A railway viaduct at Bielefeld is destroyed by the first Grand Slam bomb to be dropped in combat by an Avro Lancaster. The attack by No. 617 Squadron RAF succeeds after 54 attacks using smaller bombs had failed.[47]17 March: Adolf Hitler orders the SS to fire V-2 rockets at the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen. All 11 missiles miss; none land closer than 500 m (1,600 ft) from the bridge.[48]18 March: The largest number of Me 262s to date launch their most concentrated attacks against Allied bomber formation. Mission 894 attacking Berlin (1,329 bombers and 733 fighters) loses 13 bombers and 6 fighters. The AAF claim 25 Luftwaffe aircraft.[49]22 March: Two hundred L-4 Grasshopper spotter planes each carrying one armed infantryman (instead of an observer) cross the Rhine to form a bridgehead for the US 3rd Army near Oppenheim.[30]: 2068 (Light aviation became a major part of the US Army's Field Artillery fire detection center on 4 June 1942).[27]: 10429 March: At 9am, the last V-1 flying bomb to hit Britain struck a field near Datchworth a village in Hertfordshire, England.[50]10 April: An Arado Ar 234, based in Nazi-occupied Denmark, conducts an unmolested reconnaissance mission over northern Scotland. It is the final Luftwaffe operation over the British Isles.[51]19 April: The last RAF air operation using Grand Slam bombs in Europe takes place over Heligoland. Twenty aircraft from 617 Squadron, six with Grand Slams and the remainder with smaller Tallboy bombs, along with 16 aircraft from 9 Squadron attack the island's coastal gun-batteries. No aircraft were lost. A total of 42 Grand Slams were dropped in air operations over Germany.[52]25 April: The last Eighth Air Force full-scale mission in the ETO hit the Škoda Works at Pilsen in Czechoslovakia (B-17s), while B-24s bombed rail complexes surrounding Hitler's Berchtesgaden.2 May: A RAF mosquito from 608 squadron in Norfolk conducts the last British bombing raid of the war over Nazi Germany. It dropped a 4,000lb bomb on the naval port at Kiel.[53]3 May: Typhoons of 83 Group from the 2nd Tactical Air Force attack the passenger liners Cap Arcona, Thielbek, Athen, and Deutschland moored in the Bay of Lübeck (Baltic Sea). Hundreds of concentration camp prisoners are killed on the sinking ships because intelligence they are on board is not passed on to the flight crews.[54]7 May: The final European dogfight of World War II, between a small American L-4 Grasshopper liaison aircraft using personal .45 caliber pistols, and a small German liaison aircraft, a Fieseler Fi 156 Storch, forced the German aircrew to land and surrender.","title":"1945"}]
|
[{"image_text":"People in London look at a map illustrating how the RAF is striking back at Germany during 1940","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/A_British_airman_is_amongst_a_group_of_civilians_crowded_around_the_window_of_a_shop_in_Holborn%2C_London%2C_to_look_at_a_map_illustrating_how_the_RAF_is_striking_back_at_Germany_during_1940._D1254.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"23 June 1943 RAF reconnaissance photo of Peenemünde Test Stand VII","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Peenemunde-165515.jpg/220px-Peenemunde-165515.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dortmund city center in April 1945.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Reconnaissance_Photo_Aerial_View_Dortmund.jpg/220px-Reconnaissance_Photo_Aerial_View_Dortmund.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Irving, David (1964). The Mare's Nest. London: William Kimber and Co. p. 223. ISBN 0-586-06368-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Irving","url_text":"Irving, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-586-06368-4","url_text":"0-586-06368-4"}]},{"reference":"McKillop, Jack. \"Combat Chronology of the USAAF\". Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070610115615/http://www.usaaf.net/chron/index.htm","url_text":"\"Combat Chronology of the USAAF\""},{"url":"http://www.usaaf.net/chron/index.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Falconer, Jonathon (1998). The Bomber Command Handbook 1939-1945. Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7509-1819-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7509-1819-0","url_text":"978-0-7509-1819-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Sgt. (Pilot) Albert Stanley Prince - The First of the Ten Thousand\". bombercommandmuseum.ca. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150703064233/http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/prince.html","url_text":"\"Sgt. (Pilot) Albert Stanley Prince - The First of the Ten Thousand\""},{"url":"http://www.bombercommandmuseum.ca/prince.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Haarr, Geirr H. (2013). The Gathering Storm: The Naval War in Northern Europe September 1939 - April 1940. Seaforth Publishing. pp. 227–230. ISBN 9781473832732.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=v8A7BAAAQBAJ&dq=Brunsbuttel%3A+two+Wellingtons+shot+down&pg=PA227","url_text":"227–230"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473832732","url_text":"9781473832732"}]},{"reference":"\"Flying Officer HERBERT BRIAN LIGHTOLLER\". www.cwgc.org. 15 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cwgc.org/find-records/find-war-dead/casualty-details/2073914/herbert-brian-lightoller/","url_text":"\"Flying Officer HERBERT BRIAN LIGHTOLLER\""}]},{"reference":"Northway, B.S., ed. (1963). A History of 107 Squadron. Tuddenham, UK: No. 107 Squadron RAF. p. 22.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Bombing of Warsaw\". University of Richmond. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110720035157/https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~wgreen/ECDwarsaw.html","url_text":"\"Bombing of Warsaw\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Richmond","url_text":"University of Richmond"},{"url":"https://facultystaff.richmond.edu/~wgreen/ECDwarsaw.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Galland, Adolf (1968) [1954]. The First and the Last: The Rise and Fall of the German Fighter Forces, 1938–1945. (translated by Mervyn Savill). New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-553-11709-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Galland","url_text":"Galland, Adolf"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/firstlastrisefal00gall","url_text":"The First and the Last: The Rise and Fall of the German Fighter Forces, 1938–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-11709-2","url_text":"0-553-11709-2"}]},{"reference":"\"German and Allied Air Forces\". bc.edu. Retrieved 22 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.bc.edu/~heineman/chronology.html","url_text":"\"German and Allied Air Forces\""}]},{"reference":"Miller, Donald L. (2006). Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7432-3544-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mastersofair00dona","url_text":"Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mastersofair00dona/page/118","url_text":"118"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-3544-0","url_text":"978-0-7432-3544-0"}]},{"reference":"Overy, Richard (1997). Why the Allies Won. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-393-31619-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Overy","url_text":"Overy, Richard"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=boJ-K6sX-VsC&pg=PA108","url_text":"Why the Allies Won"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31619-3","url_text":"978-0-393-31619-3"}]},{"reference":"Jablonski, Edward (1971). Volume 1 (Tragic Victories), Book II (The Big League). p. 71.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Forrester, Larry (1973) [1956]. Fly for Your Life: The Story of R. R. Stanford Tuck, D.S.O, D.F.C. and Two Bars. Sir Max Aitken (Foreword). Garden City, New York: Nelson Doubleday. ISBN 0-553-11642-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-11642-8","url_text":"0-553-11642-8"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Reginald Victor (1978). Most Secret War. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. ISBN 0-2418-9746-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mostsecretwar0000jone","url_text":"Most Secret War"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2418-9746-7","url_text":"0-2418-9746-7"}]},{"reference":"Michael Omer-Man (9 September 2011). \"This Week in History: Italy bombs Tel Aviv\". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 6 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=237327","url_text":"\"This Week in History: Italy bombs Tel Aviv\""}]},{"reference":"Seversky, Alexander P. de (1942). Victory Through Air Power. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 145. \"Destruction of enemy morale from the air can be accomplished only by precision bombing.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_Through_Air_Power","url_text":"Victory Through Air Power"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/victorythroughai00dese/page/145","url_text":"145"}]},{"reference":"\"RAF History - Bomber Command 60th Anniversary\". 28 March 2006. Archived from the original on 28 March 2006. Retrieved 5 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060328212921/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_3.html","url_text":"\"RAF History - Bomber Command 60th Anniversary\""},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_3.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Whirlwind: Bombing Germany (September 1939 – April 1944)\", The World at War, 1974","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_at_War","url_text":"The World at War"}]},{"reference":"\"April 1942: Bombenhagel auf Rostock\". www.ndr.de.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ndr.de/geschichte/chronologie/April-1942-Bombenhagel-auf-Rostock,bombenaufrostock101.html","url_text":"\"April 1942: Bombenhagel auf Rostock\""}]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Air Forces Central Command\". www.afcent.af.mil.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.afcent.af.mil/","url_text":"\"U.S. Air Forces Central Command\""}]},{"reference":"Lang, Walter (1998) [199]. United States Military Almanac: a Chronological Compendium of Over 200 Years of American History. Avenel NJ: Random House. p. 102,106–7. ISBN 1-84065-001-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84065-001-X","url_text":"1-84065-001-X"}]},{"reference":"\"History | Diehl Group\". Archived from the original on 23 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210823192216/https://www.diehl.com/group/en/company/history/","url_text":"\"History | Diehl Group\""},{"url":"https://www.diehl.com/group/en/company/history/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Eddy (original text) (1966) [1972]. Illustrated World War II Encyclopedia. H. S. Stuttman Inc. p. 1478 (Vol 11), 1999 (Vol 15), 2059,2068. ISBN 0-87475-520-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld11baue/page/1478","url_text":"Illustrated World War II Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/illustratedworld11baue/page/1478","url_text":"1478 (Vol 11), 1999 (Vol 15), 2059,2068"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87475-520-4","url_text":"0-87475-520-4"}]},{"reference":"Cunliffe, Peter W. (2011). A Shaky Do: The Skoda Works Raid 16/17th April 1943. Accycunliffes Publications. ISBN 978-0955795725.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0955795725","url_text":"978-0955795725"}]},{"reference":"Russell, Francis; et al. (1981). The Secret War. World War II. Chicago: Time-Life Books Inc. p. 104, 145,149. ISBN 0-16-049376-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/secretwar00russ","url_text":"The Secret War"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/secretwar00russ/page/104","url_text":"104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-049376-5","url_text":"0-16-049376-5"}]},{"reference":"Middlebrook, Martin (1982). The Peenemünde Raid: The Night of 17–18 August 1943. New York: Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52759-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-52759-6","url_text":"0-672-52759-6"}]},{"reference":"Zaloga, Steven J. (2008) [2007]. German V-Weapon Sites 1943-45. Fortress (72). illustrated by Johnson, Hugh & Taylor, Chris. New York: Osprey Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84603-247-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-247-9","url_text":"978-1-84603-247-9"}]},{"reference":"Collier, Basil (1976) [1964]. The Battle of the V-Weapons, 1944–1945. Yorkshire: The Emfield Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-7057-0070-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7057-0070-4","url_text":"0-7057-0070-4"}]},{"reference":"Levine, Alan J (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood Publishing. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6. Retrieved 30 June 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LZ99c7ZlxxQC","url_text":"The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94319-6","url_text":"978-0-275-94319-6"}]},{"reference":"Radinger, Will and Walter Schick. (1996). Me 262 (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH. p. 51.","urls":[]},{"reference":"de Bie, Rob. \"Me 163B Komet - Me 163B Airfields\". Retrieved 22 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://robdebie.home.xs4all.nl/me163/airfield.htm","url_text":"\"Me 163B Komet - Me 163B Airfields\""}]},{"reference":"Levine, Alan J (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-275-94319-6. Retrieved 30 June 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LZ99c7ZlxxQC","url_text":"The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94319-6","url_text":"978-0-275-94319-6"}]},{"reference":"\"LT COL Robert ROSENTHAL\". 100thbg.com. Retrieved 3 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://100thbg.com/index.php?option=com_bombgrp&view=personnel&Itemid=334&id=4475","url_text":"\"LT COL Robert ROSENTHAL\""}]},{"reference":"Tinschert, Carlo (2005). Boodschap aan de bevolking van Den Haag : oorzaken, gevolgen en nasleep van het mislukte bombardement op het Bezuidenhout, 3 maart 1945 (in Dutch). Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers. ISBN 90-12-11188-9. OCLC 71711568.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71711568","url_text":"Boodschap aan de bevolking van Den Haag : oorzaken, gevolgen en nasleep van het mislukte bombardement op het Bezuidenhout, 3 maart 1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-12-11188-9","url_text":"90-12-11188-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71711568","url_text":"71711568"}]},{"reference":"\"1944 air raids\". Historisches Centrum Hagen. historisches-centrum.de. Retrieved 24 June 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historisches-centrum.de/index.php?id=418","url_text":"\"1944 air raids\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ten Tonner - video of a Grand Slam being dropped on the Bielefeld Viaduct\". Movietone News/youtube.com. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-Mm-zFW_nA","url_text":"\"Ten Tonner - video of a Grand Slam being dropped on the Bielefeld Viaduct\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211214/R-Mm-zFW_nA","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"V-2s on Remagen; Attacks on the Ludendorff Bridge\". V2Rocket.com. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.v2rocket.com/start/deployment/v2s-on-remagen.html","url_text":"\"V-2s on Remagen; Attacks on the Ludendorff Bridge\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141114012341/http://www.v2rocket.com/start/deployment/v2s-on-remagen.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Mission 894\". www.8thafhs.com. Retrieved 7 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.8thafhs.com/get_one_mission.php?mission_id=1907","url_text":"\"Mission 894\""}]},{"reference":"King, Benjamin; Timothy Kutta (2003). Impact: The History of Germany's V-Weapons in World War II. Da Capo Press. p. 309. ISBN 0-306-81292-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81292-4","url_text":"0-306-81292-4"}]},{"reference":"Smith, J. Richard & Eddie J. Creek (1997). Blitz!: Germany's Arado Ar 234 Jet Bomber. Merriam Press. p. 23. ISBN 9781576380079.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bb1ywW6WjIkC&dq=Arado+Ar+234+britain+april+1945&pg=PA23","url_text":"23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781576380079","url_text":"9781576380079"}]},{"reference":"Flower, Stephen (2004). Barnes Wallis' Bombs. Researched from the original records and interviews with those involved with the development and use of the bombs. Stroud: Tempus. pp. 362–64. ISBN 0-7524-2987-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7524-2987-6","url_text":"0-7524-2987-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Remembering the last raid on Nazi Germany\". BBC News. 9 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-32608774","url_text":"\"Remembering the last raid on Nazi Germany\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"Till, Major Noel O (September 1945). Report on Investigations, WO 309/1592. No. 2 War Crimes Investigation Team. From the Till report of June 1945: \"The Intelligence Officer with 83 Group RAF has admitted on two occasions; first to Lt H. F. Ansell of this Team (when it was confirmed by a Wing Commander present), and on a second occasion to the Investigating Officer when he was accompanied by Lt. H. F. Ansell, that a message was received on 2 May 1945 that these ships were loaded with KZ prisoners but that, although there was ample time to warn the pilots of the planes who attacked these ships on the following day, by some oversight the message was never passed on... From the facts and from the statement volunteered by the RAF Intelligence Officer, it appears that the primary responsibility for this great loss of life must fall on the British RAF personnel who failed to pass to the pilots the message they received concerning the presence of KZ prisoners on board these ships.\" See: Jacobs and Pool, 2004 and Till, 1945","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Campaign Diary\". Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary. UK Crown. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007. Retrieved 22 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary.html","url_text":"\"Campaign Diary\""},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"May-June 1940 (Battle of France), archived from the original on 7 December 2008","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081207002424/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_france.html","url_text":"May-June 1940 (Battle of France)"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_france.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"July-December 1940","urls":[{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_france.html","url_text":"July-December 1940"}]},{"reference":"June-October 1940 (Battle of Britain), archived from the original on 6 July 2007","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_bob.html","url_text":"June-October 1940 (Battle of Britain)"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary_bob.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"January-April 1941, archived from the original on 11 October 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121011155524/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_1.html","url_text":"January-April 1941"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"May-August 1941, archived from the original on 3 March 2009","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090303223416/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_2.html","url_text":"May-August 1941"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"September- December 1941, archived from the original on 14 October 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121014104430/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_7.html","url_text":"September- December 1941"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/diary1941_7.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"January 1942, archived from the original on 7 December 2008","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081207003320/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan42.html","url_text":"January 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"February 1942, archived from the original on 7 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070607044832/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb42.html","url_text":"February 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"March 1942, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611025139/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar42.html","url_text":"March 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"April 1942, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611025139/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr42.html","url_text":"April 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"May 1942, archived from the original on 29 September 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120929070535/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may42.html","url_text":"May 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"June 1942, archived from the original on 6 July 2007","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun42.html","url_text":"June 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"July 1942, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032112/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul42.html","url_text":"July 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"August 1942, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611030306/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug42.html","url_text":"August 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"September 1942, archived from the original on 10 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070610105237/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep42.html","url_text":"September 1942"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep42.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"October 1942, archived from the original on 6 July 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2006","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060221074735/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan43.html","url_text":"January 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"February 1943, archived from the original on 21 February 2006","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060221074327/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb43.html","url_text":"February 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"March 1943, archived from the original on 15 May 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070515080726/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar43.html","url_text":"March 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"April 1943, archived from the original on 7 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070607040716/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr43.html","url_text":"April 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"May 1943, archived from the original on 6 March 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002542/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may43.html","url_text":"May 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"June 1943, archived from the original on 21 February 2006","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060221074751/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun43.html","url_text":"June 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jun43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"July 19431943, archived from the original on 4 May 2009","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090504112357/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul43.html","url_text":"July 19431943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jul43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"August 1943, archived from the original on 11 October 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121011115432/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug43.html","url_text":"August 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/aug43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"September 1943, archived from the original on 29 September 2004","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040929002241/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep43.html","url_text":"September 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/sep43.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"October 1943, archived from the original on 3 March 2009","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090303235000/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/oct43.html","url_text":"October 1943"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/oct43.html","url_text":"the 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2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071112173933/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb44.html","url_text":"February 1944"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb44.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"March 1944, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611031914/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar44.html","url_text":"March 1944"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar44.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"April 1944, archived from the original on 21 February 2006","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060221074831/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr44.html","url_text":"April 1944"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr44.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"May 1944, archived from the original on 9 April 2013","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130409100024/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/may44.html","url_text":"May 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2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606110620/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/nov44.html","url_text":"November 1944"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/nov44.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"December 1944, archived from the original on 6 June 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110606110620/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/dec44.html","url_text":"December 1944"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/dec44.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"January 1945, archived from the original on 11 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070611024304/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan45.html","url_text":"January 1945"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/jan45.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"February 1945], archived from the original on 7 June 2007","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070607042346/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb45.html","url_text":"February 1945]"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/feb45.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"March 1945, archived from the original on 6 July 2007","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar45.html","url_text":"March 1945"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/mar45.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"April 1945, archived from the original on 28 July 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120728094923/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr45.html","url_text":"April 1945"},{"url":"http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr45.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Mode_Extensions
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Virtual 8086 mode
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["1 Overview","2 Usage","3 Memory addressing and interrupts","4 Virtual-8086 mode extensions (VME)","5 64-bit and VMX support","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]
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Feature of specific microprocessor
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Part of a series onMicroprocessor modes for the x86 architecture
Real mode (Intel 8086)
8080 emulation mode (NEC V20/V30 only)
Protected mode (Intel 80286)
Unreal mode (Intel 80286)
Virtual 8086 mode (Intel 80386)
System Management Mode (Intel 386SL)
Long mode (AMD Athlon 64)
x86 virtualization (Intel Pentium 4, AMD Athlon 64)
AIS mode (VIA C3 only)
First supported platform shown in parenthesesvte
In the 80386 microprocessor and later, virtual 8086 mode (also called virtual real mode, V86-mode, or VM86) allows the execution of real mode applications that are incapable of running directly in protected mode while the processor is running a protected mode operating system. It is a hardware virtualization technique that allowed multiple 8086 processors to be emulated by the 386 chip. It emerged from the painful experiences with the 80286 protected mode, which by itself was not suitable to run concurrent real-mode applications well. John Crawford developed the Virtual Mode bit at the register set, paving the way to this environment.
VM86 mode uses a segmentation scheme identical to that of real mode (for compatibility reasons), which creates 20-bit linear addresses in the same manner as 20-bit physical addresses are created in real mode, but are subject to protected mode's memory paging mechanism.
Overview
The virtual 8086 mode is a mode for a protected-mode task. Consequently, the processor can switch between VM86 and non-VM86 tasks, enabling multitasking legacy (DOS) applications.
To use virtual 8086 mode, an operating system sets up a virtual 8086 mode monitor, which is a program that manages the real-mode program and emulates or filters access to system hardware and software resources. The monitor must run at privilege level 0 and in protected mode. Only the 8086 program runs in VM86 mode and at privilege level 3. When the real-mode program attempts to do things like access certain I/O ports to use hardware devices or access certain regions in its memory space, the CPU traps these events and calls the V86 monitor, which examines what the real mode program is trying to do and either acts as a proxy to interface with the hardware, emulates the intended function the real-mode program was trying to access, or terminates the real-mode program if it is trying to do something that cannot either be allowed or be adequately supported (such as reboot the machine, set a video display into a mode that is not supported by the hardware and is not emulated, or write over operating system code).
The V86 monitor can also deny permission gently by emulating the failure of a requested operation—for example, it can make a disk drive always appear not ready when in fact it has not even checked the drive but simply will not permit the real-mode program to access it. Also, the V86 monitor can do things like map memory pages, intercept calls and interrupts, and preempt the real-mode program, allowing real-mode programs to be multitasked like protected-mode programs. By intercepting the hardware and software I/O of the real-mode program and tracking the state that the V86 program expects, it can allow multiple programs to share the same hardware without interfering with each other. So V86 mode provides a way for real-mode programs designed for a single-tasking environment (like DOS) to run concurrently in a multitasking environment.
Usage
It is used to execute certain DOS programs in
FlexOS 386 (since 1987), Concurrent DOS 386 (since 1987), Windows/386 2.10 (since 1987), DESQview 386 (since 1988), Windows 3.x (since 1990), Multiuser DOS (since 1991), Windows for Workgroups 3.1x (since 1992), OS/2 2.x (since 1992), 4690 OS (since 1993), REAL/32 (since 1995) running in 386 Enhanced Mode as well as in Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME through virtual DOS machines, in SCO UNIX through Merge, and in Linux through DOSEMU. (Other DOS programs which use protected mode execute using user mode under the emulator.) NTVDM in x86 Windows NT-based operating systems also use VM86 mode, but with very limited direct hardware access. Some boot loaders (e.g. GRUB) use the protected mode, and execute the BIOS interrupt calls in Virtual 8086 mode.
Memory addressing and interrupts
The most common problem by running 8086 code from protected mode is memory addressing which is totally different between protected mode and real mode.
As mentioned, by working under VM86 mode the segmentation mechanism is reconfigured to work just like under real mode, but the paging mechanism is still active, and it is transparent to the real mode code; thus, memory protection is still applicable, and so is the isolation of the address space.
When interrupts (hardware, software and int instruction) occur, the processor switches off the VM86 mode and returns to work in full protected mode to handle the interrupt. Also, before servicing the interrupt, the DS, ES, FS, and GS registers are pushed on the new stack and zeroed.
Virtual-8086 mode extensions (VME)
The Pentium architecture added a number of enhancements to the virtual 8086 mode. These were however documented by Intel only starting with the subsequent P6 (microarchitecture); their more recent formal name is Virtual-8086 Mode Extensions, abbreviated VME (older documentation may use "Virtual 8086 mode enhancements" as the VME acronym expansion). Some later Intel 486 chips also support it. The enhancements address mainly the 8086 virtualization overhead, with a particular focus on (virtual) interrupts. Before the extensions were publicly documented in the P6 documentation, the official documentation referred to the famed Appendix H, which was omitted from the public documentation and shared only with selected partners under NDA.
Activating VME is done by setting bit number 0 (0x1 in value) of CR4. Because the VME interrupt speed-up enhancements were found useful for non-VM86 protected tasks, they can also be enabled separately by setting only bit number 1 (0x2 in value), which is called PVI (Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts). Detecting whether a processor supports VME (including PVI) is done using the CPUID instruction, with an initial EAX value of 0x1, by testing the value of second bit (bit number 1, 0x2 in value) in EDX register, which is set if VME is supported by the processor. In Linux, this latter bit is reported as the vme flag in the /proc/cpuinfo file, under the "flags" section.
In virtual 8086 mode, the basic idea is that when IOPL is less than 3, PUSHF/POPF/STI/CLI/INT/IRET instructions will treat the value of VIF in the real 32-bit EFLAGS register as the value of IF in the simulated 16-bit FLAGS register (32-bit PUSHFD/POPFD continues to GP fault). VIP will cause a GP fault on the setting of simulated IF, directing the OS to process any pending interrupts. PVI is the same idea but only affects CLI/STI instructions.
First generation AMD Ryzen CPUs have been found to feature a broken VME implementation. The second generation Ryzen (2000 series) has fixed this issue.
64-bit and VMX support
Virtual 8086 mode is not available in x86-64 long mode, although it is still present on x86-64 capable processors running in legacy mode.
Intel VT-x brings back the ability to run virtual 8086 mode from x86-64 long mode, but it has to be done by transitioning the (physical) processor to VMX root mode and launching a logical (virtual) processor itself running in virtual 8086 mode.
Westmere and later Intel processors usually can start the virtual processor directly in real mode using the "unrestricted guest" feature (which itself requires Extended Page Tables); this method removes the need to resort to the nested virtual 8086 mode simply to run the legacy BIOS for booting.
AMD-V can do virtual 8086 mode in guests, too, but it can also just run the guest in "paged real mode" using the following steps: you create a SVM (Secure Virtual Machine) mode guest with CR0.PE=0, but CR0.PG=1 (that is, with protected mode disabled but paging enabled), which is ordinarily impossible, but is allowed for SVM guests if the host intercepts page faults.
See also
IA-32
x86 assembly language
Notes
^ For example, if one program writes to a display, then another program gets control and writes to the same display, and then the first program gets control back, it will try to use the display as if the second program had not changed it. The V86 monitor can intercept the display writes, keep track of the display state for each program, and switch the real display between them according to which program the user has selected to interact with presently. The V86 monitor emulates independent displays for each program using only one real display.
^ DOS is mentioned because it was especially the extensive library of existing DOS programs that Intel had in mind when they designed V86 mode.
References
^ Yager, Tom (November 5, 2004). "Sending software to do hardware's job". InfoWorld. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
^ Gnomes, Lee; "Behind The Scenes: The Making of the 386", Intel Corporation, Special 32-Bit Issue Solutions, November/December 1985, page 19
^ "Windows NT 4.0 Workstation Architecture". Microsoft.
^ Mike Wang. "Grub2 Booting Process". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Virtual 8086 Mode - OSDev Wiki". wiki.osdev.org. Retrieved 2020-12-10.
^ a b c d e T. Shanley (1998). Pentium Pro and Pentium II System Architecture. Addison-Wesley. pp. 427, 465–480. ISBN 978-0-201-30973-7.
^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3 (3A, 3B, 3C & 3D): System Programming Guide. Intel. May 2020. p. 2-17.
^ "Mailing List Archive: Re: 2.6.14: CR4 not needed to be inspected on the 486 anymore?". Gossamer-threads.com. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
^ a b "Pentium Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts (PVI)". Rcollins.org. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
^ "Virtual Mode Extensions on the Pentium Processor". Rcollins.org. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 2 (2A, 2B, 2C & 2D): Instruction Set Reference, A-Z. Intel. May 2020. pp. 3–199, 3–221, 3–222.
^ Michal Necasek (May 12, 2017). "VME Broken on AMD Ryzen". OS/2 Museum.
^ "Revision Guide for AMD Family 17h Models 00h-0Fh Processors" (PDF). AMD. June 2018.
^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3B: System Programming Guide, Part 2 (PDF). Intel. September 2009. p. 29-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 5, 2010. a VM entry is allowed only to guests with paging enabled that are in protected mode or in virtual-8086 mode. Guest execution in other processor operating modes need to be specially handled by the VMM; see also CS 686: Special Topic: Intel EM64T and VT Extensions (Spring 2007), lesson 24 how to do this from Linux (not that the code is pretty dated, so might not work as-is with current kernels) more up-to-date code can be found here. Also beware that this sample code is more complicated than strictly booting the logical processor in virtual 8086 mode; its ultimate goal is make some real-mode BIOS calls.
^ "Intel Virtualization Technology List". Ark.intel.com. Archived from the original on 2014-02-10. Retrieved 2014-02-20. A list of Intel processors that support VT-x but not EPT
^ "Intel added unrestricted guest mode on Westmere micro-architecture and later Intel CPUs, it uses EPT to translate guest physical address access to host physical address. With this mode, VMEnter without enable paging is allowed."
^ "If the “unrestricted guest” VM-execution control is 1, the “enable EPT” VM-execution control must also be 1"
^ "15.19 Paged Real Mode". AMD64 Architecture Programmer's Manual, Volume 2: System Programming (PDF). Rev. 3.38. Advanced Micro Devices. November 2021. pp. 515–516. To facilitate virtualization of real mode, the VMRUN instruction may legally load a guest CR0 value with PE = 0 but PG = 1. Likewise, the RSM instruction is permitted to return to paged real mode. This processor mode behaves in every way like real mode, with the exception that paging is applied. The intent is that the VMM run the guest in paged-real mode at CPL0, and with page faults intercepted. The VMM is responsible for setting up a shadow page table that maps guest physical memory to the appropriate system physical addresses. The behavior of running a guest in paged real mode without intercepting page faults to the VMM is undefined.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"80386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"incapable of running","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode#Real_mode_application_compatibility"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"hardware virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_virtualization"},{"link_name":"80286 protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286#Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"John Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Crawford_(engineer)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"segmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_memory_segmentation"},{"link_name":"paging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging"}],"text":"In the 80386 microprocessor and later, virtual 8086 mode (also called virtual real mode, V86-mode, or VM86) allows the execution of real mode applications that are incapable of running directly in protected mode while the processor is running a protected mode operating system. It is a hardware virtualization technique that allowed multiple 8086 processors to be emulated by the 386 chip. It emerged from the painful experiences with the 80286 protected mode, which by itself was not suitable to run concurrent real-mode applications well.[1] John Crawford developed the Virtual Mode bit at the register set, paving the way to this environment.[2]VM86 mode uses a segmentation scheme identical to that of real mode (for compatibility reasons), which creates 20-bit linear addresses in the same manner as 20-bit physical addresses are created in real mode, but are subject to protected mode's memory paging mechanism.","title":"Virtual 8086 mode"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protected-mode task","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_state_segment"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"privilege level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privilege_level"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The virtual 8086 mode is a mode for a protected-mode task. Consequently, the processor can switch between VM86 and non-VM86 tasks, enabling multitasking legacy (DOS) applications.To use virtual 8086 mode, an operating system sets up a virtual 8086 mode monitor, which is a program that manages the real-mode program and emulates or filters access to system hardware and software resources. The monitor must run at privilege level 0 and in protected mode. Only the 8086 program runs in VM86 mode and at privilege level 3. When the real-mode program attempts to do things like access certain I/O ports to use hardware devices or access certain regions in its memory space, the CPU traps these events and calls the V86 monitor, which examines what the real mode program is trying to do and either acts as a proxy to interface with the hardware, emulates the intended function the real-mode program was trying to access, or terminates the real-mode program if it is trying to do something that cannot either be allowed or be adequately supported (such as reboot the machine, set a video display into a mode that is not supported by the hardware and is not emulated, or write over operating system code).The V86 monitor can also deny permission gently by emulating the failure of a requested operation—for example, it can make a disk drive always appear not ready when in fact it has not even checked the drive but simply will not permit the real-mode program to access it. Also, the V86 monitor can do things like map memory pages, intercept calls and interrupts, and preempt the real-mode program, allowing real-mode programs to be multitasked like protected-mode programs. By intercepting the hardware and software I/O of the real-mode program and tracking the state that the V86 program expects, it can allow multiple programs to share the same hardware without interfering with each other.[a] So V86 mode provides a way for real-mode programs designed for a single-tasking environment (like DOS[b]) to run concurrently in a multitasking environment.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"FlexOS 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlexOS_386"},{"link_name":"Concurrent DOS 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_DOS_386"},{"link_name":"Windows/386 2.10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows/386_2.10"},{"link_name":"DESQview 386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESQview#DESQview_and_QEMM"},{"link_name":"Windows 3.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0"},{"link_name":"Multiuser DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS"},{"link_name":"Windows for Workgroups 3.1x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_for_Workgroups"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"4690 OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4690_Operating_System"},{"link_name":"REAL/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS#REAL/32"},{"link_name":"386 Enhanced Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0"},{"link_name":"Windows 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95"},{"link_name":"98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98"},{"link_name":"98 SE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98_SE"},{"link_name":"ME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_ME"},{"link_name":"virtual DOS machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_DOS_machine"},{"link_name":"SCO UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_UNIX"},{"link_name":"Merge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge_(software)"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"DOSEMU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOSEMU"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"NTVDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_DOS_machine#NTVDM"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"GRUB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRUB"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"BIOS interrupt calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_interrupt_calls"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"It is used to execute certain DOS programs in \nFlexOS 386 (since 1987), Concurrent DOS 386 (since 1987), Windows/386 2.10 (since 1987), DESQview 386 (since 1988), Windows 3.x (since 1990), Multiuser DOS (since 1991), Windows for Workgroups 3.1x (since 1992), OS/2 2.x (since 1992), 4690 OS (since 1993), REAL/32 (since 1995) running in 386 Enhanced Mode as well as in Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME through virtual DOS machines, in SCO UNIX through Merge, and in Linux through DOSEMU. (Other DOS programs which use protected mode execute using user mode under the emulator.) NTVDM in x86 Windows NT-based operating systems also use VM86 mode,[3] but with very limited direct hardware access. Some boot loaders (e.g. GRUB) use the protected mode, and execute the BIOS interrupt calls in Virtual 8086 mode.[4][5]","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"memory addressing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_addressing"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"segmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_memory_segmentation"},{"link_name":"paging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging"},{"link_name":"memory protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_protection"}],"text":"The most common problem by running 8086 code from protected mode is memory addressing which is totally different between protected mode and real mode.\nAs mentioned, by working under VM86 mode the segmentation mechanism is reconfigured to work just like under real mode, but the paging mechanism is still active, and it is transparent to the real mode code; thus, memory protection is still applicable, and so is the isolation of the address space.When interrupts (hardware, software and int instruction) occur, the processor switches off the VM86 mode and returns to work in full protected mode to handle the interrupt. Also, before servicing the interrupt, the DS, ES, FS, and GS registers are pushed on the new stack and zeroed.","title":"Memory addressing and interrupts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P6 (microarchitecture)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P6_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shanley1998-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shanley1998-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pvi1-11"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shanley1998-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Appendix H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appendix_H"},{"link_name":"NDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement"},{"link_name":"CR4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_register#CR4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shanley1998-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pvi1-11"},{"link_name":"CPUID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUID"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shanley1998-8"},{"link_name":"flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_flag_(x86)"},{"link_name":"cpuinfo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cpuinfo"},{"link_name":"AMD Ryzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Ryzen"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The Pentium architecture added a number of enhancements to the virtual 8086 mode. These were however documented by Intel only starting with the subsequent P6 (microarchitecture);[6] their more recent formal name is Virtual-8086 Mode Extensions, abbreviated VME[7] (older documentation may use \"Virtual 8086 mode enhancements\" as the VME acronym expansion).[6] Some later Intel 486 chips also support it.[8][9] The enhancements address mainly the 8086 virtualization overhead, with a particular focus on (virtual) interrupts.[6][10] Before the extensions were publicly documented in the P6 documentation, the official documentation referred to the famed Appendix H, which was omitted from the public documentation and shared only with selected partners under NDA.Activating VME is done by setting bit number 0 (0x1 in value) of CR4. Because the VME interrupt speed-up enhancements were found useful for non-VM86 protected tasks, they can also be enabled separately by setting only bit number 1 (0x2 in value), which is called PVI (Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts).[6][9] Detecting whether a processor supports VME (including PVI) is done using the CPUID instruction, with an initial EAX value of 0x1, by testing the value of second bit (bit number 1, 0x2 in value) in EDX register, which is set if VME is supported by the processor.[11][6] In Linux, this latter bit is reported as the vme flag in the /proc/cpuinfo file, under the \"flags\" section.In virtual 8086 mode, the basic idea is that when IOPL is less than 3, PUSHF/POPF/STI/CLI/INT/IRET instructions will treat the value of VIF in the real 32-bit EFLAGS register as the value of IF in the simulated 16-bit FLAGS register (32-bit PUSHFD/POPFD continues to GP fault). VIP will cause a GP fault on the setting of simulated IF, directing the OS to process any pending interrupts. PVI is the same idea but only affects CLI/STI instructions.First generation AMD Ryzen CPUs have been found to feature a broken VME implementation.[12] The second generation Ryzen (2000 series) has fixed this issue.[13]","title":"Virtual-8086 mode extensions (VME)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"long mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode"},{"link_name":"legacy mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64#Legacy_mode"},{"link_name":"Intel VT-x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_VT-x"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Westmere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westmere_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Extended Page Tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Page_Table"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"AMD-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD-V"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Virtual 8086 mode is not available in x86-64 long mode, although it is still present on x86-64 capable processors running in legacy mode.Intel VT-x brings back the ability to run virtual 8086 mode from x86-64 long mode, but it has to be done by transitioning the (physical) processor to VMX root mode and launching a logical (virtual) processor itself running in virtual 8086 mode.[14]Westmere and later Intel processors usually[15] can start the virtual processor directly in real mode using the \"unrestricted guest\" feature (which itself requires Extended Page Tables); this method removes the need to resort to the nested virtual 8086 mode simply to run the legacy BIOS for booting.[16][17]AMD-V can do virtual 8086 mode in guests, too, but it can also just run the guest in \"paged real mode\" using the following steps: you create a SVM (Secure Virtual Machine) mode guest with CR0.PE=0, but CR0.PG=1 (that is, with protected mode disabled but paging enabled), which is ordinarily impossible, but is allowed for SVM guests if the host intercepts page faults.[18]","title":"64-bit and VMX support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"}],"text":"^ For example, if one program writes to a display, then another program gets control and writes to the same display, and then the first program gets control back, it will try to use the display as if the second program had not changed it. The V86 monitor can intercept the display writes, keep track of the display state for each program, and switch the real display between them according to which program the user has selected to interact with presently. The V86 monitor emulates independent displays for each program using only one real display.\n\n^ DOS is mentioned because it was especially the extensive library of existing DOS programs that Intel had in mind when they designed V86 mode.","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"IA-32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IA-32"},{"title":"x86 assembly language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_assembly_language"}]
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[{"reference":"Yager, Tom (November 5, 2004). \"Sending software to do hardware's job\". InfoWorld. Retrieved January 27, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.infoworld.com/article/2664741/computer-hardware/sending-software-to-do-hardware-s-job.html","url_text":"\"Sending software to do hardware's job\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"\"Windows NT 4.0 Workstation Architecture\". Microsoft.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windowsnt/4/workstation/reskit/en-us/archi.mspx?pf=true#E5PAE","url_text":"\"Windows NT 4.0 Workstation Architecture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Mike Wang. \"Grub2 Booting Process\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.slideshare.net/MikeWang45/grub2-booting-process","url_text":"\"Grub2 Booting Process\""}]},{"reference":"\"Virtual 8086 Mode - OSDev Wiki\". wiki.osdev.org. Retrieved 2020-12-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://wiki.osdev.org/Virtual_8086_Mode","url_text":"\"Virtual 8086 Mode - OSDev Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"T. Shanley (1998). Pentium Pro and Pentium II System Architecture. Addison-Wesley. pp. 427, 465–480. ISBN 978-0-201-30973-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MLJClvCYh34C&pg=PA427","url_text":"Pentium Pro and Pentium II System Architecture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-30973-7","url_text":"978-0-201-30973-7"}]},{"reference":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3 (3A, 3B, 3C & 3D): System Programming Guide. Intel. May 2020. p. 2-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://software.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/download/intel-64-and-ia-32-architectures-sdm-combined-volumes-3a-3b-3c-and-3d-system-programming-guide.html","url_text":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3 (3A, 3B, 3C & 3D): System Programming Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"}]},{"reference":"\"Mailing List Archive: Re: 2.6.14: CR4 not needed to be inspected on the 486 anymore?\". Gossamer-threads.com. Retrieved 2014-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gossamer-threads.com/lists/linux/kernel/585146?do=post_view_threaded#585146","url_text":"\"Mailing List Archive: Re: 2.6.14: CR4 not needed to be inspected on the 486 anymore?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pentium Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts (PVI)\". Rcollins.org. Retrieved 2014-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rcollins.org/articles/pvi1/pvi1.html","url_text":"\"Pentium Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts (PVI)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Virtual Mode Extensions on the Pentium Processor\". Rcollins.org. Retrieved 2014-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rcollins.org/articles/vme1/","url_text":"\"Virtual Mode Extensions on the Pentium Processor\""}]},{"reference":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 2 (2A, 2B, 2C & 2D): Instruction Set Reference, A-Z. Intel. May 2020. pp. 3–199, 3–221, 3–222.","urls":[{"url":"https://software.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/download/intel-64-and-ia-32-architectures-sdm-combined-volumes-2a-2b-2c-and-2d-instruction-set-reference-a-z.html","url_text":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 2 (2A, 2B, 2C & 2D): Instruction Set Reference, A-Z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"}]},{"reference":"Michal Necasek (May 12, 2017). \"VME Broken on AMD Ryzen\". OS/2 Museum.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.os2museum.com/wp/vme-broken-on-amd-ryzen/","url_text":"\"VME Broken on AMD Ryzen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Revision Guide for AMD Family 17h Models 00h-0Fh Processors\" (PDF). AMD. June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://support.amd.com/TechDocs/55449_Fam_17h_M_00h-0Fh_Rev_Guide.pdf","url_text":"\"Revision Guide for AMD Family 17h Models 00h-0Fh Processors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices","url_text":"AMD"}]},{"reference":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3B: System Programming Guide, Part 2 (PDF). Intel. September 2009. p. 29-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 5, 2010. a VM entry is allowed only to guests with paging enabled that are in protected mode or in virtual-8086 mode. Guest execution in other processor operating modes need to be specially handled by the VMM","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105142519/http://www.intel.com/Assets/en_US/PDF/manual/253669.pdf","url_text":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3B: System Programming Guide, Part 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"},{"url":"http://www.intel.com/Assets/en_US/PDF/manual/253669.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Intel Virtualization Technology List\". Ark.intel.com. Archived from the original on 2014-02-10. Retrieved 2014-02-20. A list of Intel processors that support VT-x but not EPT","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140210004823/http://ark.intel.com/Products/VirtualizationTechnology","url_text":"\"Intel Virtualization Technology List\""},{"url":"http://ark.intel.com/Products/VirtualizationTechnology","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"15.19 Paged Real Mode\". AMD64 Architecture Programmer's Manual, Volume 2: System Programming (PDF). Rev. 3.38. Advanced Micro Devices. November 2021. pp. 515–516. To facilitate virtualization of real mode, the VMRUN instruction may legally load a guest CR0 value with PE = 0 but PG = 1. Likewise, the RSM instruction is permitted to return to paged real mode. This processor mode behaves in every way like real mode, with the exception that paging is applied. The intent is that the VMM run the guest in paged-real mode at CPL0, and with page faults intercepted. The VMM is responsible for setting up a shadow page table that maps guest physical memory to the appropriate system physical addresses. The behavior of running a guest in paged real mode without intercepting page faults to the VMM is undefined.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amd.com/system/files/TechDocs/24593.pdf#G21.1088365","url_text":"AMD64 Architecture Programmer's Manual, Volume 2: System Programming"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices","url_text":"Advanced Micro Devices"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22","external_links_name":"\"Virtual 8086 mode\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Virtual+8086+mode%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.infoworld.com/article/2664741/computer-hardware/sending-software-to-do-hardware-s-job.html","external_links_name":"\"Sending software to do hardware's job\""},{"Link":"http://www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windowsnt/4/workstation/reskit/en-us/archi.mspx?pf=true#E5PAE","external_links_name":"\"Windows NT 4.0 Workstation Architecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.slideshare.net/MikeWang45/grub2-booting-process","external_links_name":"\"Grub2 Booting Process\""},{"Link":"https://wiki.osdev.org/Virtual_8086_Mode","external_links_name":"\"Virtual 8086 Mode - OSDev Wiki\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MLJClvCYh34C&pg=PA427","external_links_name":"Pentium Pro and Pentium II System Architecture"},{"Link":"https://software.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/download/intel-64-and-ia-32-architectures-sdm-combined-volumes-3a-3b-3c-and-3d-system-programming-guide.html","external_links_name":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3 (3A, 3B, 3C & 3D): System Programming Guide"},{"Link":"http://www.gossamer-threads.com/lists/linux/kernel/585146?do=post_view_threaded#585146","external_links_name":"\"Mailing List Archive: Re: 2.6.14: CR4 not needed to be inspected on the 486 anymore?\""},{"Link":"http://www.rcollins.org/articles/pvi1/pvi1.html","external_links_name":"\"Pentium Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts (PVI)\""},{"Link":"http://www.rcollins.org/articles/vme1/","external_links_name":"\"Virtual Mode Extensions on the Pentium Processor\""},{"Link":"https://software.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/download/intel-64-and-ia-32-architectures-sdm-combined-volumes-2a-2b-2c-and-2d-instruction-set-reference-a-z.html","external_links_name":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 2 (2A, 2B, 2C & 2D): Instruction Set Reference, A-Z"},{"Link":"http://www.os2museum.com/wp/vme-broken-on-amd-ryzen/","external_links_name":"\"VME Broken on AMD Ryzen\""},{"Link":"https://support.amd.com/TechDocs/55449_Fam_17h_M_00h-0Fh_Rev_Guide.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Revision Guide for AMD Family 17h Models 00h-0Fh Processors\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100105142519/http://www.intel.com/Assets/en_US/PDF/manual/253669.pdf","external_links_name":"Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 3B: System Programming Guide, Part 2"},{"Link":"http://www.intel.com/Assets/en_US/PDF/manual/253669.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.cs.usfca.edu/~cruse/cs686s07/","external_links_name":"CS 686: Special Topic: Intel EM64T and VT Extensions (Spring 2007)"},{"Link":"https://www.cs.usfca.edu/~cruse/cs686s07/lesson24.ppt","external_links_name":"lesson 24"},{"Link":"http://opensecuritytraining.info/AdvancedX86-VTX.html","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140210004823/http://ark.intel.com/Products/VirtualizationTechnology","external_links_name":"\"Intel Virtualization Technology List\""},{"Link":"http://ark.intel.com/Products/VirtualizationTechnology","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://2013.asiabsdcon.org/papers/abc2013-P5A-paper.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Intel added unrestricted guest mode on Westmere micro-architecture and later Intel CPUs, it uses EPT to translate guest physical address access to host physical address. With this mode, VMEnter without enable paging is allowed.\""},{"Link":"http://download.intel.com/products/processor/manual/326019.pdf","external_links_name":"\"If the “unrestricted guest” VM-execution control is 1, the “enable EPT” VM-execution control must also be 1\""},{"Link":"https://www.amd.com/system/files/TechDocs/24593.pdf#G21.1088365","external_links_name":"AMD64 Architecture Programmer's Manual, Volume 2: System Programming"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil
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Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil
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["1 Legacy","1.1 Aftermath of his death","1.2 The end of Pedro II's exile","1.3 The Emperor returns home","2 Historical assessments","3 References"]
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Emperor of Brazil (1825–1891)
This article is part of a series aboutPedro II of Brazil
Early life (1825–40)
Consolidation (1840–53)
Growth (1853–64)
Paraguayan War (1864–70)
Apogee (1870–81)
Decline and fall (1881–89)
Exile and death (1889–91)
Legacy
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Pedro IITo the Brazilian people, Emperor Pedro II is the iconic embodiment of the wise, benevolent, austere and honest fatherlike figure.Emperor of BrazilReign7 April 1831 – 15 November 1889Coronation18 July 1841Imperial ChapelPredecessorPedro ISuccessorMonarchy abolishedRegentsSee list (1831–1840)Prime ministersSee listHead of the Imperial House of BrazilTenure7 April 1831 – 5 December 1891PredecessorPedro I, Emperor of BrazilSuccessorIsabel, Princess ImperialBorn(1825-12-02)2 December 1825Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro, Empire of BrazilDied5 December 1891(1891-12-05) (aged 66)Paris, FranceBurial5 December 1939Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara, Petrópolis, BrazilSpouse
Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies
(m. 1843; died 1889)IssueDetail
Afonso, Prince Imperial
Isabel, Princess Imperial
Leopoldina, Princess Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Pedro Afonso, Prince Imperial
NamesPedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga de Habsburgo-Lorena e BragançaHouseBraganzaFatherPedro I of BrazilMotherMaria Leopoldina of AustriaReligionRoman CatholicismSignature
The legacy of Pedro II of Brazil became apparent soon after his death. Emperor Pedro II was the second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, whose long 58-year reign (1831–1889) represented a time of remarkable prosperity and progress for his country. Despite his achievements, he was deposed in a coup by disgruntled republicans, though there was no desire for a change in the form of government among the majority of the Brazilian people.
His popularity among the citizenry had never waned, and support continued to be evident, even on the eve of his overthrow and throughout his exile. He was seen as a hero, a model citizen, a caring monarch, and the source of national unity and well-being. Following his death, political wrangling prevented the return of his remains to Brazil. Continued efforts to repatriate the bodies of the Emperor and his wife dragged on for decades. The disputes were resolved and this was finally accomplished in 1920 with much fanfare. Over the decades, Pedro II gradually grew within Brazil to represent the archetypical benevolent, self-effacing and effective ruler concerned only for the national welfare.
Aside from the prosperity and modernization Pedro II left to the nation, there was also a heritage of political and personal values. Many of his reforms and achievements had become so much a part of the national consciousness that they were accommodated by successor regimes. These formed the foundation for Brazilian democratic ideals. Historians have also largely agreed that Pedro II's reign was not merely benign, but rather, exceptionally constructive and progressive. He has also consistently been ranked by scholars as the greatest Brazilian.
Legacy
Aftermath of his death
The monarchy fell at a point when it had reached its highest popularity among Brazilians, due in part to the abolition of slavery on 13 May 1888. Indifferent to the new heroes, such as Tiradentes, imposed by the new republican government, Brazilians remained attached to the popular Emperor whom they regarded as a hero. He continued to be thought of as a national symbol, the Father of the People personified. This view was even stronger among those of African descent, who equated the monarchy with freedom. Afro-Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways, such as by having the Imperial Crown tattooed on their bodies.
Pedro II became a model of democratic virtues in Brazil following his death in 1891.
In cities throughout the nation, the years immediately following the end of monarchy witnessed the spread of music containing lyrics that reflected popular sentiments favorable to the Emperor. Examples include: "Pedro the Second left / to the kingdom of Lisbon. / The monarchy is over / and now Brazil is adrift." and "The mother of Deodoro said: This son was once mine / Now he is cursed / by me and by God." The Brazilian historian Ricardo Salles argued that among the "great—and few—names in our history that hold a place in the popular imagination, is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II." The phenomenon of continued support for the deposed monarch is largely credited to an unextinguished and generally held belief that he was a "wise, benevolent, austere and honest ruler." The positive view towards Pedro II, and nostalgia for his reign, only grew as the nation quickly fell into a series of economic and political crises which Brazilians attributed to the Emperor's overthrow. He never ceased being a popular hero, and would gradually become, once again, an official hero.
Surprisingly strong feelings of guilt were manifested among republicans, and these became increasingly evident upon the Emperor's death in exile at the end of 1891. In Brazil, the news of the Emperor's death "aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who, without sympathy for a restoration, acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler." The overthrown monarchy was still a fresh memory to Brazilians, to which was added a feeling of remorse over what they perceived as an unjust exile, followed by his lonely demise. Some republicans "reconsidered the long banishment and reflected upon the severity of such action." Even they believed that Pedro II deserved a better end, and nostalgia spread among them as they "started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time, a golden age, forever gone." The Empire began to be viewed more tolerantly by the new governments, and its considerable achievements were openly recognized. Now appeared "a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable, more honest, and more powerful."
An odd predilection arose on the part of various republican politicians, including those "of higher standing", for "praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy." They did not desire a restoration, but believed that the Brazilian Republic might learn from the fallen regime. Thus, Pedro II "became, paradoxically, a model of republican ideals." To these "republicans, d. Pedro appeared as the best of themselves; for the monarchists the compliment meant, clearly, something else ."
After the death of the Emperor, appeals for the repatriation of his body increased over time. The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio (The City of Rio) stated that "Brazil is so large that it cannot begrudge some scant feet of land to him" and demanded: "Bring him back." The Gazeta da Tarde (Afternoon Gazette) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral within the country. In 1895, Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo (Commerce of São Paulo): "The body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory." By 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac wrote, "The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it." The Jornal do Comércio (Commerce Newspaper) predicted that "one day, when all passions have lost their strength, your body shall rest here."
The end of Pedro II's exile
A law was proposed in the Chamber of Deputies to authorize the transfer of the bodies of Pedro II and his wife. Although it had support from old republicans, it was put aside due to a precondition from Princess Isabel that this could only be permitted if the banishment of her family was also rescinded. The dedication of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis on 5 February 1911 was attended by more than 1,500 people, including members of the federal government. Several statues of the monarch were erected throughout the country during the following years. At this time, a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers, Lafayette, Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that "given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns, we agree to the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora."
Statue of a pensive Pedro II dedicated in Petrópolis in 1911.
A proposed new bill, which would revoke the banishment, was debated in the Chamber in 1913. The republican deputy Irineu Machado alleged that "futile objections" were being raised which denied "justice to the memory of the emperor." Another member, Martim Francisco de Andrada III, affirmed that "D. Pedro II departed poor, leaving the country rich; it was an injustice that the those who are rich and leave the country impoverished be against it." The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent "the perpetual gratitude of posterity towards the most clement, the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time." The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that "now the traces of his political legacy—honesty—are disappearing." In the Senate, however, the proposal was rejected due to intervention by the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado. The most famous speech in homage to Pedro II was made in 1914 by the last surviving republican leader of the 1889 coup, the person who had ordered the banishment:
The lack of justice, Mr. Senators, is the great evil of our land, the evil of evils, the origin of all our misfortunes, the source of all our discredit, is the supreme misery of this poor nation. After seeing so much futility triumph, after seeing so much dishonor prosper, after seeing so much power in the hands of evil people grow, man becomes disheartened about virtue, he laughs to himself at honor and becomes ashamed of being honest. This has been the work of the Republic in the last years. In the other regime the man who had a certain disgrace in his life was lost forever, as a political career would be closed to him. There was a vigilant sentinel , whose severity everyone feared and that, bright and very high, protected the surroundings as a lighthouse that never fades away, in benefit of honor, justice and morality.— Senator Rui Barbosa
Two years later, in 1916, President Venceslau Brás agreed to the return of the bodies and revocation of the banishment, but opted to await the end of World War I to officially approve the Act. On 3 September 1920, his successor Epitácio Pessoa signed the law (using a gold quill provided by the Brazilian Press Association) which ended the banishment and allowed repatriation of the remains. Rui Barbosa said that those "who created the federal republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor, whose virtues were much higher than his faults." He concluded, "Therefore, in the republican gallery there is a proper place, and a great one, for D. Pedro II."
The Emperor returns home
In 1920, the dreadnought São Paulo bore the imperial coffins to Brazil. The Portuguese republican government granted Pedro II an exhumation with dignities befitting a Head of State, and he received the same honors upon arrival in Brazil. The Count of Eu accompanied the remains, along with his only surviving son, Pedro de Alcântara. His wife, Princess Isabel, was elderly, unwell and unable to participate. She died one year later, without ever seeing her homeland again. President Artur Bernardes declared a national holiday and the return of the Emperor was celebrated throughout the nation.
Tomb of Pedro II at the Cathedral of Petrópolis.
In attendance at the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro was councilor Antonio Prado, the last minister of the Empire still living, who had traveled from São Paulo. Thousands of people attended the event. The "elderly people cried. Many kneeled. All clapped. There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists. They were all Brazilians." It marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past. However, "the official return of the figure of d. Pedro as a national hero would truly come only in 1922, owing to the great national commemoration of the centenary celebration of Brazilian independence" during which the Emperor was highly acclaimed.
Three years later, Brazilians spontaneously commemorated Pedro II's centenary. There was a clear "disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d. Pedro, and the little interest in the anniversary of the Republic, which was then 36 years old." President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse "the justice that the Emperor deserves. He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time." Pedro II became, once again, the "Father of the Fatherland" (or "Father of the Nation").
His body was temporarily housed in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until construction on the Cathedral of Petrópolis was complete. The final burial would only occur on 5 December 1939, when the dictator Getúlio Vargas took advantage of the ceremony as an opportunity to benefit his own popularity (just as Mussolini had done during Anita Garibaldi's funeral in 1932). Vargas dedicated the funerary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were interred.
Many of the most profound transformations achieved under Pedro II would survive him. Concepts such as a representative political system and a paradigm of citizenship had been allowed to flourish and become ingrained under the Empire, so much so that they survived "during three succeeding regimes: the Old Republic (1889–1930), the Vargas Era (1930–45), the Liberal Republic (1945–64)." The concept of a nation-state, as envisioned by Pedro II, was even appropriated by the military which seized control during 1964. Though during the 1980s, this concept began to change, it still endures. At the beginning of the twenty-first century his "name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation's heritage. His image confers respectability, dignity, and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it."
Historical assessments
Bust of Pedro II in Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais state, dedicated in 1925.
Historians have expressed high regard for Pedro II and his reign. The scholarly literature dealing with him is vast and, with the exception of the period immediately after his ouster, overwhelmingly positive, and even laudatory. Emperor Pedro II is usually regarded by historians in Brazil as the greatest Brazilian. In a manner quite similar to methods which had been used by the republican politicians, historians point to the Emperor's virtues as an example to be followed, although none go so far as to advocate a restoration of the monarchy. "Most twentieth-century historians, moreover, have looked back on the period nostalgically, using their descriptions of the Empire to criticize—sometimes subtly, sometimes not—Brazil's subsequent republican or dictatorial regimes."
Statue of Pedro II in front of the Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro.
American historian Dana Munro wrote in her study about Latin America that Pedro II "grew up to be serious minded, irreproachable in his private life, and indefatigable in the performance of what he considered his duty." She added that he was "an able and intelligent ruler if not a great statesman". Another American historian writing on Brazilian history, Thomas Skidmore, remarked that the Emperor "brought a natural talent to his work. Even at age 14, he was steady, equilibrated and discrete". He states that during "his reign, he acquired the reputation of being just and objective, projecting the image of an honest and ethical sovereign who would not hesitate in disciplining politicians who were caught turning away from his strict standards". The British historian Roderick. J. Barman wrote in his biography of Pedro II that he "was at once the model emperor and the model citizen. He literally and metaphorically towered above his fellow Brazilians. Pedro II's achievements at home and the high reputation he established abroad convinced Brazilians that the goals he advocated would create a country as powerful and as civilized as France, Great Britain or the United States".
The Brazilian American historian Richard Graham praised Brazilian politics affirming that "Brazil enjoyed all appearances of a functioning representative democracy. Foreign observers were virtually unanimous in praising a political system that seemed so like the bourgeois regimes of Europe. The main focus of their enthusiasm lay in the regularity of elections and in the alternation of parties in power. The government scrupulously observed the Constitution, individual rights seemed protected, and no military leader or other dictator overthrew the elected government." The Brazilian historian Pedro Calmon in his work covering Brazilian history asserted that during Pedro II's reign the "politics became British–like, and were improved, creating processes which began to function under the vigilant eyes of the emperor", and which allowed "the evolution of democracy in Brazil".
José Murilo de Carvalho, a biographer of the Emperor, wrote that at the time he was deposed the nation had been consolidated, the slave trade had been abolished, and the foundations of a representative system had been established due to uninterrupted elections and broad freedom of the press. He remarked that for "the longevity of his government and the transformations effected during its course, no other head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country."
The historian Pedro Karp Vasquez wrote that the Emperor ushered "the country into a period of stability and prosperity after 1850. Enormously interested in everything that was related to scientific discoveries, Dom Pedro II sought to modernize the nation, in many instances anticipating initiatives in European nations." Another biographer of Pedro II, Renato Sêneca Fleury, remarked that "in the History of Brazil, the pages dedicated to Pedro II, ascribe to him complete justice, heightening his moral greatness, his immense patriotism and the great well-being he accorded to Brazil" and that he "became immortal in the heart of the Brazilian people. Schools, libraries, hospitals, cultural societies, theaters, streets, squares, here, there, all over Brazil, exist which have received Pedro II's name." Notable instances include Colégio Pedro II, a traditional school in the state of Rio de Janeiro; Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II, an important railway which used to connect the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais; Hospício Pedro II, the first psychiatric hospital in Brazil and second in Latin America; Theatro Pedro II, a theater and opera house in the state of São Paulo and Pedro II, a city in the northeastern state of Piauí.
References
^ "Under the new Emperor, Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress. Despite his youth, Pedro II soon showed a surprising capacity to give the country precisely the kind of government that its political development seemed to demand. Educated by conscientious tutors under a strict regime that left him little opportunity for contact with the court influences which had shaped his father’s character, he grew up to be serious minded, irreproachable in his private life, and indefatigable in the performance of what he considered his duty. He was keenly interested in art, science, and literature, well-informed though not profound or brilliant, an able and intelligent ruler if not a great statesman. His subjects loved him for his simplicity and his democratic ways even when they regarded his weakness with tolerant amusement or criticized his official acts with all the freedom permitted by an extremely broad-minded and tolerant policy toward the press." —Dana Gardner Munro in Munro 1942, pp. 273–274.
^ "Pedro II brought a natural talent to his work. Even at age 14, he was steady, equilibrated and discrete. The young emperor had another advantage. As his father said on the eve of his departure in 1831: 'My son has an advantage over me; that is the fact that he is Brazilian, and the Brazilians like him. He will reign without difficulty and the Constitution will guarantee his prerogatives.' During his reign, he acquired the reputation of being just and objective, projecting the image of an honest and ethical sovereign who would not hesitate in disciplining politicians who were caught turning away from his strict standards. In this he resembled Queen Victoria, his British contemporary, whose long reign (1837–1901) in great measure was parallel to his. Pedro II became more and more a point of reference for the elite, who used its straightness and firm pulse to move the country far away from the "unstable" Latin American republics." —Thomas E. Skidmore in Skidmore 2003, p. 73.
^ "The task of transforming Brazil into a functioning nation-state fell to a boy aged fourteen. Pedro II devoted himself during the next half century to meeting the formidable challenge. 'During what is now a long life,' he reflected in November 1891, 'I have applied all my forces and all my devotion to assuring the progress and the prosperity of my people.' Resourceful, patient, and above all persevering, he eschewed bold initiatives and avoided confrontations. The emperor first established an undisputed dominance over public affairs, his integrity and his impartiality being respected by all. Even more important, the public persona he developed embodied the values which the ruling elements in Brazil wished for their country. He was at once the model emperor and the model citizen. He literally and metaphorically towered above his fellow Brazilians. Pedro II's achievements at home and the high reputation he established abroad convinced Brazilians that the goals he advocated would create a country as powerful and as civilized as France, Great Britain or the United States." —Roderick J. Barman in Barman 1999, pp. XIII–XIV.
^ "Throughout the half-century reign of Pedro II, Brazil enjoyed all appearances of a functioning representative democracy. Foreign observers were virtually unanimous in praising a political system that seemed so like the bourgeois regimes of Europe. The main focus of their enthusiasm lay in the regularity of elections and in the alternation of parties in power. The government scrupulously observed the Constitution, individual rights seemed protected, and no military leader or other dictator overthrew the elected government. A Senate of 50 members, chosen for life, and a Chamber with approximately 120 Deputies formed the legislature. Parliamentary government meant that, in practice, Cabinets had to receive the approval of the legislature in order to govern, even if the Emperor could dismiss one Cabinet and summon another." —Richard Graham in Graham 1994, p. 71.
^ "The revolution which occurred in Pernambuco in 1848—Rio Grande do Sul had been pacified since 1845—ended a cycle of civil–military agitations that disturbed, during the regency and beyond, the life of the nation. The politics became British–like, and were improved, creating processes which began to function under the vigilant eyes of the emperor, whose personal power spanned the long period from 1840 to 1889. The peace was concluded and allowed, with the implementation of his ideals, the evolution of democracy in Brazil. There is not a more continuous period of tranquility in the history of South America, so different than the experiences of Brazil's neighbors that J.B. Alberdi considered this the 'Brazilian miracle'. When the throne fell in 1889, Rojas Paúl, president of Venezuela, said, 'It has ended the only republic that existed in America: the Empire of Brazil.' Mitre called it 'a crowned democracy'." —Pedro Calmon in Calmon 2002, p. 217.
^ "D. Pedro ruled Brazil from 23 July 1840 up to 15 November 1889. It was 49 years, three months and 22 days, almost half a century. He assumed power when less than fifteen years old during a turbulent phase in the national life when Rio Grande do Sul was an independent republic, the Maranhão faced the revolt of the Balaiada, the bloody war of Cabanagem in Pará had barely ended, and England threatened the country with retaliation due to the slave traffic. He was deposed and exiled at 65 years old, leaving a consolidated nation, having abolished the slave trade, and having established the foundations of a representative system, thanks to uninterrupted elections and great freedom of the press. For the longevity of his government and the transformations effected during its course, no other head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country." —José Murilo de Carvalho in Carvalho 2007, p. 9.
^ "Although having assumed power at a very young age by means of the contrived Majority of 23 July 1840, when he had not yet attained the age of 15 years, Dom Pedro II made the Second Empire a period of stability and growth for Brazil. Reserved and melancholic, Dom Pedro II was different in everything from his impetuous father, having remained in power for almost fifty years in one of history's longest reigns. Without having become obsessed by power—which he neglected in favor of studies—Dom Pedro II knew how to assert himself, even while young, and to balance between 'luzias' (liberals) and 'saquaremas' (conservatives), ushering the country into a period of stability and prosperity after 1850. Enormously interested in everything that was related to scientific discoveries, Dom Pedro II sought to modernize the nation, in many instances anticipating initiatives in European nations." —Pedro Karp Vasquez in Vasquez 2007, p. 38.
^ "...in the History of Brazil, the pages dedicated to Pedro II, ascribe to him complete justice, heightening his moral greatness, his immense patriotism and the great well–being he accorded to Brazil. Pedro II became immortal in the heart of the Brazilian people. Schools, libraries, hospitals, cultural societies, theaters, streets, squares, here, there, all over Brazil, exist which have received Pedro II's name." —Renato Sêneca Fleury in Fleury c. 1940s, p. 55.
Footnotes
^ Carvalho 1987, p. 29.
^ a b Schwarcz 1998, p. 497.
^ Martins 2008, p. 66.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 469.
^ Schwarcz 1998, pp. 498–499.
^ a b c Schwarcz 1998, p. 498.
^ a b Salles 1996, p. 15.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 496.
^ Schwarcz 1998, pp. 495–496.
^ Barman 1999, p. 402.
^ a b c Schwarcz 1998, p. 503.
^ Martins 2008, pp. 122–123.
^ Barman 1999, p. 403.
^ Martins 2008, p. 123.
^ a b c Schwarcz 1998, p. 508.
^ a b c Calmon 1975, p. 1907.
^ a b c Calmon 1975, p. 1910.
^ a b Calmon 1975, p. 1911.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 1911.
^ a b c Calmon 1975, p. 1912.
^ Calmon 1975, pp. 1912–1913.
^ a b c d Calmon 1975, p. 1913.
^ "Texto Ruy Barbosa". politicus.org (in Portuguese). HTS Informática. 8 January 2004. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
^ a b c d Calmon 1975, p. 1914.
^ a b c Calmon 1975, p. 1915.
^ Barman 1999, p. 405.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 507.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 506.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 511.
^ Markun 2000, p. 356.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 513.
^ a b Barman 1999, p. XVI.
^ Barman 1999, p. 409.
^ Schwarcz 1998, p. 22.
^ Bueno 2003, p. 196.
^ Vianna 1994, p. 467.
^ Benevides 1979, p. 61.
^ Graham 1994, p. 4.
^ Nardi, AE et al. Um presente humanitário do Imperador D. Pedro II (1825 - 1891) à nação brasileira: o primeiro asilo para lunáticos da América Latina. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria vol. 71 nº 2. São Paulo, fevereiro de 2013 ISSN 0004-282X
^ "Institucional". Theatro Pedro II. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
Bibliography
Barman, Roderick J. (1999). Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3510-0.
Benevides, José Marijeso de Alencar (1979). D. Pedro II, patrono da astronomia brasileira (in Portuguese). Fortaleza: Imprensa oficial do Ceará.
Bueno, Eduardo (2003). Brasil: uma História (in Portuguese) (1st ed.). São Paulo: Ática. ISBN 978-85-08-08952-9.
Calmon, Pedro (1975). História de D. Pedro II. 5 v (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio.
Calmon, Pedro (2002). História da Civilização Brasileira (in Portuguese). Brasília: Senado Federal. OCLC 685131818.
Carvalho, José Murilo de (1987). Os Bestializados: o Rio de Janeiro e a República que não foi (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.
Carvalho, José Murilo de (2007). D. Pedro II: ser ou não ser (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-359-0969-2.
Fleury, Renato Sêneca (c. 1940s). D. Pedro II (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Melhoramentos.
Graham, Richard (1994). Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2336-7.
Markun, Paulo (2000). Anita Garibaldi: uma heroína brasileira (in Portuguese) (4th ed.). São paulo: Senac. ISBN 978-85-7359-086-9.
Martins, Luís (2008). O patriarca e o bacharel (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Alameda.
Munro, Dana Gardner (1942). The Latin American Republics: A History. New York: D. Appleton.
Salles, Ricardo (1996). Nostalgia Imperial (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks. OCLC 36598004.
Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-7164-837-1.
Skidmore, Thomas E. (2003). Uma História do Brasil (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Paz e Terra. ISBN 978-85-219-0313-0.
Vasquez, Pedro Karp (2007). Nos trilhos do progresso: A ferrovia no Brasil imperial vista pela fotografia (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Metalivros. ISBN 978-85-85371-70-8.
Vianna, Hélio (1994). História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república (in Portuguese) (15th ed.). São Paulo: Melhoramentos. ISBN 978-85-06-01999-3.
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Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Cathedral_of_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Pedro I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Monarchy abolished","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"See list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_regents#Reign_of_Pedro_II"},{"link_name":"See list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Brazil#Prime_ministers_of_the_Empire_of_Brazil_(1847%E2%80%931889)"},{"link_name":"Head of the Imperial House of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Imperial_House_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_I,_Emperor_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Isabel, Princess Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel,_Princess_Imperial"},{"link_name":"Palace of São Cristóvão","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_S%C3%A3o_Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Empire of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_Cristina_of_the_Two_Sicilies"},{"link_name":"Issue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)"},{"link_name":"Detail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Issue"},{"link_name":"Afonso, Prince Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso,_Prince_Imperial"},{"link_name":"Isabel, Princess Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel,_Princess_Imperial"},{"link_name":"Leopoldina, Princess Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Leopoldina_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Pedro Afonso, Prince Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Afonso,_Prince_Imperial"},{"link_name":"House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty"},{"link_name":"Braganza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Braganza"},{"link_name":"Pedro I of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Maria Leopoldina of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Leopoldina_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Brazil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Signature_Pedro_II.png"},{"link_name":"his death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile_and_death_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Pedro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"second and last monarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_monarchs#Emperors_of_Brazil_(1822%E2%80%931889)_-_post-Independence_monarchs_of_the_Brazilian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Empire of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"58-year reign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Reign"},{"link_name":"remarkable prosperity and progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_and_fall_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil#Decline"},{"link_name":"he was deposed in a coup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_and_fall_of_Pedro_II_of_Brazil#Republican_coup"},{"link_name":"form of government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_government"},{"link_name":"Brazilian people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_people"}],"text":"Emperor of Brazil (1825–1891)This article is part of a series aboutPedro II of Brazil\n\nEarly life (1825–40)\nConsolidation (1840–53)\nGrowth (1853–64)\nParaguayan War (1864–70)\nApogee (1870–81)\nDecline and fall (1881–89)\nExile and death (1889–91)\nLegacy\n\n\n\nvte\n\n\nPedro IITo the Brazilian people, Emperor Pedro II is the iconic embodiment of the wise, benevolent, austere and honest fatherlike figure.Emperor of BrazilReign7 April 1831 – 15 November 1889Coronation18 July 1841Imperial ChapelPredecessorPedro ISuccessorMonarchy abolishedRegentsSee list (1831–1840)Prime ministersSee listHead of the Imperial House of BrazilTenure7 April 1831 – 5 December 1891PredecessorPedro I, Emperor of BrazilSuccessorIsabel, Princess ImperialBorn(1825-12-02)2 December 1825Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro, Empire of BrazilDied5 December 1891(1891-12-05) (aged 66)Paris, FranceBurial5 December 1939Cathedral of São Pedro de Alcântara, Petrópolis, BrazilSpouse\nTeresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies\n (m. 1843; died 1889)IssueDetail\nAfonso, Prince Imperial\nIsabel, Princess Imperial\nLeopoldina, Princess Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\nPedro Afonso, Prince Imperial\nNamesPedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga de Habsburgo-Lorena e BragançaHouseBraganzaFatherPedro I of BrazilMotherMaria Leopoldina of AustriaReligionRoman CatholicismSignatureThe legacy of Pedro II of Brazil became apparent soon after his death. Emperor Pedro II was the second and last monarch of the Empire of Brazil, whose long 58-year reign (1831–1889) represented a time of remarkable prosperity and progress for his country. Despite his achievements, he was deposed in a coup by disgruntled republicans, though there was no desire for a change in the form of government among the majority of the Brazilian people.His popularity among the citizenry had never waned, and support continued to be evident, even on the eve of his overthrow and throughout his exile. He was seen as a hero, a model citizen, a caring monarch, and the source of national unity and well-being. Following his death, political wrangling prevented the return of his remains to Brazil. Continued efforts to repatriate the bodies of the Emperor and his wife dragged on for decades. The disputes were resolved and this was finally accomplished in 1920 with much fanfare. Over the decades, Pedro II gradually grew within Brazil to represent the archetypical benevolent, self-effacing and effective ruler concerned only for the national welfare.Aside from the prosperity and modernization Pedro II left to the nation, there was also a heritage of political and personal values. Many of his reforms and achievements had become so much a part of the national consciousness that they were accommodated by successor regimes. These formed the foundation for Brazilian democratic ideals. Historians have also largely agreed that Pedro II's reign was not merely benign, but rather, exceptionally constructive and progressive. He has also consistently been ranked by scholars as the greatest Brazilian.","title":"Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"abolition of slavery on 13 May 1888","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarvalho198729-1"},{"link_name":"Tiradentes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiradentes"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998497-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartins200866-3"},{"link_name":"African descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Brazilians"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998469-4"},{"link_name":"Imperial Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Crown_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998498%E2%80%93499-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Estatua_dom_pedro_ii_museu_imperial_petropolis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998498-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998498-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalles199615-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998496-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998498-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998495%E2%80%93496-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999402-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998497-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998503-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartins2008122%E2%80%93123-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999403-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalles199615-7"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartins2008123-14"},{"link_name":"republican ideals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_publica"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998508-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998508-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751907-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751907-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751910-17"},{"link_name":"Olavo Bilac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olavo_Bilac"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751910-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751907-16"}],"sub_title":"Aftermath of his death","text":"The monarchy fell at a point when it had reached its highest popularity among Brazilians, due in part to the abolition of slavery on 13 May 1888.[1] Indifferent to the new heroes, such as Tiradentes, imposed by the new republican government, Brazilians remained attached to the popular Emperor whom they regarded as a hero.[2] He continued to be thought of as a national symbol, the Father of the People personified.[3] This view was even stronger among those of African descent, who equated the monarchy with freedom.[4] Afro-Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways, such as by having the Imperial Crown tattooed on their bodies.[5]Pedro II became a model of democratic virtues in Brazil following his death in 1891.In cities throughout the nation, the years immediately following the end of monarchy witnessed the spread of music containing lyrics that reflected popular sentiments favorable to the Emperor. Examples include: \"Pedro the Second left / to the kingdom of Lisbon. / The monarchy is over / and now Brazil is adrift.\"[6] and \"The mother of Deodoro said: This son was once mine / Now he is cursed / by me and by God.\"[6] The Brazilian historian Ricardo Salles argued that among the \"great—and few—names in our history [of Brazil] that hold a place in the popular imagination, is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II.\" The phenomenon of continued support for the deposed monarch is largely credited to an unextinguished and generally held belief that he was a \"wise, benevolent, austere and honest ruler.\"[7] The positive view towards Pedro II, and nostalgia for his reign, only grew as the nation quickly fell into a series of economic and political crises which Brazilians attributed to the Emperor's overthrow.[8] He never ceased being a popular hero, and would gradually become, once again, an official hero.[6]Surprisingly strong feelings of guilt were manifested among republicans, and these became increasingly evident upon the Emperor's death in exile at the end of 1891.[9] In Brazil, the news of the Emperor's death \"aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who, without sympathy for a restoration, acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler.\"[10] The overthrown monarchy was still a fresh memory to Brazilians, to which was added a feeling of remorse over what they perceived as an unjust exile, followed by his lonely demise.[2] Some republicans \"reconsidered the long banishment and reflected upon the severity of such action.\"[11] Even they believed that Pedro II deserved a better end, and nostalgia spread among them as they \"started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time, a golden age, forever gone.\"[12] The Empire began to be viewed more tolerantly by the new governments, and its considerable achievements were openly recognized.[13] Now appeared \"a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable, more honest, and more powerful.\"[7]An odd predilection arose on the part of various republican politicians, including those \"of higher standing\", for \"praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy.\"[14] They did not desire a restoration, but believed that the Brazilian Republic might learn from the fallen regime. Thus, Pedro II \"became, paradoxically, a model of republican ideals.\"[15] To these \"republicans, d. Pedro appeared as the best of themselves; for the monarchists the compliment meant, clearly, something else [i.e., that the Emperor was the best of the monarchists].\"[15]After the death of the Emperor, appeals for the repatriation of his body increased over time. The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio (The City of Rio) stated that \"Brazil is so large that it cannot begrudge some scant feet of land to him\" and demanded: \"Bring him back.\"[16] The Gazeta da Tarde (Afternoon Gazette) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral within the country.[16] In 1895, Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo (Commerce of São Paulo): \"The body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory.\"[17] By 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac wrote, \"The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it.\"[17] The Jornal do Comércio (Commerce Newspaper) predicted that \"one day, when all passions have lost their strength, your body shall rest here.\"[16]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chamber of Deputies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751910-17"},{"link_name":"Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751911-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz19981911-19"},{"link_name":"Presidents of the Council of Ministers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Council_of_Ministers_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"São Vicente de Fora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_S%C3%A3o_Vicente_de_Fora"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751911-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monumento_a_Dom_Pedro_II_na_Pra%C3%A7a_Dom_Pedro_II.jpg"},{"link_name":"Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751912-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751912-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751912-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751912%E2%80%931913-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751913-22"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Pinheiro Machado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinheiro_Machado_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751913-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Rui Barbosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rui_Barbosa"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Venceslau Brás","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venceslau_Br%C3%A1s"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751913-22"},{"link_name":"Epitácio Pessoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epit%C3%A1cio_Pessoa"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751913-22"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751914-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751914-24"}],"sub_title":"The end of Pedro II's exile","text":"A law was proposed in the Chamber of Deputies to authorize the transfer of the bodies of Pedro II and his wife. Although it had support from old republicans, it was put aside due to a precondition from Princess Isabel that this could only be permitted if the banishment of her family was also rescinded.[17] The dedication of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis on 5 February 1911 was attended by more than 1,500 people, including members of the federal government.[18] Several statues of the monarch were erected throughout the country during the following years.[19] At this time, a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers, Lafayette, Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that \"given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns, we agree to the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora.\"[18]Statue of a pensive Pedro II dedicated in Petrópolis in 1911.A proposed new bill, which would revoke the banishment, was debated in the Chamber in 1913.[20] The republican deputy Irineu Machado alleged that \"futile objections\" were being raised which denied \"justice to the memory of the emperor.\"[20] Another member, Martim Francisco de Andrada III, affirmed that \"D. Pedro II departed poor, leaving the country rich; it was an injustice that the those who are rich and leave the country impoverished be against it.\"[20] The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent \"the perpetual gratitude of posterity towards the most clement, the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time.\"[21] The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that \"now the traces of his political legacy—honesty—are disappearing.\"[22] In the Senate, however, the proposal was rejected due to intervention by the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado.[22] The most famous speech in homage to Pedro II was made in 1914 by the last surviving republican leader of the 1889 coup, the person who had ordered the banishment:[23]The lack of justice, Mr. Senators, is the great evil of our land, the evil of evils, the origin of all our misfortunes, the source of all our discredit, is the supreme misery of this poor nation. [...] After seeing so much futility triumph, after seeing so much dishonor prosper, after seeing so much power in the hands of evil people grow, man becomes disheartened about virtue, he laughs to himself at honor and becomes ashamed of being honest. This has been the work of the Republic in the last years. In the other regime [the Monarchy] the man who had a certain disgrace in his life was lost forever, as a political career would be closed to him. There was a vigilant sentinel [Dom Pedro II], whose severity everyone feared and that, bright and very high, protected the surroundings as a lighthouse that never fades away, in benefit of honor, justice and morality.— Senator Rui BarbosaTwo years later, in 1916, President Venceslau Brás agreed to the return of the bodies and revocation of the banishment, but opted to await the end of World War I to officially approve the Act.[22] On 3 September 1920, his successor Epitácio Pessoa signed the law (using a gold quill provided by the Brazilian Press Association) which ended the banishment and allowed repatriation of the remains.[22] Rui Barbosa said that those \"who created the federal republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor, whose virtues were much higher than his faults.\"[24] He concluded, \"Therefore, in the republican gallery there is a proper place, and a great one, for D. Pedro II.\"[24]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dreadnought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreadnought"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_battleship_S%C3%A3o_Paulo"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751914-24"},{"link_name":"Count of Eu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston,_comte_d%27Eu"},{"link_name":"Pedro de Alcântara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_de_Alc%C3%A2ntara,_Prince_of_Gr%C3%A3o_Para"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751914-24"},{"link_name":"Princess Isabel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel,_Princess_Imperial_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998503-11"},{"link_name":"Artur Bernardes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artur_da_Silva_Bernardes"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998508-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Petropolis-Cathedral4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751915-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751915-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999405-26"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998503-11"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998507-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998506-28"},{"link_name":"Father of the Fatherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pater_Patriae"},{"link_name":"Father of the Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_of_the_Nation"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998511-29"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Cathedral_of_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalmon19751915-25"},{"link_name":"Getúlio Vargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas"},{"link_name":"Mussolini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"},{"link_name":"Anita Garibaldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Garibaldi"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkun2000356-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz1998513-31"},{"link_name":"Vargas Era (1930–45)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Republic (1945–64)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Second_Republic"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999XVI-32"},{"link_name":"seized control during 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"during the 1980s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_since_1985"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999XVI-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarman1999409-33"}],"sub_title":"The Emperor returns home","text":"In 1920, the dreadnought São Paulo bore the imperial coffins to Brazil.[24] The Portuguese republican government granted Pedro II an exhumation with dignities befitting a Head of State, and he received the same honors upon arrival in Brazil. The Count of Eu accompanied the remains, along with his only surviving son, Pedro de Alcântara.[24] His wife, Princess Isabel, was elderly, unwell and unable to participate. She died one year later, without ever seeing her homeland again.[11] President Artur Bernardes declared a national holiday and the return of the Emperor was celebrated throughout the nation.[15]Tomb of Pedro II at the Cathedral of Petrópolis.In attendance at the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro was councilor Antonio Prado, the last minister of the Empire still living, who had traveled from São Paulo.[25] Thousands of people attended the event. The \"elderly people cried. Many kneeled. All clapped. There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists. They were all Brazilians.\"[25] It marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past.[26] However, \"the official return of the figure of d. Pedro as a national hero would truly come only in 1922, owing to the great national commemoration of the centenary celebration of Brazilian independence\" during which the Emperor was highly acclaimed.[11]Three years later, Brazilians spontaneously commemorated Pedro II's centenary. There was a clear \"disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d. Pedro, and the little interest in the anniversary of the Republic, which was then 36 years old.\"[27] President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse \"the justice that the Emperor deserves. He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time.\"[28] Pedro II became, once again, the \"Father of the Fatherland\" (or \"Father of the Nation\").[29]His body was temporarily housed in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until construction on the Cathedral of Petrópolis was complete.[25] The final burial would only occur on 5 December 1939, when the dictator Getúlio Vargas took advantage of the ceremony as an opportunity to benefit his own popularity (just as Mussolini had done during Anita Garibaldi's funeral in 1932).[30] Vargas dedicated the funerary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were interred.[31]Many of the most profound transformations achieved under Pedro II would survive him. Concepts such as a representative political system and a paradigm of citizenship had been allowed to flourish and become ingrained under the Empire, so much so that they survived \"during three succeeding regimes: the Old Republic (1889–1930), the Vargas Era (1930–45), the Liberal Republic (1945–64).\"[32] The concept of a nation-state, as envisioned by Pedro II, was even appropriated by the military which seized control during 1964. Though during the 1980s, this concept began to change, it still endures.[32] At the beginning of the twenty-first century his \"name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation's heritage. His image confers respectability, dignity, and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it.\"[33]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedroii.JPG"},{"link_name":"Belo Horizonte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belo_Horizonte"},{"link_name":"Minas Gerais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minas_Gerais"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwarcz199822-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBueno2003196-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVianna1994467-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenevides197961-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham19944-38"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ_Dom_Pedro.jpg"},{"link_name":"Palace of São Cristóvão","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%A7o_de_S%C3%A3o_Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-39"},{"link_name":"Thomas Skidmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Skidmore"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B-40"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_people"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C-41"},{"link_name":"Brazilian American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_American"},{"link_name":"Richard Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Graham_(historian)"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D-42"},{"link_name":"Pedro Calmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Calmon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"British–like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-E-43"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-F-44"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G-45"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H-46"},{"link_name":"Colégio Pedro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col%C3%A9gio_Pedro_II"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"},{"link_name":"Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrada_de_Ferro_Central_do_Brasil"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_(state)"},{"link_name":"Minas Gerais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minas_Gerais"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nardi-47"},{"link_name":"opera house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_house"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Pedro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_II,_Piau%C3%AD"},{"link_name":"Piauí","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piau%C3%AD"}],"text":"Bust of Pedro II in Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais state, dedicated in 1925.Historians have expressed high regard for Pedro II and his reign. The scholarly literature dealing with him is vast and, with the exception of the period immediately after his ouster, overwhelmingly positive, and even laudatory.[34] Emperor Pedro II is usually regarded by historians in Brazil as the greatest Brazilian.[35][36][37] In a manner quite similar to methods which had been used by the republican politicians, historians point to the Emperor's virtues as an example to be followed, although none go so far as to advocate a restoration of the monarchy. \"Most twentieth-century historians, moreover, have looked back on the period [of Pedro II's reign] nostalgically, using their descriptions of the Empire to criticize—sometimes subtly, sometimes not—Brazil's subsequent republican or dictatorial regimes.\"[38]Statue of Pedro II in front of the Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro.American historian Dana Munro wrote in her study about Latin America that Pedro II \"grew up to be serious minded, irreproachable in his private life, and indefatigable in the performance of what he considered his duty.\" She added that he was \"an able and intelligent ruler if not a great statesman\".[a] Another American historian writing on Brazilian history, Thomas Skidmore, remarked that the Emperor \"brought a natural talent to his work. Even at age 14, he was steady, equilibrated and discrete\". He states that during \"his reign, he acquired the reputation of being just and objective, projecting the image of an honest and ethical sovereign who would not hesitate in disciplining politicians who were caught turning away from his strict standards\".[b] The British historian Roderick. J. Barman wrote in his biography of Pedro II that he \"was at once the model emperor and the model citizen. He literally and metaphorically towered above his fellow Brazilians. Pedro II's achievements at home and the high reputation he established abroad convinced Brazilians that the goals he advocated would create a country as powerful and as civilized as France, Great Britain or the United States\".[c]The Brazilian American historian Richard Graham praised Brazilian politics affirming that \"Brazil enjoyed all appearances of a functioning representative democracy. Foreign observers were virtually unanimous in praising a political system that seemed so like the bourgeois regimes of Europe. The main focus of their enthusiasm lay in the regularity of elections and in the alternation of parties in power. The government scrupulously observed the Constitution, individual rights seemed protected, and no military leader or other dictator overthrew the elected government.\"[d] The Brazilian historian Pedro Calmon in his work covering Brazilian history asserted that during Pedro II's reign the \"politics became British–like, and were improved, creating processes which began to function under the vigilant eyes of the emperor\", and which allowed \"the evolution of democracy in Brazil\".[e]José Murilo de Carvalho, a biographer of the Emperor, wrote that at the time he was deposed the nation had been consolidated, the slave trade had been abolished, and the foundations of a representative system had been established due to uninterrupted elections and broad freedom of the press. He remarked that for \"the longevity of his government and the transformations effected during its course, no other head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country.\"[f]The historian Pedro Karp Vasquez wrote that the Emperor ushered \"the country into a period of stability and prosperity after 1850. Enormously interested in everything that was related to scientific discoveries, Dom Pedro II sought to modernize the nation, in many instances anticipating initiatives in European nations.\"[g] Another biographer of Pedro II, Renato Sêneca Fleury, remarked that \"in the History of Brazil, the pages dedicated to Pedro II, ascribe to him complete justice, heightening his moral greatness, his immense patriotism and the great well-being he accorded to Brazil\" and that he \"became immortal in the heart of the Brazilian people. Schools, libraries, hospitals, cultural societies, theaters, streets, squares, here, there, all over Brazil, exist which have received Pedro II's name.\"[h] Notable instances include Colégio Pedro II, a traditional school in the state of Rio de Janeiro; Estrada de Ferro Dom Pedro II, an important railway which used to connect the states of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Minas Gerais; Hospício Pedro II, the first psychiatric hospital in Brazil and second in Latin America;[39] Theatro Pedro II, a theater and opera house in the state of São Paulo[40] and Pedro II, a city in the northeastern state of Piauí.","title":"Historical assessments"}]
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[{"image_text":"Pedro II became a model of democratic virtues in Brazil following his death in 1891.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Estatua_dom_pedro_ii_museu_imperial_petropolis.jpg/220px-Estatua_dom_pedro_ii_museu_imperial_petropolis.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of a pensive Pedro II dedicated in Petrópolis in 1911.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Monumento_a_Dom_Pedro_II_na_Pra%C3%A7a_Dom_Pedro_II.jpg/300px-Monumento_a_Dom_Pedro_II_na_Pra%C3%A7a_Dom_Pedro_II.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tomb of Pedro II at the Cathedral of Petrópolis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Petropolis-Cathedral4.jpg/220px-Petropolis-Cathedral4.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bust of Pedro II in Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais state, dedicated in 1925.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Pedroii.JPG/200px-Pedroii.JPG"},{"image_text":"Statue of Pedro II in front of the Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ_Dom_Pedro.jpg/200px-Museu_Nacional_-_UFRJ_Dom_Pedro.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Texto Ruy Barbosa\". politicus.org (in Portuguese). HTS Informática. 8 January 2004. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161253/http://www.politicus.org.br/ruy_barbosa.htm","url_text":"\"Texto Ruy Barbosa\""},{"url":"http://www.politicus.org.br/ruy_barbosa.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Institucional\". Theatro Pedro II. Retrieved 14 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theatropedro2.com.br/institucional.php","url_text":"\"Institucional\""}]},{"reference":"Barman, Roderick J. (1999). Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3510-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3510-0","url_text":"978-0-8047-3510-0"}]},{"reference":"Benevides, José Marijeso de Alencar (1979). D. Pedro II, patrono da astronomia brasileira (in Portuguese). Fortaleza: Imprensa oficial do Ceará.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bueno, Eduardo (2003). Brasil: uma História (in Portuguese) (1st ed.). São Paulo: Ática. ISBN 978-85-08-08952-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-08-08952-9","url_text":"978-85-08-08952-9"}]},{"reference":"Calmon, Pedro (1975). História de D. Pedro II. 5 v (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Calmon, Pedro (2002). História da Civilização Brasileira (in Portuguese). Brasília: Senado Federal. OCLC 685131818.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/685131818","url_text":"685131818"}]},{"reference":"Carvalho, José Murilo de (1987). Os Bestializados: o Rio de Janeiro e a República que não foi (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Carvalho, José Murilo de (2007). D. Pedro II: ser ou não ser (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-359-0969-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-359-0969-2","url_text":"978-85-359-0969-2"}]},{"reference":"Fleury, Renato Sêneca (c. 1940s). D. Pedro II (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Melhoramentos.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Graham, Richard (1994). Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2336-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2336-7","url_text":"978-0-8047-2336-7"}]},{"reference":"Markun, Paulo (2000). Anita Garibaldi: uma heroína brasileira (in Portuguese) (4th ed.). São paulo: Senac. ISBN 978-85-7359-086-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-7359-086-9","url_text":"978-85-7359-086-9"}]},{"reference":"Martins, Luís (2008). O patriarca e o bacharel (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Alameda.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Munro, Dana Gardner (1942). The Latin American Republics: A History. New York: D. Appleton.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Salles, Ricardo (1996). Nostalgia Imperial (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks. OCLC 36598004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36598004","url_text":"36598004"}]},{"reference":"Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese) (2nd ed.). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 978-85-7164-837-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/asbarbasdoimpera00schw","url_text":"As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-7164-837-1","url_text":"978-85-7164-837-1"}]},{"reference":"Skidmore, Thomas E. (2003). Uma História do Brasil (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Paz e Terra. ISBN 978-85-219-0313-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-219-0313-0","url_text":"978-85-219-0313-0"}]},{"reference":"Vasquez, Pedro Karp (2007). Nos trilhos do progresso: A ferrovia no Brasil imperial vista pela fotografia (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Metalivros. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GG_Aleste_3
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GG Aleste 3
|
["1 Gameplay","2 Development and release","3 Reception","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]
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2020 video gameGG Aleste 3Developer(s)M2Publisher(s)M2Director(s)Manabu NamikiProducer(s)Naoki HoriiDesigner(s)Manabu NamikiKazuyuki NakashimaProgrammer(s)Takashi YamashitaArtist(s)Kazuyuki NakashimaKisai TakayamaShinsuke YamakawaComposer(s)Manabu NamikiSeriesAlestePlatform(s)Game Gear, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4ReleaseJP: December 24, 2020 (Aleste Collection)Genre(s)Vertically scrolling shooterMode(s)Single-player
GG Aleste 3 is a 2020 vertically scrolling shooter video game developed and published by M2. It was included as part of the Aleste Collection for Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4, as well as in a Game Gear Micro variant bundled as part of a limited edition. An entry in the Aleste series, the game follows Luna Waizen, a pilot candidate scrambled into service after destruction of the Moon Child base and fight against cyber terrorists that have seized control of the Earth's satellites. It retains the same gameplay conventions as the original GG Aleste and GG Aleste 2, with the player fighting endless waves of enemies while avoiding collision with their projectiles and other obstacles.
GG Aleste 3 was created for the Game Gear hardware by staff who worked on shoot 'em up titles from the 1990s such as Blazing Lazers, Super Star Soldier and Battle Garegga, led by designer and composer Manabu Namiki. It garnered generally favorable reception from critics.
Gameplay
Gameplay screenshot
GG Aleste 3 is a vertical-scrolling shoot 'em up game. The plot follows Luna Waizen, a pilot candidate from the Earth Orbital Army Lunar Defense Corps, who is scrambled into service after destruction of the Moon Child base to fight against cyber terrorists that have seized control of the Earth's satellites. Prior to starting, a configuration menu is presented where multiple option settings can be altered. Its gameplay follows the same conventions as the original GG Aleste and GG Aleste 2; The player controls the "Are Savior" fighter craft through seven increasingly difficult stages over a constantly scrolling background, populated with an assortment of enemy forces and obstacles, and the scenery never stops moving until a boss is reached, which must be fought to progress further.
The player has a main weapon that can be powered up by collecting "Power Chips". There are also six different special weapons that can be picked up and upgraded if the same weapon is picked up that is currently being used. The bomb mechanic introduced in GG Aleste 2 was replaced with a shield power-up instead, which is activated once twenty Power Chips are collected and allows the player to only absorb one enemy hit. Getting hit will result in losing a life, as well as a penalty of decreasing the Are Savior's firepower to its original state and the game is over once all lives are lost, though the player has limited continues to keep playing.
Development and release
GG Aleste 3 was developed for the Game Gear.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2023)
GG Aleste 3 was developed for the Game Gear hardware by M2, a company regarded for its high-quality video game re-releases. Its staff was conformed by a number of people who worked on shoot 'em up titles from the 1990s. It was directed by Manabu Namiki (of Battle Garegga, DoDonPachi DaiOuJou and Deathsmiles), who was also in charge as game designer and composer. M2 CEO Naoki Horii led its development as producer. Kazuyuki Nakashima (of Blazing Lazers, MUSHA, Seirei Senshi Spriggan and Mahou Daisakusen) acted as co-game designer. Nakashima also acted as co-graphic designer alongside Shinsuke Yamakawa of Battle Garegga. Takashi "Faw.Labo" Yamashita of Super Star Soldier and Star Parodier served as the game's programmer. Kisai Takayama, known for bishōjo games such as KimiKiss and Amagami, was commissioned as character illustrator. The team recounted the project's history and creation process through interviews.
GG Aleste 3 was first announced at the 2020 Tokyo Game Show as part of the Aleste Collection, which was released in Japan by M2 under their publishing label M2 ShotTriggers for Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 on December 24. To denote its authenticity as a Game Gear title, Sega gave it an official production code, while a physical copy was also created, complete with packaging mimicking officially licensed Game Gear releases. It was included in a Game Gear Micro variant as well, bundled as part of a limited edition for the Aleste Collection, featuring all of the same games as in the main compilation. An album containing the game's original soundtrack and other games featured in the Aleste Collection was distributed in Japan by Wave Master on April 21, 2022.
Reception
ReceptionReview scorePublicationScoreWireframe(NS) 81%
GG Aleste 3, as part of the Aleste Collection, garnered generally favorable reception from critics. Nintendo Life's Kerry Brunskill regarded it as one of the best Game Gear games that pushes the hardware to its limits and a welcomed addition in the collection. Hardcore Gaming 101's Kurt Kalata found it to be "an outstanding 8-bit shooter", lauding its visuals effects and impressive boss encounters. Nevertheless, Kalata questioned M2 for choosing the Game Gear hardware due to its limited screen resolution and felt that the soundtrack was noisy.
Wireframe's Ryan Lambie reviewed the Nintendo Switch version of the collection, praising it for capturing a "cinematic sense of occasion" compared to modern shooters. Lambie called it a "satisfying throwback" to shooters by Compile, commending its fresh balance, design and fast-pacing, but expressed disappointment that the collection was only available in Japan. Eurogamer's Thomas Nickel highlighted its large bosses, pixel art and balanced difficulty curve. Nickel wrote that "It's a magnificent trip down memory lane for the old school-shooter-crowd." Rice Digital's Pete Davison commended its useful subweapons, bosses, solid difficulty and soundtrack. Davidson wrote that it stood up "very well next to the very best titles the 16-bit home consoles have to offer."
Notes
^ The game is programmed for and runs on Game Gear consoles. It never received a physical release for the platform, but the ROM image was released on the Game Gear Micro microhandheld.
^ Japanese: GGアレスタ3, Hepburn: GG Aresuta 3
References
^ a b c d e f "ゲームギア最新タイトル『GGアレスタ3』体験版最速プレイレポート。圧巻の作り込みはシューター要チェック" . Dengeki Online (in Japanese). ASCII Media Works. November 6, 2020. Archived from the original on 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ a b c d e f GG Aleste 3 取扱説明書 (Game Gear, JP)
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Kalata, Kurt (January 16, 2021). "GG Aleste 3". Hardcore Gaming 101. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
^ a b c d e f g Nickel, Thomas (March 1, 2021). "How M2 went back to the Game Gear for its magnum opus — Aleste'd development". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Archived from the original on 2022-06-23. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
^ a b c d e f M2 (December 24, 2020). GG Aleste 3 (Game Gear). M2. Level/area: GG Aleste 3 Development Staff.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ a b c d e "『GGアレスタ』シリーズ大鼎談！ シリーズのキーマン小玉氏、並木氏、ナカシマ氏が裏話を語り尽くす" . Dengeki Online (in Japanese). ASCII Media Works. January 14, 2021. Archived from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ Kalata, Kurt (January 16, 2021). "Aleste Collection". Hardcore Gaming 101. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-07-10.
^ Yamoto, Shinichi (October 6, 2020). "30年を経て，あの携帯ゲーム機が蘇る。「ゲームギアミクロ」発売記念，セガ＆エムツーのキーマン3名にインタビュー" . 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-03-12. Retrieved 2022-07-12.
^ a b Dabi (September 26, 2020). "［TGS 2020］「アレスタコレクション」に完全新作「GGアレスタ3」が収録決定。限定版付属のゲームギアミクロでも遊べる" Completely new work "GG Aleste 3" will be included in "Aleste Collection". You can also play with the game gear micro that comes with the limited edition]. 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. Archived from the original on 2021-06-23. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ Romano, Sal (September 26, 2020). "Aleste Collection adds GG Aleste 3, a new title made for Game Gear". Gematsu. Archived from the original on 2022-05-22. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
^ a b c McFerran, Damien (September 26, 2020). "M2 Is Bringing Aleste Collection To Switch And Making A Special Game Gear Micro (Update: An all-new game has been added)". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. Archived from the original on 2022-03-10. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ a b Brunskill, Kerry (December 30, 2020). "Aleste Collection Review (Switch) — Vintage shmup action on Switch". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. Archived from the original on 2022-04-05. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
^ "Say Hello To The Most Desirable (And Expensive) Game Gear Micro". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. January 12, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ "「アレスタコレクション」のサウンドトラックCDが4月21日にリリース" . 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. March 14, 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-03-14. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ a b Lambie, Ryan (February 4, 2021). "Rated - Review: GG Aleste 3 — It's a mega blast (Format: Switch )". Wireframe. No. 47. Raspberry Pi Foundation. p. 94. (Transcription by Wireframe. Archived 2022-06-24 at the Wayback Machine).
^ Normandin, Marc (May 9, 2022). "7 Great Japanese Shmups You Have to Play on the Nintendo Switch". Paste. Paste Media Group. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
^ Davison, Pete (September 20, 2021). "Blissful Death: Brand new 8-bit shooting action with GG Aleste 3". Rice Digital. Rice Digital Ltd. Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2022-06-24.
External links
Japan portalVideo games portal
Official website
vteAlesteGames
Aleste
Aleste Gaiden
Aleste 2
MUSHA
GG Aleste
Space Megaforce
Robo Aleste
Power Strike II (Game Gear)
GG Aleste 3
Related
Zanac
The Guardian Legend
Blazing Lazers
Gun-Nac
Seirei Senshi Spriggan
Spriggan Mark 2: Re-Terraform Project
Sorcer Striker
Power Strike II (Master System)
Sylphia
Companies
Compile
Naxat Soft
Raizing
M2
|
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4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4G.net-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLife-13"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLife-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLifeNSacGG3A-14"},{"link_name":"Game Gear Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear_Micro"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4G.net-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLife-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Wave Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_Master"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"GG Aleste 3 was developed for the Game Gear.GG Aleste 3 was developed for the Game Gear hardware by M2, a company regarded for its high-quality video game re-releases.[4] Its staff was conformed by a number of people who worked on shoot 'em up titles from the 1990s.[3] It was directed by Manabu Namiki (of Battle Garegga, DoDonPachi DaiOuJou and Deathsmiles), who was also in charge as game designer and composer.[3][4][5][6] M2 CEO Naoki Horii led its development as producer.[4][5] Kazuyuki Nakashima (of Blazing Lazers, MUSHA, Seirei Senshi Spriggan and Mahou Daisakusen) acted as co-game designer.[3][5][6] Nakashima also acted as co-graphic designer alongside Shinsuke Yamakawa of Battle Garegga.[3][5] Takashi \"Faw.Labo\" Yamashita of Super Star Soldier and Star Parodier served as the game's programmer.[3][4][5][6] Kisai Takayama, known for bishōjo games such as KimiKiss and Amagami, was commissioned as character illustrator.[4][5][6][7] The team recounted the project's history and creation process through interviews.[4][6][8]GG Aleste 3 was first announced at the 2020 Tokyo Game Show as part of the Aleste Collection, which was released in Japan by M2 under their publishing label M2 ShotTriggers for Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 on December 24.[9][10][11] To denote its authenticity as a Game Gear title, Sega gave it an official production code, while a physical copy was also created, complete with packaging mimicking officially licensed Game Gear releases.[11][12] It was included in a Game Gear Micro variant as well, bundled as part of a limited edition for the Aleste Collection, featuring all of the same games as in the main compilation.[9][11][13] An album containing the game's original soundtrack and other games featured in the Aleste Collection was distributed in Japan by Wave Master on April 21, 2022.[14]","title":"Development and release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wireframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_Foundation#Magazine"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WireframeNSacGGA3-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DOacGGA3-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paste7GJSYHTPotNS-18"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Life"},{"link_name":"Game Gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NLifeNSacGG3A-14"},{"link_name":"Hardcore Gaming 101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore_Gaming_101"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GGA3hg101-5"},{"link_name":"Wireframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_Foundation#Magazine"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"link_name":"Compile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compile_(company)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WireframeNSacGGA3-17"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"pixel art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel_art"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuroGacGGA3-6"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiceDigiGGA3-19"}],"text":"ReceptionReview scorePublicationScoreWireframe(NS) 81%[15]GG Aleste 3, as part of the Aleste Collection, garnered generally favorable reception from critics.[1][16] Nintendo Life's Kerry Brunskill regarded it as one of the best Game Gear games that pushes the hardware to its limits and a welcomed addition in the collection.[12] Hardcore Gaming 101's Kurt Kalata found it to be \"an outstanding 8-bit shooter\", lauding its visuals effects and impressive boss encounters. Nevertheless, Kalata questioned M2 for choosing the Game Gear hardware due to its limited screen resolution and felt that the soundtrack was noisy.[3]Wireframe's Ryan Lambie reviewed the Nintendo Switch version of the collection, praising it for capturing a \"cinematic sense of occasion\" compared to modern shooters. Lambie called it a \"satisfying throwback\" to shooters by Compile, commending its fresh balance, design and fast-pacing, but expressed disappointment that the collection was only available in Japan.[15] Eurogamer's Thomas Nickel highlighted its large bosses, pixel art and balanced difficulty curve. Nickel wrote that \"It's a magnificent trip down memory lane for the old school-shooter-crowd.\"[4] Rice Digital's Pete Davison commended its useful subweapons, bosses, solid difficulty and soundtrack. Davidson wrote that it stood up \"very well next to the very best titles the 16-bit home consoles have to offer.\"[17]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ROM image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_image"},{"link_name":"Game Gear Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear_Micro"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"}],"text":"^ The game is programmed for and runs on Game Gear consoles. It never received a physical release for the platform, but the ROM image was released on the Game Gear Micro microhandheld.\n\n^ Japanese: GGアレスタ3, Hepburn: GG Aresuta 3","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Gameplay screenshot","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4f/GG_Aleste_3_%28GG_Aleste_3_-_Last_Messiah%29.png"},{"image_text":"GG Aleste 3 was developed for the Game Gear.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Sega-Game-Gear-WB.png/220px-Sega-Game-Gear-WB.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"ゲームギア最新タイトル『GGアレスタ3』体験版最速プレイレポート。圧巻の作り込みはシューター要チェック\" [Game Gear latest title \"GG Aleste 3\" trial version fastest play report. Check out the shooter to make a masterpiece]. Dengeki Online (in Japanese). ASCII Media Works. November 6, 2020. Archived from the original on 2022-02-07. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://dengekionline.com/articles/55750/","url_text":"\"ゲームギア最新タイトル『GGアレスタ3』体験版最速プレイレポート。圧巻の作り込みはシューター要チェック\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_Media_Works","url_text":"ASCII Media Works"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220207121749/https://dengekionline.com/articles/55750/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kalata, Kurt (January 16, 2021). \"GG Aleste 3\". Hardcore Gaming 101. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/gg-aleste-3/","url_text":"\"GG Aleste 3\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore_Gaming_101","url_text":"Hardcore Gaming 101"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220215033925/http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/gg-aleste-3/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nickel, Thomas (March 1, 2021). \"How M2 went back to the Game Gear for its magnum opus — Aleste'd development\". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Archived from the original on 2022-06-23. Retrieved 2022-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eurogamer.net/how-m2-went-back-to-the-game-gear-for-its-magnum-opus","url_text":"\"How M2 went back to the Game Gear for its magnum opus — Aleste'd development\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer","url_text":"Eurogamer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamer_Network","url_text":"Gamer Network"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220623233143/https://www.eurogamer.net/how-m2-went-back-to-the-game-gear-for-its-magnum-opus","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"M2 (December 24, 2020). GG Aleste 3 (Game Gear). M2. Level/area: GG Aleste 3 Development Staff.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2_(game_developer)","url_text":"M2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear","url_text":"Game Gear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M2_(game_developer)","url_text":"M2"}]},{"reference":"\"『GGアレスタ』シリーズ大鼎談！ シリーズのキーマン小玉氏、並木氏、ナカシマ氏が裏話を語り尽くす\" [\"GG Aleste\" series big talk! Mr. Kodama, Mr. Namiki, and Mr. Nakashima, the key men of the series, tell the story behind the scenes.]. Dengeki Online (in Japanese). ASCII Media Works. January 14, 2021. Archived from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://dengekionline.com/articles/63050/","url_text":"\"『GGアレスタ』シリーズ大鼎談！ シリーズのキーマン小玉氏、並木氏、ナカシマ氏が裏話を語り尽くす\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_Media_Works","url_text":"ASCII Media Works"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220616202525/https://dengekionline.com/articles/63050/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kalata, Kurt (January 16, 2021). \"Aleste Collection\". Hardcore Gaming 101. Archived from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-07-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/aleste-collection/","url_text":"\"Aleste Collection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore_Gaming_101","url_text":"Hardcore Gaming 101"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220215020037/http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/aleste-collection/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Yamoto, Shinichi (October 6, 2020). \"30年を経て，あの携帯ゲーム機が蘇る。「ゲームギアミクロ」発売記念，セガ＆エムツーのキーマン3名にインタビュー\" [After 30 years, that handheld game console is back. Interview with 3 key men of Sega & M2 to commemorate the release of \"Game Gear Micro\"]. 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-03-12. Retrieved 2022-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.4gamer.net/games/510/G051067/20201002112/","url_text":"\"30年を経て，あの携帯ゲーム機が蘇る。「ゲームギアミクロ」発売記念，セガ＆エムツーのキーマン3名にインタビュー\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Gamer.net","url_text":"4Gamer.net"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220312081926/https://www.4gamer.net/games/510/G051067/20201002112/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dabi (September 26, 2020). \"［TGS 2020］「アレスタコレクション」に完全新作「GGアレスタ3」が収録決定。限定版付属のゲームギアミクロでも遊べる\" [[TGS 2020] Completely new work \"GG Aleste 3\" will be included in \"Aleste Collection\". You can also play with the game gear micro that comes with the limited edition]. 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. Archived from the original on 2021-06-23. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.4gamer.net/games/529/G052952/20200923127/","url_text":"\"［TGS 2020］「アレスタコレクション」に完全新作「GGアレスタ3」が収録決定。限定版付属のゲームギアミクロでも遊べる\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Gamer.net","url_text":"4Gamer.net"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210623232348/https://www.4gamer.net/games/529/G052952/20200923127/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Romano, Sal (September 26, 2020). \"Aleste Collection adds GG Aleste 3, a new title made for Game Gear\". Gematsu. Archived from the original on 2022-05-22. Retrieved 2022-07-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gematsu.com/2020/09/aleste-collection-adds-gg-aleste-3-a-new-title-made-for-game-gear","url_text":"\"Aleste Collection adds GG Aleste 3, a new title made for Game Gear\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220522153317/https://www.gematsu.com/2020/09/aleste-collection-adds-gg-aleste-3-a-new-title-made-for-game-gear","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"McFerran, Damien (September 26, 2020). \"M2 Is Bringing Aleste Collection To Switch And Making A Special Game Gear Micro (Update: An all-new game has been added)\". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. Archived from the original on 2022-03-10. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2020/09/m2_is_bringing_aleste_collection_to_switch_and_making_a_special_game_gear_micro","url_text":"\"M2 Is Bringing Aleste Collection To Switch And Making A Special Game Gear Micro (Update: An all-new game has been added)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Life","url_text":"Nintendo Life"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220310170312/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2020/09/m2_is_bringing_aleste_collection_to_switch_and_making_a_special_game_gear_micro","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brunskill, Kerry (December 30, 2020). \"Aleste Collection Review (Switch) — Vintage shmup action on Switch\". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. Archived from the original on 2022-04-05. Retrieved 2022-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/nintendo-switch/aleste_collection","url_text":"\"Aleste Collection Review (Switch) — Vintage shmup action on Switch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Life","url_text":"Nintendo Life"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220405000655/https://www.nintendolife.com/reviews/nintendo-switch/aleste_collection","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Say Hello To The Most Desirable (And Expensive) Game Gear Micro\". Nintendo Life. Nlife Media. January 12, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-01-13. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2021/01/say_hello_to_the_most_desirable_and_expensive_game_gear_micro","url_text":"\"Say Hello To The Most Desirable (And Expensive) Game Gear Micro\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Life","url_text":"Nintendo Life"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210113212443/https://www.nintendolife.com/news/2021/01/say_hello_to_the_most_desirable_and_expensive_game_gear_micro","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"「アレスタコレクション」のサウンドトラックCDが4月21日にリリース\" [\"Aleste Collection\" soundtrack CD released on April 21st]. 4Gamer.net (in Japanese). Aetas Inc. March 14, 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-03-14. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.4gamer.net/games/529/G052952/20220314012/","url_text":"\"「アレスタコレクション」のサウンドトラックCDが4月21日にリリース\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Gamer.net","url_text":"4Gamer.net"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220314053110/https://www.4gamer.net/games/529/G052952/20220314012/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lambie, Ryan (February 4, 2021). \"Rated - Review: GG Aleste 3 — It's a mega blast (Format: Switch [tested])\". Wireframe. No. 47. Raspberry Pi Foundation. p. 94.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Wireframe47/page/90/mode/2up?q=Aleste","url_text":"\"Rated - Review: GG Aleste 3 — It's a mega blast (Format: Switch [tested])\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireframe_(magazine)","url_text":"Wireframe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_Foundation","url_text":"Raspberry Pi Foundation"}]},{"reference":"Normandin, Marc (May 9, 2022). \"7 Great Japanese Shmups You Have to Play on the Nintendo Switch\". Paste. Paste Media Group. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pastemagazine.com/games/importing-japanese-switch-shmups/","url_text":"\"7 Great Japanese Shmups You Have to Play on the Nintendo Switch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_(magazine)","url_text":"Paste"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220618001906/https://www.pastemagazine.com/games/importing-japanese-switch-shmups/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Davison, Pete (September 20, 2021). \"Blissful Death: Brand new 8-bit shooting action with GG Aleste 3\". Rice Digital. Rice Digital Ltd. Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2022-06-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://ricedigital.co.uk/blissful-death-gg-aleste-3/","url_text":"\"Blissful Death: Brand new 8-bit shooting action with GG Aleste 3\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220523230349/https://ricedigital.co.uk/blissful-death-gg-aleste-3/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Situation_Room_(photograph)
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Situation Room (photograph)
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["1 Background","2 People","2.1 Seated","2.2 Standing","3 Reception","4 Analysis","5 Alteration in Hasidic newspapers","6 Other uses","7 See also","8 References","9 External links and further reading"]
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Photo of U.S. national security officials during Operation Neptune Spear
President Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room. (Click on a person to go to their respective article).
Situation Room is a photograph taken by Pete Souza, Chief Official White House Photographer, at 4:05 p.m. on May 1, 2011. The photograph shows U.S. president Barack Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room receiving live updates from Operation Neptune Spear, which led to the killing of al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan.
Background
Air Force Brigadier General Brad Webb was sitting at the table monitoring the raid on Osama bin Laden's compound when Michael Leiter, then director of the United States National Counterterrorism Center, entered the room. Leiter does not appear in the photograph, but was followed by Robert Gates, Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, and others. Soon the president entered the room, commenting "I need to watch this," and sat down next to General Webb. According to journalist Peter Bergen, the group was watching a live feed from an unmanned drone flying overhead. Leon Panetta said that Obama did not see bin Laden being killed. Clinton said: "We could see or hear nothing when went into the house. There was no communication or feedback coming so it was during that time period everyone was particularly focused on just trying to keep calm and keep prepared as to what would happen."
The picture was taken at 4:05 pm local time in Washington (16:05 EDT), which was 12:35 am local time in Afghanistan. President Obama later said he believed the picture was taken about the time the room's occupants were informed or realized that one of the raid's helicopters had crashed.
White House photographer Pete Souza commented on this photograph for Time in late 2012, writing:Much has been made of this photograph that shows the President and Vice President and the national security team monitoring in real time the mission against Osama bin Laden, May 1, 2011. Some more background on the photograph: The White House Situation Room is actually comprised of several different conference rooms. The majority of the time, the President convenes meetings in the large conference room with assigned seats. But to monitor this mission, the group moved into the much smaller conference room. The President chose to sit next to Brigadier General Marshall B. 'Brad' Webb, Assistant Commanding General of Joint Special Operations Command, who was point man for the communications taking place. With so few chairs, others just stood at the back of the room. I was jammed into a corner of the room with no room to move. During the mission itself, I made approximately 100 photographs, almost all from this cramped spot in the corner. Please note: a classified document seen in front of Sec. Clinton has been obscured.
People
Annotated photograph
The following people are pictured, from left to right:
Seated
Joe Biden, Vice President of the United States
Barack Obama, President of the United States
Brigadier General Marshall B. "Brad" Webb, Assistant Commanding General of the Joint Special Operations Command
Denis McDonough, Deputy National Security Advisor
Hillary Clinton, Secretary of State
Robert Gates, Secretary of Defense
Standing
Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Tom Donilon, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs
William M. Daley, White House Chief of Staff
Antony Blinken, National Security Advisor to the Vice President
Audrey Tomason, Director for Counterterrorism for the National Security Council
An unidentified person in a beige shirt behind Tomason (only a fragment of the person's shoulder is visible)
John O. Brennan, Assistant to the President for Homeland Security and Counterterrorism
James R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence
A man in a black suit with a white tie. Though his head is out of frame, he has been identified as a CIA analyst, publicly known only as "John", who was "the first to put in writing that the CIA might have a legitimate lead on finding bin Laden."
Reception
The photograph received much publicity after the news of Bin Laden's death was announced. CNN called it a "photo for the ages" and drew comparisons to other famous images of U.S. presidents such as Dewey Defeats Truman. Former White House photographer Eric Draper said that the photo captured "a defining moment in history very well." The photograph has also been the subject of commentary by historians and body language analysts.
Because the photograph was taken during the raid, it has been most noted for its intensity. Hillary Clinton, pictured in the photograph, described the moment as "the most intense 38 minutes of my life" while Obama commented that it may have been the longest 40 minutes of his life, possibly excepting when his daughter Sasha had meningitis as an infant. Brennan said "the minutes passed like hours and days" and Clapper said that "the tension in the air was palpable".
Particularly of note was Clinton's facial expression, holding her right hand over her mouth in apparent anxiety over the outcome of the raid. She later said that she was suffering from a spring allergy and was likely suppressing a cough. Regarding the photograph, Clinton said that she was unaware of the photographer in the room as she was so focused on the situation.
Analysis
Some historians have commented on the historical significance of the photograph, particularly its depiction of the crossing of gender and racial boundaries. Lehigh University political science professor Saladin Ambar said that the picture suggests "a new American landscape that we're still crossing into." He continued, "When Obama was elected, there were some people who thought that we had crossed a racial threshold. What his presidency is revealing is that there are many crossings."
The photograph has also been noted to depict a change in presidential leadership style. Historian Clarence Lusane said that past presidents have felt a need to project "machismo" and "swagger." Meredith College sociology professor Lori Brown said it is significant, however, that Obama is neither in the center of the room nor in the tallest chair. Political analyst Cheryl Contee said "Obama's willingness to be photographed without the typical Oval Office swagger gives birth to a new type of swagger." She said that the image shows Obama's leadership style as a collaborator.
The New York Times commented on Clinton's expression in the photograph, writing, "She is what the French critic Roland Barthes called the 'punctum,' the not necessarily conspicuous detail that gives a photograph its emotional resonance." They also stated the mystery of the photograph—what are they looking at?—was analogous to the uncertainty of Western democracy's relationship with Islamic militant terrorism.
Ambar stated that the photograph also shows how entrenched women have become in U.S. politics; Clinton and Audrey Tomason are in the photograph, while the similar photograph of John F. Kennedy and his staff during the Cuban Missile Crisis does not show any women. Lori Brown said in a CNN article that the photograph also shows how women have made progress in U.S. political life, although Brown said that Clinton's visible reaction dulled the impact somewhat, because women "are often more physical in their emotional responses and in a 'power situation' it may not seem as acceptable."
Until the publishing of the photograph, Audrey F. Tomason, a woman identified by the White House as the Director for Counterterrorism, was unknown to the public. After the publication of the photo, because of the apparent proximity to President Barack Obama seen in the photograph, various rumors appeared regarding what her role was. She was the only woman, other than Hillary Clinton, in the photograph. She also appeared to be the only person in the photograph under 40 years of age. Alexis Madrigal, a senior editor at The Atlantic, said that Tomason "appeared to be an outlier in a room filled with the administration's heaviest hitters." Tommy Vietor, a United States National Security Council spokesperson, said that there were other young staffers in the room, but Tomason was the only one in the photograph. Vietor said "here were at least half a dozen people with similar profiles in the immediate vicinity where that photo was taken." Madrigal added "The luck of the camera's gaze means that history will be able to place Tomason at a decisive moment in the war on terrorism, but not her colleagues." Little information is publicly available about Tomason, although Tufts University later confirmed that she is a Tufts graduate.
Robert Cardillo, deputy director of national intelligence, was cropped from the photo and was seated to the right of Vice President Biden.
Alteration in Hasidic newspapers
The newspaper with censored photo (In the title, "When the wicked perish there is song", from Proverbs 11:10)
Di Tzeitung (The Journal), a Satmar Hasidic newspaper from Brooklyn, edited the image to remove Clinton and Tomason due to its policy of not running photographs with women because of modesty laws. The newspaper apologized for altering the image in breach of the terms of its release. The Washington Post issued a correction, noting that Di Tzeitung had not violated any White House copyright because the photograph was "in the public domain from the moment of inception". In addition, Dee Voch (The Week), a weekly Hasidic magazine from Brooklyn, also edited out the women.
The editing of images of women out of photographs is a common practice of Haredi newspapers. While some interpreted this practice as a result of inequality to women's rights in Hasidic Judaism, Di Tzeitung, in its statement, said it was done only because of modesty reasons, and should in no way be seen as degrading of women.
Other uses
The photograph was used satirically on the cover of the May 13, 2011 issue of Private Eye magazine, suggesting that the people present were witnessing a massacre of the Liberal Democrats party in British local elections.
In the 2017 season five finale of the Netflix TV show House of Cards, fictional President Claire Underwood and her cabinet conduct a military operation in the White House Situation Room. The angle of the camera shot, placement of actors in the scene, their clothing, and even the placement of computers and coffee cups on the table, directly mimic Souza's photograph. The photograph was also mimicked in a shot in Bong Joon-ho's 2017 film Okja, only with a corporation taking the place of the U.S. government.
See also
List of photographs considered the most important
References
^ a b c Jamie Crawford (May 1, 2012). "The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later". CNN – Security Clearance. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
^ Winter, Michael (May 3, 2011). "Panetta: Obama did not see bin Laden being killed". USA Today. Retrieved September 15, 2011.
^ Bowden, Mark (November 2012). "The Hunt For 'Geronimo'". Vanity Fair. p. 144.
^ Souza, Pete (October 8, 2012). "Pete Souza's Portrait of a Presidency". Time. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
^ Goldman, Adam; Apuzzo, Matt (July 5, 2011). "Meet 'John': The CIA's bin Laden hunter-in-chief". NBC News. Associated Press. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
^ Silverleib, Alan (May 3, 2011). "Obama on Sunday: A photo for the ages?". CNN. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
^ a b c d Blake, John (May 5, 2011). "What 'Situation Room Photo' reveals about us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 2, 2013. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
^ "Clinton: Allergy led to my Situation Room photo". MSNBC. May 5, 2011. Archived from the original on May 8, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
^ Ken Johnson (May 7, 2011). "Situation: Ambiguous". New York Times. – Also in print: May 8, 2011, New York Edition WK4
^ Stone, Daniel. "Audrey Tomason: Situation Room Mystery Woman." The Daily Beast. Tuesday May 3, 2011. Retrieved on May 10, 2011.
^ Madrigal, Alexis. "The Other Audrey Tomasons in the Situation Room." The Atlantic. May 10, 2011. Retrieved on May 10, 2011.
^ Horning, Beth (Summer 2011). "Audrey Tomason, International Woman of Mystery". Tufts Magazine. Tufts University. Retrieved August 5, 2011.
^ Clapper, James R. Facts and fears : hard truths from a life in intelligence. Brown, Trey (Speechwriter). New York, New York. ISBN 9780525558644. OCLC 1006804896.
^ a b Bell, Melissa (May 9, 2011). "Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
^ Bell, Melissa (May 9, 2011). "Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved July 10, 2015.
^ Bell, Melissa. "Second Hasidic newspaper drops Hillary Clinton and Audrey Tomason." The Washington Post. May 10, 2011. Retrieved on May 10, 2011.
^ Mackey, Robert (May 10, 2011). "Newspaper 'Regrets' Erasing Hillary Clinton". The New York Times. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
^ Horn, Jordana (May 8, 2011). "NY Hassidic paper 'deletes' Clinton from iconic photo (Note: this JPost article incorrectly credits the iconic image: "Photo By: REUTERS/Ho New" rather than crediting Pete Souza!)". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved July 5, 2011.
^ "Statement from News Report (Di Tzeitung) Regarding the White House Picture". Di Tzeitung. May 9, 2011. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved May 12, 2011.
^ "Private Eye Covers Library". www.private-eye.co.uk. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
^ "House of Cards recreates Osama Bin Laden situation room photo - Album on Imgur". imgur.com. Archived from " the original on September 23, 2021.
^ Peter (July 4, 2017). "Matching Frames: Okja and the Killing of Osama Bin Laden". Medium. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
External links and further reading
United States portalPolitics portal
Crawford, Jamie (May 1, 2012). "The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later". CNN. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2012.
"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed". Business Insider.
"P050111PS-0210 ("President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011")". Obama White House (Official White House Photographs). Flickr. May 1, 2011.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden.jpg"},{"link_name":"White House Situation Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Situation_Room"},{"link_name":"Pete Souza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Souza"},{"link_name":"Chief Official White House Photographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Official_White_House_Photographer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crawford-1"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"White House Situation Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Situation_Room"},{"link_name":"Operation Neptune Spear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Neptune_Spear"},{"link_name":"the killing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden"},{"link_name":"al-Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda"},{"link_name":"Osama bin Laden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden"},{"link_name":"Abbottabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbottabad"}],"text":"President Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room. (Click on a person to go to their respective article).Situation Room is a photograph taken by Pete Souza, Chief Official White House Photographer,[1] at 4:05 p.m. on May 1, 2011. The photograph shows U.S. president Barack Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room receiving live updates from Operation Neptune Spear, which led to the killing of al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan.","title":"Situation Room (photograph)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brad Webb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_B._Webb"},{"link_name":"Osama bin Laden's compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden%27s_hideout_compound"},{"link_name":"Michael Leiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Leiter"},{"link_name":"Robert Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gates"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"Joe Biden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Biden"},{"link_name":"Peter Bergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bergen"},{"link_name":"Leon Panetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Panetta"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crawford-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Pete Souza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Souza"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Air Force Brigadier General Brad Webb was sitting at the table monitoring the raid on Osama bin Laden's compound when Michael Leiter, then director of the United States National Counterterrorism Center, entered the room. Leiter does not appear in the photograph, but was followed by Robert Gates, Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, and others. Soon the president entered the room, commenting \"I need to watch this,\" and sat down next to General Webb. According to journalist Peter Bergen, the group was watching a live feed from an unmanned drone flying overhead. Leon Panetta said that Obama did not see bin Laden being killed.[2] Clinton said: \"We could see or hear nothing when [the SEALs] went into the house. There was no communication or feedback coming so it was during that time period everyone was particularly focused on just trying to keep calm and keep prepared as to what would happen.\"[1]The picture was taken at 4:05 pm local time in Washington (16:05 EDT), which was 12:35 am local time in Afghanistan. President Obama later said he believed the picture was taken about the time the room's occupants were informed or realized that one of the raid's helicopters had crashed.[3]White House photographer Pete Souza commented on this photograph for Time in late 2012, writing:Much has been made of this photograph that shows the President and Vice President and the national security team monitoring in real time the mission against Osama bin Laden, May 1, 2011. Some more background on the photograph: The White House Situation Room is actually comprised of several different conference rooms. The majority of the time, the President convenes meetings in the large conference room with assigned seats. But to monitor this mission, the group moved into the much smaller conference room. The President chose to sit next to Brigadier General Marshall B. 'Brad' Webb, Assistant Commanding General of Joint Special Operations Command, who was point man for the communications taking place. With so few chairs, others just stood at the back of the room. I was jammed into a corner of the room with no room to move. During the mission itself, I made approximately 100 photographs, almost all from this cramped spot in the corner. Please note: a classified document seen in front of Sec. Clinton has been obscured.[4]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden_annotated.svg"}],"text":"Annotated photographThe following people are pictured, from left to right:","title":"People"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joe Biden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Biden"},{"link_name":"Vice President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Marshall B. \"Brad\" Webb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_B._Webb"},{"link_name":"Joint Special Operations Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Command"},{"link_name":"Denis McDonough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_McDonough"},{"link_name":"Deputy National Security Advisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Robert Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gates"},{"link_name":"Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"}],"sub_title":"Seated","text":"Joe Biden, Vice President of the United States\nBarack Obama, President of the United States\nBrigadier General Marshall B. \"Brad\" Webb, Assistant Commanding General of the Joint Special Operations Command\nDenis McDonough, Deputy National Security Advisor\nHillary Clinton, Secretary of State\nRobert Gates, Secretary of Defense","title":"People"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mike Mullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Mullen"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Tom Donilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Donilon"},{"link_name":"Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_to_the_President_for_National_Security_Affairs"},{"link_name":"William M. Daley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_M._Daley"},{"link_name":"White House Chief of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Antony Blinken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Blinken"},{"link_name":"National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"John O. Brennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_O._Brennan"},{"link_name":"James R. Clapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Clapper"},{"link_name":"Director of National Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"CIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Standing","text":"Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff\nTom Donilon, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs\nWilliam M. Daley, White House Chief of Staff\nAntony Blinken, National Security Advisor to the Vice President\nAudrey Tomason, Director for Counterterrorism for the National Security Council\nAn unidentified person in a beige shirt behind Tomason (only a fragment of the person's shoulder is visible)\nJohn O. Brennan, Assistant to the President for Homeland Security and Counterterrorism\nJames R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence\nA man in a black suit with a white tie. Though his head is out of frame, he has been identified as a CIA analyst, publicly known only as \"John\", who was \"the first to put in writing [in summer 2010] that the CIA might have a legitimate lead on finding bin Laden.\"[5]","title":"People"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"Dewey Defeats Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewey_Defeats_Truman"},{"link_name":"Eric Draper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Draper"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blake-7"},{"link_name":"Sasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_of_Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"meningitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningitis"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crawford-1"}],"text":"The photograph received much publicity after the news of Bin Laden's death was announced. CNN called it a \"photo for the ages\" and drew comparisons to other famous images of U.S. presidents such as Dewey Defeats Truman. Former White House photographer Eric Draper said that the photo captured \"a defining moment in history very well.\"[6] The photograph has also been the subject of commentary by historians and body language analysts.Because the photograph was taken during the raid, it has been most noted for its intensity. Hillary Clinton, pictured in the photograph, described the moment as \"the most intense 38 minutes of my life\"[7] while Obama commented that it may have been the longest 40 minutes of his life, possibly excepting when his daughter Sasha had meningitis as an infant. Brennan said \"the minutes passed like hours and days\" and Clapper said that \"the tension in the air was palpable\".Particularly of note was Clinton's facial expression, holding her right hand over her mouth in apparent anxiety over the outcome of the raid. She later said that she was suffering from a spring allergy and was likely suppressing a cough.[8] Regarding the photograph, Clinton said that she was unaware of the photographer in the room as she was so focused on the situation.[1]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lehigh University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehigh_University"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blake-7"},{"link_name":"Clarence Lusane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence_Lusane"},{"link_name":"Meredith College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_College"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blake-7"},{"link_name":"Roland Barthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Barthes"},{"link_name":"called the 'punctum,'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_Lucida_(book)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytphoto-9"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Cuban Missile Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis"},{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blake-7"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-10"},{"link_name":"Alexis Madrigal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Madrigal"},{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Tommy Vietor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Vietor"},{"link_name":"United States National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Atlantic-11"},{"link_name":"Tufts University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_University"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Robert Cardillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cardillo"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Some historians have commented on the historical significance of the photograph, particularly its depiction of the crossing of gender and racial boundaries. Lehigh University political science professor Saladin Ambar said that the picture suggests \"a new American landscape that we're still crossing into.\" He continued, \"When Obama was elected, there were some people who thought that we had crossed a racial threshold. What his presidency is revealing is that there are many crossings.\"[7]The photograph has also been noted to depict a change in presidential leadership style. Historian Clarence Lusane said that past presidents have felt a need to project \"machismo\" and \"swagger.\" Meredith College sociology professor Lori Brown said it is significant, however, that Obama is neither in the center of the room nor in the tallest chair. Political analyst Cheryl Contee said \"Obama's willingness to be photographed without the typical Oval Office swagger gives birth to a new type of swagger.\" She said that the image shows Obama's leadership style as a collaborator.[7]The New York Times commented on Clinton's expression in the photograph, writing, \"She is what the French critic Roland Barthes called the 'punctum,' the not necessarily conspicuous detail that gives a photograph its emotional resonance.\" They also stated the mystery of the photograph—what are they looking at?—was analogous to the uncertainty of Western democracy's relationship with Islamic militant terrorism.[9]Ambar stated that the photograph also shows how entrenched women have become in U.S. politics; Clinton and Audrey Tomason are in the photograph, while the similar photograph of John F. Kennedy and his staff during the Cuban Missile Crisis does not show any women. Lori Brown said in a CNN article that the photograph also shows how women have made progress in U.S. political life, although Brown said that Clinton's visible reaction dulled the impact somewhat, because women \"are often more physical in their emotional responses and in a 'power situation' it may not seem as acceptable.\"[7]Until the publishing of the photograph, Audrey F. Tomason, a woman identified by the White House as the Director for Counterterrorism, was unknown to the public. After the publication of the photo, because of the apparent proximity to President Barack Obama seen in the photograph, various rumors appeared regarding what her role was. She was the only woman, other than Hillary Clinton, in the photograph. She also appeared to be the only person in the photograph under 40 years of age.[10] Alexis Madrigal, a senior editor at The Atlantic, said that Tomason \"appeared to be an outlier in a room filled with the administration's heaviest hitters.\" Tommy Vietor, a United States National Security Council spokesperson, said that there were other young staffers in the room, but Tomason was the only one in the photograph. Vietor said \"[t]here were at least half a dozen people with similar profiles in the immediate vicinity where that photo was taken.\" Madrigal added \"The luck of the camera's gaze means that history will be able to place Tomason at a decisive moment in the war on terrorism, but not her colleagues.\"[11] Little information is publicly available about Tomason, although Tufts University later confirmed that she is a Tufts graduate.[12]Robert Cardillo, deputy director of national intelligence, was cropped from the photo and was seated to the right of Vice President Biden.[13]","title":"Analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SituationroomCensored.jpg"},{"link_name":"Proverbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Proverbs"},{"link_name":"Di Tzeitung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di_Tzeitung"},{"link_name":"Satmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satmar_(Hasidic_dynasty)"},{"link_name":"Hasidic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasidic"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"modesty laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzniut"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPBell-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPBell-14"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correction_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPBell-newer-working-archive-15"},{"link_name":"Dee Voch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dee_Voch&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Haredi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haredi_Judaism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Hasidic Judaism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The newspaper with censored photo (In the title, \"When the wicked perish there is song\", from Proverbs 11:10)Di Tzeitung (The Journal), a Satmar Hasidic newspaper from Brooklyn, edited the image to remove Clinton and Tomason due to its policy of not running photographs with women because of modesty laws.[14] The newspaper apologized for altering the image in breach of the terms of its release.[14] The Washington Post issued a correction, noting that Di Tzeitung had not violated any White House copyright because the photograph was \"in the public domain from the moment of inception\".[15] In addition, Dee Voch (The Week), a weekly Hasidic magazine from Brooklyn, also edited out the women.[16]The editing of images of women out of photographs is a common practice of Haredi newspapers.[17] While some interpreted this practice as a result of inequality to women's rights in Hasidic Judaism,[18] Di Tzeitung, in its statement, said it was done only because of modesty reasons, and should in no way be seen as degrading of women.[19]","title":"Alteration in Hasidic newspapers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Private Eye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Eye"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"British local elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_United_Kingdom_local_elections"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Netflix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netflix"},{"link_name":"House of Cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Cards_(U.S._TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Claire Underwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Underwood"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Bong Joon-ho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bong_Joon-ho"},{"link_name":"Okja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okja"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Okja-22"}],"text":"The photograph was used satirically on the cover of the May 13, 2011 issue of Private Eye magazine, suggesting that the people present were witnessing a massacre of the Liberal Democrats party in British local elections.[20]In the 2017 season five finale of the Netflix TV show House of Cards, fictional President Claire Underwood and her cabinet conduct a military operation in the White House Situation Room. The angle of the camera shot, placement of actors in the scene, their clothing, and even the placement of computers and coffee cups on the table, directly mimic Souza's photograph.[21] The photograph was also mimicked in a shot in Bong Joon-ho's 2017 film Okja, only with a corporation taking the place of the U.S. government.[22]","title":"Other uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg"},{"link_name":"Politics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics"},{"link_name":"\"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170312055020/http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/"},{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/"},{"link_name":"\"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.businessinsider.com/john-brennan-situation-room-bin-laden-raid-killed-seal-team-6-2017-4"},{"link_name":"Business Insider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Insider"},{"link_name":"\"P050111PS-0210 (\"President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011\")\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/5680724572/in/photostream"},{"link_name":"Flickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr"},{"link_name":"Authority control 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Rodham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Rodham_(born_1911)"},{"link_name":"Dorothy Howell Rodham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Howell_Rodham"},{"link_name":"Hugh Rodham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Rodham_(born_1950)"},{"link_name":"Tony Rodham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Rodham"},{"link_name":"Socks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socks_(cat)"},{"link_name":"Buddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddy_(Bill_Clinton%27s_dog)"},{"link_name":"Whitehaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehaven_(house)"},{"link_name":"Situation Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Activities after 2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activities_of_Hillary_Clinton_subsequent_to_2016"}],"text":"United States portalPolitics portalCrawford, Jamie (May 1, 2012). \"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\". CNN. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2012.\n\"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed\". Business Insider.\n\"P050111PS-0210 (\"President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011\")\". Obama White House (Official White House Photographs). Flickr. May 1, 2011.Authority control databases: National \nGermanyvteWar on terror\nWar in Afghanistan (2001–2016)\nIraq War (2003–2011)\nSymbolism of terrorism\nParticipantsOperational\nISAF\nOperation Enduring Freedom participants\nAfghanistan\nNorthern Alliance\nIraq (Iraqi Armed Forces)\nNATO\nPakistan\nUnited Kingdom\nUnited States\nEuropean Union\nPhilippines\nEthiopia\nTargetsIndividuals\nOsama bin Laden\nHamza bin Laden\nAnwar al-Awlaki\nSirajuddin Haqqani\nJalaluddin Haqqani\nAnas Haqqani\nKhalil Haqqani\nHafiz Saeed\nMahmoud Mohamed Ahmed Bahaziq\nAbu Bakr al-Baghdadi\nFactions\nal-Qaeda\nal-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula\nAbu Sayyaf\nAl-Shabaab\nBoko Haram\nHarkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami\nHizbul Mujahideen\nIslamic Courts Union\nJaish-e-Mohammed\nJemaah Islamiyah\nLashkar-e-Taiba\nTaliban\nIslamic Movement of Uzbekistan\nIslamic State\nConflictsOperationEnduring Freedom\nWar in Afghanistan\nOEF – Philippines\nGeorgia Train and Equip Program\nGeorgia Sustainment and Stability\nOEF – Horn of Africa\nOEF – Trans Sahara\nDrone strikes in Pakistan\nOther\nOperation Active Endeavour\nInsurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)\nInsurgency in the North Caucasus\nMoro conflict in the Philippines\nIraq War\nIraqi insurgency\nOperation Linda Nchi\nTerrorism in Saudi Arabia\nInsurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa\nWar in Somalia (2006–2009)\n2007 Lebanon conflict\nal-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen\nRelated\nAbu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse\nAxis of evil\nBush Doctrine\nClash of Civilizations\nCold War\nCombatant Status Review Tribunal\nCriticism of the war on terror\nCIA black sites\nKilling of Ayman al-Zawahiri\nKilling of Osama bin Laden\nEnhanced interrogation techniques\nTorture Memos\nExtrajudicial prisoners\nExtraordinary rendition\nGuantanamo Bay detention camp\nIranian Revolution\nIslamic terrorism\nIslamism\nMilitary Commissions Act of 2006\nMilitary Commissions Act of 2009\nNorth Korea and weapons of mass destruction\nTerrorist Surveillance Program\nOperation Noble Eagle\nOperation Eagle Assist\nPakistan's role\nPatriot Act\nPresident's Surveillance Program\nProtect America Act of 2007\nSeptember 11 attacks\nSituation Room photograph\nState Sponsors of Terrorism\nTargeted killing\nTargeted Killing in International Law\nTargeted Killings: Law and Morality in an Asymmetrical World\nUnitary executive theory\nUnlawful combatant\nWithdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2011–2016)\nWithdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)\nCAGE\n\n Category\n CommonsvteBarack Obama\n44th President of the United States (2009–2017)\nU.S. Senator from Illinois (2005–2008)\nIllinois Senator from the 13th district (1997–2004)\nLife andpolitics\nEarly life and career\nIllinois Senate career\n2004 Democratic National Convention\nU.S. Senate career\nPolitical positions\nAdministration foreign policy\nCannabis\nMass surveillance\nSocial\nSpace\nNobel Peace Prize\nWest Wing Week\nPresidency(timeline)\nTransition\n2009 inauguration\n2013 inauguration\nFirst 100 days\nTimeline\n2009\n2010\n2011\n2012\n2013\n2014\n2015\n2016–17\nForeign policy\nMiddle East\nWar in Afghanistan\nIraq withdrawal\nKilling of Osama bin Laden\nBenghazi attack\nReturn to Iraq\nWar in Syria\nIran nuclear deal\nPivot to Asia\nCuban thaw\nObama Doctrine\nEurope\nEconomic policy\nAffordable Care Act\nAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009\nDodd–Frank Act\nLilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009\nEnergy/Environmental\nLautenberg Chemical Safety Act\nMarine policy\nNew Energy for America\nRegulation of greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act\nClean Power Plan\nWater Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act of 2014\nHealthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act\nNew START\nMAP-21st Century Act\nFAST Act\nPardons\nPresidential trips\ninternational\n2009\n2010\n2011\n2012\n2013\n2014\n2015\n2016–17\nJudicial appointments\nSupreme Court\nSotomayor\nKagan\nGarland\ncontroversies\nCabinet\nPresidential Library and Center\nExecutive actions\nExecutive orders\nMemoranda\nProclamations\nTrump transition\nPlantation Estate\nBooks\nDreams from My Father (1995)\nThe Audacity of Hope (2006)\nOf Thee I Sing (2010)\nA Promised Land (2020)\nSpeeches\n\"The Audacity of Hope\" (2004)\n\"Yes We Can\" (2008)\n\"A More Perfect Union\" (2008)\n\"Change Has Come to America\" (2008)\n\"A New Birth of Freedom\" (2009)\nJoint session of Congress (2009)\n\"A New Beginning\" (2009)\nJoint session of Congress (health care reform) (2009)\nState of the Union Address\n2010\n2011\n2012\n2013\n2014\n2015\n2016\nTucson memorial speech (2011)\nJoint session of Congress (jobs) (2011)\n\"You didn't build that\" (2012)\nSelma 50th anniversary (2015)\nFarewell address (2017)\nElectionsIllinois\nState Senate\n1996\n1998\n2002\nU.S. House of Representatives\n2000\nU.S. Senate\n2004\nPresidential\n2008 campaign\nendorsements\nGOP/conservative support\nstaff members\nprimaries\nprimary campaign\nrunning mate selection\nconvention\ndebates\nelection\n2012 campaign\nendorsements\nprimaries\nconvention\ndebates\nelection\nFamily\nMichelle Obama (wife)\nAnn Dunham (mother)\nBarack Obama Sr. (father)\nLolo Soetoro (stepfather)\nMaya Soetoro-Ng (maternal half-sister)\nStanley Armour Dunham (maternal grandfather)\nMadelyn Dunham (maternal grandmother)\nAuma Obama (paternal half-sister)\nMalik Obama (paternal half-brother)\nMarian Robinson (mother-in-law)\nCraig Robinson (brother-in-law)\nBo (family dog)\nSunny (family dog)\nvtePublic imageNews and political events\nOprah Winfrey's endorsement\nCitizenship conspiracy theories\nlitigation\nReligion conspiracy theories\nBill Ayers controversy\nJeremiah Wright controversy\nRepublican and conservative support (2008)\nAssassination threats\n2008 Denver\n2008 Tennessee\nFirst inauguration invitations\nInaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial\nCitizen's Briefing Book\nTea Party protests\nNew Energy for America\nGates–Crowley Rose Garden meeting\nFiring of Shirley Sherrod\nImpeachment efforts\nTan suit controversy\nBooks about\nBibliography\nObama: From Promise to Power\nBarack Obama: Der schwarze Kennedy\nRedemption Song\nThe Case Against Barack Obama\nThe Obama Nation\nCulture of Corruption\nCatastrophe\nBarack and Michelle\nThe Speech\nThe Obama Story\nBetween Barack and a Hard Place\nGame Change\nObama Zombies\nConservative Victory\nThe Bridge\nThe Obama Diaries\nThe Obama Syndrome\nThe Obama Identity\nO: A Presidential Novel\nWhere's the Birth Certificate?\nObama's Last Stand\nBarack Obama: The Story\n Game Change 2012\nBuyer's Remorse\nRising Star\nShade\nThe World as It Is\nMusic\nObama Girl\n\"I Got a Crush... on Obama\"\n\"Barack the Magic Negro\"\nwill.i.am\n\"Yes We Can\"\n\"The President Sang Amazing Grace\"\n\"There's No One as Irish as Barack O'Bama\"\n\"Sí Se Puede Cambiar\"\n\"My President\"\n\"Deadheads for Obama\"\n\"Air and Simple Gifts\"\nChange Is Now\nHope! – Das Obama Musical\n\"Barack Obama vs. Mitt Romney\"\nBarack's Dubs\n\"Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours\"\nFilm, TV, and stage\nBy the People: The Election of Barack Obama (2009)\nChange (2010)\nObama Anak Menteng (2010)\n2016: Obama's America (2012)\nThe Road We've Traveled (2012)\nSouthside with You (2016)\nHillary and Clinton (2016)\nBarry (2016)\nAmerica's Great Divide (2020)\nWe the People (2021)\nRenegades: Born in the USA (2021)\nObama: In Pursuit of a More Perfect Union (2021)\nThe First Lady (2022)\nPicturing the Obamas (2022)\nOther media\nSocial media use\nArtists for Obama\n\"Hope\" poster\n\"Joker\" poster\nHair Like Mine\nSituation Room\nIman Crosson\nThe Forgotten Man (2010 painting)\nPresident Barack Obama (2018 portrait)\nObama logo\nIn comics\nBarack Obama's summer playlist\nRelated\nBarack Obama Day (Illinois)\nObama Day (Kenya)\nAwards and honors\nNamesakes\nHigher Ground Productions\n\"One Last Time (44 Remix)\"\nSunlight before signing\n\n← George W. Bush\nDonald Trump →\n CategoryvteJoe Biden\n46th President of the United States (2021–present)\n47th Vice President of the United States (2009–2017)\nU.S. Senator from Delaware (1973–2009)\nEarly career\nEarly life\nU.S. Senate career\nVice presidency\nObama transition\nTrump transition\nClassified Information Procedures Act\nCounterterrorism Act\nViolence Against Women Act\nViolent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act\nPresidencyAppointments\nCabinet\nAgriculture\nCommerce\nDefense\nEducation\nEnergy\nExecutive Office appointments\nHHS\nHomeland Security\nHUD\nInterior\nJustice\nU.S. attorneys\nLabor\nState\nambassadors\nTransportation\nTreasury\nVeterans Affairs\nJudicial appointments\nJackson\nSupreme Court candidates\nLegislation2021\nAmerican Rescue Plan Act\nCapitol Police Emergency Assistance Act\nConsolidated Appropriations Act\nInfrastructure Investment and Jobs Act\nNational Defense Authorization Act\nRENACER Act\nUyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act\n2022\nBipartisan Safer Communities Act\nCHIPS and Science Act\nConsolidated Appropriations Act\nElectoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act\nMerger Filing Fee Modernization Act\nNo TikTok on Government Devices Act\nPregnant Workers Fairness Act\nState Antitrust Enforcement Venue Act\nEmmett Till Antilynching Act\nInflation Reduction Act\nMedical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research Expansion Act\nPACT Act\nNational Defense Authorization Act\nPostal Service Reform Act\nRespect for Marriage Act\nSpeak Out Act\nUkraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act\n2023\nCOVID-19 Origin Act\nFiscal Responsibility Act\nNational Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024\n2024\nConsolidated Appropriations Act\nPolicies\nCannabis\nCOVID-19\nCOVID-19 Advisory Board\nWhite House COVID-19 Response Team\nEconomic\nBiden v. Nebraska\nBuild Back Better Plan\nElectoral and ethical\nPresidential Commission on the Supreme Court\nSummit for Democracy\nEnvironmental\n2021 Leaders Summit on Climate\nExecutive Order 13990\nForeign\n2021 Russia–United States summit\n2023 Chinese balloon incident\nAUKUS\nCamp David Principles\nAfghanistan withdrawal\nkilling of Ayman al-Zawahiri\nWar in Ukraine\n2022 visit by Volodymyr Zelenskyy\n2023 visit to Ukraine\nWar in Israel\naccusation of genocide complicity\nImmigration\nSocial\nSpace\nTimeline\nTransition\nInauguration\nsecurity\nprotests\nFirst 100 days\n2021\nQ1\nQ2\nQ3\nQ4\n2022\nQ1\nQ2\nQ3\nQ4\n2023\nQ1\nQ2\nQ3\nQ4\n2024\nQ1\nQ2\n\nClassified documents incident\nEfforts to impeach\nHouse Oversight Committee investigation\ninquiry\nExecutive actions\nproclamations\nOpinion polling\n2021\n2022\n2023\n2024\nPresidential trips\ninternational\n2021\n2022\n2023\n2024ElectionsU.S. Senate\n1972\n1978\n1984\n1990\n1996\n2002\n2008\nVice presidential\n2008 campaign\nselection\nconvention\ndebate\nelection\ntransition\n2012 campaign\nconvention\ndebate\nelection\nPresidential\n1988 campaign\nprimaries\n2008 campaign\nprimaries\ndebates\n2020 campaign\nendorsements\ncelebrity\norganizations\nCongress\nstate and territorial officials\nmunicipal officials\nprimaries\nendorsements\ndebates\nUnity Task Forces\nrunning mate selection\nconvention\ndebates\nelection\nprotests\n2024 campaign\nprimaries\nendorsements\nprotest vote movements\nelection\nFamily\nEdward Francis Blewitt (great-grandfather)\nNeilia Hunter Biden (first wife)\nJill Biden (second wife)\nJames Biden (brother)\nValerie Biden Owens (sister)\nBeau Biden (son)\nHunter Biden (son)\nAshley Biden (daughter)\nHoward Krein (son-in-law)\nHallie Olivere Biden (daughter-in-law)\nKathleen Buhle (former daughter-in-law)\nMelissa Cohen Biden (daughter-in-law)\nNaomi Biden (granddaughter)\nDogs\nChamp\nMajor\nCommander\nCat\nWillow\nWritings\nPromises to Keep\nPromise Me, Dad\nTomorrow Will Be Different (foreword)\nSpeeches\nInaugural address (2021)\nJoint session of Congress (2021)\nState of the Union Address\n2022\n2023\n2024\nWarsaw speech (2022)\nBattle for the Soul of the Nation speech (2022)\nVilnius speech (2023)\nMediadepictions\nConfirmation\nThe Choice 2020\n\"Intro to Political Science\"\nMy Son Hunter\n\"One Last Ride\"\nThe Onion's \"Diamond Joe\"\nOur Cartoon President\nSaturday Night Live parodies\nSpitting Image\nRelated\nAwards\nBeau Biden Cancer Moonshot\nBiden Foundation\nBiden–Ukraine conspiracy theory\nBuy a Shotgun\nEponyms\nHunter Biden laptop controversy\nI Did That!\nLet's Go Brandon\nPublic image\nSexual assault allegation\nSituation Room\nSleepy Joe\nTrump–Ukraine scandal\n\n← Donald Trump\n← Dick Cheney\nMike Pence →\n CategoryvteHillary Clinton\n11th Chancellor of Queen's University Belfast (2020–present)\n67th United States Secretary of State (2009–2013)\nUS Senator from New York (2001–2009)\nFirst Lady of the United States (1993–2001)\nSecretaryof State\nTenure as Secretary\nForeign trips\nQuadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review\nForeign policy of the Obama administration\nHillary Doctrine\nEmail controversy\nUN Security Council Resolution 1888\nUN Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict\nUS senator\nSenate career\nFamily Entertainment Protection Act\nFlag Protection Act of 2005\nFirst Lady\nTenure as First Lady\n1993 health care reform\nHillaryland\nTravel office controversy\nFBI files controversy\n\"Vast right-wing conspiracy\"\nVital Voices\nSave America's Treasures\nState Children's Health Insurance Program\nAdoption and Safe Families Act\nFoster Care Independence Act\nWhite House Millennium Council\nArkansas\nLegal career\nCareer in corporate governance\nTenures as First Lady of Arkansas\nArkansas Advocates for Children and Families\nRose Law Firm\nLegal Services Corporation\nWhitewater controversy\nCattle futures controversy\nPhilanthropic\nClinton Foundation\nState Department controversy\nOnward Together\nSpeechesand policies\nPolitical positions\n\"Women's Rights Are Human Rights\" (1995)\n\"Basket of deplorables\" (2016)\nWritings\nBibliography\nSenior thesis (1969)\nIt Takes a Village (1996)\nDear Socks, Dear Buddy (1998)\nAn Invitation to the White House (2000)\nLiving History (2003)\nHard Choices (2014)\nStronger Together (2016)\nWhat Happened (2017)\nThe Book of Gutsy Women (2019)\nState of Terror (2021)\nElectoralhistorySenatorial elections\n2000 US Senate election in New York\n2006 US Senate election in New York\n2008 Democraticpresidential primaries\nCampaign\nEndorsements\nDebates\nConvention\n2016 US presidential election\nCampaign\nEndorsements\npolitical\nnon-political\nscreen and stage performers\nother celebrities\nDemocratic primaries\ndebates\nrunning mate selection\nconvention\nDemocratic opposition\nGeneral election debates\nHillary Victory Fund\nLegacy\nAwards and honors\nBooks about\nPublic image\nClinton National Airport\nPopular culture\nSaturday Night Live parodies\nHillary and Clinton (2016 play)\nHillary (2020 documentary)\nFamily\nBill Clinton (husband\npresidency)\nChelsea Clinton (daughter)\nHugh E. Rodham (father)\nDorothy Howell Rodham (mother)\nHugh Rodham (brother)\nTony Rodham (brother)\nSocks (cat)\nBuddy (dog)\nWhitehaven (residence)\nOther\nSituation Room (2011 photograph)\nActivities after 2016","title":"External links and further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"President Obama and his national security team in the White House Situation Room. (Click on a person to go to their respective article).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden.jpg/400px-Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden.jpg"},{"image_text":"Annotated photograph","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden_annotated.svg/300px-Obama_and_Biden_await_updates_on_bin_Laden_annotated.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The newspaper with censored photo (In the title, \"When the wicked perish there is song\", from Proverbs 11:10)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/13/SituationroomCensored.jpg/220px-SituationroomCensored.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"List of photographs considered the most important","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important"}]
|
[{"reference":"Jamie Crawford (May 1, 2012). \"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\". CNN – Security Clearance. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055020/http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","url_text":"\"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\""},{"url":"http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Winter, Michael (May 3, 2011). \"Panetta: Obama did not see bin Laden being killed\". USA Today. Retrieved September 15, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/05/panetta-obama-did-not-see-bin-laden-being-killed/1","url_text":"\"Panetta: Obama did not see bin Laden being killed\""}]},{"reference":"Bowden, Mark (November 2012). \"The Hunt For 'Geronimo'\". Vanity Fair. p. 144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Bowden","url_text":"Bowden, Mark"},{"url":"https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/2012/11/the-hunt-for-geronimo","url_text":"\"The Hunt For 'Geronimo'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(magazine)","url_text":"Vanity Fair"}]},{"reference":"Souza, Pete (October 8, 2012). \"Pete Souza's Portrait of a Presidency\". Time. Archived from the original on October 8, 2012. Retrieved December 18, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121008180338/http://lightbox.time.com/2012/10/08/pete-souza-portrait-of-a-presidency/#55","url_text":"\"Pete Souza's Portrait of a Presidency\""},{"url":"http://lightbox.time.com/2012/10/08/pete-souza-portrait-of-a-presidency/#55","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Goldman, Adam; Apuzzo, Matt (July 5, 2011). \"Meet 'John': The CIA's bin Laden hunter-in-chief\". NBC News. Associated Press. Retrieved August 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43637044","url_text":"\"Meet 'John': The CIA's bin Laden hunter-in-chief\""}]},{"reference":"Silverleib, Alan (May 3, 2011). \"Obama on Sunday: A photo for the ages?\". CNN. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved May 8, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120701180212/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-03/politics/iconic.obama.photo_1_barack-obama-white-house-situation-room-national-security-team","url_text":"\"Obama on Sunday: A photo for the ages?\""},{"url":"http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-03/politics/iconic.obama.photo_1_barack-obama-white-house-situation-room-national-security-team","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blake, John (May 5, 2011). \"What 'Situation Room Photo' reveals about us\". CNN. Archived from the original on January 2, 2013. Retrieved May 8, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20130102123633/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-05/us/iconic.photo_1_black-men-photo-national-security-team","url_text":"\"What 'Situation Room Photo' reveals about us\""},{"url":"http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-05/us/iconic.photo_1_black-men-photo-national-security-team","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Clinton: Allergy led to my Situation Room photo\". MSNBC. May 5, 2011. Archived from the original on May 8, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110508180036/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42914093/ns/health-allergies_and_asthma/t/clinton-allergy-led-my-situation-room-photo/","url_text":"\"Clinton: Allergy led to my Situation Room photo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSNBC","url_text":"MSNBC"},{"url":"https://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42914093/ns/health-allergies_and_asthma/t/clinton-allergy-led-my-situation-room-photo/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ken Johnson (May 7, 2011). \"Situation: Ambiguous\". New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/08/weekinreview/08johnson.html?ref=osamabinladen","url_text":"\"Situation: Ambiguous\""}]},{"reference":"Horning, Beth (Summer 2011). \"Audrey Tomason, International Woman of Mystery\". Tufts Magazine. Tufts University. Retrieved August 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.tufts.edu/magazine/summer2011/planet-tufts/tomason.html","url_text":"\"Audrey Tomason, International Woman of Mystery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_Magazine","url_text":"Tufts Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_University","url_text":"Tufts University"}]},{"reference":"Clapper, James R. Facts and fears : hard truths from a life in intelligence. Brown, Trey (Speechwriter). New York, New York. ISBN 9780525558644. OCLC 1006804896.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780525558644","url_text":"9780525558644"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1006804896","url_text":"1006804896"}]},{"reference":"Bell, Melissa (May 9, 2011). \"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","url_text":"\"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120804072354/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bell, Melissa (May 9, 2011). \"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved July 10, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","url_text":"\"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120804072354/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mackey, Robert (May 10, 2011). \"Newspaper 'Regrets' Erasing Hillary Clinton\". The New York Times. Retrieved July 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/10/newspaper-regrets-erasing-hillary-clinton/?partner=rss&emc=rss","url_text":"\"Newspaper 'Regrets' Erasing Hillary Clinton\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Horn, Jordana (May 8, 2011). \"NY Hassidic paper 'deletes' Clinton from iconic photo (Note: this JPost article incorrectly credits the iconic image: \"Photo By: REUTERS/Ho New\" rather than crediting Pete Souza!)\". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved July 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=219660","url_text":"\"NY Hassidic paper 'deletes' Clinton from iconic photo (Note: this JPost article incorrectly credits the iconic image: \"Photo By: REUTERS/Ho New\" rather than crediting Pete Souza!)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post","url_text":"The Jerusalem Post"}]},{"reference":"\"Statement from News Report (Di Tzeitung) Regarding the White House Picture\". Di Tzeitung. May 9, 2011. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved May 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110511010334/http://ditzeitung.com/statement.html","url_text":"\"Statement from News Report (Di Tzeitung) Regarding the White House Picture\""},{"url":"http://www.ditzeitung.com/statement.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Private Eye Covers Library\". www.private-eye.co.uk. Retrieved April 16, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.private-eye.co.uk/covers.php?showme=1288","url_text":"\"Private Eye Covers Library\""}]},{"reference":"\"House of Cards recreates Osama Bin Laden situation room photo - Album on Imgur\". imgur.com. Archived from \" the original on September 23, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210923050142/https://imgur.com/r/HouseOfCards/0HQQr","url_text":"\"House of Cards recreates Osama Bin Laden situation room photo - Album on Imgur\""},{"url":"https://imgur.com/r/HouseOfCards/0HQQr","url_text":"\" the original"}]},{"reference":"Peter (July 4, 2017). \"Matching Frames: Okja and the Killing of Osama Bin Laden\". Medium. Retrieved October 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://medium.com/@nemodally/matching-frames-okja-and-the-killing-of-osama-bin-laden-f9f026a96a42","url_text":"\"Matching Frames: Okja and the Killing of Osama Bin Laden\""}]},{"reference":"Crawford, Jamie (May 1, 2012). \"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\". CNN. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055020/http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","url_text":"\"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"},{"url":"http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed\". Business Insider.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businessinsider.com/john-brennan-situation-room-bin-laden-raid-killed-seal-team-6-2017-4","url_text":"\"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Insider","url_text":"Business Insider"}]},{"reference":"\"P050111PS-0210 (\"President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011\")\". Obama White House (Official White House Photographs). Flickr. May 1, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/5680724572/in/photostream","url_text":"\"P050111PS-0210 (\"President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011\")\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr","url_text":"Flickr"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055020/http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","external_links_name":"\"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\""},{"Link":"http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/05/panetta-obama-did-not-see-bin-laden-being-killed/1","external_links_name":"\"Panetta: Obama did not see bin Laden being killed\""},{"Link":"https://archive.vanityfair.com/article/2012/11/the-hunt-for-geronimo","external_links_name":"\"The Hunt For 'Geronimo'\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121008180338/http://lightbox.time.com/2012/10/08/pete-souza-portrait-of-a-presidency/#55","external_links_name":"\"Pete Souza's Portrait of a Presidency\""},{"Link":"http://lightbox.time.com/2012/10/08/pete-souza-portrait-of-a-presidency/#55","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/43637044","external_links_name":"\"Meet 'John': The CIA's bin Laden hunter-in-chief\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20120701180212/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-03/politics/iconic.obama.photo_1_barack-obama-white-house-situation-room-national-security-team","external_links_name":"\"Obama on Sunday: A photo for the ages?\""},{"Link":"http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-03/politics/iconic.obama.photo_1_barack-obama-white-house-situation-room-national-security-team","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130102123633/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-05/us/iconic.photo_1_black-men-photo-national-security-team","external_links_name":"\"What 'Situation Room Photo' reveals about us\""},{"Link":"http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-05/us/iconic.photo_1_black-men-photo-national-security-team","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110508180036/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42914093/ns/health-allergies_and_asthma/t/clinton-allergy-led-my-situation-room-photo/","external_links_name":"\"Clinton: Allergy led to my Situation Room photo\""},{"Link":"https://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42914093/ns/health-allergies_and_asthma/t/clinton-allergy-led-my-situation-room-photo/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/08/weekinreview/08johnson.html?ref=osamabinladen","external_links_name":"\"Situation: Ambiguous\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110506041026/http://powerwall.msnbc.msn.com/politics/audrey-tomason-situation-room-mystery-woman-1687402.story","external_links_name":"Audrey Tomason: Situation Room Mystery Woman"},{"Link":"https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/the-other-audrey-tomasons-in-the-situation-room/238655/","external_links_name":"The Other Audrey Tomasons in the Situation Room"},{"Link":"http://news.tufts.edu/magazine/summer2011/planet-tufts/tomason.html","external_links_name":"\"Audrey Tomason, International Woman of Mystery\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1006804896","external_links_name":"1006804896"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","external_links_name":"\"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120804072354/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","external_links_name":"\"Hillary Clinton, Audrey Tomason go missing in Situation Room photo in Der Tzitung newspaper\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120804072354/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/hillary-clinton-audrey-tomason-go-missing-in-situation-room-photo-in-der-tzitung-newspaper/2011/05/09/AFfJbVYG_blog.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/second-hasidic-newspaper-drops-hillary-clinton-and-audrey-tomason/2011/05/10/AFEpSMhG_blog.html","external_links_name":"Second Hasidic newspaper drops Hillary Clinton and Audrey Tomason"},{"Link":"http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/10/newspaper-regrets-erasing-hillary-clinton/?partner=rss&emc=rss","external_links_name":"\"Newspaper 'Regrets' Erasing Hillary Clinton\""},{"Link":"http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=219660","external_links_name":"\"NY Hassidic paper 'deletes' Clinton from iconic photo (Note: this JPost article incorrectly credits the iconic image: \"Photo By: REUTERS/Ho New\" rather than crediting Pete Souza!)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110511010334/http://ditzeitung.com/statement.html","external_links_name":"\"Statement from News Report (Di Tzeitung) Regarding the White House Picture\""},{"Link":"http://www.ditzeitung.com/statement.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.private-eye.co.uk/covers.php?showme=1288","external_links_name":"\"Private Eye Covers Library\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210923050142/https://imgur.com/r/HouseOfCards/0HQQr","external_links_name":"\"House of Cards recreates Osama Bin Laden situation room photo - Album on Imgur\""},{"Link":"https://imgur.com/r/HouseOfCards/0HQQr","external_links_name":"\" the original"},{"Link":"https://medium.com/@nemodally/matching-frames-okja-and-the-killing-of-osama-bin-laden-f9f026a96a42","external_links_name":"\"Matching Frames: Okja and the Killing of Osama Bin Laden\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055020/http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","external_links_name":"\"The bin Laden Situation Room revisited – One year later\""},{"Link":"http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/05/01/the-bin-laden-situation-room-revisited-one-year-later/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.businessinsider.com/john-brennan-situation-room-bin-laden-raid-killed-seal-team-6-2017-4","external_links_name":"\"Former CIA director reveals what it was like inside the White House situation room when Bin Laden was killed\""},{"Link":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/5680724572/in/photostream","external_links_name":"\"P050111PS-0210 (\"President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden, along with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House, May 1, 2011\")\""},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1054389225","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Relationship_Between_Blacks_and_Jews
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The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews
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["1 Reception","2 Subsequent volumes","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"]
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1991 book by the Nation of Islam
The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume One AuthorHistorical Research Department of NOILanguageEnglishPublisherThe Final CallPublication date1991Publication placeUnited StatesMedia typePrint (hardback & paperback)Pages334 ppISBN0-9636877-0-0LC ClassE185
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The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews is a three-volume work of pseudo-scholarship, published by the Nation of Islam. The first volume, which was released in 1991, asserts that Jews dominated the Atlantic slave trade. The Secret Relationship has been widely criticized for being antisemitic and for failing to provide an objective analysis of the role of Jews in the slave trade. The American Historical Association issued a statement condemning claims that Jews played a disproportionate role in the Atlantic slave trade, and other historians such as Wim Klooster and Seymour Drescher concluded that the role of Jews in the overall Atlantic slave trade was in fact minimal.
The book uses selective citations in order to exaggerate the role of Jews.
Reception
The book's thesis has been labeled an antisemitic canard by historians, including Saul S. Friedman, who contends that Jews had a minimal role in the New World slave trade. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., head of the department of Afro-American studies at Harvard University, called the book "the Bible of new antisemitism" and added that "the book massively misinterprets the historical record, largely through a process of cunningly selective quotations of often reputable sources". Other black academics came forward to condemn the book. Eugene Genovese, an American historian and expert on slavery, wrote that the book "rivals The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in fantasy and gross distortion. The absurdity of its pretenses to scholarship are outweighed by its sheer viciousness. It must be taken with deadly seriousness as a transparent attempt to foment antisemitism, irrationality, and hatred, and to subvert intellectual discourse and common decency on our campuses."
Wim Klooster noted that in "no period did Jews play a leading role as financiers, shipowners, or factors in the Transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British and Spanish territory in North America, South America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of The Secret Relationship."
The book was criticized for being antisemitic and for failing to provide an objective analysis of the role of Jews in the slave trade. Common criticisms were that the book used selective quotes, made "crude use of statistics," and was purposefully trying to exaggerate the role of Jews. Historian Ralph A. Austen criticized the book, saying that the "distortions are produced almost entirely by selective citation rather than explicit falsehood ... more frequently there are innuendos imbedded in the accounts of Jewish involvement in the slave trade," and "hile we should not ignore the antisemitism of The Secret Relationship..., we must recognize the legitimacy of the stated aim of examining fully and directly even the most uncomfortable elements in our common past."
In 1995, the American Historical Association (AHA) issued a statement condemning "any statement alleging that Jews played a disproportionate role in the Atlantic slave trade."
The publication of The Secret Relationship spurred retorts published specifically to refute the thesis of The Secret Relationship:
1992 – Harold Brackman, Jew on the Brain: A Public Refutation of the Nation of Islam's The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews. The booklet was published privately by Bill Adler, the former director of publicity for Def Jam Recordings, after learning that the rapper Ice Cube had endorsed The Secret Relationship. In his foreword, Adler wrote, "I care way too much about black-Jewish relations – and particularly about black-Jewish relations in the rap community – to allow 'The Secret Relationship' to go unchallenged." The booklet's afterword was written by Cornel West. It was republished that same year, minus its original foreword and afterword, as "Farrakhan's Reign of Historical Error: The Secret Relationship Between Blacks & Jews" by the Simon Wiesenthal Center. In 1994, it was republished for a second time under the title "Ministry of Lies: the Truth Behind 'The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews'" by Four Walls Eight Windows.
1992 – David Brion Davis, "Jews in the Slave Trade," in Culturefront (Fall 1992) pp 42–45.
1993 – Seymour Drescher, "The Role of Jews in the Atlantic Slave Trade," Immigrants and Minorities, 12 (1993), pp 113–125.
1993 – Marc Caplan, Jew-Hatred As History: An Analysis of the Nation of Islam's "The Secret Relationship" (Published by the Anti Defamation League).
1998 – Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight, New York University Press.
1999 – Saul S. Friedman, Jews and the American Slave Trade, Transaction. Friedman's work has been described as a successful rebuke of The Secret Relationship. In his work, Friedman referred to The Secret Relationship as the "Handbook of Hate", and described it as "one part fact and nine parts fable".
Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt called the book the "African American-oriented version" of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
Legal historian Paul Finkelman states that the central thesis of the book is "ludicrous and considered absurd by all serious scholars."
Historian Glenn C. Altschuler and Robert Summers called The Secret Relationship a "compendium of conspiracy theories."
Classics scholar Mary Lefkowitz called the book "hate literature" and wrote: "The authors of The Secret Relationship continually misquote Jewish sources, taking quotations out of context, or citing as support works that actually say the opposite of what they are claiming. They make a number of claims that are impossible to substantiate, such as that Jews (rather than Arabs) dominated the transatlantic slave trade; that they were the dominant slave traders and holders in the South; that they raped black women; that they infected Native Americans with smallpox...The known facts about the slave trade give a completely different picture of the level of Jewish participation."
Seymour Drescher who analyzed the role of Jews in the overall Atlantic slave trade concluded that it was "minimal," and only identified certain regions (such as Brazil and the Caribbean) where the participation was "significant."
Subsequent volumes
Volume Two of The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews was published in 2010, with the subtitle "How Jews Gained Control of the Black American Economy". According to the Anti-Defamation League, Volume Two blames Jews for "promoting a myth of black racial inferiority and makes a range of conspiratorial accusations about Jewish involvement in the slave trade and in the cotton, textiles, and banking industries".
Titled simply The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3, the third installment was published in 2016. As summarized by the ADL, the work claims the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan and the subjugation of Black people during the early 20th century not only enriched but also was orchestrated by Jewish businessmen of the time. Further, the responsibility of the lynching of Leo Frank was also the work of Jews.
See also
African American–Jewish relations
The American Mercury
Louis Farrakhan
Jewish views on slavery
Tony Martin (professor)
Nation of Islam and antisemitism
Slavery in the United States
Notes
^ Hauptman, Robert (2011). "History Lesson: A Race Odyssey". Journal of Information Ethics. 20 (2). McFarland & Company: 175–177. ProQuest 1682848366 – via ProQuest. pseudo- scholarly works such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews...
^ Sundquist, Eric J. (2009-06-30). Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04414-2. The culmination of the Nation of Islam's misguided and preposterous camping of anti-Semitism was the Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews (1991), an incendiary work of pseudo-scholarship...
^ Aldama, Frederick Luis (2018-05-15). Comics Studies Here and Now. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-01525-7. The NOI's anti-Semitic pseudo-scholarship codified Farrakhan's long-held belief in a Jewish world conspiracy...
^ Ruthven, Malise (2012-05-14). Encounters with Islam: On Religion, Politics and Modernity. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-394-8. In the NOI's pseudo-scholarly study, The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews
^ Ostow, Mortimer (2018-04-17). Myth and Madness: The Psychodynamics of Anti-Semitism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29314-3. He calls attention to a canard circulated in a pseudo-scholary work called 'The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews.'
^ Reid-Pharr, Robert (April 2001). Black Gay Man: Essays. New York: NYU Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8147-6921-8. This reality leads, I believe, not only to the strange pseudoscholarship represented within The Secret Relationship...
^
^ Austen, pp 131–133.
^ a b Austen, p 134.
^ a b Jews and the American Slave Trade, Saul S. Friedman, Transaction Publishers, 1999 pp. 2, 40.
^ a b c Gilles Kepel Allah in the West: Islamic movements in America and Europe, Stanford University Press, 1997 pp. 68–69.
^ a b Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1, pp. 199.
^ a b c Klooster, Wim (2000). "Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight". The William and Mary Quarterly. 57 (1): 217–219. doi:10.2307/2674369. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2674369.
^ a b Drescher: JANCAST: p 455: "only in the Americas – momentarily in Brazil, more durably in the Caribbean – can the role of Jewish traders be described as significant." .. but elsewhere involvement was modest or minimal p 455.
^ a b Austen p 133-134.
^ Sorin, Gerald (2000). "Black Antisemitsm on Campus: Political Opportunism and Academic Betrayal". Michael: On the History of the Jews in the Diaspora. Tel Aviv University: 197–225. ISSN 0334-4150. JSTOR 23497240 – via JSTOR.
^ Mehler, Barry (1993-01-01). "African American Racism in the Academic Community". The Review of Education. 15 (3–4). Routledge: 341–353. doi:10.1080/0098559930150317. ISSN 0098-5597.
^ Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2002). Antisemitism : Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 249. doi:10.1057/9781403979124. ISBN 978-1-4039-7912-4. OCLC 560189311.
^ Austen, p 133.
^ Austen, p 136.
^ "AHA Council Issues Policy Resolution about Jews and the Slave Trade | AHA". www.historians.org. Retrieved 2018-04-05.
^ "Bill Adler Booklet Refutes 'Blacks and Jews' Assertions," Billboard, June 27, 1992.
^ Jew on the brain : A public refutation of the Nation of Islam's the Secret relationship between Blacks and Jews. H. Brackman, ©1992. 1992.
^ "Farrakhan's reign of historical error : the truth behind The secret relationship between Blacks and Jews | WorldCat.org". www.worldcat.org.
^ Harold Brackman, Ph. D.; Harold Brackman Ph, D. (14 September 1994). Ministry of Lies: The Truth Behind the Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews. Basic Books. ISBN 1568580169.
^ Dinnerstein, Leonard; Friedman, Saul S. (1999). "Jews and the American Slave Trade". The American Historical Review. 104 (1): 191. doi:10.2307/2650237. JSTOR 2650237.
^ Miller, Joseph C.; Faber, Eli; Friedman, Saul S. (December 1999). "Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight". The Journal of American History. 86 (3): 1327. doi:10.2307/2568634. JSTOR 2568634.
^ Manning, Patrick (2000). "Jews and the American Slave Trade (review)". Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. 18 (4): 175–177. doi:10.1353/sho.2000.0003. ISSN 1534-5165. S2CID 170466024.
^ Lipstadt, Deborah (2012). "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion on the Contemporary American Scene". In Landes, Richard; Katz, Steven T. (eds.). The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. NYU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8147-4892-3.
^ Finkelman, Paul (1999). "Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (review)". American Jewish History. 87 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 237–240. doi:10.1353/ajh.1999.0014. ISSN 1086-3141. S2CID 161087403.
^ Altschuler, Glenn C.; Summers, Robert O. (2019-12-31), Pollack, Eunice G. (ed.), "Bad Rap: Public Enemy and Jewish Enmity", Anti-Semitism on the Campus, Academic Studies Press, pp. 317–329, doi:10.1515/9781618110428-016, ISBN 978-1-61811-042-8, S2CID 213676390, retrieved 2021-10-31
^ Lefkowitz, Mary R. (April 28, 2009). "Turning Myths into History". History lesson : A Race Odyssey. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 62–66. doi:10.12987/9780300145199-005. ISBN 978-0-300-12659-4. OCLC 179833176. S2CID 246127673 – via De Gruyter.
^ Highlights and Key Points of The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews, Volumes 1 and 2, http://noirg.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/TSR.HighlightsKeyPoints1.pdf
^ "Farrakhan in his own words", ADL, online Archived 2007-08-10 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3 – Final Call Store". finalcallstore.noi.org. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
^ "Nation of Islam: Publications". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 2022-04-04.
References
Austen, Ralph A., "The Uncomfortable Relationship: African Enslavement in the Common History of Blacks and Jews", in Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States, Maurianne Adams (Ed.), Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1999, pp 131–135.
Brackman, Harold, Jew on the brain: A public refutation of the Nation of Islam's The Secret relationship between Blacks and Jews (self-published), 1992. Later renamed and re-published as Farrakhan's Reign of Historical Error: The Truth behind The Secret Relationship (published by the Simon Wiesenthal Center). Expanded into a book in 1994: Ministry of Lies: The Truth Behind the Nation of Islam's "the Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews" (published by Four Walls, Eight Windows).
Caplan, Marc Jew-Hatred As History: An Analysis of the Nation of Islam's "The Secret Relationship" (published by the Anti Defamation League), 1993.
Davis, David Brion, "Jews in the Slave Trade", in Culturefront (Fall 1 992) pp 42–45.
Drescher, Seymour, "The Role of Jews in the Transatlantic Slave Trade", in Strangers & neighbors: relations between Blacks & Jews in the United States, Maurianne Adams (Ed.), Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1999, pp 105–115.
Drescher, Seymour, (EAJH) "Jews and the Slave trade", in Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1, Stephen Harlan (Ed.), 1994, page 414–416.
Drescher, Seymour, (JANCAST) "Jews and New Christians in the Atlantic Slave Trade" in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1400–1800, Paolo Bernardini (Ed.), 2004, p 439–484.
Faber, Eli, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight, New York University Press, 1998.
Friedman, Saul S. Jews and the American Slave Trade, Transaction, 1999.
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Slavery in 21st-century Islamism
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pseudo-scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-scholarship"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Nation of Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_of_Islam"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"Atlantic slave trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"antisemitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Austen,_p_134-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saul-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kepel-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajh-12"},{"link_name":"American Historical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Association"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajh-12"},{"link_name":"Seymour Drescher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Drescher"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-drescher-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kepel-11"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-austen133-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews is a three-volume work of pseudo-scholarship,[7] published by the Nation of Islam. The first volume, which was released in 1991, asserts that Jews dominated the Atlantic slave trade.[8] The Secret Relationship has been widely criticized for being antisemitic and for failing to provide an objective analysis of the role of Jews in the slave trade.[9][10][11][12] The American Historical Association issued a statement condemning claims that Jews played a disproportionate role in the Atlantic slave trade,[12] and other historians such as Wim Klooster and Seymour Drescher concluded that the role of Jews in the overall Atlantic slave trade was in fact minimal.[13][14]The book uses selective citations in order to exaggerate the role of Jews.[11][15][16]","title":"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"antisemitic canard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitic_canard"},{"link_name":"Saul S. Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_S._Friedman"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saul-10"},{"link_name":"Henry Louis Gates, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"new antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_antisemitism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kepel-11"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Eugene Genovese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Genovese"},{"link_name":"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-13"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Austen,_p_134-9"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-austen133-15"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"American Historical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Historical_Association"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Bill Adler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Adler"},{"link_name":"Def Jam Recordings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Def_Jam_Recordings"},{"link_name":"Ice Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Cube"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Cornel West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornel_West"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Simon Wiesenthal Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Four Walls Eight Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Walls_Eight_Windows"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"David Brion Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brion_Davis"},{"link_name":"Seymour Drescher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Drescher"},{"link_name":"Anti Defamation League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti_Defamation_League"},{"link_name":"Eli Faber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Faber"},{"link_name":"Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews,_Slaves,_and_the_Slave_Trade:_Setting_the_Record_Straight"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-13"},{"link_name":"Jews and the American Slave Trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_and_the_American_Slave_Trade"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-28"},{"link_name":"Deborah Lipstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deborah_Lipstadt"},{"link_name":"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Paul Finkelman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Finkelman"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Glenn C. Altschuler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_C._Altschuler"},{"link_name":"Robert Summers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Summers"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classics"},{"link_name":"Mary Lefkowitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Seymour Drescher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Drescher"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Sea"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-drescher-14"}],"text":"The book's thesis has been labeled an antisemitic canard by historians, including Saul S. Friedman, who contends that Jews had a minimal role in the New World slave trade.[10] Henry Louis Gates, Jr., head of the department of Afro-American studies at Harvard University, called the book \"the Bible of new antisemitism\" and added that \"the book massively misinterprets the historical record, largely through a process of cunningly selective quotations of often reputable sources\".[11] Other black academics came forward to condemn the book.[17] Eugene Genovese, an American historian and expert on slavery, wrote that the book \"rivals The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in fantasy and gross distortion. The absurdity of its pretenses to scholarship are outweighed by its sheer viciousness. It must be taken with deadly seriousness as a transparent attempt to foment antisemitism, irrationality, and hatred, and to subvert intellectual discourse and common decency on our campuses.\"[18]Wim Klooster noted that in \"no period did Jews play a leading role as financiers, shipowners, or factors in the Transatlantic or Caribbean slave trades. They possessed far fewer slaves than non-Jews in every British and Spanish territory in North America, South America and the Caribbean. Even when Jews in a handful of places owned slaves in proportions slightly above their representation among a town's families, such cases do not come close to corroborating the assertions of The Secret Relationship.\"[13]The book was criticized for being antisemitic and for failing to provide an objective analysis of the role of Jews in the slave trade. Common criticisms were that the book used selective quotes, made \"crude use of statistics,\"[9] and was purposefully trying to exaggerate the role of Jews.[15] Historian Ralph A. Austen criticized the book, saying that the \"distortions are produced almost entirely by selective citation rather than explicit falsehood ... more frequently there are innuendos imbedded in the accounts of Jewish involvement in the slave trade,\"[19] and \"[w]hile we should not ignore the antisemitism of The Secret Relationship..., we must recognize the legitimacy of the stated aim of examining fully and directly even the most uncomfortable elements in our [Black and Jewish] common past.\"[20]In 1995, the American Historical Association (AHA) issued a statement condemning \"any statement alleging that Jews played a disproportionate role in the Atlantic slave trade.\"[21]The publication of The Secret Relationship spurred retorts published specifically to refute the thesis of The Secret Relationship:1992 – Harold Brackman, Jew on the Brain: A Public Refutation of the Nation of Islam's The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews. The booklet was published privately by Bill Adler, the former director of publicity for Def Jam Recordings, after learning that the rapper Ice Cube had endorsed The Secret Relationship.[22] In his foreword, Adler wrote, \"I care way too much about black-Jewish relations – and particularly about black-Jewish relations in the rap community – to allow 'The Secret Relationship' to go unchallenged.\" The booklet's afterword was written by Cornel West.[23] It was republished that same year, minus its original foreword and afterword, as \"Farrakhan's Reign of Historical Error: The Secret Relationship Between Blacks & Jews\" by the Simon Wiesenthal Center.[24] In 1994, it was republished for a second time under the title \"Ministry of Lies: the Truth Behind 'The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews'\" by Four Walls Eight Windows.[25]\n1992 – David Brion Davis, \"Jews in the Slave Trade,\" in Culturefront (Fall 1992) pp 42–45.\n1993 – Seymour Drescher, \"The Role of Jews in the Atlantic Slave Trade,\" Immigrants and Minorities, 12 (1993), pp 113–125.\n1993 – Marc Caplan, Jew-Hatred As History: An Analysis of the Nation of Islam's \"The Secret Relationship\" (Published by the Anti Defamation League).\n1998 – Eli Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight, New York University Press.[13]\n1999 – Saul S. Friedman, Jews and the American Slave Trade, Transaction. Friedman's work has been described as a successful rebuke of The Secret Relationship. In his work, Friedman referred to The Secret Relationship as the \"Handbook of Hate\", and described it as \"one part fact and nine parts fable\".[26][27][28]Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt called the book the \"African American-oriented version\" of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.[29]Legal historian Paul Finkelman states that the central thesis of the book is \"ludicrous and considered absurd by all serious scholars.\"[30]Historian Glenn C. Altschuler and Robert Summers called The Secret Relationship a \"compendium of conspiracy theories.\"[31]Classics scholar Mary Lefkowitz called the book \"hate literature\" and wrote: \"The authors of The Secret Relationship continually misquote Jewish sources, taking quotations out of context, or citing as support works that actually say the opposite of what they are claiming. They make a number of claims that are impossible to substantiate, such as that Jews (rather than Arabs) dominated the transatlantic slave trade; that they were the dominant slave traders and holders in the South; that they raped black women; that they infected Native Americans with smallpox...The known facts about the slave trade give a completely different picture of the level of Jewish participation.\"[32]Seymour Drescher who analyzed the role of Jews in the overall Atlantic slave trade concluded that it was \"minimal,\" and only identified certain regions (such as Brazil and the Caribbean) where the participation was \"significant.\"[14]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"resurgence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Rapid_growth"},{"link_name":"Ku Klux Klan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan"},{"link_name":"Leo Frank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Frank"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Volume Two of The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews was published in 2010, with the subtitle \"How Jews Gained Control of the Black American Economy\".[33] According to the Anti-Defamation League, Volume Two blames Jews for \"promoting a myth of black racial inferiority and makes a range of conspiratorial accusations about Jewish involvement in the slave trade and in the cotton, textiles, and banking industries\".[34]Titled simply The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3, the third installment was published in 2016.[35] As summarized by the ADL, the work claims the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan and the subjugation of Black people during the early 20th century not only enriched but also was orchestrated by Jewish businessmen of the time. Further, the responsibility of the lynching of Leo Frank was also the work of Jews.[36]","title":"Subsequent volumes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"History Lesson: A Race Odyssey\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.proquest.com/docview/1682848366"},{"link_name":"Journal of Information Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Information_Ethics"},{"link_name":"McFarland & Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFarland_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"ProQuest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1682848366","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//search.proquest.com/docview/1682848366"},{"link_name":"ProQuest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Sundquist, Eric J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Sundquist"},{"link_name":"Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9dI8cUKQplgC&dq=%22secret+relationship+between+blacks+and+jews%22+%22pseudo%22-history&pg=PA89"},{"link_name":"Harvard University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-674-04414-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04414-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Aldama, Frederick Luis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Luis_Aldama"},{"link_name":"Comics Studies Here and Now","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=775aDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22secret+relationship+between+blacks+and+jews%22+%22pseudo%22-scholar&pg=PT508"},{"link_name":"Taylor & Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-351-01525-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-01525-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Ruthven, Malise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malise_Ruthven"},{"link_name":"Encounters with Islam: On Religion, Politics and Modernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=G6SmDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22secret+relationship+between+blacks+and+jews%22+%22pseudo%22-scholarship&pg=PT206"},{"link_name":"I.B.Tauris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.B.Tauris"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-85773-394-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-394-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Myth and Madness: The Psychodynamics of Anti-Semitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5yBWDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22secret+relationship+between+blacks+and+jews%22+%22pseudo%22-history&pg=PT241"},{"link_name":"Routledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-351-29314-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-29314-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Reid-Pharr, Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Reid-Pharr"},{"link_name":"Black Gay Man: Essays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//muse.jhu.edu/book/7647"},{"link_name":"NYU Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYU_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8147-6921-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6921-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Austen,_p_134_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Austen,_p_134_9-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-saul_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-saul_10-1"},{"link_name":"Saul S. 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Gruyter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Gruyter"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"http://noirg.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/TSR.HighlightsKeyPoints1.pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//noirg.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/TSR.HighlightsKeyPoints1.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/farrakhan_own_words.asp"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070810212526/http://www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/farrakhan_own_words.asp"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"\"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3 – Final Call Store\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//finalcallstore.noi.org/product/the-secret-relationship-between-blacks-and-jews-volume-3/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"\"Nation of Islam: Publications\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.adl.org/resources/profiles/the-nation-of-islam#publications"}],"text":"^ Hauptman, Robert (2011). \"History Lesson: A Race Odyssey\". Journal of Information Ethics. 20 (2). McFarland & Company: 175–177. ProQuest 1682848366 – via ProQuest. pseudo- scholarly works such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews...\n\n^ Sundquist, Eric J. (2009-06-30). Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04414-2. The culmination of the Nation of Islam's misguided and preposterous camping of anti-Semitism was the Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews (1991), an incendiary work of pseudo-scholarship...\n\n^ Aldama, Frederick Luis (2018-05-15). Comics Studies Here and Now. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-01525-7. The NOI's anti-Semitic pseudo-scholarship codified Farrakhan's long-held belief in a Jewish world conspiracy...\n\n^ Ruthven, Malise (2012-05-14). Encounters with Islam: On Religion, Politics and Modernity. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-394-8. In the NOI's pseudo-scholarly study, The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews\n\n^ Ostow, Mortimer (2018-04-17). Myth and Madness: The Psychodynamics of Anti-Semitism. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29314-3. He calls attention to a canard circulated in a pseudo-scholary work called 'The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews.'\n\n^ Reid-Pharr, Robert (April 2001). Black Gay Man: Essays. New York: NYU Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8147-6921-8. This reality leads, I believe, not only to the strange pseudoscholarship represented within The Secret Relationship...\n\n^ [1][2][3][4][5][6]\n\n^ Austen, pp 131–133.\n\n^ a b Austen, p 134.\n\n^ a b Jews and the American Slave Trade, Saul S. Friedman, Transaction Publishers, 1999 pp. 2, 40.\n\n^ a b c Gilles Kepel Allah in the West: Islamic movements in America and Europe, Stanford University Press, 1997 pp. 68–69.\n\n^ a b Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1, pp. 199.\n\n^ a b c Klooster, Wim (2000). \"Review of Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight\". The William and Mary Quarterly. 57 (1): 217–219. doi:10.2307/2674369. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2674369.\n\n^ a b Drescher: JANCAST: p 455: \"only in the Americas – momentarily in Brazil, more durably in the Caribbean – can the role of Jewish traders be described as significant.\" .. but elsewhere involvement was modest or minimal p 455.\n\n^ a b Austen p 133-134.\n\n^ Sorin, Gerald (2000). \"Black Antisemitsm on Campus: Political Opportunism and Academic Betrayal\". Michael: On the History of the Jews in the Diaspora. Tel Aviv University: 197–225. ISSN 0334-4150. JSTOR 23497240 – via JSTOR.\n\n^ Mehler, Barry (1993-01-01). \"African American Racism in the Academic Community\". The Review of Education. 15 (3–4). Routledge: 341–353. doi:10.1080/0098559930150317. ISSN 0098-5597.\n\n^ Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2002). Antisemitism : Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 249. doi:10.1057/9781403979124. ISBN 978-1-4039-7912-4. OCLC 560189311.\n\n^ Austen, p 133.\n\n^ Austen, p 136.\n\n^ \"AHA Council Issues Policy Resolution about Jews and the Slave Trade | AHA\". www.historians.org. Retrieved 2018-04-05.\n\n^ \"Bill Adler Booklet Refutes 'Blacks and Jews' Assertions,\" Billboard, June 27, 1992.\n\n^ Jew on the brain : A public refutation of the Nation of Islam's the Secret relationship between Blacks and Jews. H. Brackman, [1992] ©1992. 1992.\n\n^ \"Farrakhan's reign of historical error : the truth behind The secret relationship between Blacks and Jews | WorldCat.org\". www.worldcat.org.\n\n^ Harold Brackman, Ph. D.; Harold Brackman Ph, D. (14 September 1994). Ministry of Lies: The Truth Behind the Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews. Basic Books. ISBN 1568580169.\n\n^ Dinnerstein, Leonard; Friedman, Saul S. (1999). \"Jews and the American Slave Trade\". The American Historical Review. 104 (1): 191. doi:10.2307/2650237. JSTOR 2650237.\n\n^ Miller, Joseph C.; Faber, Eli; Friedman, Saul S. (December 1999). \"Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight\". The Journal of American History. 86 (3): 1327. doi:10.2307/2568634. JSTOR 2568634.\n\n^ Manning, Patrick (2000). \"Jews and the American Slave Trade (review)\". Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. 18 (4): 175–177. doi:10.1353/sho.2000.0003. ISSN 1534-5165. S2CID 170466024.\n\n^ Lipstadt, Deborah (2012). \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion on the Contemporary American Scene\". In Landes, Richard; Katz, Steven T. (eds.). The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. NYU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8147-4892-3.\n\n^ Finkelman, Paul (1999). \"Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (review)\". American Jewish History. 87 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 237–240. doi:10.1353/ajh.1999.0014. ISSN 1086-3141. S2CID 161087403.\n\n^ Altschuler, Glenn C.; Summers, Robert O. (2019-12-31), Pollack, Eunice G. (ed.), \"Bad Rap: Public Enemy and Jewish Enmity\", Anti-Semitism on the Campus, Academic Studies Press, pp. 317–329, doi:10.1515/9781618110428-016, ISBN 978-1-61811-042-8, S2CID 213676390, retrieved 2021-10-31\n\n^ Lefkowitz, Mary R. (April 28, 2009). \"Turning Myths into History\". History lesson : A Race Odyssey. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 62–66. doi:10.12987/9780300145199-005. ISBN 978-0-300-12659-4. OCLC 179833176. S2CID 246127673 – via De Gruyter.\n\n^ Highlights and Key Points of The Secret Relationship between Blacks and Jews, Volumes 1 and 2, http://noirg.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/TSR.HighlightsKeyPoints1.pdf\n\n^ \"Farrakhan in his own words\", ADL, online Archived 2007-08-10 at the Wayback Machine.\n\n^ \"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3 – Final Call Store\". finalcallstore.noi.org. Retrieved 2022-04-04.\n\n^ \"Nation of Islam: Publications\". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 2022-04-04.","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"African American–Jewish relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American%E2%80%93Jewish_relations"},{"title":"The American Mercury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Mercury"},{"title":"Louis Farrakhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Farrakhan"},{"title":"Jewish views on slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery"},{"title":"Tony Martin (professor)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Martin_(professor)"},{"title":"Nation of Islam and antisemitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_of_Islam_and_antisemitism"},{"title":"Slavery in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States"}]
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JSTOR 2568634.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2568634","url_text":"10.2307/2568634"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2568634","url_text":"2568634"}]},{"reference":"Manning, Patrick (2000). \"Jews and the American Slave Trade (review)\". Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. 18 (4): 175–177. doi:10.1353/sho.2000.0003. ISSN 1534-5165. S2CID 170466024.","urls":[{"url":"http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/shofar/v018/18.4.manning.html","url_text":"\"Jews and the American Slave Trade (review)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsho.2000.0003","url_text":"10.1353/sho.2000.0003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1534-5165","url_text":"1534-5165"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170466024","url_text":"170466024"}]},{"reference":"Lipstadt, Deborah (2012). \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion on the Contemporary American Scene\". In Landes, Richard; Katz, Steven T. (eds.). The Paranoid Apocalypse: A Hundred-Year Retrospective on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. NYU Press. p. 180. 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S2CID 161087403.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Finkelman","url_text":"Finkelman, Paul"},{"url":"https://muse.jhu.edu/article/495","url_text":"\"Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade: Setting the Record Straight (review)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Jewish_History","url_text":"American Jewish History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press","url_text":"Johns Hopkins University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fajh.1999.0014","url_text":"10.1353/ajh.1999.0014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3141","url_text":"1086-3141"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161087403","url_text":"161087403"}]},{"reference":"Altschuler, Glenn C.; Summers, Robert O. (2019-12-31), Pollack, Eunice G. (ed.), \"Bad Rap: Public Enemy and Jewish Enmity\", Anti-Semitism on the Campus, Academic Studies Press, pp. 317–329, doi:10.1515/9781618110428-016, ISBN 978-1-61811-042-8, S2CID 213676390, retrieved 2021-10-31","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_C._Altschuler","url_text":"Altschuler, Glenn C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Summers","url_text":"Summers, Robert O."},{"url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781618110428-016/html","url_text":"\"Bad Rap: Public Enemy and Jewish Enmity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Studies_Press","url_text":"Academic Studies Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781618110428-016","url_text":"10.1515/9781618110428-016"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61811-042-8","url_text":"978-1-61811-042-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213676390","url_text":"213676390"}]},{"reference":"Lefkowitz, Mary R. (April 28, 2009). \"Turning Myths into History\". History lesson : A Race Odyssey. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 62–66. doi:10.12987/9780300145199-005. ISBN 978-0-300-12659-4. OCLC 179833176. S2CID 246127673 – via De Gruyter.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lefkowitz","url_text":"Lefkowitz, Mary R."},{"url":"https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.12987/9780300145199-005/html","url_text":"\"Turning Myths into History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press","url_text":"Yale University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.12987%2F9780300145199-005","url_text":"10.12987/9780300145199-005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12659-4","url_text":"978-0-300-12659-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/179833176","url_text":"179833176"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246127673","url_text":"246127673"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Gruyter","url_text":"De Gruyter"}]},{"reference":"\"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3 – Final Call Store\". finalcallstore.noi.org. Retrieved 2022-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://finalcallstore.noi.org/product/the-secret-relationship-between-blacks-and-jews-volume-3/","url_text":"\"The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews Volume 3 – Final Call Store\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nation of Islam: Publications\". Anti-Defamation League. Retrieved 2022-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.adl.org/resources/profiles/the-nation-of-islam#publications","url_text":"\"Nation of Islam: Publications\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette
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Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
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["1 History","1.1 Gazette","1.2 Post","1.3 Block-Hearst deal","1.4 Joint operating agreement","1.5 Strike, consolidation, new competition","2 Partnerships and sponsorships","3 Financial challenges","4 Controversies","4.1 Firing of cartoonist","4.2 Sanctioning of reporter amid George Floyd protests","5 Awards","5.1 Pulitzer Prizes","5.2 Other awards","6 Politics","7 See also","8 References","9 Bibliography and further reading","10 External links"]
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Newspaper in Pennsylvania, United States
Pittsburgh Post-GazetteThe November 2, 2018 front pageof the Pittsburgh Post-GazetteTypeDaily online / semiweekly print newspaperFormatBroadsheetOwner(s)Block CommunicationsPublisherJohn Robinson BlockPresidentTracey DeAngeloEditorStan WischnowskiFounded1786; 238 years ago (1786) (as The Pittsburgh Gazette)Headquarters358 North Shore DrivePittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212CountryUnited StatesCirculation74,444 daily (101,747 Sunday)ISSN1068-624XWebsitepost-gazette.comMedia of the United StatesList of newspapers
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, also known simply as the PG, is the largest newspaper serving metropolitan Pittsburgh in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. Descended from the Pittsburgh Gazette, established in 1786 as the first newspaper published west of the Allegheny Mountains, the paper formed under its present title in 1927 from the consolidation of the Pittsburgh Gazette Times and The Pittsburgh Post.
The Post-Gazette ended daily print publication in 2018 and has cut down to two print editions per week (Sunday and Thursday), going online-only the rest of the week.
In the 2010s, the editorial tone of the paper shifted from liberal to conservative, particularly after the editorial pages of the paper were consolidated in 2018 with The Blade of Toledo, Ohio. After the consolidation, Keith Burris, the pro-Trump editorial page editor of The Blade, directed the editorial pages of both papers.
Copies are sold for $2 daily & $4 Sundays/Thanksgiving Day in-state. This includes Allegheny and adjacent counties. Prices are higher outside the state.
History
Gazette
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Building in Downtown Pittsburgh, which housed the paper from 1962 to 2015
A timeline of the newspapers' consolidation
The Post-Gazette began its history as a four-page weekly called The Pittsburgh Gazette, first published on July 29, 1786, with the encouragement of Hugh Henry Brackenridge. It was the first newspaper published west of the Allegheny Mountains. Published by Joseph Hall and John Scull, the paper covered the start of the nation. As one of its first major articles, the Gazette published the newly adopted Constitution of the United States.
In 1820, under publishers Eichbaum and Johnston and editor Morgan Neville, the name changed to Pittsburgh Gazette and Manufacturing and Mercantile Advertiser. David MacLean bought the paper in 1822, and later reverted to the former title.
Under editor Neville B. Craig, whose service lasted from 1829 to 1841, the Gazette championed the Anti-Masonic movement. Craig turned the Gazette into the city's first daily paper, issued every afternoon except Sunday starting on July 30, 1833.
In 1844, shortly after absorbing the Advocate, the Gazette switched its daily issue time to morning. Its editorial stance at the time was conservative and strongly favoring the Whig Party. By the 1850s the Gazette was credited with helping to organize a local chapter of the new Republican Party, and with contributing to the election of Abraham Lincoln.
The paper was one of the first to suggest tensions between North and South would erupt in war.
After consolidating with the Commercial in 1877, the paper was again renamed and was then known as the Commercial Gazette.
In 1900, George T. Oliver acquired the paper, merging it six years later with The Pittsburg Times to form The Gazette Times.
Post
The Pittsburgh Post first appeared on September 10, 1842, as the Daily Morning Post. It had its origin in three pro-Democratic weeklies, the Mercury, Allegheny Democrat, and American Manufacturer, which came together through a pair of mergers in the early 1840s. The three papers had for years engaged in bitter editorial battles with the Gazette.
Like its predecessors, the Post advocated the policies of the Democratic Party. Its political opposition to the Whig and later Republican Gazette was so enduring that an eventual combination of the two rivals would have seemed unlikely.
Block-Hearst deal
The 1920s were a time of consolidation in the Pittsburgh newspaper market. In 1923, local publishers banded together to acquire and kill off the Dispatch and Leader. Four years later, William Randolph Hearst negotiated with the Olivers to purchase the morning Gazette Times and its evening sister, the Chronicle Telegraph, while Paul Block arranged to buy out the owner of the morning Post and evening Sun. After swapping the Sun in return for Hearst's Gazette Times, Block had both morning papers, which he combined to form the Post-Gazette. Hearst united the evening papers, creating the Sun-Telegraph. Both new papers debuted on August 2, 1927.
Joint operating agreement
In 1960, Pittsburgh had three daily papers: the Post-Gazette in the morning, and the Pittsburgh Press and the Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph in the evening and on Sunday. The Post-Gazette bought the Sun-Telegraph and moved into the Sun-Telegraph's Grant Street offices.
The Post-Gazette tried to publish a Sunday paper to compete with the Sunday Press but it was not profitable; rising costs in general were challenging the company's bottom line. In November 1961, the Post-Gazette entered into an agreement with the Pittsburgh Press Company to combine their production and advertising sales operations. The Post-Gazette owned and operated its own news and editorial departments, but production and distribution of the paper was handled by the larger Press office. This agreement stayed in place for over 30 years.
The agreement gave the Post-Gazette a new home in the Press building, a comfortable upgrade from the hated "Sun-Telly barn". Constructed for the Press in 1927 and expanded with a curtain wall in 1962, the building served as the Post-Gazette headquarters until 2015.
Strike, consolidation, new competition
The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette's distribution center in Findlay Township
On May 17, 1992, a strike by workers for the Press shut down publication of the Press; the joint operating agreement meant that the Post-Gazette also ceased to publish. During the strike, the Scripps Howard company sold the Press to the Block family, owners of the Post-Gazette. The Blocks did not resume printing the Press, and when the labor issue was resolved and publishing resumed, the Post-Gazette became the city's major paper, under the full masthead name Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Sun-Telegraph/The Pittsburgh Press.
The Block ownership did not take this opportunity to address labor costs, which had led to sale of the Press. This would come back to haunt them and lead to financial problems (see "Financial Challenges" below).
During the strike, publisher Richard Mellon Scaife expanded his paper, the Greensburg Tribune-Review, based in the county seat of adjoining Westmoreland County, where it had published for years. While maintaining the original paper in its facilities in Greensburg, he expanded it with a new Pittsburgh edition to serve the city and its suburbs. Scaife named this paper the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Scaife has invested significant amounts of capital into upgraded facilities, separate offices and newsroom on Pittsburgh's North Side and a state of the art production facility in Marshall Township north of Pittsburgh in Allegheny County. Relations between the Post-Gazette and Tribune-Review, during its existence as a local print publication, were often competitive and frequently hostile, given Scaife's longstanding distaste for what he considered the Blocks' liberalism.
On November 14, 2011, the Post-Gazette revived the Pittsburgh Press as an afternoon online newspaper.
On February 12, 2014, the paper purchased a new distribution facility in suburban Findlay Township, Pennsylvania.
In 2015, the paper moved into a new, state-of-the-art office building on the North Shore on a portion of the former site of Three Rivers Stadium, ending 53 years in the former Press building and more than two centuries in Downtown.
Block Communications sold the Downtown Post-Gazette building in 2019 to DiCicco Development, Inc., a developer headquartered in Moon Township, for $13.25 million. As of late 2022, DiCicco Development is still deciding what type of use might work best on the property.
On October 6, 2022, the advertising, distribution and production workers at the Post Gazette went on strike. On October 18, the newsroom workers joined the strike. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) also pursued a case against the paper charging unfair practices. As of March 2023 the strike had not been settled and the NLRB case was pending before an administrative law judge.
As of January 2024, the unions were still on strike against the Post-Gazette.
In April 2024, the National Labor Relations Board announced it was authorizing a request from the newspaper's unions to seek a temporary injunction against the Post-Gazette's ownership for violating workers' labor rights.
Partnerships and sponsorships
The Post-Gazette building in October 2015.
The newspaper sponsored a 23,000 seat outdoor amphitheater in Burgettstown, Pennsylvania, the "Post-Gazette Pavilion", although it is still often referred to as "Star Lake", based on the original name, "Star Lake Amphitheater", and later "Coca-Cola Star Lake Amphitheater" under the former sponsor. They gave up naming rights in 2010. First Niagara Bank, which had entered the Pittsburgh market the year before after acquiring National City branches from Pittsburgh-based PNC Financial Services, took over the naming rights to the facility and is now known as the KeyBank Pavilion.
The newspaper once had ventures in television. In 1957, the Post-Gazette partnered with the H. Kenneth Brennen family, local radio owners, to launch WIIC-TV (now WPXI) as the area's first full-time NBC affiliate. The Post-Gazette and the Brennens sold off the station to current owner Cox Enterprises in 1964. Although the Post-Gazette and WPXI have on occasion had some news partnerships, the Post-Gazette's primary news partner is now the local CBS owned-and-operated station KDKA-TV.
In 2019, the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette was a founding member of Spotlight PA, an investigative reporting partnership focused on Pennsylvania.
Financial challenges
When John Craig handed editorial reign to David Shribman in 2003, Craig told Shribman that the paper was in terrible financial shape. It was around the time of Hanukkah, and Shribman quipped, "It seemed there was only enough oil in this newspaper to keep the light on for one year."
In September 2006, the paper disclosed that it was experiencing financial challenges, largely related to its labor costs. The paper also disclosed it had not been profitable since printing had resumed in 1993. As a result of these issues, the paper considered a number of options, including putting the paper up for sale. While deep concern about the paper's future ensued, negotiations proved fruitful and in February, 2007 the paper's unions ratified a new agreement with management mandating job cuts, changes in funding health care benefits and so forth.
In August 2018, the Post-Gazette ceased publishing daily. It cut down to online editions on Tuesdays and Saturdays and print editions the remaining days of the week. In October 2019, the paper further reduced its paper editions to Thursdays, Fridays and Sundays. In March 2021, the paper cut down again, getting rid of the Friday edition.
Controversies
Firing of cartoonist
In June 2018, the Post Gazette fired its long-time editorial cartoonist, Rob Rogers, a previous Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning finalist who had worked at the paper for 25 years, having joined the paper in 1993 and worked under four supervising editors. The firing came in the context of increasing support for President Donald Trump and political conservatism on the Post-Gazette editorial page. Pittsburgh mayor William Peduto (who was both a friend of Rogers' and had been lampooned in his cartoons) called the paper's firing of Rogers "disappointing" and said it sent "the wrong message about press freedoms." The firing was strongly criticized by the Newspaper Guild of Pittsburgh and the National Cartoonists Society. The Association of American Editorial Cartoonists said in a statement: "It's as simple as this: Rogers was fired for refusing to do cartoons extolling Trump. Let that sink in." The paper said that Rogers' dismissal "has little to do with politics, ideology or Donald Trump" but did not provide details. Rogers wrote in the New York Times that the paper's new management had decided, in the lead-up to his firing, that his cartoons satirizing Trump "were 'too angry.'" Rogers said that while editors had previously rejected (or "spiked") an average of two to three of his cartoons each year, under a new supervisor he had 19 cartoons or cartoon ideas killed in the first six months of 2018.
Four months after Rogers was fired, the Post-Gazette hired conservative editorial cartoonist Steve Kelley as Rogers' replacement. After being fired, Rogers' comics continued to be published through Andrews McMeel Syndication. As a freelancer, Rogers was named as a finalist for the 2019 Pulitzer Prize in editorial cartooning, with the committee citing his "provocative illustrations that channeled cultural and historical references with expert artistry and an eye for hypocrisy and injustice."
Sanctioning of reporter amid George Floyd protests
In 2020, the Post-Gazette prohibited its reporter Alexis Johnson from covering the George Floyd protests. The Post-Gazette said that Johnson, an African American, had shown bias by making a tweet that highlighted extensive littering from a Kenny Chesney concert tailgate. The pulling of Johnson from the story prompted an outcry from journalists, including the Newspaper Guild of Pittsburgh and many of Johnson's Post-Gazette colleagues.
Awards
Pulitzer Prizes
The Post-Gazette won Pulitzer Prizes in 1938, 1998, and 2019. Photographer Morris Berman maintained that the paper would have also won a Pulitzer in 1964, had it chosen to run the iconic photo of Y. A. Tittle that he took at Pitt Stadium, which would go on to win awards, hang in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, and be used for the back cover of Tittle's autobiography and in a Miller Beer High-Life commercial in 2005.
In 1938, Ray Sprigle won the Pulitzer Prize for Reporting for his investigation revealing that newly appointed Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black had been a member of the Ku Klux Klan.
Staff photographer Martha Rial won the 1998 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography for her photographs of Rwandan and Burundian refugees.
Photographer John Kaplan won the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for a series of photo essays on 21-year-olds, which was published in the Post-Gazette and two other papers of the Block Newspapers group. This award cited Block Newspapers rather than the Post-Gazette specifically.
The Post-Gazette won the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting for its coverage of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. The paper was praised for its "immersive, compassionate coverage."
Other awards
In 1997, Bill Moushey won the National Press Club’s Freedom of Information Award on a series investigating the Federal Witness Protection Program and was a finalist for the Pulitzer.
The Post-Gazette also won the Wilbur Award from the Religion Communicators Council (RCC) in 2017 for religion editor Peter Smith's work, Silent Sanctuaries. Smith, Stephanie Strasburg, and Shelly Bradbury were finalists for the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting for an investigation into sexual abuse in Pennsylvania's Amish and Mennonite communities.
Politics
The Post-Gazette historically had a liberal editorial stance. However, it turned more conservative in the 2010s, especially following the 2018 consolidation of its editorial department with that of longtime sister newspaper The Blade of Toledo, Ohio, and the appointment of The Blade's editorial page editor, Keith Burris, a frequent defender of Donald Trump, as the Post-Gazette's editorial page editor. Burris assumed the additional position of executive editor of the Post-Gazette in 2019. In 2020, the Post-Gazette endorsed Trump's reelection bid, the first time since 1972 that the paper had endorsed a Republican for president.
See also
Journalism portal
Chronicle-Telegraph Cup
Tom Barnes
Al Helfer
Cy Hungerford
James O'Toole
Pittsburgh Tribune-Review
Martha Rial, 1998 Pulitzer Prize winner
Dennis Roddy
Bob Smizik
Bill Steigerwald
Y. A. Tittle photo
References
^ Winsor, Morgan (June 16, 2018). "Cartoonist fired for being critical of Trump: 'They've not silenced me". ABC News. Retrieved June 26, 2020.
^ a b Lyons, Kim (June 15, 2018). "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Cartoonist Fired as Paper Shifts Right". The New York Times. Retrieved June 23, 2020.
^ a b Andrews, p. 1.
^ "The Intellectual Life of Pittsburgh 1786–1836: II.: The Newspapers". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 14 (1). Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania. January 1931. Archived from the original on September 24, 2014.
^ Andrews, p. 38.
^ Thomas, p. 42.
^ Thomas, p. 43.
^ Andrews, pp. 68, 70, 76, 88.
^ Andrews, pp. 122, 135; Pittsburgh Gazette (weekly ed.), March 8, 1844, p. 1, col. 1; Pittsburgh Morning Post, March 4, 1844, p. 2, col. 1.
^ Holt, Michael F. (1999). The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party. Oxfordshire, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195161045.
^ "About Us". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on September 8, 2006.
^ Thomas, p. 101.
^ Andrews, p. 245.
^ "About The Daily morning post". Chronicling America. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 11, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^ Kehl, James A. (September–December 1948). "The Allegheny Democrat, 1833-1836". The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 31 (3–4): 73–74. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
^ Andrews, p. 73.
^ Andrews, p. 292.
^ Andrews, p. 291.
^ Thomas, pp. 227–228.
^ Thomas, pp. 229–230.
^ a b Thomas, p. 231.
^ a b Thomas, pp. 295–296.
^ Thomas, pp. 232, 228.
^ Riely, Kaitlynn (October 25, 2013). "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette building district placed on National Register of Historic Places". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on October 27, 2013.
^ Thomas, pp. 281–283.
^ Thomas, p. 303.
^ Schooley, Tim (November 14, 2011). "Block brings back Pittsburgh Press in e-version". Pittsburgh Business Journal. American City Business Journals. Archived from the original on May 31, 2016.
^ "Post-Gazette signs lease for printing plant and distribution center in Clinton". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Block Communications. February 12, 2014. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014.
^ "Post-Gazette newsroom leaves history Downtown with move to North Side". post-gazette.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
^ https://www.post-gazette.com/business/development/2022/10/11/dicicco-development-downtown-pittsburgh-post-gazette-building-boulevard-of-the-allies-offices-apartments-residential/stories/202210110064
^ https://www.post-gazette.com/business/development/2019/12/30/Block-Communications-Pittsburgh-Post-Gazette-Boulevard-of-the-Allies-building-sold-DiCicco-Development/stories/201912270121
^ "As Post-Gazette strike passes 100-day mark, not everyone optimistic an end is in sight". February 2, 2023.
^ McCann, Alex (January 6, 2023). "Striking Post-Gazette workers resume picketing". Pittsburgh Union Progress. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
^ https://www.wesa.fm/economy-business/2023-10-18/one-year-pittsburgh-post-gazette-strike
^ https://triblive.com/business/pittsburgh-post-gazette-strike-reaches-1-year-with-little-progress-made/
^ https://triblive.com/business/labor-injunction-sought-against-post-gazette-for-alleged-labor-violations/
^ a b Mervis, Scott (February 8, 2010). "Burgettstown pavilion renamed First Niagara". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Block Communications. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
^ Olson, Thomas (April 8, 2009). "First Niagara Bank buys 57 National City Bank branches from PNC". TribLive. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
^ "WIIC-TV Pittsburgh Joins NBC-TV" (PDF). Broadcasting. Washington, DC: Broadcasting Publications Inc. April 1, 1957. p. 7.
^ Thomas, pp. 236–237.
^ "A banner week in station sales" (PDF). Broadcasting. Washington, DC: Broadcasting Publications Inc. September 7, 1964. p. 54 – via American Radio History.
^ "PennLive & The Patriot-News join Spotlight PA as founding partners". Spotlight PA. August 29, 2019. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
^ Gannon, Joyce (December 18, 2018). "Post-Gazette editor David Shribman to step down at end of the year". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
^ Boselovic, Len (September 15, 2006). "Without labor deal, PG could be sold, owners say". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007.
^ "The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette". brooklineconnection.com. Retrieved November 12, 2021.
^ Fernandez, Bob (July 19, 2020). "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette to cut print edition to 3 days". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved July 20, 2019.
^ Lindstrom, Natasha (January 13, 2021). "Post-Gazette reducing print edition to 2 days a week, cites plan to go all-digital". TribLive. Retrieved February 27, 2020.
^ a b c "Statement on Rob Rogers". Newspaper Guild of Pittsburgh. June 14, 2018.
^ a b "Statement: Rob Rogers fired". Association of American Cartoonists. June 15, 2018. Archived from the original on December 18, 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2018.
^ a b c d e f g Cavna, Michael (June 14, 2018). "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette fires anti-Trump cartoonist, and mayor says it sends 'wrong message about press freedoms'". Washington Post.
^ a b Rogers, Rob (June 15, 2018). "I Was Fired for Making Fun of Trump". The New York Times. New York City.
^ Statement by Mayor William Peduto on Cartoonist Rob Rogers, Office of the Mayor, City of Pittsburgh (June 14, 2018).
^ Cavna, Michael (October 23, 2018). "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette hires a new conservative cartoonist after the firing of a Trump critic". The Washington Post.
^ "The 2019 Pulitzer Prize Finalist in Editorial Cartooning". Pulitzer Prize. April 15, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
^ a b Dalton, Andrew (June 6, 2020). "Shouts of solidarity for black reporter pulled from protests". Associated Press. Retrieved June 6, 2020.
^ Thurber, Jon (June 21, 2002). "Morris Berman, 92; Tittle Photo Endures". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 21, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
^ "1992 Pulitzer Prize Winners and Their Works in Journalism and the Arts". The New York Times. April 8, 1992. Retrieved July 8, 2020.
^ "Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved July 8, 2020.
^ "The 2019 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Breaking News Reporting". Pulitzer Prize. April 15, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
^ "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - Win at all costs". Archived from the original on October 1, 2012. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
^ "Bill Moushey: Professor of Journalism". Point Park University. Archived from the original on November 16, 2014. Retrieved November 18, 2014.
^ "Wilbur Awards" (PDF). 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 20, 2018. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
^ "The 2020 Pulitzer Prize Finalist in Local Reporting". The Pulitzer Prizes. May 4, 2020.
^ Perkins, Lucy (February 18, 2019). "Post-Gazette Appoints Keith Burris to Top Editor Position". Retrieved July 2, 2020.
^ "The man and the record".
Bibliography and further reading
Andrews, J. Cutler (1936). Pittsburgh's Post-Gazette: The First Newspaper West of the Alleghenies. Boston: Chapman & Grimes. hdl:2027/mdp.39015011226290.
Thomas, Clarke M. (2005). Front-Page Pittsburgh: Two Hundred Years of the Post-Gazette. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-4248-8.
"Daily and Sunday Newspaper Circulation". Newspapers First. March 31, 2006. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Retrieved March 1, 2007.
"2007 Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the U.S. by Circulation" (PDF). BurrellesLuce. March 31, 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 2, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2007.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
Official website
History of the Post-Gazette Archived February 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
Google News Archive microfilm archive 1927–2007
C-SPAN piece on the Post-Gazette
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In 1923, local publishers banded together to acquire and kill off the Dispatch and Leader. Four years later, William Randolph Hearst negotiated with the Olivers to purchase the morning Gazette Times and its evening sister, the Chronicle Telegraph, while Paul Block arranged to buy out the owner of the morning Post and evening Sun. After swapping the Sun in return for Hearst's Gazette Times, Block had both morning papers, which he combined to form the Post-Gazette. Hearst united the evening papers, creating the Sun-Telegraph. Both new papers debuted on August 2, 1927.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas231-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas231-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas,_pp._295%E2%80%93296-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Joint operating agreement","text":"In 1960, Pittsburgh had three daily papers: the Post-Gazette in the morning, and the Pittsburgh Press and the Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph in the evening and on Sunday. The Post-Gazette bought the Sun-Telegraph and moved into the Sun-Telegraph's Grant Street offices.[19]The Post-Gazette tried to publish a Sunday paper to compete with the Sunday Press but it was not profitable; rising costs in general were challenging the company's bottom line.[20] In November 1961, the Post-Gazette entered into an agreement with the Pittsburgh Press Company to combine their production and advertising sales operations.[21] The Post-Gazette owned and operated its own news and editorial departments, but production and distribution of the paper was handled by the larger Press office.[21] This agreement stayed in place for over 30 years.[22]The agreement gave the Post-Gazette a new home in the Press building, a comfortable upgrade from the hated \"Sun-Telly barn\".[23] Constructed for the Press in 1927 and expanded with a curtain wall in 1962, the building served as the Post-Gazette headquarters until 2015.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette_Distribution_Center.jpg"},{"link_name":"Findlay Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Findlay_Township,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Scripps Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripps_Howard"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thomas,_pp._295%E2%80%93296-22"},{"link_name":"Richard Mellon Scaife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife"},{"link_name":"Greensburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greensburg,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"county seat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_seat"},{"link_name":"Westmoreland County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westmoreland_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Tribune-Review"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Marshall Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Township,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press"},{"link_name":"online newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_newspaper"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Findlay Township, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Findlay_Township,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"North Shore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Shore_(Pittsburgh)"},{"link_name":"Three Rivers Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rivers_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Moon Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_Township,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Strike, consolidation, new competition","text":"The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette's distribution center in Findlay TownshipOn May 17, 1992, a strike by workers for the Press shut down publication of the Press; the joint operating agreement meant that the Post-Gazette also ceased to publish.[25] During the strike, the Scripps Howard company sold the Press to the Block family, owners of the Post-Gazette.[22] The Blocks did not resume printing the Press, and when the labor issue was resolved and publishing resumed, the Post-Gazette became the city's major paper, under the full masthead name Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Sun-Telegraph/The Pittsburgh Press.The Block ownership did not take this opportunity to address labor costs, which had led to sale of the Press. This would come back to haunt them and lead to financial problems (see \"Financial Challenges\" below).During the strike, publisher Richard Mellon Scaife expanded his paper, the Greensburg Tribune-Review, based in the county seat of adjoining Westmoreland County, where it had published for years. While maintaining the original paper in its facilities in Greensburg, he expanded it with a new Pittsburgh edition to serve the city and its suburbs. Scaife named this paper the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review.[26] Scaife has invested significant amounts of capital into upgraded facilities, separate offices and newsroom on Pittsburgh's North Side and a state of the art production facility in Marshall Township north of Pittsburgh in Allegheny County. Relations between the Post-Gazette and Tribune-Review, during its existence as a local print publication, were often competitive and frequently hostile, given Scaife's longstanding distaste for what he considered the Blocks' liberalism.On November 14, 2011, the Post-Gazette revived the Pittsburgh Press as an afternoon online newspaper.[27]On February 12, 2014, the paper purchased a new distribution facility in suburban Findlay Township, Pennsylvania.[28]In 2015, the paper moved into a new, state-of-the-art office building on the North Shore on a portion of the former site of Three Rivers Stadium, ending 53 years in the former Press building and more than two centuries in Downtown.[29]Block Communications sold the Downtown Post-Gazette building in 2019 to DiCicco Development, Inc., a developer headquartered in Moon Township, for $13.25 million.[30][31] As of late 2022, DiCicco Development is still deciding what type of use might work best on the property.On October 6, 2022, the advertising, distribution and production workers at the Post Gazette went on strike. On October 18, the newsroom workers joined the strike.[32] The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) also pursued a case against the paper charging unfair practices. As of March 2023 the strike had not been settled and the NLRB case was pending before an administrative law judge.[33]As of January 2024, the unions were still on strike against the Post-Gazette.[34][35]In April 2024, the National Labor Relations Board announced it was authorizing a request from the newspaper's unions to seek a temporary injunction against the Post-Gazette's ownership for violating workers' labor rights.[36]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Post_Gazette_building,_October_2015.JPG"},{"link_name":"outdoor amphitheater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphitheatre"},{"link_name":"Burgettstown, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgettstown,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"},{"link_name":"naming rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_rights"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mervis_2010-37"},{"link_name":"First Niagara Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Niagara_Bank"},{"link_name":"acquiring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_City_acquisition_by_PNC"},{"link_name":"National City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_City_Corp."},{"link_name":"PNC Financial Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNC_Financial_Services"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"KeyBank Pavilion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KeyBank_Pavilion"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mervis_2010-37"},{"link_name":"WPXI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WPXI"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Cox Enterprises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cox_Enterprises"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"owned-and-operated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station"},{"link_name":"KDKA-TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDKA-TV"},{"link_name":"Spotlight PA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotlight_PA"},{"link_name":"investigative reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_journalism"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPAPR-42"}],"text":"The Post-Gazette building in October 2015.The newspaper sponsored a 23,000 seat outdoor amphitheater in Burgettstown, Pennsylvania, the \"Post-Gazette Pavilion\", although it is still often referred to as \"Star Lake\", based on the original name, \"Star Lake Amphitheater\", and later \"Coca-Cola Star Lake Amphitheater\" under the former sponsor. They gave up naming rights in 2010.[37] First Niagara Bank, which had entered the Pittsburgh market the year before after acquiring National City branches from Pittsburgh-based PNC Financial Services,[38] took over the naming rights to the facility and is now known as the KeyBank Pavilion.[37]The newspaper once had ventures in television. In 1957, the Post-Gazette partnered with the H. Kenneth Brennen family, local radio owners, to launch WIIC-TV (now WPXI) as the area's first full-time NBC affiliate.[39][40] The Post-Gazette and the Brennens sold off the station to current owner Cox Enterprises in 1964.[41] Although the Post-Gazette and WPXI have on occasion had some news partnerships, the Post-Gazette's primary news partner is now the local CBS owned-and-operated station KDKA-TV.In 2019, the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette was a founding member of Spotlight PA, an investigative reporting partnership focused on Pennsylvania.[42]","title":"Partnerships and sponsorships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Shribman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_M._Shribman"},{"link_name":"Hanukkah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanukkah"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"When John Craig handed editorial reign to David Shribman in 2003, Craig told Shribman that the paper was in terrible financial shape. It was around the time of Hanukkah, and Shribman quipped, \"It seemed there was only enough oil in this newspaper to keep the light on for one year.\"[43]In September 2006, the paper disclosed that it was experiencing financial challenges, largely related to its labor costs. The paper also disclosed it had not been profitable since printing had resumed in 1993. As a result of these issues, the paper considered a number of options, including putting the paper up for sale.[44] While deep concern about the paper's future ensued, negotiations proved fruitful and in February, 2007 the paper's unions ratified a new agreement with management mandating job cuts, changes in funding health care benefits and so forth.In August 2018, the Post-Gazette ceased publishing daily.[45] It cut down to online editions on Tuesdays and Saturdays and print editions the remaining days of the week. In October 2019, the paper further reduced its paper editions to Thursdays, Fridays and Sundays.[46] In March 2021, the paper cut down again, getting rid of the Friday edition.[47]","title":"Financial challenges"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rob Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Rogers_(cartoonist)"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Editorial_Cartooning"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guild-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAEC-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RogersNYT-51"},{"link_name":"supervising editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy_editing"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guild-48"},{"link_name":"William Peduto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Peduto"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Statement_by_Mayor_William_Peduto-52"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guild-48"},{"link_name":"National Cartoonists Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cartoonists_Society"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAEC-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RogersNYT-51"},{"link_name":"spiked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_(journalism)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"Steve Kelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Kelley_(cartoonist)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Andrews McMeel Syndication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_McMeel_Syndication"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPoFired-50"},{"link_name":"2019 Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"sub_title":"Firing of cartoonist","text":"In June 2018, the Post Gazette fired its long-time editorial cartoonist, Rob Rogers, a previous Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning finalist who had worked at the paper for 25 years,[48][49][50] having joined the paper in 1993[51] and worked under four supervising editors.[50] The firing came in the context of increasing support for President Donald Trump and political conservatism on the Post-Gazette editorial page.[48] Pittsburgh mayor William Peduto (who was both a friend of Rogers' and had been lampooned in his cartoons) called the paper's firing of Rogers \"disappointing\" and said it sent \"the wrong message about press freedoms.\"[52][50] The firing was strongly criticized by the Newspaper Guild of Pittsburgh[48] and the National Cartoonists Society.[50] The Association of American Editorial Cartoonists said in a statement: \"It's as simple as this: Rogers was fired for refusing to do cartoons extolling Trump. Let that sink in.\"[49] The paper said that Rogers' dismissal \"has little to do with politics, ideology or Donald Trump\" but did not provide details.[50] Rogers wrote in the New York Times that the paper's new management had decided, in the lead-up to his firing, that his cartoons satirizing Trump \"were 'too angry.'\"[51] Rogers said that while editors had previously rejected (or \"spiked\") an average of two to three of his cartoons each year, under a new supervisor he had 19 cartoons or cartoon ideas killed in the first six months of 2018.[50]Four months after Rogers was fired, the Post-Gazette hired conservative editorial cartoonist Steve Kelley as Rogers' replacement.[53] After being fired, Rogers' comics continued to be published through Andrews McMeel Syndication.[50] As a freelancer, Rogers was named as a finalist for the 2019 Pulitzer Prize in editorial cartooning, with the committee citing his \"provocative illustrations that channeled cultural and historical references with expert artistry and an eye for hypocrisy and injustice.\"[54]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Floyd protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Floyd_protests"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShoutsPulled-55"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American"},{"link_name":"Kenny Chesney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Chesney"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShoutsPulled-55"}],"sub_title":"Sanctioning of reporter amid George Floyd protests","text":"In 2020, the Post-Gazette prohibited its reporter Alexis Johnson from covering the George Floyd protests.[55] The Post-Gazette said that Johnson, an African American, had shown bias by making a tweet that highlighted extensive littering from a Kenny Chesney concert tailgate. The pulling of Johnson from the story prompted an outcry from journalists, including the Newspaper Guild of Pittsburgh and many of Johnson's Post-Gazette colleagues.[55]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"1938","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"Y. A. Tittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y._A._Tittle#Famous_photo"},{"link_name":"Pitt Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitt_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Pro Football Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Football_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Miller Beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_Beer"},{"link_name":"Ray Sprigle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Sprigle"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Reporting"},{"link_name":"Hugo Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Black"},{"link_name":"Ku Klux Klan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan"},{"link_name":"Martha Rial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Rial"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Spot_News_Photography"},{"link_name":"Rwandan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda"},{"link_name":"Burundian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burundi"},{"link_name":"John Kaplan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kaplan_(photographer)"},{"link_name":"1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Feature_Photography"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize_for_Breaking_News_Reporting"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh synagogue shooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"Pulitzer Prizes","text":"The Post-Gazette won Pulitzer Prizes in 1938, 1998, and 2019. Photographer Morris Berman maintained that the paper would have also won a Pulitzer in 1964, had it chosen to run the iconic photo of Y. A. Tittle that he took at Pitt Stadium,[56] which would go on to win awards, hang in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, and be used for the back cover of Tittle's autobiography and in a Miller Beer High-Life commercial in 2005.In 1938, Ray Sprigle won the Pulitzer Prize for Reporting for his investigation revealing that newly appointed Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black had been a member of the Ku Klux Klan.Staff photographer Martha Rial won the 1998 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography for her photographs of Rwandan and Burundian refugees.Photographer John Kaplan won the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for a series of photo essays on 21-year-olds, which was published in the Post-Gazette and two other papers of the Block Newspapers group.[57] This award cited Block Newspapers rather than the Post-Gazette specifically.[58]The Post-Gazette won the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for Breaking News Reporting for its coverage of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. The paper was praised for its \"immersive, compassionate coverage.\"[59]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Press Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Press_Club_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Wilbur Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_Communicators_Council#Wilbur_Awards"},{"link_name":"Religion Communicators Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_Communicators_Council"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Other awards","text":"In 1997, Bill Moushey won the National Press Club’s Freedom of Information Award on a series investigating the Federal Witness Protection Program and was a finalist for the Pulitzer.[60][61]The Post-Gazette also won the Wilbur Award from the Religion Communicators Council (RCC) in 2017 for religion editor Peter Smith's work, Silent Sanctuaries.[62] Smith, Stephanie Strasburg, and Shelly Bradbury were finalists for the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting for an investigation into sexual abuse in Pennsylvania's Amish and Mennonite communities.[63]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"The Blade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blade_(Toledo,_Ohio)"},{"link_name":"Toledo, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LyonsNYT-2"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_US_Presidential_Election"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"text":"The Post-Gazette historically had a liberal editorial stance. However, it turned more conservative in the 2010s, especially following the 2018 consolidation of its editorial department with that of longtime sister newspaper The Blade of Toledo, Ohio, and the appointment of The Blade's editorial page editor, Keith Burris, a frequent defender of Donald Trump, as the Post-Gazette's editorial page editor.[2] Burris assumed the additional position of executive editor of the Post-Gazette in 2019.[64] In 2020, the Post-Gazette endorsed Trump's reelection bid, the first time since 1972 that the paper had endorsed a Republican for president.[65]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2027/mdp.39015011226290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015011226290"},{"link_name":"Front-Page Pittsburgh: Two Hundred Years of the Post-Gazette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?c=pittpress;cc=pittpress;view=toc;idno=31735062136266"},{"link_name":"University of Pittsburgh Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8229-4248-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8229-4248-8"},{"link_name":"\"Daily and Sunday Newspaper Circulation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070312175936/http://www.newspapersfirst.com/MIGroupCirc.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newspapersfirst.com/MIGroupCirc.html"},{"link_name":"\"2007 Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the U.S. by Circulation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171202203212/https://www.burrellesluce.com/top100/2007_Top_100List.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.burrellesluce.com/top100/2007_Top_100List.pdf"}],"text":"Andrews, J. Cutler (1936). Pittsburgh's Post-Gazette: The First Newspaper West of the Alleghenies. Boston: Chapman & Grimes. hdl:2027/mdp.39015011226290.\nThomas, Clarke M. (2005). Front-Page Pittsburgh: Two Hundred Years of the Post-Gazette. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-4248-8.\n\"Daily and Sunday Newspaper Circulation\". Newspapers First. March 31, 2006. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Retrieved March 1, 2007.\n\"2007 Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the U.S. by Circulation\" (PDF). BurrellesLuce. March 31, 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 2, 2017. Retrieved May 28, 2007.","title":"Bibliography and further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Building in Downtown Pittsburgh, which housed the paper from 1962 to 2015","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Post_Gazette_Building.jpg/220px-Post_Gazette_Building.jpg"},{"image_text":"A timeline of the newspapers' consolidation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pittsburgh_newspaper_consolidation_timeline.svg/220px-Pittsburgh_newspaper_consolidation_timeline.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette's distribution center in Findlay Township","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette_Distribution_Center.jpg/220px-Pittsburgh_Post-Gazette_Distribution_Center.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Post-Gazette building in October 2015.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Post_Gazette_building%2C_October_2015.JPG/220px-Post_Gazette_building%2C_October_2015.JPG"}]
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[{"title":"Journalism portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Journalism"},{"title":"Chronicle-Telegraph Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle-Telegraph_Cup"},{"title":"Tom Barnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Barnes_(American_journalist)"},{"title":"Al Helfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Helfer"},{"title":"Cy Hungerford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cy_Hungerford"},{"title":"James O'Toole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_O%27Toole_(reporter)"},{"title":"Pittsburgh Tribune-Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Tribune-Review"},{"title":"Martha Rial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha_Rial"},{"title":"Dennis Roddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Roddy"},{"title":"Bob Smizik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Smizik"},{"title":"Bill Steigerwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Steigerwald"},{"title":"Y. A. Tittle photo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y._A._Tittle#Famous_photo"}]
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[{"reference":"Winsor, Morgan (June 16, 2018). \"Cartoonist fired for being critical of Trump: 'They've not silenced me\". ABC News. Retrieved June 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/cartoonist-fired-critical-trump-theyve-silenced/story?id=55942509","url_text":"\"Cartoonist fired for being critical of Trump: 'They've not silenced me\""}]},{"reference":"Lyons, Kim (June 15, 2018). \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Cartoonist Fired as Paper Shifts Right\". The New York Times. Retrieved June 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/15/business/media/pittsburgh-cartoonist-fired.html","url_text":"\"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Cartoonist Fired as Paper Shifts Right\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Intellectual Life of Pittsburgh 1786–1836: II.: The Newspapers\". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. 14 (1). Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania. January 1931. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyta
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Sawfly
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["1 Etymology","2 Phylogeny","2.1 Taxonomy","3 Description","4 Distribution","5 Behaviour and ecology","5.1 Parasites","5.2 Life cycle and reproduction","6 Relationship with humans","7 References","7.1 Bibliography","8 Further reading","9 External links","9.1 General","9.2 Taxonomy"]
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Suborder of insects
This article is about the hymenopteran suborder Symphyta. For the moth genus, see Symphyta (moth).
SawflyTemporal range: Triassic–Present
PreꞒ
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P
T
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Pg
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Tenthredo mesomela
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hymenoptera
Suborder:
SymphytaGerstaecker, 1867
Superfamilies
Anaxyeloidea
Cephoidea
†Karatavitoidea
Orussoidea
Pamphilioidea
Siricoidea
Tenthredinoidea
Xiphydrioidea
Xyeloidea
Larvae of Nematus septentrionalis
Sawflies are wasp-like insects that are in the suborder Symphyta within the order Hymenoptera, alongside ants, bees, and wasps. The common name comes from the saw-like appearance of the ovipositor, which the females use to cut into the plants where they lay their eggs. The name is associated especially with the Tenthredinoidea, by far the largest superfamily in the suborder, with about 7,000 known species; in the entire suborder, there are 8,000 described species in more than 800 genera. Symphyta is paraphyletic, consisting of several basal groups within the order Hymenoptera, each one rooted inside the previous group, ending with the Apocrita which are not sawflies.
The primary distinction between sawflies and the Apocrita – the ants, bees, and wasps – is that the adults lack a "wasp waist", and instead have a broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax. Some sawflies are Batesian mimics of wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger. Sawflies vary in length, most measuring 2.5 to 20 millimetres (3⁄32 to 25⁄32 inch); the largest known sawfly measured 55 mm (2+1⁄4 in). The larvae are caterpillar-like, but can be distinguished by the number of prolegs and the absence of crochets in sawfly larvae. The great majority of sawflies are plant-eating, though the members of the superfamily Orussoidea are parasitic.
Predators include birds, insects and small animals. The larvae of some species have anti-predator adaptations such as regurgitating irritating liquid and clustering together for safety in numbers. Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are Hymenoptera, the rest being Diptera.
Adult sawflies are short-lived, with a life expectancy of 7–9 days, though the larval stage can last from months to years, depending on the species. Parthenogenetic females, which do not need to mate to produce fertilised eggs, are common in the suborder, though many species have males. The adults feed on pollen, nectar, honeydew, sap, other insects, including hemolymph of the larvae hosts; they have mouth pieces adapted to these types of feeding.
Sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. The female uses her ovipositor to drill into plant material (or, in the case of Orussoidea, other insects) and then lays eggs in groups called rafts or pods. After hatching, larvae feed on plants, often in groups. As they approach adulthood, the larvae seek a protected spot to pupate, typically in bark or the soil. Large populations of species such as the pine sawfly can cause substantial damage to economic forestry, while others such as the iris sawfly are major pests in horticulture. Outbreaks of sawfly larvae can defoliate trees and may cause dieback, stunting or death. Sawflies can be controlled through the use of insecticides, natural predators and parasitoids, or mechanical methods.
Sawflies first appeared 250 million years ago in the Triassic. The oldest superfamily, the Xyeloidea, has existed into the presents. Over 200 million years ago, a lineage of sawflies evolved a parasitoid lifestyle, with carnivorous larvae that ate the eggs or larvae of other insects. Sawflies are distributed globally, though they are more diverse in the northernmost hemispheres.
Etymology
Sawfly laying eggs in a plant, using the serrated saw-like ovipositor for which the group is named
The suborder name "Symphyta" derives from the Greek word symphyton, meaning "grown together", referring to the group's distinctive lack of a wasp waist between prostomium and peristomium. Its common name, "sawfly", derives from the saw-like ovipositor that is used for egg-laying, in which a female makes a slit in either a stem or plant leaf to deposit the eggs. The first known use of this name was in 1773. Sawflies are also known as "wood-wasps".
Phylogeny
Carl Gerstaecker established the suborder Symphyta
In his original description of Hymenoptera in 1863, German zoologist Carl Gerstaecker divided them into three groups, Hymenoptera aculeata, Hymenoptera apocrita and Hymenoptera phytophaga. But four years later in 1867, he described just two groups, H. apocrita syn. genuina and H. symphyta syn. phytophaga. Consequently, the name Symphyta is given to Gerstaecker as the zoological authority. In his description, Gerstaecker distinguished the two groups by the transfer of the first abdominal segment to the thorax in the Apocrita, compared to the Symphyta. Consequently, there are only eight dorsal half segments in the Apocrita, against nine in the Symphyta. The larvae are distinguished in a similar way.
The Symphyta have therefore traditionally been considered, alongside the Apocrita, to form one of two suborders of Hymenoptera. Symphyta are the more primitive group, with comparatively complete venation, larvae that are largely phytophagous, and without a "wasp-waist", a symplesiomorphic feature. Together, the Symphyta make up less than 10% of hymenopteran species. While the terms sawfly and Symphyta have been used synonymously, the Symphyta have also been divided into three groups, true sawflies (phyllophaga), woodwasps or xylophaga (Siricidae), and Orussidae. The three groupings have been distinguished by the true sawflies' ventral serrated or saw-like ovipositor for sawing holes in vegetation to deposit eggs, while the woodwasp ovipositor penetrates wood and the Orussidae behave as external parasitoids of wood-boring beetles. The woodwasps themselves are a paraphyletic ancestral grade. Despite these limitations, the terms have utility and are common in the literature.
While most hymenopteran superfamilies are monophyletic, as is Hymenoptera, the Symphyta has long been seen to be paraphyletic. Cladistic methods and molecular phylogenetics are improving the understanding of relationships between the superfamilies, resulting in revisions at the level of superfamily and family. The Symphyta are the most primitive (basal) taxa within the Hymenoptera (some going back 250 million years), and one of the taxa within the Symphyta gave rise to the monophyletic suborder Apocrita (wasps, bees, and ants). In cladistic analyses the Orussoidea are consistently the sister group to the Apocrita.
The oldest unambiguous sawfly fossils date back to the Middle or Late Triassic. These fossils, from the family Xyelidae, are the oldest of all Hymenoptera. One fossil, Archexyela ipswichensis from Queensland is between 205.6 and 221.5 million years of age, making it among the oldest of all sawfly fossils. More Xyelid fossils have been discovered from the Middle Jurassic and the Cretaceous, but the family was less diverse then than during the Mesozoic and Tertiary. The subfamily Xyelinae were plentiful during these time periods, in which Tertiary faunas were dominated by the tribe Xyelini; these are indicative of a humid and warm climate.
The cladogram is based on Schulmeister 2003.
Symphyta within Hymenoptera
Hymenoptera
Xyeloidea (Triassic–present)
Tenthredinoidea
Pamphilioidea
Cephoidea (stem sawflies)
Siricoidea (horntails or wood wasps)
Xiphydrioidea (wood wasps)
parasitism
Orussoidea (parasitic wood wasps)
wasp waist
Apocrita (ants, bees, wasps)
200mya
250mya
Symphyta
Symphyta (red bar) are paraphyletic as Apocrita are excluded.
Taxonomy
Anaxyeloidea: Syntexis libocedrii
There are approximately 8,000 species of sawfly in more than 800 genera, although new species continue to be discovered. However, earlier studies indicated that 10,000 species grouped into about 1,000 genera were known. Early phylogenies such as that of Alexandr Rasnitsyn, based on morphology and behaviour, identified nine clades which did not reflect the historical superfamilies. Such classifications were replaced by those using molecular methods, starting with Dowton and Austin (1994). As of 2013, the Symphyta are treated as nine superfamilies (one extinct) and 25 families. Most sawflies belong to the Tenthredinoidea superfamily, with about 7,000 species worldwide. Tenthredinoidea has six families, of which Tenthredinidae is by far the largest with some 5,500 species.
Extinct taxa are indicated by a dagger (†).
Superfamilies and families
Superfamily Anaxyeloidea Martynov, 1925
Family Anaxyelidae Martynov, 1925 (1 species) & †12 genera
Superfamily Cephoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1family)
Family Cephidae Newman, 1834 (21 genera, 160 spp. & †3 genera
Superfamily †Karatavitoidea Rasnitsyn, 1963 (1 family)
Family †Karatavitidae Rasnitsyn, 1963 (7 genera)
Superfamily Orussoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1 family)
Family Orussidae Newman, 1834 (16 genera, 82 spp.) & †3 genera
Superfamily Pamphilioidea Cameron, 1890 (2 & †1 families) (syn. Megalodontoidea)
Family Megalodontesidae Konow, 1897 (1 genera, 42 spp.) & †1 genus
Family Pamphiliidae Cameron, 1890 (10 genera, 291 spp.) & †3 genera
Superfamily Siricoidea Billberg, 1820 (2 & †5 families)
Family Siricidae Billberg, 1820 (11 genera, 111 spp.) & †9 genera
Superfamily Tenthredinoidea Latreille, 1803 (6 & †2 families)
Family Argidae Konow, 1890 (58 genera, 897 spp.) and †1 genus
Family Blasticotomidae Thomson, 1871 (2 genera, 12 spp.) & †1 genus
Family Cimbicidae W. Kirby, 1837 (16 genera, 182 spp.) & †6 genera
Family Diprionidae Rohwer, 1910 (11 genera, 136 spp.) & †2 genera
Family Pergidae Rohwer, 1911 (60 genera, 442 spp.)
Family Tenthredinidae Latreille, 1803 (400 genera, 5,500 spp.) & †14 genera
Superfamily Xiphydrioidea Leach, 1819
Family Xiphydriidae Leach, 1819 (28 genera, 146 spp.)
Superfamily Xyeloidea Newman, 1834
Family Xyelidae Newman, 1834 (5 genera, 63 spp.) & †47genera
Description
Giant horntail, Urocerus gigas, a Batesian mimic of a hornet, ovipositing.It does not sting.The European hornet is a wasp-waisted Apocritan with a sting, not a Symphytan.
Many species of sawfly have retained their ancestral attributes throughout time, specifically their plant-eating habits, wing veins and the unmodified abdomen, where the first two segments appear like the succeeding segments. The absence of the narrow wasp waist distinguishes sawflies from other members of hymenoptera, although some are Batesian mimics with coloration similar to wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger. Most sawflies are stubby and soft-bodied, and fly weakly. Sawflies vary in length: Urocerus gigas, which can be mistaken as a wasp due to its black-and-yellow striped body, can grow up to 20 mm (3⁄4 in) in length, but among the largest sawflies ever discovered was Hoplitolyda duolunica from the Mesozoic, with a body length of 55 mm (2+1⁄4 in) and a wingspan of 92 mm (3+1⁄2 in). The smaller species only reach lengths of 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in).
Heads of sawflies vary in size, shape and sturdiness, as well as the positions of the eyes and antennae. They are characterised in four head types: open head, maxapontal head, closed head and genapontal head. The open head is simplistic, whereas all the other heads are derived. The head is also hypognathous, meaning that the lower mouthparts are directed downwards. When in use, the mouthparts may be directed forwards, but this is only caused when the sawfly swings its entire head forward in a pendulum motion. Unlike most primitive insects, the sutures (rigid joints between two or more hard elements on an organism) and sclerites (hardened body parts) are obsolescent or absent. The clypeus (a sclerite that makes up an insects "face") is not divided into a pre- and postclypeus, but rather separated from the front. The antennal sclerites are fused with the surrounding head capsule, but these are sometimes separated by a suture. The number of segments in the antennae vary from six in the Accorduleceridae to 30 or more in the Pamphiliidae. The compound eyes are large with a number of facets, and there are three ocelli between the dorsal portions of the compound eyes. The tentorium comprises the whole inner skeleton of the head.
Three segments make up the thorax: the mesothorax, metathorax and prothorax, as well as the exoskeletal plates that connect with these segments. The legs have spurs on their fourth segments, the tibiae. Sawflies have two pairs of translucent wings. The fore and hind wings are locked together with hooks. Parallel development in sawfly wings is most frequent in the anal veins. In all sawflies, 2A & 3A tend to fuse with the first anal vein. This occurs in several families including Argidae, Diprionidae and Cimbicidae.
Aposematically coloured caterpillar-like larva of Abia sericea
The larvae of sawflies are easily mistaken for lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars). However, several morphological differences can distinguish the two: while both larvae share three pairs of thoracic legs and an apical pair of abdominal prolegs, lepidopteran caterpillars have four pairs of prolegs on abdominal segments 3–6 while sawfly larvae have five pairs of prolegs located on abdominal segments 2–6; crochets are present on lepidopteran larvae, whereas on sawfly larvae they are not; the prolegs of both larvae gradually disappear by the time they burrow into the ground, therefore making it difficult to distinguish the two; and sawfly larvae only have a single pair of minute eyes, whereas lepidopteran larvae have four to six eyes on each side of the head. Sawfly larvae behave like lepidopteran larvae, walking about and eating foliage. Some groups have larvae that are eyeless and almost legless; these larvae make tunnels in plant tissues including wood. Many species of sawfly larvae are strikingly coloured, exhibiting colour combinations such as black and white while others are black and yellow. This is a warning colouration because some larvae can secrete irritating fluids from glands located on their undersides.
Distribution
Sawflies are widely distributed throughout the world. The largest family, the Tenthredinidae, with some 5,000 species, are found on all continents except Antarctica, though they are most abundant and diverse in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; they are absent from New Zealand and there are few of them in Australia. The next largest family, the Argidae, with some 800 species, is also worldwide, but is most common in the tropics, especially in Africa, where they feed on woody and herbaceous angiosperms. Of the other families, the Blasticotomidae and Megalodontidae are Palearctic; the Xyelidae, Pamphilidae, Diprionidae, Cimbicidae, and Cephidae are Holarctic, while the Siricidae are mainly Holarctic with some tropical species. The parasitic Orussidae are found worldwide, mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The wood-boring Xiphydriidae are worldwide, but most species live in the subtropical parts of Asia.
Behaviour and ecology
Rose stem sawfly (Hartigia trimaculata) larva in a rose stem
Sawflies are mostly herbivores, feeding on plants that have a high concentration of chemical defences. These insects are either resistant to the chemical substances, or they avoid areas of the plant that have high concentrations of chemicals. The larvae primarily feed in groups; they are folivores, eating plants and fruits on native trees and shrubs, though some are parasitic. However, this is not always the case; Monterey pine sawfly (Itycorsia) larvae are solitary web-spinners that feed on Monterey pine trees inside a silken web. The adults feed on pollen and nectar.
Anti-predator adaptation: spitfire sawfly larvae grouped together for safety in numbers
Sawflies are eaten by a wide variety of predators. While many birds find the larvae distasteful, some such as the currawong (Strepera) and stonechats (Saxicola) eat both adults and larvae. The larvae are an important food source for the chicks of several birds, including partridges. Sawfly and moth larvae form one third of the diet of nestling corn buntings (Emberiza calandra), with sawfly larvae being eaten more frequently on cool days. Black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) chicks show a strong preference for sawfly larvae. Sawfly larvae formed 43% of the diet of chestnut-backed chickadees (Poecile rufescens). Small carnivorous mammals such as the masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), the northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) predate heavily on sawfly cocoons. Insects such as ants and certain species of predatory wasps (Vespula vulgaris) eat adult sawflies and the larvae, as do lizards and frogs. Pardalotes, honeyeaters and fantails (Rhipidura) occasionally consume laid eggs, and several species of beetle larvae prey on the pupae.
The larvae have several anti-predator adaptations. While adults are unable to sting, the larvae of species such as the spitfire sawfly regurgitate a distasteful irritating liquid, which makes predators such as ants avoid the larvae. In some species, the larvae cluster together, reducing their chances of being killed, and in some cases form together with their heads pointing outwards or tap their abdomens up and down. Some adults bear black and yellow markings that mimic wasps.
Parasites
Parasitoidal eulophid wasps (Dahlbominus fuscipennis (sv)) emerging from a sawfly cocoon
Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are parasitic Hymenoptera; more than 40 species are known to attack them. However, information regarding these species is minimal, and fewer than 10 of these species actually cause a significant impact on sawfly populations. Many of these species attack their hosts in the grass or in other parasitoids. Well known and important parasitoids include Braconidae, Eulophidae and Ichneumonidae. Braconid wasps attack sawflies in many regions throughout the world, in which they are ectoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed outside of the hosts body; braconids have more of an impact on sawfly populations in the New World than they do in the Old World, possibly because there are no ichneumonid parasitoids in North America. Some braconid wasps that attack sawflies include Bracon cephi, B. lisogaster, B. terabeila and Heteropilus cephi. Female braconids locate sawfly larvae through the vibrations they produce when feeding, followed by inserting the ovipostior and paralysing the larva before laying eggs inside the host. These eggs hatch inside the larva within a few days, where they feed on the host. The entire host's body may be consumed by the braconid larvae, except for the head capsule and epidermis. The larvae complete their development within two or three weeks.
Ten species of wasps in the family Ichneumonidae attack sawfly populations, although these species are usually rare. The most important parasitoids in this family are species in the genus Collyria. Unlike braconids, the larvae are endoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed inside the hosts body. One well known ichneumonid is Collyria coxator, which is a dominant parasitoid of C. pygmaeus. Recorded parasitism rates in Europe are between 20 – 76%, and as many as eight eggs can be found in a single larva, but only one Collyria individual will emerge from its host. The larva may remain inside of their host until spring, where it emerges and pupates.
Several species in the family Eulophidae attack sawflies, although their impact is low. Two species in the genus Pediobius have been studied; the two species are internal larval parasitoids and have only been found in the northern hemisphere. Parasitism of sawflies by eulophids in grass exceeds 50%, but only 5% in wheat. It is unknown as to why the attack rate in wheat is low. Furthermore, some fungal and bacterial diseases are known to infect eggs and pupa in warm wet weather.
Outbreaks of certain sawfly species, such as Diprion polytomum, have led scientists to investigate and possibly collect their natural enemies to control them. Parasites of D. polytomum have been extensively investigated, showing that 31 species of hymenopterous and dipterous parasites attack it. These parasites have been used in successful biological control against pest sawflies, including Cephus cinctus throughout the 1930s and 1950s and C. pygmaeus in the 1930s and 1940s.
Life cycle and reproduction
Adult male newly emerged from its cocoon
Like all other hymenopteran insects, sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. Many species are parthenogenetic, meaning that females do not need fertilization to create viable eggs. Unfertilized eggs develop as male, while fertilized eggs develop into females (arrhenotoky). The lifespan of an individual sawfly is two months to two years, though the adult life stage is often very short (approximately 7 – 9 days), only long enough for the females to lay their eggs. The female uses its ovipositor to drill into plant material to lay her eggs (though the family Orussoidea lay their eggs in other insects). Plant-eating sawflies most commonly are associated with leafy material but some specialize on wood, and the ovipositors of these species (such as the family Siricidae) are specially adapted for the task of drilling through bark. Once the incision has been made, the female will lay as many as 30 to 90 eggs. Females avoid the shade when laying their eggs because the larvae develop much slower and may not even survive, and they may not also survive if they are laid on immature and glaucous leaves. Hence, female sawflies search for young adult leaves to lay their eggs on.
These eggs hatch in two to eight weeks, but such duration varies by species and also by temperature. Until the eggs have hatched, some species such as the small brown sawfly will remain with them and protects the eggs by buzzing loudly and beating her wings to deter predators. There are six larval stages that sawflies go through, lasting 2 – 4 months, but this also depends on the species. When fully grown, the larvae emerge from the trees en masse and burrow themselves into the soil to pupate. During their time outside, the larvae may link up to form a large colony if many other individuals are present. They gather in large groups during the day which gives them protection from potential enemies, and during the night they disperse to feed. The emergence of adults takes awhile, with some emerging anywhere between a couple months to 2 years. Some will reach the ground to form pupal chambers, but others may spin a cocoon attached to a leaf. Larvae that feed on wood will pupate in the tunnels they have constructed. In one species, the jumping-disc sawfly (Phyllotoma aceris) forms a cocoon which can act like a parachute. The larvae live in sycamore trees and do not damage the upper or lower cuticles of leaves that they feed on. When fully developed, they cut small perforations in the upper cuticle to form a circle. After this, they weave a silk hammocks within the circle; this silk hammock never touches the lower cuticle. Once inside, the upper-cuticle's disc separates and descends towards the surface with the larvae attaching themselves to the hammock. Once they reach the round, the larvae work their way into a sheltered area by jerking their discs along.
The majority of sawfly species produce a single generation per year, but others may only have one generation every two years. Most sawflies are also female, making males rare.
Life cycle of the sawfly Cladius difformis, the bristly rose slug
Larva
Pupa, dorsal view
Pupa, ventral view
Female
Male
Relationship with humans
The pine sawfly Diprion pini is a serious pest of forestry.
Caterpillar-like larvae of Iris sawfly on yellow flag, showing damage to host plant
Sawflies are major economic pests of forestry. Species in the Diprionidae, such as the pine sawflies, Diprion pini and Neodiprion sertifer, cause serious damage to pines in regions such as Scandinavia. D. pini larvae defoliated 500,000 hectares (1,200,000 acres) in the largest outbreak in Finland, between 1998 and 2001. Up to 75% of the trees may die after such outbreaks, as D. pini can remove all the leaves late in the growing season, leaving the trees too weak to survive the winter. Little damage to trees only occurs when the tree is large or when there is minimal presence of larvae. Eucalyptus trees can regenerate quickly from damage inflicted by the larvae; however, they can be substantially damaged from outbreaks, especially if they are young. The trees can be defoliated completely and may cause "dieback", stunting or even death.
Sawflies are serious pests in horticulture. Different species prefer different host plants, often being specific to a family or genus of hosts. For example, Iris sawfly larvae, emerging in summer, can quickly defoliate species of Iris including the yellow flag and other freshwater species. Similarly the rose sawflies, Arge pagana and A. ochropus, defoliate rose bushes.
The giant woodwasp or horntail, Urocerus gigas, has a long ovipositor, which with its black and yellow colouration make it a good mimic of a hornet. Despite the alarming appearance, the insect cannot sting. The eggs are laid in the wood of conifers such as Douglas fir, pine, spruce, and larch. The larvae eat tunnels in the wood, causing economic damage.
Alternative measures to control sawflies can be taken. Mechanical methods include removing larvae from trees and killing them by squishing or dropping them into boiling water or kerosene, although this is not practical in plantations. Predators can also be used to eliminate larvae, as well as parasites which have been previously used in control programs. Small trees can be sprayed with a number of chemicals, including maldison, dimethoate and carbaryl, if removing larvae from trees is not effective enough.
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Bibliography
Capinera, J.L. (2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology (2nd ed.). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1.
Goulet, H.; Huber, J.T. (1993). Hymenoptera of the World: An Identification guide to families (PDF). Ottawa, Ontario: Agriculture Canada. ISBN 978-0-660-14933-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016.
Ross, H.H. (1937). A Generic Classification of the Nearctic Sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.50339. hdl:2142/27324.
Further reading
Blank, S.M.; Schmidt, S.; Taeger, A. (2006). Recent Sawfly Research Synthesis and Prospects. Keltern, Germany: Goecke und Evers. ISBN 978-3-937783-19-2.
Schedl, Wolfgang. (2016). Hymenoptera, Unterordnung Symphyta: Pflanzenwespen. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-085790-0.
Smith, D.R. (1969). Nearctic Sawflies I. Blennocampinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1397). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.
Smith, D.R. (1969). Nearctic Sawflies II. Selandriinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1398). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.
Smith, D.R. (1971). Nearctic Sawflies III. Heterarthrinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (Technical Bulletin 1420) on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
Smith, D.R. (1979). Nearctic Sawflies IV. Allantinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1595). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.
Wagner, M.R.; Raffa, K.F. (1993). Sawfly Life History Adaptations to Woody Plants. San Diego, California: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-730030-6.
External links
Data related to Symphyta at Wikispecies
Media related to Symphyta at Wikimedia Commons
General
Symphyta: Encyclopædia Britannica
Sawflies: a close relative of wasps at CSIRO
Symphyta" - Sawflies, Horntails, and Wood Wasps at BugGuide
Taxonomy
Taxonomy of Hymenoptera – Chrysis.net
ECatSym - Electronic World Catalog of Symphyta (Insecta, Hymenoptera) – Digital Entomological Information
Checklist of British and Irish Hymenoptera - Sawflies, ‘Symphyta’ Biodiversity Data Journal 2: e1168
vteExtant Hymenopteran families
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Infraclass: Neoptera
Superorder: Holometabola
SymphytaTenthredinoidea
Argidae (argid sawflies)
Blasticotomidae (fern sawflies)
Cimbicidae (cimbicid sawflies)
Diprionidae (conifer sawflies)
Pergidae (pergid sawflies)
Tenthredinidae (common sawflies)
XyeloideaXyelidaePamphilioidea
Megalodontesidae
Pamphiliidae (web-spinning sawflies)
Siricoidea
Anaxyelidae (cedar wood wasps)
Siricidae (horntails)
Xiphydrioidea
Xiphydriidae (wood wasps)
Cephoidea
Cephidae (stem sawflies)
Orussoidea
Orussidae (parasitic wood wasps)
ApocritaParasiticaIchneumonoidea
Braconidae (braconids)
Ichneumonidae (ichneumon wasps)
Ceraphronoidea
Ceraphronidae
Megaspilidae
ProctotrupomorphaPlatygastroidea
Geoscelionidae
Janzenellidae
Neuroscelionidae
Nixoniidae
Platygastridae
Scelionidae
Sparasionidae
Cynipoidea
Austrocynipidae
Cynipidae (gall wasps)
Diplolepididae
Figitidae
Ibaliidae
Liopteridae
Proctotrupoidea (s.str.)
Proctorenyxidae
Roproniidae
Heloridae
Pelecinidae
Peradeniidae
Proctotrupidae
Vanhorniidae
Diaprioidea
Austroniidae
Diapriidae
Ismaridae
Maamingidae
Monomachidae
Mymarommatoidea
Mymarommatidae
Chalcidoidea(chalcid wasps)
Agaonidae (fig wasps)
Aphelinidae
Azotidae
Baeomorphidae
Boucekiidae
Calesidae
Ceidae
Cerocephalidae
Chalcedectidae
Chalcididae
Chrysolampidae
Cleonymidae
Coelocybidae
Cynipencyrtidae
Diparidae
Encyrtidae
Epichrysomallidae
Eucharitidae
Eulophidae
Eunotidae
Eupelmidae
Eurytomidae
Eutrichosomatidae
Herbertiidae
Hetreulophidae
Heydeniidae
Idioporidae
Leucospidae
Lyciscidae
Macromesidae
Megastigmidae
Melanosomellidae
Metapelmatidae
Moranilidae
Mymaridae (fairyflies)
Neanastatidae
Neodiparidae
Ooderidae
Ormyridae
Pelecinellidae
Perilampidae
Pirenidae
Pteromalidae
Signiphoridae
Spalangiidae
Systasidae
Tanaostigmatidae
Tetracampidae
Torymidae
Trichogrammatidae
Evanioidea
Aulacidae
Evaniidae (ensign wasps)
Gasteruptiidae
Stephanoidea
Stephanidae
Megalyroidea
Megalyridae
Trigonaloidea
Trigonalidae
AculeataChrysidoidea
Bethylidae
Chrysididae (cuckoo wasps)
Dryinidae
Embolemidae
Plumariidae
Sclerogibbidae
Scolebythidae
Vespoidea
Rhopalosomatidae (rhopalosomatid wasps)
Vespidae (paper wasps, potter wasps, pollen wasps, yellowjackets, hornets)
Tiphioidea
Bradynobaenidae
Tiphiidae (tiphiid wasps)
Thynnoidea
Chyphotidae
Thynnidae (flower wasps)
Sierolomorphidae (sierolomorphid wasps)
Pompiloidea
Mutillidae (velvet ants)
Myrmosidae
Pompilidae (spider wasps)
Sapygidae (sapygid, or club-horned wasps)
Scolioidea
Scoliidae (scoliid wasps)
Formicoidea
Formicidae (ants)
ApoideaSpheciformes(sphecoid wasps)
Ammoplanidae
Ampulicidae (cockroach wasps)
Astatidae
Bembicidae
Crabronidae
Mellinidae
Pemphredonidae
Philanthidae
Psenidae
Sphecidae (thread-waisted wasps)
Anthophila(bees)
Andrenidae (mason bees)
Apidae (honey bees, bumblebees, cuckoo bees, carpenter bees, orchid bees, stingless bees)
Colletidae (plasterer bees)
Halictidae (sweat bees)
Megachilidae (mason bees, leafcutter bees)
Melittidae
Stenotritidae
See also: Unicalcarida
Taxon identifiersSymphyta
Wikidata: Q615290
Wikispecies: Symphyta
ADW: Symphyta
BioLib: 16889
EoL: 48147
Fauna Europaea: 11278
Fauna Europaea (new): f5f33ffb-015a-49ef-9d3d-fcf24b84a31f
iNaturalist: 84643
ITIS: 152742
NBN: NBNSYS0100005650
NZOR: 6c243daf-afed-4e3b-a3d2-9d4392b7a3b6
Paleobiology Database: 70706
PPE: symphyta
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Symphyta (moth)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphyta_(moth)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sawfly_(Nematus_septentrionalis)_larvae.jpg"},{"link_name":"wasp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp"},{"link_name":"suborder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suborder"},{"link_name":"Hymenoptera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenoptera"},{"link_name":"ovipositor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovipositor"},{"link_name":"Tenthredinoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenthredinoidea"},{"link_name":"superfamily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_rank#Ranks_in_zoology"},{"link_name":"paraphyletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyly"},{"link_name":"basal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)"},{"link_name":"Apocrita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrita"},{"link_name":"abdomen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdomen"},{"link_name":"thorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorax_(insect_anatomy)"},{"link_name":"Batesian mimics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"stinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stinger"},{"link_name":"prolegs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proleg"},{"link_name":"crochets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crochet_(insect_anatomy)"},{"link_name":"plant-eating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"},{"link_name":"Orussoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orussoidea"},{"link_name":"parasitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitoid"},{"link_name":"anti-predator adaptations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"link_name":"Diptera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diptera"},{"link_name":"Parthenogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"complete metamorphosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis"},{"link_name":"pine sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diprion_pini"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry"},{"link_name":"iris sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_sawfly"},{"link_name":"horticulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulture"},{"link_name":"Triassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic"},{"link_name":"Xyeloidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyeloidea"}],"text":"Suborder of insectsThis article is about the hymenopteran suborder Symphyta. For the moth genus, see Symphyta (moth).Larvae of Nematus septentrionalisSawflies are wasp-like insects that are in the suborder Symphyta within the order Hymenoptera, alongside ants, bees, and wasps. The common name comes from the saw-like appearance of the ovipositor, which the females use to cut into the plants where they lay their eggs. The name is associated especially with the Tenthredinoidea, by far the largest superfamily in the suborder, with about 7,000 known species; in the entire suborder, there are 8,000 described species in more than 800 genera. Symphyta is paraphyletic, consisting of several basal groups within the order Hymenoptera, each one rooted inside the previous group, ending with the Apocrita which are not sawflies.The primary distinction between sawflies and the Apocrita – the ants, bees, and wasps – is that the adults lack a \"wasp waist\", and instead have a broad connection between the abdomen and the thorax. Some sawflies are Batesian mimics of wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger. Sawflies vary in length, most measuring 2.5 to 20 millimetres (3⁄32 to 25⁄32 inch); the largest known sawfly measured 55 mm (2+1⁄4 in). The larvae are caterpillar-like, but can be distinguished by the number of prolegs and the absence of crochets in sawfly larvae. The great majority of sawflies are plant-eating, though the members of the superfamily Orussoidea are parasitic.Predators include birds, insects and small animals. The larvae of some species have anti-predator adaptations such as regurgitating irritating liquid and clustering together for safety in numbers. Sawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are Hymenoptera, the rest being Diptera.Adult sawflies are short-lived, with a life expectancy of 7–9 days, though the larval stage can last from months to years, depending on the species. Parthenogenetic females, which do not need to mate to produce fertilised eggs, are common in the suborder, though many species have males. The adults feed on pollen, nectar, honeydew, sap, other insects, including hemolymph of the larvae hosts; they have mouth pieces adapted to these types of feeding.[3]Sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult. The female uses her ovipositor to drill into plant material (or, in the case of Orussoidea, other insects) and then lays eggs in groups called rafts or pods. After hatching, larvae feed on plants, often in groups. As they approach adulthood, the larvae seek a protected spot to pupate, typically in bark or the soil. Large populations of species such as the pine sawfly can cause substantial damage to economic forestry, while others such as the iris sawfly are major pests in horticulture. Outbreaks of sawfly larvae can defoliate trees and may cause dieback, stunting or death. Sawflies can be controlled through the use of insecticides, natural predators and parasitoids, or mechanical methods.Sawflies first appeared 250 million years ago in the Triassic. The oldest superfamily, the Xyeloidea, has existed into the presents. Over 200 million years ago, a lineage of sawflies evolved a parasitoid lifestyle, with carnivorous larvae that ate the eggs or larvae of other insects. Sawflies are distributed globally, though they are more diverse in the northernmost hemispheres.","title":"Sawfly"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dolerus_nitens.jpg"},{"link_name":"saw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saw"},{"link_name":"ovipositor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovipositor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"saw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saw"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AusMus-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gordh_Headrick_2011-7"}],"text":"Sawfly laying eggs in a plant, using the serrated saw-like ovipositor for which the group is namedThe suborder name \"Symphyta\" derives from the Greek word symphyton, meaning \"grown together\", referring to the group's distinctive lack of a wasp waist between prostomium and peristomium.[4] Its common name, \"sawfly\", derives from the saw-like ovipositor that is used for egg-laying, in which a female makes a slit in either a stem or plant leaf to deposit the eggs.[5] The first known use of this name was in 1773.[6] Sawflies are also known as \"wood-wasps\".[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Entomologie1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carl Gerstaecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Eduard_Adolph_Gerstaecker"},{"link_name":"Hymenoptera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenoptera"},{"link_name":"Carl Gerstaecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Eduard_Adolph_Gerstaecker"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"syn.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syn."},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gerstaecker_1867-1"},{"link_name":"zoological authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoological_authority"},{"link_name":"Apocrita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrita"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"suborders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suborders"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber19935-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-11"},{"link_name":"venation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_wing#Venation"},{"link_name":"phytophagous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"},{"link_name":"symplesiomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplesiomorphic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mao_et_al_2015-12"},{"link_name":"woodwasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodwasps"},{"link_name":"Orussidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orussidae"},{"link_name":"parasitoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitoids"},{"link_name":"wood-boring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-boring"},{"link_name":"beetles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleoptera"},{"link_name":"paraphyletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraphyletic"},{"link_name":"grade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_grade"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-11"},{"link_name":"monophyletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Song_et_al_2016-14"},{"link_name":"Cladistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladistic"},{"link_name":"molecular phylogenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"basal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)"},{"link_name":"taxa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon"},{"link_name":"wasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp"},{"link_name":"bees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee"},{"link_name":"ants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mao_et_al_2015-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Song_et_al_2016-14"},{"link_name":"sister group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_group"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sharkey_2007-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mao_et_al_2015-12"},{"link_name":"Middle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Triassic"},{"link_name":"Late","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Triassic"},{"link_name":"Xyelidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyelidae"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Middle Jurassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Jurassic"},{"link_name":"Cretaceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"},{"link_name":"Tertiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary"},{"link_name":"Xyelinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xyelinae&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Carl Gerstaecker established the suborder SymphytaIn his original description of Hymenoptera in 1863, German zoologist Carl Gerstaecker divided them into three groups, Hymenoptera aculeata, Hymenoptera apocrita and Hymenoptera phytophaga.[8] But four years later in 1867, he described just two groups, H. apocrita syn. genuina and H. symphyta syn. phytophaga.[1] Consequently, the name Symphyta is given to Gerstaecker as the zoological authority. In his description, Gerstaecker distinguished the two groups by the transfer of the first abdominal segment to the thorax in the Apocrita, compared to the Symphyta. Consequently, there are only eight dorsal half segments in the Apocrita, against nine in the Symphyta. The larvae are distinguished in a similar way.[9]The Symphyta have therefore traditionally been considered, alongside the Apocrita, to form one of two suborders of Hymenoptera.[10][11] Symphyta are the more primitive group, with comparatively complete venation, larvae that are largely phytophagous, and without a \"wasp-waist\", a symplesiomorphic feature. Together, the Symphyta make up less than 10% of hymenopteran species.[12] While the terms sawfly and Symphyta have been used synonymously, the Symphyta have also been divided into three groups, true sawflies (phyllophaga), woodwasps or xylophaga (Siricidae), and Orussidae. The three groupings have been distinguished by the true sawflies' ventral serrated or saw-like ovipositor for sawing holes in vegetation to deposit eggs, while the woodwasp ovipositor penetrates wood and the Orussidae behave as external parasitoids of wood-boring beetles. The woodwasps themselves are a paraphyletic ancestral grade. Despite these limitations, the terms have utility and are common in the literature.[11]While most hymenopteran superfamilies are monophyletic, as is Hymenoptera, the Symphyta has long been seen to be paraphyletic.[13][14] Cladistic methods and molecular phylogenetics are improving the understanding of relationships between the superfamilies, resulting in revisions at the level of superfamily and family.[15] The Symphyta are the most primitive (basal) taxa within the Hymenoptera (some going back 250 million years), and one of the taxa within the Symphyta gave rise to the monophyletic suborder Apocrita (wasps, bees, and ants).[12][14] In cladistic analyses the Orussoidea are consistently the sister group to the Apocrita.[11][12]The oldest unambiguous sawfly fossils date back to the Middle or Late Triassic. These fossils, from the family Xyelidae, are the oldest of all Hymenoptera.[16] One fossil, Archexyela ipswichensis from Queensland is between 205.6 and 221.5 million years of age, making it among the oldest of all sawfly fossils.[17] More Xyelid fossils have been discovered from the Middle Jurassic and the Cretaceous, but the family was less diverse then than during the Mesozoic and Tertiary. The subfamily Xyelinae were plentiful during these time periods, in which Tertiary faunas were dominated by the tribe Xyelini; these are indicative of a humid and warm climate.[18][19][20]The cladogram is based on Schulmeister 2003.[21][22]","title":"Phylogeny"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syntexis_libocedrii.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anaxyeloidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxyeloidea"},{"link_name":"Syntexis libocedrii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntexis_libocedrii"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20083250%E2%80%933252-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"phylogenies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenies"},{"link_name":"Alexandr Rasnitsyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandr_Rasnitsyn"},{"link_name":"clades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clades"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"superfamilies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfamily_(zoology)"},{"link_name":"Tenthredinidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenthredinidae"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aguiar_et_al_2013-2"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber1993104-29"},{"link_name":"dagger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagger_(typography)#Modern_usage"},{"link_name":"Anaxyeloidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxyeloidea"},{"link_name":"Anaxyelidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxyelidae"},{"link_name":"Cephoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephoidea"},{"link_name":"Cephidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephoidea"},{"link_name":"spp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"Karatavitoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatavitoidea"},{"link_name":"Karatavitidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatavitidae"},{"link_name":"Orussoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orussoidea"},{"link_name":"Orussidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orussidae"},{"link_name":"Pamphilioidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamphilioidea"},{"link_name":"syn.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syn."},{"link_name":"Megalodontesidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalodontesidae"},{"link_name":"Pamphiliidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamphiliidae"},{"link_name":"Siricoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siricoidea"},{"link_name":"Siricidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siricidae"},{"link_name":"Tenthredinoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenthredinoidea"},{"link_name":"Argidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argidae"},{"link_name":"Blasticotomidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasticotomidae"},{"link_name":"Cimbicidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbicidae"},{"link_name":"Diprionidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diprionidae"},{"link_name":"Pergidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergidae"},{"link_name":"Tenthredinidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenthredinidae"},{"link_name":"Xiphydrioidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphydrioidea"},{"link_name":"Xiphydriidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphydriidae"},{"link_name":"Xyeloidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyeloidea"},{"link_name":"Xyelidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyelidae"}],"sub_title":"Taxonomy","text":"Anaxyeloidea: Syntexis libocedriiThere are approximately 8,000 species of sawfly in more than 800 genera, although new species continue to be discovered.[23][24][25] However, earlier studies indicated that 10,000 species grouped into about 1,000 genera were known.[26] Early phylogenies such as that of Alexandr Rasnitsyn, based on morphology and behaviour, identified nine clades which did not reflect the historical superfamilies.[27] Such classifications were replaced by those using molecular methods, starting with Dowton and Austin (1994).[28] As of 2013, the Symphyta are treated as nine superfamilies (one extinct) and 25 families. Most sawflies belong to the Tenthredinoidea superfamily, with about 7,000 species worldwide. Tenthredinoidea has six families, of which Tenthredinidae is by far the largest with some 5,500 species.[2][29]Extinct taxa are indicated by a dagger (†).Superfamilies and families\nSuperfamily Anaxyeloidea Martynov, 1925\nFamily Anaxyelidae Martynov, 1925 (1 species) & †12 genera\nSuperfamily Cephoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1family)\nFamily Cephidae Newman, 1834 (21 genera, 160 spp. & †3 genera\nSuperfamily †Karatavitoidea Rasnitsyn, 1963 (1 family)\nFamily †Karatavitidae Rasnitsyn, 1963 (7 genera)\nSuperfamily Orussoidea Newman, 1834 (1 & †1 family)\nFamily Orussidae Newman, 1834 (16 genera, 82 spp.) & †3 genera\nSuperfamily Pamphilioidea Cameron, 1890 (2 & †1 families) (syn. Megalodontoidea)\nFamily Megalodontesidae Konow, 1897 (1 genera, 42 spp.) & †1 genus\nFamily Pamphiliidae Cameron, 1890 (10 genera, 291 spp.) & †3 genera\nSuperfamily Siricoidea Billberg, 1820 (2 & †5 families)\nFamily Siricidae Billberg, 1820 (11 genera, 111 spp.) & †9 genera\nSuperfamily Tenthredinoidea Latreille, 1803 (6 & †2 families)\nFamily Argidae Konow, 1890 (58 genera, 897 spp.) and †1 genus\nFamily Blasticotomidae Thomson, 1871 (2 genera, 12 spp.) & †1 genus\nFamily Cimbicidae W. Kirby, 1837 (16 genera, 182 spp.) & †6 genera\nFamily Diprionidae Rohwer, 1910 (11 genera, 136 spp.) & †2 genera\nFamily Pergidae Rohwer, 1911 (60 genera, 442 spp.)\nFamily Tenthredinidae Latreille, 1803 (400 genera, 5,500 spp.) & †14 genera\nSuperfamily Xiphydrioidea Leach, 1819\nFamily Xiphydriidae Leach, 1819 (28 genera, 146 spp.)\nSuperfamily Xyeloidea Newman, 1834\nFamily Xyelidae Newman, 1834 (5 genera, 63 spp.) & †47genera","title":"Phylogeny"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urocerus_gigas5.jpg"},{"link_name":"Urocerus gigas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urocerus_gigas"},{"link_name":"Batesian mimic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"ovipositing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oviposition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hornisse_am_Apfel_IMG_3004.JPG"},{"link_name":"European hornet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hornet"},{"link_name":"Apocritan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocrita"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber19935%E2%80%936-30"},{"link_name":"Batesian mimics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"coloration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_coloration"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber19936-32"},{"link_name":"Hoplitolyda duolunica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoplitolyda_duolunica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193711-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss19379-36"},{"link_name":"sutures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suture_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"sclerites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerite"},{"link_name":"clypeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clypeus_(arthropod_anatomy)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193710-37"},{"link_name":"antennae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193721-38"},{"link_name":"compound eyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod_eye"},{"link_name":"ocelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_eye_in_invertebrates"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193710-37"},{"link_name":"tentorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tentorium"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193713-39"},{"link_name":"mesothorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesothorax"},{"link_name":"metathorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metathorax"},{"link_name":"prothorax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prothorax"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193722%E2%80%9329-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193727-41"},{"link_name":"translucent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss193729-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abia_sericea_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aposematically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematic"},{"link_name":"caterpillar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar"},{"link_name":"larva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"Abia sericea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abia_sericea"},{"link_name":"lepidopteran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidoptera"},{"link_name":"prolegs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proleg"},{"link_name":"crochets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crochet_(insect_anatomy)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber19935-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGouletHuber19936-32"},{"link_name":"warning colouration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposematism"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"}],"text":"Giant horntail, Urocerus gigas, a Batesian mimic of a hornet, ovipositing.It does not sting.The European hornet is a wasp-waisted Apocritan with a sting, not a Symphytan.Many species of sawfly have retained their ancestral attributes throughout time, specifically their plant-eating habits, wing veins and the unmodified abdomen, where the first two segments appear like the succeeding segments.[30] The absence of the narrow wasp waist distinguishes sawflies from other members of hymenoptera, although some are Batesian mimics with coloration similar to wasps and bees, and the ovipositor can be mistaken for a stinger.[31] Most sawflies are stubby and soft-bodied, and fly weakly.[32] Sawflies vary in length: Urocerus gigas, which can be mistaken as a wasp due to its black-and-yellow striped body, can grow up to 20 mm (3⁄4 in) in length, but among the largest sawflies ever discovered was Hoplitolyda duolunica from the Mesozoic, with a body length of 55 mm (2+1⁄4 in) and a wingspan of 92 mm (3+1⁄2 in).[31][33] The smaller species only reach lengths of 2.5 mm (3⁄32 in).[34]Heads of sawflies vary in size, shape and sturdiness, as well as the positions of the eyes and antennae. They are characterised in four head types: open head, maxapontal head, closed head and genapontal head. The open head is simplistic, whereas all the other heads are derived.[35] The head is also hypognathous, meaning that the lower mouthparts are directed downwards. When in use, the mouthparts may be directed forwards, but this is only caused when the sawfly swings its entire head forward in a pendulum motion.[36] Unlike most primitive insects, the sutures (rigid joints between two or more hard elements on an organism) and sclerites (hardened body parts) are obsolescent or absent. The clypeus (a sclerite that makes up an insects \"face\") is not divided into a pre- and postclypeus, but rather separated from the front.[37] The antennal sclerites are fused with the surrounding head capsule, but these are sometimes separated by a suture. The number of segments in the antennae vary from six in the Accorduleceridae to 30 or more in the Pamphiliidae.[38] The compound eyes are large with a number of facets, and there are three ocelli between the dorsal portions of the compound eyes.[37] The tentorium comprises the whole inner skeleton of the head.[39]Three segments make up the thorax: the mesothorax, metathorax and prothorax, as well as the exoskeletal plates that connect with these segments.[40] The legs have spurs on their fourth segments, the tibiae.[41] Sawflies have two pairs of translucent wings. The fore and hind wings are locked together with hooks.[42] Parallel development in sawfly wings is most frequent in the anal veins. In all sawflies, 2A & 3A tend to fuse with the first anal vein. This occurs in several families including Argidae, Diprionidae and Cimbicidae.[43]Aposematically coloured caterpillar-like larva of Abia sericeaThe larvae of sawflies are easily mistaken for lepidopteran larvae (caterpillars). However, several morphological differences can distinguish the two: while both larvae share three pairs of thoracic legs and an apical pair of abdominal prolegs, lepidopteran caterpillars have four pairs of prolegs on abdominal segments 3–6 while sawfly larvae have five pairs of prolegs located on abdominal segments 2–6; crochets are present on lepidopteran larvae, whereas on sawfly larvae they are not; the prolegs of both larvae gradually disappear by the time they burrow into the ground, therefore making it difficult to distinguish the two; and sawfly larvae only have a single pair of minute eyes, whereas lepidopteran larvae have four to six eyes on each side of the head.[10][31] Sawfly larvae behave like lepidopteran larvae, walking about and eating foliage. Some groups have larvae that are eyeless and almost legless; these larvae make tunnels in plant tissues including wood.[32] Many species of sawfly larvae are strikingly coloured, exhibiting colour combinations such as black and white while others are black and yellow. This is a warning colouration because some larvae can secrete irritating fluids from glands located on their undersides.[31]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Argidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argidae"},{"link_name":"angiosperms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiosperm"},{"link_name":"Blasticotomidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasticotomidae"},{"link_name":"Megalodontidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalodontidae"},{"link_name":"Palearctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palearctic"},{"link_name":"Pamphilidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamphilidae"},{"link_name":"Diprionidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diprionidae"},{"link_name":"Cimbicidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbicidae"},{"link_name":"Cephidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephidae"},{"link_name":"Holarctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holarctic"},{"link_name":"Siricidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siricidae"},{"link_name":"Xiphydriidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiphydriidae"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20083250%E2%80%933252-23"}],"text":"Sawflies are widely distributed throughout the world.[44] The largest family, the Tenthredinidae, with some 5,000 species, are found on all continents except Antarctica, though they are most abundant and diverse in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere; they are absent from New Zealand and there are few of them in Australia. The next largest family, the Argidae, with some 800 species, is also worldwide, but is most common in the tropics, especially in Africa, where they feed on woody and herbaceous angiosperms. Of the other families, the Blasticotomidae and Megalodontidae are Palearctic; the Xyelidae, Pamphilidae, Diprionidae, Cimbicidae, and Cephidae are Holarctic, while the Siricidae are mainly Holarctic with some tropical species. The parasitic Orussidae are found worldwide, mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The wood-boring Xiphydriidae are worldwide, but most species live in the subtropical parts of Asia.[23]","title":"Distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hartigia_trimaculata_larvae_in_rose_stem_(rose_stem_sawfly).jpg"},{"link_name":"Rose stem sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rose_stem_sawfly&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"herbivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivores"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"folivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folivores"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AusMus-5"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Itycorsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Itycorsia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Monterey pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinus_radiata"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klein1994-48"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-46"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Forde_Caterpillars_2012.JPG"},{"link_name":"Anti-predator adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"link_name":"spitfire sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitfire_sawfly"},{"link_name":"currawong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currawong"},{"link_name":"stonechats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxicola"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"partridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partridge"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"corn buntings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_bunting"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Black grouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_grouse"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bstudy2001-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"chestnut-backed chickadees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut-backed_chickadee"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klein1994-48"},{"link_name":"masked shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masked_shrew"},{"link_name":"northern short-tailed shrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_short-tailed_shrew"},{"link_name":"deer mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peromyscus_maniculatus"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Vespula vulgaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespula_vulgaris"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Pardalotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardalote"},{"link_name":"honeyeaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeyeater"},{"link_name":"fantails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantail"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"anti-predator adaptations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptations"},{"link_name":"spitfire sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitfire_sawfly"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AusMus-5"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PIRSA-58"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"}],"text":"Rose stem sawfly (Hartigia trimaculata) larva in a rose stemSawflies are mostly herbivores, feeding on plants that have a high concentration of chemical defences. These insects are either resistant to the chemical substances, or they avoid areas of the plant that have high concentrations of chemicals.[45] The larvae primarily feed in groups; they are folivores, eating plants and fruits on native trees and shrubs, though some are parasitic.[5][46][47] However, this is not always the case; Monterey pine sawfly (Itycorsia) larvae are solitary web-spinners that feed on Monterey pine trees inside a silken web.[48] The adults feed on pollen and nectar.[46]Anti-predator adaptation: spitfire sawfly larvae grouped together for safety in numbersSawflies are eaten by a wide variety of predators. While many birds find the larvae distasteful, some such as the currawong (Strepera) and stonechats (Saxicola) eat both adults and larvae.[49][50] The larvae are an important food source for the chicks of several birds, including partridges.[51] Sawfly and moth larvae form one third of the diet of nestling corn buntings (Emberiza calandra), with sawfly larvae being eaten more frequently on cool days.[52] Black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) chicks show a strong preference for sawfly larvae.[53][54] Sawfly larvae formed 43% of the diet of chestnut-backed chickadees (Poecile rufescens).[48] Small carnivorous mammals such as the masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), the northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) predate heavily on sawfly cocoons.[55] Insects such as ants and certain species of predatory wasps (Vespula vulgaris) eat adult sawflies and the larvae, as do lizards and frogs.[56][57] Pardalotes, honeyeaters and fantails (Rhipidura) occasionally consume laid eggs, and several species of beetle larvae prey on the pupae.[50]The larvae have several anti-predator adaptations. While adults are unable to sting, the larvae of species such as the spitfire sawfly regurgitate a distasteful irritating liquid, which makes predators such as ants avoid the larvae.[5][58] In some species, the larvae cluster together, reducing their chances of being killed, and in some cases form together with their heads pointing outwards or tap their abdomens up and down.[50][59] Some adults bear black and yellow markings that mimic wasps.[31]","title":"Behaviour and ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sawfly_parasitic_wasp_(Dahlbominus_fuscipennis).jpg"},{"link_name":"Parasitoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitoid"},{"link_name":"eulophid wasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulophidae"},{"link_name":"Dahlbominus fuscipennis (sv)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahlbominus_fuscipennis"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827-60"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Braconidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braconidae"},{"link_name":"Eulophidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulophidae"},{"link_name":"Ichneumonidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichneumonidae"},{"link_name":"Bracon cephi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bracon_cephi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"B. lisogaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bracon_lisogaster&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"B. terabeila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bracon_terabeila&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Heteropilus cephi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heteropilus_cephi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"epidermis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827-60"},{"link_name":"Collyria coxator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collyria_coxator&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827-60"},{"link_name":"Pediobius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediobius"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081827%E2%80%931828-63"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"Diprion polytomum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diprion_polytomum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081828-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Parasites","text":"Parasitoidal eulophid wasps (Dahlbominus fuscipennis (sv)) emerging from a sawfly cocoonSawflies are hosts to many parasitoids, most of which are parasitic Hymenoptera; more than 40 species are known to attack them. However, information regarding these species is minimal, and fewer than 10 of these species actually cause a significant impact on sawfly populations.[60] Many of these species attack their hosts in the grass or in other parasitoids.[clarification needed] Well known and important parasitoids include Braconidae, Eulophidae and Ichneumonidae. Braconid wasps attack sawflies in many regions throughout the world, in which they are ectoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed outside of the hosts body; braconids have more of an impact on sawfly populations in the New World than they do in the Old World, possibly because there are no ichneumonid parasitoids in North America. Some braconid wasps that attack sawflies include Bracon cephi, B. lisogaster, B. terabeila and Heteropilus cephi.[60][61][62] Female braconids locate sawfly larvae through the vibrations they produce when feeding, followed by inserting the ovipostior and paralysing the larva before laying eggs inside the host. These eggs hatch inside the larva within a few days, where they feed on the host. The entire host's body may be consumed by the braconid larvae, except for the head capsule and epidermis. The larvae complete their development within two or three weeks.[60]Ten species of wasps in the family Ichneumonidae attack sawfly populations, although these species are usually rare. The most important parasitoids in this family are species in the genus Collyria. Unlike braconids, the larvae are endoparasitoids, meaning that the larvae live and feed inside the hosts body.[60] One well known ichneumonid is Collyria coxator, which is a dominant parasitoid of C. pygmaeus. Recorded parasitism rates in Europe are between 20 – 76%, and as many as eight eggs can be found in a single larva, but only one Collyria individual will emerge from its host. The larva may remain inside of their host until spring, where it emerges and pupates.[60]Several species in the family Eulophidae attack sawflies, although their impact is low. Two species in the genus Pediobius have been studied; the two species are internal larval parasitoids and have only been found in the northern hemisphere. Parasitism of sawflies by eulophids in grass exceeds 50%, but only 5% in wheat. It is unknown as to why the attack rate in wheat is low.[63] Furthermore, some fungal and bacterial diseases are known to infect eggs and pupa in warm wet weather.[50]Outbreaks of certain sawfly species, such as Diprion polytomum, have led scientists to investigate and possibly collect their natural enemies to control them. Parasites of D. polytomum have been extensively investigated, showing that 31 species of hymenopterous and dipterous parasites attack it. These parasites have been used in successful biological control against pest sawflies, including Cephus cinctus throughout the 1930s and 1950s and C. pygmaeus in the 1930s and 1940s.[64][65]","title":"Behaviour and ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lophyre_m%C3%A2le_sortant_de_son_cocon-page0001.jpg"},{"link_name":"complete metamorphosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"parthenogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenogenesis"},{"link_name":"arrhenotoky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenotoky"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Orussoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orussoidea"},{"link_name":"Siricidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horntail"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"jumping-disc sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phyllotoma_aceris&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"perforations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perforation"},{"link_name":"hammocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammock"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burton_Burton_2002-31"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"Cladius difformis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladius_difformis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cladius_difformis_larva.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cladius_difformis_pupa_dorsal.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cladius_difformis_pupa_ventral.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cladius_difformis_female.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cladius_difformis_male.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Life cycle and reproduction","text":"Adult male newly emerged from its cocoonLike all other hymenopteran insects, sawflies go through a complete metamorphosis with four distinct life stages – egg, larva, pupa and adult.[66] Many species are parthenogenetic, meaning that females do not need fertilization to create viable eggs. Unfertilized eggs develop as male, while fertilized eggs develop into females (arrhenotoky). The lifespan of an individual sawfly is two months to two years, though the adult life stage is often very short (approximately 7 – 9 days), only long enough for the females to lay their eggs.[31][50][67] The female uses its ovipositor to drill into plant material to lay her eggs (though the family Orussoidea lay their eggs in other insects). Plant-eating sawflies most commonly are associated with leafy material but some specialize on wood, and the ovipositors of these species (such as the family Siricidae) are specially adapted for the task of drilling through bark. Once the incision has been made, the female will lay as many as 30 to 90 eggs. Females avoid the shade when laying their eggs because the larvae develop much slower and may not even survive, and they may not also survive if they are laid on immature and glaucous leaves. Hence, female sawflies search for young adult leaves to lay their eggs on.[31][50]These eggs hatch in two to eight weeks, but such duration varies by species and also by temperature. Until the eggs have hatched, some species such as the small brown sawfly will remain with them and protects the eggs by buzzing loudly and beating her wings to deter predators. There are six larval stages that sawflies go through, lasting 2 – 4 months, but this also depends on the species. When fully grown, the larvae emerge from the trees en masse and burrow themselves into the soil to pupate. During their time outside, the larvae may link up to form a large colony if many other individuals are present. They gather in large groups during the day which gives them protection from potential enemies, and during the night they disperse to feed. The emergence of adults takes awhile, with some emerging anywhere between a couple months to 2 years. Some will reach the ground to form pupal chambers, but others may spin a cocoon attached to a leaf. Larvae that feed on wood will pupate in the tunnels they have constructed. In one species, the jumping-disc sawfly (Phyllotoma aceris) forms a cocoon which can act like a parachute. The larvae live in sycamore trees and do not damage the upper or lower cuticles of leaves that they feed on. When fully developed, they cut small perforations in the upper cuticle to form a circle. After this, they weave a silk hammocks within the circle; this silk hammock never touches the lower cuticle. Once inside, the upper-cuticle's disc separates and descends towards the surface with the larvae attaching themselves to the hammock. Once they reach the round, the larvae work their way into a sheltered area by jerking their discs along.[31][50]The majority of sawfly species produce a single generation per year, but others may only have one generation every two years. Most sawflies are also female, making males rare.[50]Life cycle of the sawfly Cladius difformis, the bristly rose slug\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLarva\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPupa, dorsal view\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPupa, ventral view\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFemale\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMale","title":"Behaviour and ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diprionpini.jpg"},{"link_name":"Diprion pini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diprion_pini"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow_Flag_Iris_Sawfly_(Rhadinoceraea_micans)_showing_damage_to_plant.JPG"},{"link_name":"Caterpillar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar"},{"link_name":"Iris sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_sawfly"},{"link_name":"yellow flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_pseudacorus"},{"link_name":"host","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_(biology)"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry"},{"link_name":"Diprion pini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diprion_pini"},{"link_name":"Neodiprion sertifer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodiprion_sertifer"},{"link_name":"pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"horticulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulture"},{"link_name":"Iris sawfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_sawfly"},{"link_name":"Iris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_(plant)"},{"link_name":"yellow flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_pseudacorus"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Arge pagana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arge_pagana"},{"link_name":"A. ochropus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arge_ochropus"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Urocerus gigas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urocerus_gigas"},{"link_name":"hornet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornet"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"conifers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer"},{"link_name":"Douglas fir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_fir"},{"link_name":"spruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spruce"},{"link_name":"larch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larch"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"kerosene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECapinera20081828-64"},{"link_name":"maldison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malathion"},{"link_name":"dimethoate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethoate"},{"link_name":"carbaryl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbaryl"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SA1992-50"}],"text":"The pine sawfly Diprion pini is a serious pest of forestry.Caterpillar-like larvae of Iris sawfly on yellow flag, showing damage to host plantSawflies are major economic pests of forestry. Species in the Diprionidae, such as the pine sawflies, Diprion pini and Neodiprion sertifer, cause serious damage to pines in regions such as Scandinavia. D. pini larvae defoliated 500,000 hectares (1,200,000 acres) in the largest outbreak in Finland, between 1998 and 2001. Up to 75% of the trees may die after such outbreaks, as D. pini can remove all the leaves late in the growing season, leaving the trees too weak to survive the winter.[68] Little damage to trees only occurs when the tree is large or when there is minimal presence of larvae. Eucalyptus trees can regenerate quickly from damage inflicted by the larvae; however, they can be substantially damaged from outbreaks, especially if they are young. The trees can be defoliated completely and may cause \"dieback\", stunting or even death.[50]Sawflies are serious pests in horticulture. Different species prefer different host plants, often being specific to a family or genus of hosts. For example, Iris sawfly larvae, emerging in summer, can quickly defoliate species of Iris including the yellow flag and other freshwater species.[69] Similarly the rose sawflies, Arge pagana and A. ochropus, defoliate rose bushes.[70]The giant woodwasp or horntail, Urocerus gigas, has a long ovipositor, which with its black and yellow colouration make it a good mimic of a hornet. Despite the alarming appearance, the insect cannot sting.[71] The eggs are laid in the wood of conifers such as Douglas fir, pine, spruce, and larch. The larvae eat tunnels in the wood, causing economic damage.[72]Alternative measures to control sawflies can be taken. Mechanical methods include removing larvae from trees and killing them by squishing or dropping them into boiling water or kerosene, although this is not practical in plantations. Predators can also be used to eliminate larvae, as well as parasites which have been previously used in control programs.[50][64] Small trees can be sprayed with a number of chemicals, including maldison, dimethoate and carbaryl, if removing larvae from trees is not effective enough.[50]","title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Recent Sawfly Research Synthesis and Prospects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xR84NAAACAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-937783-19-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-937783-19-2"},{"link_name":"Hymenoptera, Unterordnung Symphyta: Pflanzenwespen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Pf-XcKvIhdkC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-11-085790-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-085790-0"},{"link_name":"Nearctic Sawflies I. Blennocampinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=30kYuOzB6NgC"},{"link_name":"Nearctic Sawflies II. Selandriinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=NPWmdYy0ozgC"},{"link_name":"Nearctic Sawflies III. Heterarthrinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20201021111239/https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT87201390&cotent=PDF"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT87201390&cotent=PDF"},{"link_name":"Nearctic Sawflies IV. Allantinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/260438027"},{"link_name":"Sawfly Life History Adaptations to Woody Plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=U1QgAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-12-730030-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-730030-6"}],"text":"Blank, S.M.; Schmidt, S.; Taeger, A. (2006). Recent Sawfly Research Synthesis and Prospects. Keltern, Germany: Goecke und Evers. ISBN 978-3-937783-19-2.\nSchedl, Wolfgang. (2016). Hymenoptera, Unterordnung Symphyta: Pflanzenwespen. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-085790-0.\nSmith, D.R. (1969). Nearctic Sawflies I. Blennocampinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1397). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.\nSmith, D.R. (1969). Nearctic Sawflies II. Selandriinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1398). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.\nSmith, D.R. (1971). Nearctic Sawflies III. Heterarthrinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (Technical Bulletin 1420) on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2018.\nSmith, D.R. (1979). Nearctic Sawflies IV. Allantinae: Adults and Larvae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) (Technical Bulletin 1595). Washington, D.C.: US Department of Agriculture.\nWagner, M.R.; Raffa, K.F. (1993). Sawfly Life History Adaptations to Woody Plants. San Diego, California: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-730030-6.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Larvae of Nematus septentrionalis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Sawfly_%28Nematus_septentrionalis%29_larvae.jpg/220px-Sawfly_%28Nematus_septentrionalis%29_larvae.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sawfly laying eggs in a plant, using the serrated saw-like ovipositor for which the group is named","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Dolerus_nitens.jpg/220px-Dolerus_nitens.jpg"},{"image_text":"Carl Gerstaecker established the suborder Symphyta","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Entomologie1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anaxyeloidea: Syntexis libocedrii","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Syntexis_libocedrii.jpg/280px-Syntexis_libocedrii.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aposematically coloured caterpillar-like larva of Abia sericea","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Abia_sericea_2.jpg/220px-Abia_sericea_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rose stem sawfly (Hartigia trimaculata) larva in a rose stem","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Hartigia_trimaculata_larvae_in_rose_stem_%28rose_stem_sawfly%29.jpg/220px-Hartigia_trimaculata_larvae_in_rose_stem_%28rose_stem_sawfly%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Anti-predator adaptation: spitfire sawfly larvae grouped together for safety in numbers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Forde_Caterpillars_2012.JPG/170px-Forde_Caterpillars_2012.JPG"},{"image_text":"Parasitoidal eulophid wasps (Dahlbominus fuscipennis (sv)) emerging from a sawfly cocoon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Sawfly_parasitic_wasp_%28Dahlbominus_fuscipennis%29.jpg/220px-Sawfly_parasitic_wasp_%28Dahlbominus_fuscipennis%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Adult male newly emerged from its cocoon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Lophyre_m%C3%A2le_sortant_de_son_cocon-page0001.jpg/170px-Lophyre_m%C3%A2le_sortant_de_son_cocon-page0001.jpg"},{"image_text":"The pine sawfly Diprion pini is a serious pest of forestry.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Diprionpini.jpg/220px-Diprionpini.jpg"},{"image_text":"Caterpillar-like larvae of Iris sawfly on yellow flag, showing damage to host plant","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Yellow_Flag_Iris_Sawfly_%28Rhadinoceraea_micans%29_showing_damage_to_plant.JPG/170px-Yellow_Flag_Iris_Sawfly_%28Rhadinoceraea_micans%29_showing_damage_to_plant.JPG"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Gerstaecker, C.E.A. (1867). \"Ueber die Gattung Oxybelus Latr. und die bei Berlin vorkommenden Arten derselben\". Zeitschrift für die Gesammten Naturwissenschaften (in German). 30 (7): 1–144.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/102864#page/17/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Ueber die Gattung Oxybelus Latr. und die bei Berlin vorkommenden Arten derselben\""}]},{"reference":"Aguiar, A.P.; Deans, A.R.; Engel, M.S.; Forshage, M.; Huber, J.T.; Jennings, J.T.; Johnson, N.F.; Lelej, A.S.; Longino, J.T.; Lohrmann, V.; Mikó, I.; Ohl, M.; Rasmussen, C.; Taeger, A.; Yu, D.S.K. (2013). \"Order Hymenoptera In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.) Animal biodiversity: an outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness\". Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 51–62. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.12. PMID 26146682.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.3703.1.12","url_text":"\"Order Hymenoptera In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.) Animal biodiversity: an outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.3703.1.12","url_text":"10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26146682","url_text":"26146682"}]},{"reference":"Jervis, Mark; Vilhelmsen, Lars (2000). \"Mouthpart evolution in adults of the basal, 'symphytan', hymenopteran lineages\". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 70: 121–146. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb00204.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2000.tb00204.x","url_text":"\"Mouthpart evolution in adults of the basal, 'symphytan', hymenopteran lineages\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.2000.tb00204.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1095-8312.2000.tb00204.x"}]},{"reference":"\"Symphyta\". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Symphyta","url_text":"\"Symphyta\""}]},{"reference":"Australian Museum (20 October 2009). \"Animal Species: Sawflies\". Retrieved 11 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/sawflies/","url_text":"\"Animal Species: Sawflies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sawfly\". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 29 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sawfly","url_text":"\"Sawfly\""}]},{"reference":"Gordh, G.; Headrick, D.H. (2011). A Dictionary of Entomology (2nd ed.). Wallingford: CABI. p. 1344. ISBN 978-1-84593-542-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84593-542-9","url_text":"978-1-84593-542-9"}]},{"reference":"Carus, J.V.; Gerstaecker, C.E.A. (1863). Handbuch der zoologie: bd. Arthropoden, bearb. von A. Gerstaecker. Raderthiere, würmer, echinodermen, coelenteraten und protozoen, bearb. von J. Victor Carus. 1863 (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Engelmann. p. 189. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.1399. OCLC 2962429.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8m1MAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Handbuch der zoologie: bd. Arthropoden, bearb. von A. Gerstaecker. Raderthiere, würmer, echinodermen, coelenteraten und protozoen, bearb. von J. Victor Carus. 1863"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.1399","url_text":"10.5962/bhl.title.1399"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2962429","url_text":"2962429"}]},{"reference":"Dallas, W.S. (1867). Insecta In: Günther, A.C.L.G The Zoological Record: Insecta, Volumes 3-4. London, UK: John van Voorst. p. 307. OCLC 6344527.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=i8pDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA307","url_text":"Insecta In: Günther, A.C.L.G The Zoological Record: Insecta, Volumes 3-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6344527","url_text":"6344527"}]},{"reference":"Sharkey, M.J. (2007). \"Phylogeny and classification of Hymenoptera\" (PDF). Zootaxa. 1668: 521–548. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p548.pdf","url_text":"\"Phylogeny and classification of Hymenoptera\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.1668.1.25","url_text":"10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.25"}]},{"reference":"Mao, M.; Gibson, T.; Dowton, M. (2015). \"Higher-level phylogeny of the Hymenoptera inferred from mitochondrial genomes\". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 84: 34–43. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.12.009. PMID 25542648.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2014.12.009","url_text":"10.1016/j.ympev.2014.12.009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25542648","url_text":"25542648"}]},{"reference":"Sharkey, M.J.; Carpenter, J.M.; Vilhelmsen, L.; Heraty, J.; Liljeblad, J.; Dowling, A.P.G.; Schulmeister, S.; Murray, D.; Deans, A.R.; Ronquist, F.; Krogmann, L.; Wheeler, W.C. (2012). \"Phylogenetic relationships among superfamilies of Hymenoptera\". Cladistics. 28 (1): 80–112. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.721.8852. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00366.x. PMID 34861753. 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(2016). \"Comparative and phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial genomes in basal hymenopterans\". Scientific Reports. 6: 20972. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620972S. doi:10.1038/srep20972. PMC 4754708. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96_(number)
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96 (number)
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["1 In mathematics","2 In geography","3 In music","4 In science","5 In other fields","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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"Number 96" redirects here. For the Australian soap opera, see Number 96 (TV series). For the 1974 drama film, see Number 96 (film).
Natural number
← 95
96
97 →
← 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 → List of numbersIntegers← 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 →Cardinalninety-sixOrdinal96th(ninety-sixth)Factorization25 × 3Divisors1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 96Greek numeralϞϚ´Roman numeralXCVIBinary11000002Ternary101203Senary2406Octal1408Duodecimal8012Hexadecimal6016
96 (ninety-six) is the natural number following 95 and preceding 97. It is a number that appears the same when turned upside down.
In mathematics
96 as the difference of two squares (in orange).
96 is:
an octagonal number.
a refactorable number.
an untouchable number.
a semiperfect number since it is a multiple of 6.
an abundant number since the sum of its proper divisors is greater than 96.
the fourth Granville number and the second non-perfect Granville number. The next Granville number is 126, the previous being 24.
the sum of Euler's totient function φ(x) over the first seventeen integers.
strobogrammatic in bases 10 (9610), 11 (8811) and 95 (1195).
palindromic in bases 11 (8811), 15 (6615), 23 (4423), 31 (3331), 47 (2247) and 95 (1195).
an Erdős–Woods number, since it is possible to find sequences of 96 consecutive integers such that each inner member shares a factor with either the first or the last member.
divisible by the number of prime numbers (24) below 96.
the smallest natural number that can be expressed as the difference of two nonzero squares in more than three ways:
10
2
−
2
2
{\displaystyle 10^{2}-2^{2}}
,
11
2
−
5
2
{\displaystyle 11^{2}-5^{2}}
,
14
2
−
10
2
{\displaystyle 14^{2}-10^{2}}
or
25
2
−
23
2
{\displaystyle 25^{2}-23^{2}}
.
Skilling's figure, a degenerate uniform polyhedron, has a Euler characteristic
χ
=
−
96.
{\displaystyle \chi =-96.}
Every integer greater than 96 may be represented as a sum of distinct super-prime numbers.
In geography
Ninety Six, South Carolina
Ninety Six District, a historical judicial and military district of colonial America which extended through North and South Carolina
Ninety Six National Historic Site, in Ninety Six, South Carolina, derives its name from the original settlement's distance in miles from a Cherokee village in the Blue Ridge Mountains
In music
The song "96 Tears" by garage rock band Question Mark and the Mysterians
"96", a song by Uverworld, a Japanese band.
"96 Quite Bitter Beings", a song recorded by rock band CKY
"96 Degrees In The Shade", a song on an album with the same title (official song title "1865", recorded by Jamaican reggae band Third World.
In science
The atomic number of curium, an actinide.
Messier 96, a magnitude 10.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Leo
The New General Catalogue object NGC 96, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda
In other fields
An Australian TV soap opera, Number 96 (broadcast 1972–1977)
A 1974 film based on the TV series, Number 96
Class of '96 was a short-lived Fox drama series which aired in 1993
96 dpi, the standard resolution of the monitor of an IBM-compatible computer running Microsoft Windows
The number of surat Al-Alaq in the Qur'an
According to Gurdjieff's Fourth Way symbolism, the number of the Moon level
The 96th United States Congress met January 1979 to January 1981 during the last two years of President Jimmy Carter's administration
The 96th Infantry Division (United States) was a unit of the United States Army in World War II
German submarine U-96, a German U-boat during World War II and subject of the film Das Boot
The Saab 96 car produced from 1960 to 1966
STS-96, Space Shuttle Discovery mission launched May 27, 1999
Mars 96 was a Russian orbiter launched in 1996
The designation of American Interstate 96, a freeway in Michigan
U.S. Route 96 is a north–south route in Texas
Four New York City Subway stops along 96th Street in Manhattan:
96th Street (IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line), serving the 1, 2, and 3 trains
96th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line), serving the A, B, and C trains
96th Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line), serving the 4, 6, and <6> trains
96th Street (IND Second Avenue Line); under construction
96th Street (Manhattan)
A warrior caste divided into 96 clans, Maratha
An Indian movie, '96 (film)
See also
List of highways numbered 96
References
^ "Sloane's A000567 : Octagonal numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
^ "Sloane's A033950 : Refactorable numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
^ "Sloane's A005114 : Untouchable numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
^ "Sloane's A059756 : Erdős-Woods numbers". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
^ Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A334078". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
External links
On the number 96
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 96 (number).
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664
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694
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700s
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719
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764
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766
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800s
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819
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≥1000
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Number 96 (TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_96_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Number 96 (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_96_(film)"},{"link_name":"natural number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number"},{"link_name":"95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/95_(number)"},{"link_name":"97","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/97_(number)"},{"link_name":"appears the same when turned upside down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strobogrammatic_number"}],"text":"\"Number 96\" redirects here. For the Australian soap opera, see Number 96 (TV series). For the 1974 drama film, see Number 96 (film).Natural number96 (ninety-six) is the natural number following 95 and preceding 97. It is a number that appears the same when turned upside down.","title":"96 (number)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:96-square-difference.png"},{"link_name":"octagonal number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octagonal_number"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"refactorable number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refactorable_number"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"untouchable number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untouchable_number"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"semiperfect number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiperfect_number"},{"link_name":"abundant number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundant_number"},{"link_name":"Granville number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville_number"},{"link_name":"Granville number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville_number"},{"link_name":"126","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/126_(number)"},{"link_name":"24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_(number)"},{"link_name":"Euler's totient function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_totient_function"},{"link_name":"strobogrammatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strobogrammatic_number"},{"link_name":"palindromic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palindromic_number"},{"link_name":"Erdős–Woods number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C5%91s%E2%80%93Woods_number"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"prime numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_numbers"},{"link_name":"squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_number"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Skilling's figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilling%27s_figure"},{"link_name":"uniform polyhedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_polyhedron"},{"link_name":"Euler characteristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_characteristic"},{"link_name":"super-prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-prime"}],"text":"96 as the difference of two squares (in orange).96 is:an octagonal number.[1]\na refactorable number.[2]\nan untouchable number.[3]\na semiperfect number since it is a multiple of 6.\nan abundant number since the sum of its proper divisors is greater than 96.\nthe fourth Granville number and the second non-perfect Granville number. The next Granville number is 126, the previous being 24.\nthe sum of Euler's totient function φ(x) over the first seventeen integers.\nstrobogrammatic in bases 10 (9610), 11 (8811) and 95 (1195).\npalindromic in bases 11 (8811), 15 (6615), 23 (4423), 31 (3331), 47 (2247) and 95 (1195).\nan Erdős–Woods number, since it is possible to find sequences of 96 consecutive integers such that each inner member shares a factor with either the first or the last member.[4]\ndivisible by the number of prime numbers (24) below 96.\nthe smallest natural number that can be expressed as the difference of two nonzero squares in more than three ways: \n \n \n \n \n 10\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 2\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 10^{2}-2^{2}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n 11\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 5\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 11^{2}-5^{2}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n 14\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 10\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 14^{2}-10^{2}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n 25\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n 23\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 25^{2}-23^{2}}\n \n.[5]Skilling's figure, a degenerate uniform polyhedron, has a Euler characteristic \n \n \n \n χ\n =\n −\n 96.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\chi =-96.}Every integer greater than 96 may be represented as a sum of distinct super-prime numbers.","title":"In mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ninety Six, South Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninety_Six,_South_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Ninety Six District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ninety_Six_District&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ninety Six National Historic Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninety_Six_National_Historic_Site"}],"text":"Ninety Six, South Carolina\nNinety Six District, a historical judicial and military district of colonial America which extended through North and South Carolina\nNinety Six National Historic Site, in Ninety Six, South Carolina, derives its name from the original settlement's distance in miles from a Cherokee village in the Blue Ridge Mountains","title":"In geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"96 Tears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96_Tears"},{"link_name":"Uverworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uverworld"},{"link_name":"96 Quite Bitter Beings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96_Quite_Bitter_Beings"},{"link_name":"96 Degrees In The Shade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96%C2%B0_in_the_Shade"},{"link_name":"Third World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_World_(band)"}],"text":"The song \"96 Tears\" by garage rock band Question Mark and the Mysterians\n\"96\", a song by Uverworld, a Japanese band.\n\"96 Quite Bitter Beings\", a song recorded by rock band CKY\n\"96 Degrees In The Shade\", a song on an album with the same title (official song title \"1865\", recorded by Jamaican reggae band Third World.","title":"In music"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"curium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curium"},{"link_name":"Messier 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_96"},{"link_name":"New General Catalogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_General_Catalogue"},{"link_name":"NGC 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC_96"}],"text":"The atomic number of curium, an actinide.\nMessier 96, a magnitude 10.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Leo\nThe New General Catalogue object NGC 96, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda","title":"In science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Number 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_96_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Number 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_96_(film)"},{"link_name":"Class of '96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_of_%2796"},{"link_name":"dpi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dots_per_inch"},{"link_name":"Al-Alaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Alaq"},{"link_name":"Gurdjieff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gurdjieff"},{"link_name":"96th United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"96th Infantry Division (United States)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"German submarine U-96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-96_(1940)"},{"link_name":"Saab 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_96"},{"link_name":"STS-96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-96"},{"link_name":"Mars 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_96"},{"link_name":"Interstate 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_96"},{"link_name":"U.S. Route 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_96"},{"link_name":"New York City Subway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Subway"},{"link_name":"96th Street (IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Street_(IRT_Broadway_%E2%80%93_Seventh_Avenue_Line)"},{"link_name":"96th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Street_(IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line)"},{"link_name":"96th Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Street_(IRT_Lexington_Avenue_Line)"},{"link_name":"96th Street (IND Second Avenue Line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Street_(IND_Second_Avenue_Line)"},{"link_name":"96th Street (Manhattan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th_Street_(Manhattan)"},{"link_name":"Maratha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maratha"},{"link_name":"'96 (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2796_(film)"}],"text":"An Australian TV soap opera, Number 96 (broadcast 1972–1977)\nA 1974 film based on the TV series, Number 96\nClass of '96 was a short-lived Fox drama series which aired in 1993\n96 dpi, the standard resolution of the monitor of an IBM-compatible computer running Microsoft Windows\nThe number of surat Al-Alaq in the Qur'an\nAccording to Gurdjieff's Fourth Way symbolism, the number of the Moon level\nThe 96th United States Congress met January 1979 to January 1981 during the last two years of President Jimmy Carter's administration\nThe 96th Infantry Division (United States) was a unit of the United States Army in World War II\nGerman submarine U-96, a German U-boat during World War II and subject of the film Das Boot\nThe Saab 96 car produced from 1960 to 1966\nSTS-96, Space Shuttle Discovery mission launched May 27, 1999\nMars 96 was a Russian orbiter launched in 1996\nThe designation of American Interstate 96, a freeway in Michigan\nU.S. Route 96 is a north–south route in Texas\nFour New York City Subway stops along 96th Street in Manhattan:\n96th Street (IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line), serving the 1, 2, and 3 trains\n96th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line), serving the A, B, and C trains\n96th Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line), serving the 4, 6, and <6> trains\n96th Street (IND Second Avenue Line); under construction\n96th Street (Manhattan)\nA warrior caste divided into 96 clans, Maratha\nAn Indian movie, '96 (film)","title":"In other fields"}]
|
[{"image_text":"96 as the difference of two squares (in orange).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/96-square-difference.png/200px-96-square-difference.png"}]
|
[{"title":"List of highways numbered 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highways_numbered_96"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Sloane's A000567 : Octagonal numbers\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://oeis.org/A000567","url_text":"\"Sloane's A000567 : Octagonal numbers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sloane's A033950 : Refactorable numbers\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://oeis.org/A033950","url_text":"\"Sloane's A033950 : Refactorable numbers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sloane's A005114 : Untouchable numbers\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://oeis.org/A005114","url_text":"\"Sloane's A005114 : Untouchable numbers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sloane's A059756 : Erdős-Woods numbers\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://oeis.org/A059756","url_text":"\"Sloane's A059756 : Erdős-Woods numbers\""}]},{"reference":"Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). \"Sequence A334078\". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Sloane","url_text":"Sloane, N. J. A."},{"url":"https://oeis.org/A334078","url_text":"\"Sequence A334078\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences","url_text":"On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A000567","external_links_name":"\"Sloane's A000567 : Octagonal numbers\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A033950","external_links_name":"\"Sloane's A033950 : Refactorable numbers\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A005114","external_links_name":"\"Sloane's A005114 : Untouchable numbers\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A059756","external_links_name":"\"Sloane's A059756 : Erdős-Woods numbers\""},{"Link":"https://oeis.org/A334078","external_links_name":"\"Sequence A334078\""},{"Link":"http://www.wisdomportal.com/Numbers/96.html","external_links_name":"On the number 96"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_university_presses
|
List of university presses
|
["1 Argentina","2 Armenia","3 Australia","4 Austria","5 Bangladesh","6 Belgium","7 Brazil","8 Bulgaria","9 Canada","10 Chile","11 China","12 Colombia","13 Czech Republic","14 Denmark","15 Egypt","16 Estonia","17 Ethiopia","18 Finland","19 France","20 Germany","21 Greece","22 Hong Kong","23 Hungary","24 India","25 Indonesia","26 Iran","27 Ireland","28 Israel","29 Italy","30 Jamaica","31 Japan","32 Jordan","33 Kazakhstan","34 Kenya","35 Latvia","36 Lebanon","37 Lithuania","38 Malaysia","39 Mexico","40 Namibia","41 Netherlands","42 New Zealand","43 Nigeria","44 Norway","45 Panama","46 Peru","47 Philippines","48 Poland","49 Portugal","50 Qatar","51 Romania","52 Russia","53 Saudi Arabia","54 Senegal","55 Singapore","56 South Africa","57 South Korea","58 Spain","59 Sweden","60 Taiwan","61 Thailand","62 Tunisia","63 Turkey","64 Ukraine","65 United Arab Emirates","66 United Kingdom","67 United States","68 Uzbekistan","69 Vietnam","70 Yemen","71 Zambia","72 See also","73 Notes","74 References"]
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A university press is an academic publishing house affiliated with an institution of higher learning that specializes in the publication of monographs and scholarly journals. This article outlines notable presses of this type, arranged by country; where appropriate, the page also specifies the academic institution that each press is affiliated with and whether a press belongs to the Association of University Presses (AUP), the Association of European University Presses (AEUP), Association of Canadian University Presses (ACUP), or the Association Française des Presses d’Universités Diffusion (AFPU-D).
Argentina
University presses in Argentina
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Editorial de la UNC
National University of Córdoba
Active
Editorial de la Universidad Nacional de Quilmes
National University of Quilmes
Active
EDUNER
National University of Entre Ríos
Active
EDULP
National University of La Plata
Active
Eudeba
University of Buenos Aires
Active
Armenia
University presses in Armenia
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Yerevan State University Publishing House
Yerevan State University
Active
Yes
Australia
University presses in Australia
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
ANU Press
Australian National University
Active
No
La Trobe University Press
La Trobe University
Imprint of Black Inc.
Melbourne University Publishing
Melbourne University
Active
Yes
Monash University Publishing
Monash University
Active
Yes
Sydney University Press
Sydney University
Active
No
University of Adelaide Press
University of Adelaide
Defunct
University of New South Wales Press
University of New South Wales
Active
Yes
University of Queensland Press
University of Queensland
Active
No
University of Technology Sydney ePress
University of Technology Sydney
Active
No
UWA Publishing
University of Western Australia
Active
No
Austria
University presses in Austria
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Austrian Academy of Sciences Press
Austrian Academy of Sciences
Active
Yes
Innsbruck University Press
University of Innsbruck
Active
Yes
mdwPress
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna
Imprint of Transcript Verlag
Vienna University Press
University of Vienna
Imprint of Brill Publishers
Bangladesh
University presses in Bangladesh
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Daffodil International University Press
Daffodil International University
Active
ULAB Press
University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh
Active
Belgium
University presses in Belgium
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Éditions de l'Académie royale de Belgique
Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium
Active
Yes
Editions de l'Université libre de Bruxelles
Université libre de Bruxelles
Active
Yes
Leuven University Press
KU Leuven
Active
Yes
Presses de l'Université de Liège
University of Liège
Active
No
Presses de l'Université Saint-Louis
Saint-Louis University, Brussels
Active
No
Presses universitaires de Louvain
Université catholique de Louvain
Active
No
Brazil
University presses in Brazil
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Editora Argos
Universidade Comunitária da Região de Chapecó
Active
Editora da UFCSPA
Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre
Active
Editora da Unicamp
State University of Campinas
Active
Editora Fiocruz
Oswaldo Cruz Foundation
Active
Editora PUC Minas
Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais
Active
Editora UEMG
Minas Gerais State University
Active
Editora UEPG
State University of Ponta Grossa
Active
Editora UFG
Federal University of Goiás
Active
Editora UFMG
Federal University of Minas Gerais
Active
Editora Unesp
São Paulo State University
Active
Editora Unifesp
Federal University of São Paulo
Active
Editora Unisinos
Unisinos
Active
Editora Universidade de Brasília
University of Brasília
Active
Editora Universitaria Leopoldianum
Catholic University of Santos
Active
Editus – Editora de UESC
State University of Campinas
Active
EDUFBA
Federal University of Bahia
Active
EdUFGD
Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados
Active
EDUFU
Federal University of Uberlândia
Active
Edusp
University of São Paulo
Active
Embrapa
Ministry of Agriculture
Active
FGV Editora
Fundação Getulio Vargas
Active
Imprensa Oficial do Estado de São Paulo
State of São Paulo
Active
PUCPRESS
Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná
Active
Bulgaria
University presses in Bulgaria
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Konstantin Preslavsky Publishing House
Shumen University
Active
Publishing House of the South-West University "Neofit Rilski"
South-West University "Neofit Rilski"
Active
St. Cyril and St. Methodius University of Veliko Tarnovo Press
Veliko Tarnovo University
Active
St. Kliment Ohridski University Press
Sofia University
Active
Canada
University presses in Canada
Press
Associatedinstitution
Status
ACUPmember
AUPmember
Ref.
Athabasca University Press
Athabasca University
Active
Yes
Yes
Canadian Mennonite University Press
Canadian Mennonite University
Active
No
No
Cape Breton University Press
Cape Breton University
Defunct
Concordia University Press
Concordia University
Active
Yes
Affiliate
Island Studies Press
University of Prince Edward Island
Active
No
No
McGill-Queen's University Press
McGill University and Queen's University
Active
Yes
Yes
Memorial University Press
Memorial University of Newfoundland
Active
Yes
No
Nunavut Arctic College Media
Nunavut Arctic College
Active
Yes
No
Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
Active
Yes
No
Presses de l'Université de Montréal
Université de Montréal
Active
Yes
No
Presses de l'Université du Québec
Université du Québec
Active
Yes
No
Presses de l'Université Laval
Université Laval
Active
Yes
Former
University of Alberta Press
University of Alberta
Active
Yes
Yes
University of British Columbia Press
University of British Columbia
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Calgary Press
University of Calgary
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Manitoba Press
University of Manitoba
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Ottawa Press
University of Ottawa
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Regina Press
University of Regina
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Toronto Press
University of Toronto
Active
Yes
Yes
Wilfrid Laurier University Press
Wilfrid Laurier University
Active
Yes
Yes
Chile
University presses in Chile
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Ediciones UC
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile
Active
Ediciones UCM
Catholic University of the Maule
Active
Ediciones UFRO University Press
University of La Frontera
Active
Ediciones Universidad Alberto Hurtado
Alberto Hurtado University
Active
Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso
Pontifical Catholic University of Valparaíso
Active
Editorial Universidad de la Serena
University of La Serena
Active
Editorial Universidad de Talca
University of Talca
Active
Editorial USACH
University of Santiago, Chile
Active
China
University presses in China
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Beijing Language and Culture University Press
Beijing Language and Culture University
Active
China Renmin University Press
Renmin University of China
Active
Dalian University of Technology Press
Dalian University of Technology
Active
East China Normal University Press
East China Normal University
Active
Fudan University Press
Fudan University
Active
Nanjing University Press
Nanjing University
Active
Peking University Press
Peking University
Active
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press
Shanghai International Studies University
Active
Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Active
Tianjin University Press
Tianjin University
Active
Tsinghua University Press
Tsinghua University
Active
Zhejiang University Press
Zhejiang University
Active
Colombia
University presses in Colombia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Ediciones Uniandes
University of Los Andes
Active
Editorial Los Libertadores
The Liberators University
Active
Editorial Universidad Icesi
Universidad Icesi
Active
University of Valle Publishing Program
University of Valle
Active
Czech Republic
University presses in the Czech Republic
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Karolinum Press
Charles University
Active
No
Masaryk University Press
Masaryk University
Active
Yes
Palacký University Press
Palacký University, Olomouc
Active
No
Denmark
University presses in Denmark
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
AUPmember
Ref.
Aalborg University Press
Aalborg University
Active
No
No
Aarhus University Press
Aarhus University
Active
No
Yes
Museum Tusculanum Press
University of Copenhagen
Active
Former
No
NIAS Press
University of Copenhagen
Active
No
No
University Press of Southern Denmark
University of Southern Denmark
Active
No
No
Egypt
University presses in Egypt
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
American University in Cairo Press
American University in Cairo
Active
Yes
Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale
Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale
Active
No
Estonia
University presses in Estonia
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Estonian Academy Publishers
Estonian Academy of Sciences
Active
Yes
Tallinn University Press
Tallinn University
Active
Yes
University of Tartu Press
University of Tartu
Active
Yes
Ethiopia
University presses in Ethiopia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Addis Ababa University Press
Addis Ababa University
Active
Wollega University Press
Wollega University
Active
Finland
University presses in Finland
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Helsinki University Press
University of Helsinki
Active
Yes
Tampere University Press
Tampere University
Active
Yes
France
University presses in France
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
AFPU-Dmember
Ref.
Artois Presses Université
Artois University
Active
No
Yes
Ausonius Éditions
Bordeaux Montaigne University
Active
No
Yes
CIHAM-Éditions
CIHAM Center
Active
No
Yes
Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme
Maison des Sciences de L'Homme
Active
Yes
No
Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales
School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences
Active
Yes
No
Éditions de l'École Normale Supérieure de Lyon
École normale supérieure de Lyon
Active
Yes
No
Éditions du Comité des Travaux historiques et scientifiques
Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques
Active
No
Yes
Éditions Quae
CIRAD, IFREMER, and INRAE
Active
Yes
No
Éditions universitaires de Dijon
University of Dijon
Active
No
Yes
Presses de l'Inalco
Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales
Active
No
Yes
Presses Sorbonne Nouvelle
Sorbonne Nouvelle University Paris 3
Active
No
Yes
Presses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille
Aix-Marseille University
Active
No
No
Presses universitaires de Bordeaux
University of Bordeaux
Active
No
Yes
Presses Universitaires de Franche-Comté
University of Franche-Comté
Active
Yes
No
Presses universitaires de Perpignan
University of Perpignan Via Domitia
Active
No
Yes
Presses Universitaires de Provence
Aix-Marseille University
Active
No
Yes
Presses Universitaires de Rennes
Rennes 2 University
Active
No
No
Presses universitaires de Saint-Étienne
Jean Monnet University
Active
No
Yes
Presses universitaires de Strasbourg
University of Strasbourg
Active
No
Yes
Presses universitaires de Vincennes
Vincennes University
Active
No
Yes
Presses universitaires des Antilles
University of the French Antilles
Active
No
Yes
Presses universitaires du Midi
University of Toulouse-Jean Jaurès
Active
No
Yes
Sorbonne Université Presses
Sorbonne University
Active
No
Yes
Université Grenoble Alpes Éditions
Grenoble Alpes University
Active
Yes
No
Germany
University presses in Germany
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Bielefeld University Press
Bielefeld University
Imprint of Transcript Verlag
Bonn University Press
University of Bonn
Imprint of Brill Publishers
Düsseldorf University Press
Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf
Active
No
Friedrich-Alexander University Press
University of Erlangen–Nuremberg
Active
No
Hamburg University Press
University of Hamburg
Active
Yes
Heidelberg University Publishing
Heidelberg University
Active
Yes
Kassel University Press
University of Kassel
Active
Yes
KIT Scientific Publishing
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Active
No
Mainz University Press
University of Mainz
Imprint of Brill Publishers
TUM.University Press
Technical University of Munich
Active
Yes
Universitätsverlag der Technische Universität Berlin
Technical University of Berlin
Active
Yes
Universitätsverlag Göttingen
University of Göttingen
Active
Yes
Universitätsverlag Osnabrück
Osnabrück University
Imprint of Brill Publishers
Universitätsverlag Winter
Heidelberg University
Active
No
West German University Press
Ruhr University Bochum
Active
No
Greece
University presses in Greece
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
ASCSA Publications
American School of Classical Studies at Athens
Active
Yes
Crete University Press
Pancretan Association of America, FORTH
Active
No
University of Macedonia Press
University of Macedonia
Active
No
Hong Kong
University presses in Hong Kong
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
Chinese University of Hong Kong Press
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Active
Yes
City University of Hong Kong Press
City University of Hong Kong
Active
No
Hong Kong University Press
Hong Kong University
Active
No
Open University of Hong Kong Press
Open University of Hong Kong
Active
No
Hungary
University presses in Hungary
Press
Associatedinstitution
Status
AEUPmember
AUPmember
Ref.
Central European University Press
Central European University
Active
Yes
Yes
India
University presses in India
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Banaras Hindu University Press
Banaras Hindu University
Active
Calcutta University Press
Calcutta University
Active
Delhi University Press
Delhi University
Active
Guwahati University Press
Guwahati University
Active
Jadavpur University Press
Jadavpur University
Active
Manipal University Press
Manipal University
Active
Indonesia
University presses in Indonesia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Airlangga University Press
Airlangga University
Active
Gadjah Mada University Press
Gadjah Mada University
Active
Muhammadiyah University Press
Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta
Active
Universitas Darussalam Gontor Press
Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor
Active
Iran
University presses in Iran
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
University of Tehran Press
University of Tehran
Active
Ireland
University presses in Ireland
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Cork University Press
Cork University
Active
University College Dublin Press
University College Dublin
Active
Israel
University presses in Israel
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Bar-Ilan University Press
Bar-Ilan University
Active
Hebrew University Magnes Press
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Active
Italy
University presses in Italy
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Bocconi University Press
Bocconi University
Imprint of Egea
Bologna University Press
University of Bologna
Active
No
Bozen-Bolzano University Press
Free University of Bozen-Bolzano
Active
Yes
Firenze University Press
University of Florence
Active
Yes
Pisa University Press
University of Pisa
Active
No
Publications de l'École française de Rome
École française de Rome
Active
No
RomaTrE Press
Roma Tre University
Active
Yes
Vita e pensiero
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
Active
No
Jamaica
University presses in Jamaica
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
University of the West Indies Press
University of the West Indies
Active
Yes
Japan
University presses in Japan
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
United Nations University Press
United Nations University
Defunct
University of Tokyo Press
University of Tokyo
Active
Yes
Jordan
University presses in Jordan
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
University of Jordan Press
University of Jordan
Active
Yarmouk University Department of Publication
Yarmouk University
Active
Kazakhstan
University presses in Kazakhstan
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Кazakh University Publishing House
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
Active
Kereku Publishing Center
S. Toraighyrov Pavlodar State University
Active
Toraighyrov University Publishing Center
S. Toraighyrov Pavlodar State University
Active
Kenya
University presses in Kenya
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
CUEA Press
Catholic University of Eastern Africa
Active
Moi University Press
Moi University
Active
University of Nairobi Press
University of Nairobi
Active
Latvia
University presses in Latvia
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Riga Technical University Press
Riga Technical University
Active
Yes
Lebanon
University presses in Lebanon
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
American University of Beirut Press
American University of Beirut
Active
Lithuania
University presses in Lithuania
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Vilnius University Press
Vilnius University
Active
Yes
Malaysia
University presses in Malaysia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
IIUM Press
International Islamic University Malaysia
Active
Penerbit UKM
National University of Malaysia
Active
Penerbit USM
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Active
Penerbit UTM Press
University of Technology Malaysia
Active
Sunway University Press
Sunway University
Active
UNIMAS Publisher
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Active
University of Malaya Press
University of Malaya
Active
UPM Press
University of Putra Malaysia
Active
UPSI Press
Sultan Idris Education University
Active
USIM Publisher
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
Active
UTeM Press
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Active
UTiM Press
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Active
UUM Press
Universiti Utara Malaysia
Active
Mexico
University presses in Mexico
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Libros UNAM
National Autonomous University of Mexico
Active
Editorial de la Universidad Veracruzana
Universidad Veracruzana
Active
Editorial Universidad de Guadalajara
University of Guadalajara
Active
Namibia
University presses in Namibia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
University of Namibia Press
University of Namibia
Active
Netherlands
University presses in the Netherlands
Press
Associatedinstitution
Status
AEUPmember
AUPmember
Ref.
Amsterdam University Press
Amsterdam University
Active
Yes
Affiliate
Leiden University Press
Leiden University
Active
Yes
No
Radboud University Press
Radboud University
Active
No
No
TU Delft OPEN Publishing
Delft University of Technology
Active
Yes
No
University of Groningen Press
University of Groningen
Active
Yes
No
New Zealand
University presses in New Zealand
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
Auckland University Press
Auckland University
Active
No
Canterbury University Press
University of Canterbury
Active
No
Holloway Press
Auckland University
Active
No
Massey University Press
Massey University
Active
No
Otago University Press
University of Otago
Active
Yes
Te Herenga Waka University Press
Victoria University of Wellington
Active
No
Wai-te-ata Music Press
New Zealand School of Music
Active
No
Nigeria
University presses in Nigeria
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Ibadan University Press
Ibadan University
Active
Norway
University presses in Norway
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Septentrio Academic Publishing
University of Tromsø
Active
Yes
Panama
University presses in Panama
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Editorial Tecnológica
Technological University of Panama
Active
Peru
University presses in Peru
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú
Pontifical Catholic University of Peru
Active
Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Católica Sedes Sapientiae
Universidad Católica Sedes Sapientiae
Active
Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega University
Active
National University of San Marcos Press
National University of San Marcos
Active
Philippines
University presses in the Philippines
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Ateneo de Manila University Press
Ateneo de Manila University
Active
Ateneo de Naga University Press
Ateneo de Naga University
Active
Sentro ng Wikang Filipino
University of the Philippines System
Active
University of the Philippines Press
University of the Philippines
Active
University of Santo Tomas Publishing House
University of Santo Tomas
Active
XU Press
Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan
Active
Poland
University presses in Poland
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press
Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń
Active
SWPS University Press
SWPS University
Active
Wydawnictwa Uniwersyteckie Trans Humana
University of Białystok
Active
Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego
University of Warsaw
Active
Wydawnictwo KUL
John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
Active
Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM
Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
Active
Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego w Krakowie
Pedagogical University of Cracow
Active
Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego
University of Szczecin
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach
University of Economics in Katowice
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie
Cracow University of Economics
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
Wrocław University of Economics
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
University of Gdańsk
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego
Jagiellonian University
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie
Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kazimierza Wielkiego
Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
University of Łódź
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Maria Curie-Skłodowska University
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego
Opole University
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie
University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Poznaniu
University of Life Sciences in Poznań
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we Wrocławiu
University of Life Sciences in Wrocław
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego
University of Silesia
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Technologiczno-Przyrodniczego im. Jana i Jędrzeja Śniadeckich w Bydgoszczy
University of Technology and Life Sciences in Bydgoszcz
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku
University of Białystok
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego w Olsztynie
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn
Active
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego
University of Wrocław
Active
Portugal
University presses in Portugal
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
FEUP Edições
University of Porto
Active
Imprensa da UC
University of Coimbra
Active
IST Press
Instituto Superior Técnico (University of Lisbon)
Active
U.Porto Edições
University of Porto
Active
UA Editora
University of Aveiro
Active
Universidade Católica Editora
Catholic University of Portugal
Active
Qatar
University presses in Qatar
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
Hamad Bin Khalifa University Press
Hamad Bin Khalifa University
Active
No
Qatar University Press
Qatar University
Active
Affiliate
Romania
University presses in Romania
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Bucharest University Press
University of Bucharest
Active
No
Cluj University Press
Babeș-Bolyai University
Active
No
University Press
University of Târgu Mureș
Active
Yes
Russia
University presses in Russia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Moscow State University Press
Moscow State University
Active
Omsk State University Press
Omsk State University
Active
Pacific National University Press
Pacific National University
Active
Perm State University Press
Perm State University
Active
Saint Petersburg State University Press
Saint Petersburg State University
Active
Saudi Arabia
University presses in Saudi Arabia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University Scientific Publishing Center
Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University
Active
King Saud University Press
King Saud University
Active
Senegal
University presses in Senegal
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Presses Universitaires de Dakar
Cheikh Anta Diop University
Active
Singapore
University presses in Singapore
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
NUS Press
National University of Singapore
Active
South Africa
University presses in South Africa
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
Pretoria University Law Press
University of Pretoria
Active
No
UCT Press
University of Cape Town
Active
No
UJ Press
University of Johannesburg
Active
Introductory
Unisa Press
University of South Africa
Active
No
University of Fort Hare Press
University of Fort Hare
Defunct
University of KwaZulu-Natal Press
University of KwaZulu-Natal
Active
No
Wits University Press
University of the Witwatersrand
Active
No
South Korea
University presses in South Korea
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Ewha Womans University Press
Ewha Womans University
Active
Jeonbuk National University Press
Jeonbuk National University
Active
Pusan National University Press
Pusan National University
Active
Seoul National University Publishing Center
Seoul National University
Active
Yonsei University Press
Yonsei University
Active
Spain
University presses in Spain
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Éditions de la Casa de Velázquez
Casa de Velázquez
Active
Editorial Universidad de Cantabria
University of Cantabria
Active
Servicio de Publicaciones Universidad Pontificia Comillas
Comillas Pontifical University
Active
UAM Editions
Autonomous University of Madrid
Active
UPV/EHU Press
University of the Basque Country
Active
Sweden
University presses in Sweden
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
Ref.
Karlstad University Press
Karlstad University
Active
No
Linköping University Electronic Press
Linköping University
Active
No
Linnaeus University Press
Linnaeus University
Active
No
Lund University Press
Lund University
Active
No
Stockholm University Press
Stockholm University
Active
Yes
Taiwan
University presses in Taiwan
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Chengchi University Press
National Chengchi University
Active
National Taiwan University Press
National Taiwan University
Active
National Tsing Hua University Press
National Tsing Hua University
Active
Thailand
University presses in Thailand
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Chiang Mai University Press
Chiang Mai University
Active
Tunisia
University presses in Tunis
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
ISD Manouba
Manouba University
Active
Turkey
University presses in Turkey
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Bogazici University Press
Bogazici University
Active
İstanbul Bilgi University Press
Istanbul Bilgi University
Active
Istanbul University Press
Istanbul University
Active
Ukraine
University presses in Ukraine
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Duh i Litera
National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
Active
Kyiv Mohyla University Press
National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
Active
Lviv Polytechnic National University Publishing House
Lviv University
Active
United Arab Emirates
University presses in the United Arab Emirates
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University Publishing
Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University
Active
Zayed University Press
Zayed University
Active
United Kingdom
University presses in the United Kingdom
Press
Associated institution
Status
AEUPmember
AUPmember
Ref.
Aberdeen University Press
Aberdeen University
Active
No
No
Bristol University Press
University of Bristol
Active
No
Yes
Cambridge University Press
University of Cambridge
Active
No
Yes
Edinburgh University Press
University of Edinburgh
Active
No
Yes
Goldsmiths Press
Goldsmiths, University of London
Active
No
No
Hull University Press
University of Hull
Defunct
Imperial College Press
Imperial College London
Defunct
Kingston University Press
Kingston University
Active
No
No
Liverpool University Press
Liverpool University
Active
Former
Yes
LSE Press
London School of Economics and Political Science
Active
No
No
Manchester University Press
Manchester University
Active
No
Yes
Northumbria University Press
Northumbria University
Defunct
Nottingham University Press
University of Nottingham
Imprint of 5m Books
Open Press at University of Sussex
University of Sussex
Active
No
Introductory
Open University Press
Open University
Imprint of McGraw Hill
Oxford University Press
University of Oxford
Active
No
Yes
Scottish Universities Press
Various
Active
No
No
UCL Press
University College London
Active
Yes
Yes
University of Chester Press
University of Chester
Active
No
No
University of Exeter Press
University of Exeter
Active
No
No
University of Hertfordshire Press
University of Hertfordshire
Active
No
No
University of Huddersfield Press
University of Huddersfield
Active
No
No
University of London Press
University of London
Active
No
No
University of Wales Press
University of Wales
Active
No
No
University of Westminster Press
University of Westminster
Active
Yes
No
University of York Music Press
University of York
Active
No
No
White Rose University Press
White Rose University Consortium
Active
No
No
XJTLU
Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University
Imprint of Liverpool University Press
United States
University presses in the United States
Press
Associated institution
Status
AUPmember
Ref.
Abilene Christian University Press
Abilene Christian University
Active
Yes
ACMRS Press
Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies
Active
Yes
Air University Press
Air University
Active
Yes
Alaska Pacific University Press
Alaska Pacific University
Defunct
Amherst College Press
Amherst College
Active
Affiliate
Andrews University Press
Andrews University
Active
No
Army University Press
Army University
Active
Introductory
Associated University Presses
Various
Defunct
Atlanta University Press
Atlanta University
Defunct
Baylor University Press
Baylor University
Active
Yes
BJU Press
Bob Jones University
Active
No
Boston College Press
Boston College
Defunct
Brandeis University Press
Brandeis University
Active
Yes
Brigham Young University Press
Brigham Young University
Defunct
Brookings Institution Press
Brookings Institution
Active
Yes
Brown University Digital Publications
Brown University
Active
Affiliate
Bucknell University Press
Bucknell University
Active
Yes
Carnegie Mellon University Press
Carnegie Mellon University
Active
Yes
Case Western Reserve University Press
Case Western Reserve University
Defunct
Catholic University of America Press
Catholic University of America
Active
Yes
Clark University Press
Clark University
Defunct
Clemson University Press
Clemson University
Active
Yes
Columbia University Press
Columbia University
Active
Yes
Columbus State University Press
Columbus State University
Active
No
Combat Studies Institute Press
Combat Studies Institute
Imprint of Army UP
Cornell University Press
Cornell University
Active
Yes
Creighton University Press
Creighton University
Defunct
Dartmouth College Press
Dartmouth College
Defunct
Duke University Press
Duke University
Active
Yes
Duquesne University Press
Duquesne University
Active
No
Eastern Washington University Press
Eastern Washington University
Defunct
Evergreen State College Press
Evergreen State College
Active
No
Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Active
No
Fisk University Press
Fisk University
Defunct
Fordham University Press
Fordham University
Active
Yes
Gallaudet University Press
Gallaudet University
Active
Yes
George Mason University Press
George Mason University
Active
Affiliate
George Washington University Press
George Washington University
Defunct
Georgetown University Press
Georgetown University
Active
Yes
Harvard Education Press
Harvard Graduate School of Education
Active
Yes
Harvard University Press
Harvard University
Active
Yes
Hebrew Union College Press
Hebrew Union College
Active
No
Heritage Christian University Press
Heritage Christian University
Active
No
Hill College Press
Hill College
Active
No
Howard University Press
Howard University
Defunct
Indiana University Press
Indiana University
Active
Yes
Iowa State University Digital Press
Iowa State University
Active
No
Iowa State University Press
Iowa State University
Defunct
John Brown University Press
John Brown University
Defunct
Johns Hopkins University Press
Johns Hopkins University
Active
Yes
Kent State University Press
Kent State University
Active
Yes
Lamar University Literary Press
Lamar University
Active
No
Lehigh University Press
Lehigh University
Active
No
Lever Press
Various
Active
Introductory
Louisiana State University Press
Louisiana State University
Active
Yes
Loyola New Orleans Press
Loyola University New Orleans
Defunct
Loyola University Press
Loyola University Chicago
Reorganized as Loyola Press
Marine Corps University Press
Marine Corps University
Active
Yes
Marquette University Press
Marquette University
Active
Yes
Medieval Institute Publications
Western Michigan University
Active
Yes
Mercer University Press
Mercer University
Active
Yes
Miami University Press
Miami University
Active
No
Michigan State University Press
Michigan State University
Active
Yes
MIT Press
MIT
Active
Yes
Naval Institute Press
United States Naval Institute
Active
Yes
Naval War College Press
Naval War College
Active
No
New York University Press
New York University
Active
Yes
North Dakota State University Press
North Dakota State University
Active
No
Northeastern University Press
Northeastern University
Defunct
Northern Illinois University Press
Northern Illinois University
Imprint of Cornell UP
Northwestern University Press
Northwestern University
Active
Yes
Oberlin College Press
Oberlin College
Defunct
Oglethorpe University Press
Oglethorpe University
Defunct
Ohio State University Press
Ohio State University
Active
Yes
Ohio University Press
Ohio University
Active
Yes
Oklahoma Baptist University Press
Oklahoma Baptist University
Defunct
Oregon State University Press
Oregon State University
Active
Yes
Pace University Press
Pace University
Active
No
Pacific University Press
Pacific University
Active
No
Penn State University Press
Pennsylvania State University
Active
Yes
The Press at Cal Poly Humboldt
Cal Poly Humboldt
Active
No
Princeton University Press
Princeton University
Active
Yes
Proa Publications
Northern Marianas College
Imprint of Guam UP
Purdue University Press
Purdue University
Active
Yes
Redhawk Publications
Catawba Valley Community College
Active
No
Rice University Press
Rice University
Defunct
RIT Press
Rochester Institute of Technology
Active
Yes
Rockefeller University Press
Rockefeller University
Active
Affiliate
Rockhurst University Press
Rockhurst University
Active
No
Rutgers University Press
Rutgers University
Active
Yes
Saint Joseph's University Press
Saint Joseph's University
Active
Introductory
Saint Louis University Press
Saint Louis University
Defunct
San Diego State University Press
San Diego State University
Active
No
SBL Press
Society of Biblical Literature
Active
Yes
Sierra College Press
Sierra College
Active
No
Southern Illinois University Press
Southern Illinois University
Active
Yes
Southeast Missouri State University Press
Southeast Missouri State University
Active
No
Southern Methodist University Press
Southern Methodist University
Defunct
Stanford University Press
Stanford University
Active
Yes
Stephen F. Austin State University Press
Stephen F. Austin State University
Active
No
SUNY Press
State University of New York system
Active
Yes
Susquehanna University Press
Susquehanna University Press
Defunct
Syracuse University Press
Syracuse University
Active
Yes
Teachers College Press
Teachers College, Columbia University
Active
Yes
Temple University Press
Temple University
Active
Yes
Texas A&M University Press
Texas A&M University
Active
Yes
Texas Christian University Press
Texas Christian University
Active
Yes
Texas Review Press
Sam Houston State University
Active
Yes
Texas Tech University Press
Texas Tech University
Active
Yes
Texas Western Press
University of Texas at El Paso
Active
No
Tribal College Press
US tribal colleges and universities
Active
No
Trinity University Press
Trinity University
Active
Yes
Truman State University Press
Truman State University
Defunct
Tufts University Press
Tufts University
Defunct
UL Press
University of Louisiana
Active
Introductory
University of Akron Press
University of Akron
Active
Yes
University of Alabama Press
University of Alabama
Active
Yes
University of Alaska Press
University of Alaska
Imprint of UP Colorado
University of Arizona Press
University of Arizona
Active
Yes
University of Arkansas Press
University of Arkansas
Active
Yes
University of California Press
University of California
Active
Yes
University of Chicago Press
University of Chicago
Active
Yes
University of Cincinnati Press
University of Cincinnati
Active
Introductory
University of Delaware Press
University of Delaware
Active
Introductory
University of Georgia Press
University of Georgia
Active
Yes
University of Guam Press
University of Guam
Active
Affiliate
University of Hawaii Press
University of Hawaii
Active
Yes
University of Idaho Press
University of Idaho
Imprint of Caxton Press
University of Illinois Press
University of Illinois
Active
Yes
University of Iowa Press
University of Iowa
Active
Yes
University of Maine Press
University of Maine
Active
No
University of Massachusetts Press
University of Massachusetts
Active
Yes
University of Michigan Press
University of Michigan
Active
Yes
University of Minnesota Press
University of Minnesota
Active
Yes
University of Missouri Press
University of Missouri
Active
Yes
University of Nebraska Press
University of Nebraska
Active
Yes
University of Nevada Press
University of Nevada
Active
Yes
University of New Hampshire Press
University of New Hampshire
Defunct
University of New Mexico Press
University of New Mexico
Active
Yes
University of New Orleans Press
University of New Orleans
Active
No
University of North Carolina Press
University of North Carolina
Active
Yes
University of North Georgia Press
University of North Georgia
Active
Affiliate
University of North Texas Press
University of North Texas
Active
Yes
University of Notre Dame Press
University of Notre Dame
Active
Yes
University of Oklahoma Press
University of Oklahoma
Active
Yes
University of Pennsylvania Press
University of Pennsylvania
Active
Yes
University of Pittsburgh Press
University of Pittsburgh
Active
Yes
University of San Francisco Press
University of San Francisco
Defunct
University of Scranton Press
University of Scranton
Defunct
University of South Carolina Press
University of South Carolina
Active
Yes
University of Southern California Press
University of Southern California
Defunct
University of Tennessee Press
University of Tennessee
Active
Yes
University of Texas Press
University of Texas
Active
Yes
University of Utah Press
University of Utah
Active
Yes
University of Vermont Press
University of Vermont
Active
Introductory
University of Virginia Press
University of Virginia
Active
Yes
University of Washington Press
University of Washington
Active
Yes
University of Wisconsin Press
University of Wisconsin
Active
Yes
University of Wyoming Press
University of Wyoming
Imprint of UP Colorado
University Press of Colorado
Various
Active
Yes
University Press of Florida
State University System of Florida
Active
Yes
University Press of Kansas
Consortium of Kansas state universities
Active
Yes
University Press of Kentucky
Consortium of Kentucky universities
Active
Yes
University Press of Mississippi
Mississippi Institutions of Higher Learning
Active
Yes
University Press of New England
Various
Defunct
University Press of Sewanee
Sewanee: The University of the South
Defunct
USC Annenberg Press
USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism
Active
No
Utah State University Press
Utah State University
Imprint of UP Colorado
Vanderbilt University Press
Vanderbilt University
Active
Yes
Wake Forest University Press
Wake Forest University
Active
Affiliate
Washington State University Press
Washington State University
Active
Yes
Wayne State University Press
Wayne State University
Active
Yes
Wesleyan University Press
Wesleyan University
Active
Yes
West Point Press
United States Military Academy
Active
Introductory
West Virginia University Press
West Virginia University
Active
Yes
Wharton School Press
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
Active
No
Xavier University Press
Xavier University of Louisiana
Defunct
Yale University Press
Yale University
Active
Yes
Uzbekistan
University presses in Uzbekistan
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Tashkent State University of Law Publishing
Tashkent State University of Law
Active
Vietnam
University presses in Vietnam
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Vietnam National University Press
Vietnam National University, Hanoi
Active
Yemen
University presses in Yemen
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
Aden University House for Printing and Publishing
University of Aden
Active
Zambia
University presses in Zambia
Press
Associated institution
Status
Ref.
UNZA Press
University of Zambia
Active
See also
Main category: University presses
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Higher education institution presses.
Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) – an international association of 330 non-profit publishers
Association of Jesuit University Presses (AJUP) – a defunct press association affiliated with the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities
International Convention of University Presses – an annual meeting of representatives from about 100 university presses
Notes
^ Per Cape Breton University Press's website: "In 2014 ... the decision was made to terminate CBU Press as we know it today future publications on an ad hoc basis, under co-publication arrangements."
^ Jointly managed by Avignon University, École normale supérieure de Lyon, the French National Centre for Scientific Research, Jean Monnet University, Lumière University Lyon 2, and the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences.
^ Although the West German University Press was founded by and works closely with Ruhr University Bochum, the two are legally-separate entities.
^ The press is collectively supported by the libraries of Abertay University, the University of Dundee, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Napier University, the University of Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian University, the Glasgow School of Art, Heriot Watt University, The Open University, Queen Margaret University, Robert Gordon University. the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, Scotland's Rural College, University of St Andrews, the University of Stirling, the University of Strathclyde, the University of the Highlands and Islands, and the University of the West of Scotland.
^ Which comprises the University of Leeds, the University of Sheffield, and the University of York.
^ Associated University Presses was a consortium of five smaller university press imprints: Bucknell University Press, University of Delaware Press, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Lehigh University Press, and Susquehanna University Press.
^ A comprehensive list of all participating institutions can be found on the Lever Press website.
^ The press is supported by a group of Colorado public/private universities (namely, Adams State University, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Metropolitan State University of Denver, the University of Colorado, the University of Northern Colorado, Regis University, and Western State Colorado University), as well as by the University of Alaska, Utah State University, and the University of Wyoming systems.
^ This includes Emporia State University, Fort Hays State University, Kansas State University, Pittsburg State University, the University of Kansas, and Wichita State University.
^ This includes the following public and private institutions: Bellarmine University, Berea College, Centre College, Eastern Kentucky University, Georgetown College, Kentucky State University, Morehead State University, Murray State University, Northern Kentucky University, Spalding University, Transylvania University, University of Kentucky, University of Louisville, University of Pikeville, and Western Kentucky University. The consortium also includes the Filson Historical Society and the Kentucky Historical Society.
^ This includes Alcorn State University, Delta State University, Jackson State University, Mississippi State University, Mississippi University for Women, Mississippi Valley State University, University of Mississippi, and the University of Southern Mississippi.
^ Associated University Presses was a consortium of smaller university press imprints that included Brandeis University Press, Dartmouth College Press, Northeastern University Press, Tufts University Press, University of New Hampshire Press, and the University of Vermont Press.
References
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^ "Editora da UFCSPA" (in Portuguese). Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
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^ "Editora UEPG" (in Portuguese). State University of Ponta Grossa. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora UFG" (in Portuguese). Federal University of Goiás. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora UFMG" (in Portuguese). Federal University of Minas Gerais. Archived from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora Unesp" (in Portuguese). São Paulo State University. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora Unifesp" (in Portuguese). Federal University of São Paulo. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora Unisinos" (in Portuguese). Unisinos. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora UnB" (in Portuguese). University of Brasília. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora Universitaria Leopoldianum" (in Portuguese). Catholic University of Santos. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editus – Editora de UESC" (in Portuguese). State University of Campinas. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "EDUFBA" (in Portuguese). Federal University of Bahia. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "EdUFGD" (in Portuguese). Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "EDUFU" (in Portuguese). Federal University of Uberlândia. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
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^ "Embrapa" (in Portuguese). Ministry of Agriculture. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Editora FGV" (in Portuguese). Fundação Getulio Vargas. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "Imprensa Oficial do Estado de São Paulo" (in Portuguese). Imprensa Oficial do Estado de São Paulo. Archived from the original on February 21, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "PUCPRESS" (in Portuguese). Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
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^ "Publications". Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
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^ "Ediciones UCM" (in Spanish). Catholic University of the Maule. Archived from the original on October 20, 2022. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Ediciones UFRO" (in Spanish). University of La Frontera. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Editorial USACH" (in Spanish). Alberto Hurtado University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso (EUV)" (in Spanish). Pontifical Catholic University of Valparaíso. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Editorial ULS" (in Spanish). University of La Serena. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Editorial Universidad de Talca" (in Spanish). University of Talca. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Editorial USACH | Home" (in Spanish). University of Santiago, Chile. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "BLCUP". Beijing Language and Culture University Press. Archived from the original on February 5, 2023. Retrieved February 5, 2023.
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^ "Welcome to AUC Press". American University in Cairo Press. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
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^ "About". Estonian Academy Publishers. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Kirjastus" (in Estonian). Tallinn University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "History". University of Tartu Press. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "AAU Press". Addis Ababa University. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved February 19, 2023.
^ "WU Press". STAR Journal. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved February 19, 2023.
^ "About Helsinki University Press". Helsinki University Press. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Tampere University Press". Tampere University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
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^ "Accueil" (in French). Ausonius Éditions. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved March 5, 2023.
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^ "À Propos des Éditions" (in French). Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. Archived from the original on August 15, 2022. Retrieved February 3, 2023.
^ "Presentation" (in French). Éditions de l'École Normale Supérieure de Lyon. Archived from the original on February 3, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2023.
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^ "About Us". Liverpool University Press. Archived from the original on November 19, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "LSE Press". London School of Economics and Political Science. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About". Manchester University Press. Archived from the original on October 5, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ Smith, Andrew Peden. "Northumbria Press". williamarmstrong.info. Archived from the original on September 25, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About Us". 5m Books. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "Open Press at University of Sussex". University of Sussex. Archived from the original on November 6, 2023.
^ "Open University Press". McGraw Hill Education. Archived from the original on December 28, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ a b "About Us". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on January 27, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About Us". Scottish Universities Press. Archived from the original on September 21, 2023. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
^ "UCL Press". University College London. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "Press Office". University of Chester. Archived from the original on October 20, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About University of Exeter Press". University of Exeter Press. Archived from the original on August 14, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "University of Hertfordshire Press". University of Hertfordshire Press. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About". University of Huddersfield Press. Archived from the original on August 14, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "University of London Press". School of Advanced Study. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About". University of Wales Press. Archived from the original on August 18, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "University of Westminster Press". University of Westminster. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "Welcome". University of York Music Press. Archived from the original on January 12, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ a b "White Rose University Press". White Rose University Consortium. Archived from the original on January 3, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "XJTLU". Liverpool University Press. Archived from the original on November 13, 2022. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Abilene Christian University". Abilene Christian University. Archived from the original on January 12, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "ACMRS Press". Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Air University Press". Air University. Archived from the original on December 20, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ American Association of University Professors (1995). "Academic Freedom and Tenure: Alaska Pacific University". Academe. 81 (3): 32–39. JSTOR 40250764. Archived from the original on 2023-02-20. Retrieved 2023-03-06.
^ "About Amherst College Press". Amherst College. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "Andrews University Press". Andrews University. Archived from the original on November 27, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Army University Press". Army University. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b c "Associated University Presses". Associated University Presses. Archived from the original on February 13, 2010. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ Lane, Robert Frederick (1939). The Place of American University Presses in Publishing (PhD dissertation). University of Chicago. p. 21.
^ "Baylor University Press". Baylor University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "BJU Press". Bob Jones University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b c d e "Association of Jesuit University Presses". Creighton University Press. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved September 24, 2013.
^ "About Us". Brandeis University Press. April 15, 2021. Archived from the original on December 3, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "Brigham Young University Press". Brigham Young University Library. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Brookings Institution Press". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Brown University Digital Publications". Brown University. Archived from the original on September 26, 2023.
^ "Bucknell University Press". Bucknell University. Archived from the original on December 12, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Welcome – Carnegie Mellon University Press". Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Case Western Reserve University Press". Case Western Reserve University Archives. April 13, 2012. Archived from the original on August 13, 2019.
^ "Catholic University of America Press". Catholic University of America. Archived from the original on January 16, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ Lane, Robert Frederick (1939). The place of American university presses in publishing (PhD dissertation). University of Chicago. p. 31.
^ "Clemson University Press". Clemson University. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Columbia University Press". Columbia University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Columbus State University Press". Columbus State University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Research and Books". Army University Press. Retrieved February 3, 2024.
^ "Cornell University Press". Cornell University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b c d e "Northeastern University Joins University Press of New England". Independent Publisher. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Home – Duke University Press". Duke University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About Us". Duquesne University Press. Archived from the original on February 21, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ Howard, Jennifer (February 26, 2010). "When a University Press Falls, Who Catches Its Authors?". The Chronicle of Higher Education. LVI (24): A13.
^ "About the Press". Evergreen State College Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "Fairleigh Dickingson University Press". Fairleigh Dickinson University. Archived from the original on November 8, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b c d e f Lane, Robert Frederick (1939). The Place of American University Presses in Publishing (PhD dissertation). University of Chicago.
^ "Fordham University Press". Fordham University. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Gallaudet University Press". Gallaudet University. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "George Mason University Press". George Mason University. Archived from the original on September 28, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Georgetown University Press". Georgetown University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "HEPG – Home". Harvard Graduate School of Education. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Harvard University Press". Harvard University. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About Us". Hebrew College Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "Publications". Heritage Christian University Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "HC-Press". Hill College Press. Archived from the original on October 4, 2022. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "Howard University Partners with Columbia University Press to Advance Black Studies and Diversify Academic Publishing". Howard University. March 3, 2021. Archived from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Indiana University Press". Indiana University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About". Iowa State University Digital Press. Archived from the original on May 18, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2022.
^ Kushkowski, Jeffrey (August 12, 2019). "Where is the Iowa State University Press?". Iowa State University Library. Archived from the original on July 29, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2022.
^ "Hopkins Press". Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on February 1, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "The Kent State University Press". Kent State University. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About Lamar University Literary Press". Lamar University. April 30, 2024. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
^ "Welcome to the Lehigh University Press". Lehigh University. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b "About Lever Press". Lever Press. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "General Information". Louisiana State University Press. Archived from the original on November 1, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Loyola Press. Archived from the original on February 9, 2023. Retrieved February 9, 2023. Q: Are you a part of Loyola University? A: No, Loyola Press is not affiliated with any university.
^ "Marine Corps University Press (MCUP)". Marine Corps University. Archived from the original on May 24, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About Us". Marquette University Press. Archived from the original on April 23, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". Medieval Institute Publications. October 9, 2014. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved February 19, 2023.
^ "About Us". Mercer University Press. Archived from the original on November 26, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". Miami University Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "About the Press". Michigan State University Press. August 14, 2019. Archived from the original on November 10, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". MIT Press. Archived from the original on January 28, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About the Naval Institute Press". United States Naval Institute. Archived from the original on January 8, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Naval War College Press". Naval War College. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "About the Press". New York University Press. Archived from the original on November 20, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". North Dakota State University Press. September 20, 2017. Archived from the original on October 6, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Northern Illinois University Press". Cornell University Press. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". Northwestern University Press. Archived from the original on 2022-10-17. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Oberlin College Press Home". Oberlin College Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023.
^ "About". Ohio State University Press. Archived from the original on August 15, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About Ohio University Press". Ohio University Press. Archived from the original on December 10, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About OSU Press". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About Us". Pace University Press. Archived from the original on December 10, 2022. Retrieved February 20, 2023.
^ "About". Pacific University Press. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved February 4, 2023.
^ "Mission/History". Penn State University Press. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "The Press at Cal Poly Humboldt". Cal Poly Humboldt Digital Commons. California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt. Archived from the original on December 26, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "About Us". Princeton University Press. Archived from the original on February 1, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Marianas Variety: UOG Press launches Northern Marianas College imprint". Northern Marianas College. February 3, 2023. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved February 16, 2023.
^ "Mission and History". Purdue University Press. Archived from the original on December 20, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Redhawk Publications". Catawba Valley Community College. Archived from the original on September 30, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ Howard, Jennifer (August 19, 2010). "Rice U. to Close Its Digital Press Next Month". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
^ "About Us | History". RIT Press. Archived from the original on December 18, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Our History". Rockefeller University Press. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Rockhurst University Press". Rockhurst University. Archived from the original on November 27, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Home". Rutgers University Press. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About Us". Saint Joseph's University Press. Archived from the original on September 28, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About San Diego State University Press". San Diego State University Press. Archived from the original on August 15, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Publications". Society of Biblical Literature. Archived from the original on December 5, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
^ "Sierra College Press". Sierra College. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "About the Press". Southern Illinois University Press. Archived from the original on September 29, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About the Press". Southeast Missouri State University Press. Archived from the original on February 14, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
^ Howard, Jennifer (May 6, 2010). "Southern Methodist U. Puts Its Press on the Chopping Block". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on April 30, 2018. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
^ "About". Stanford University Press. Archived from the original on May 7, 2019. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "SFA Press". Stephen F. Austin State University Press. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
^ "About SUNY Press". State University of New York Press. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Syracuse University Press". Syracuse University. Archived from the original on May 29, 2019. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Teachers College Press". Columbia University. Archived from the original on February 1, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Temple University Press". Temple University. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Home – Texas A&M University Press". Texas A&M University. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "TCU Press". Texas Christian University Press. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "About Us". Texas Review Press. Archived from the original on April 2, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About the Press". Texas Tech University Press. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "Texas Western Press". University of Texas at El Paso Library. Archived from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About the Press". Tribal College Press. Archived from the original on February 15, 2023. Retrieved February 15, 2023.
^ "Trinity University Press". Trinity University. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Truman State University Press". Truman State University. Archived from the original on December 9, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "UL Press". Center for Louisiana Studies. Archived from the original on January 28, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "UA Press". University of Akron. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Home – University of Alabama Press". University of Alabama. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b c d e "Our Press". University Press of Colorado. Archived from the original on October 8, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "UAPress". University of Arizona. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University of Arkansas Press". University of Arkansas. Archived from the original on January 3, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University of California Press". University of California. Archived from the original on October 20, 2020. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University of Chicago Press". University of Chicago. Archived from the original on February 1, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About the Press". University of Cincinnati Press. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "About & Press History". University of Delaware Press. Archived from the original on December 18, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". University of Georgia Press. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "University of Guam Press". University of Guam. Archived from the original on November 7, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Our History". University of Hawaii Press. April 17, 2018. Archived from the original on November 30, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "University of Idaho Press". Caxton Press. Archived from the original on November 26, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "History of the Press". University of Illinois Press. Archived from the original on September 28, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "History and Mission". University of Iowa Press. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "University of Maine Press". Raymond H. Fogler Library. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About". University of Massachusetts Press. Archived from the original on January 24, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "University of Michigan Press". Michigan Publishing. Archived from the original on September 5, 2011. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About Us". University of Minnesota Press. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "University of Missouri Press". University of Missouri. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About the University of Nebraska Press". University of Nebraska Press. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "About the Press". University of Nevada Press. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
^ "Home – University of New Mexico Press". University of New Mexico. Archived from the original on January 27, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "UNO Press". University of New Orleans. Archived from the original on December 8, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "The University of North Carolina Press". University of North Carolina. Archived from the original on January 28, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About Us". University Press. University of North Georgia. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "UNT Press". University of North Texas Digital Library. Archived from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "About Us". University of Notre Dame Press. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About OU Press". University of Oklahoma Press. Archived from the original on February 20, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About". University of Pennsylvania Press. Archived from the original on November 26, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "University of Pittsburgh Press". University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ Singleton, David (August 15, 2010). "University of Scranton press shutting down". Scranton Times Tribune. Archived from the original on August 18, 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
^ "About". University of South Carolina Press. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "Press Contributes to Higher Learning". Southern California Daily Trojan. 1945. p. 4. Retrieved from the USC Libraries' Special Collections.
^ "About Us". University of Tennessee Press. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "Mission". University of Texas Press. Archived from the original on October 22, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "About the Press". University of Utah Press. Archived from the original on November 30, 2022. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
^ "The University of Vermont Press". University of Vermont. Archived from the original on June 7, 2023.
^ "University of Virginia Press". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 30, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "About". University of Washington Press. Archived from the original on December 5, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University of Wisconsin Press". University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on August 23, 2011. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University Press of Florida". State University System of Florida. Archived from the original on January 9, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b "About". University Press of Kansas. University of Kansas. Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
^ "History". University Press of Kentucky. Archived from the original on October 8, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "University Press of Kentucky". University Press of Kentucky. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ a b "About the Press". University Press of Mississippi. Archived from the original on December 3, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ Jaschik, Scott (January 7, 2021). "Brandeis Acquires U Press of New England Titles". Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "USC Annenberg Press". USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Vanderbilt University Press". Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on January 28, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Wake Forest University Press". Wake Forest University. Archived from the original on January 9, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Our Story". Washington State University Press. Archived from the original on December 29, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
^ "Wayne State University Press". Wayne State University. Archived from the original on January 17, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Wesleyan University Press". Wesleyan University. Archived from the original on January 19, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "West Point Press". United States Military Academy. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "West Virginia University Press". West Virginia University. Archived from the original on January 9, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Wharton School Press". Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ Honora, Jari C. L. (July 30, 2012). "Xavier Gold". Creole Genealogical and Historical Association. Archived from the original on February 22, 2023. Retrieved February 22, 2023.
^ "Yale University Press". Yale University. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved January 31, 2023.
^ "Tahririy-nashriyot bo'limi" (in Uzbek). Tashkent State University of Law. Archived from the original on March 2, 2023. Retrieved March 1, 2023.
^ "Giơi Thiệu" (in Vietnamese). Vietnam National University Press. Archived from the original on March 1, 2023. Retrieved February 28, 2023.
^ "دار جامعة عدن للطباعة والنشر" (in Arabic). University of Aden. Archived from the original on March 2, 2023. Retrieved February 28, 2023.
^ "UNZA Press". University of Zambia. Archived from the original on February 19, 2023. Retrieved February 19, 2023.
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Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_University_for_Women"},{"link_name":"Mississippi Valley State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Valley_State_University"},{"link_name":"University of Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"the University of Southern Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_Southern_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"[503]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-miss-513"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-515"},{"link_name":"Associated University Presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_University_Presses"},{"link_name":"Brandeis University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandeis_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Dartmouth College Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_College_Press"},{"link_name":"Northeastern University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_University_Press"},{"link_name":"Tufts University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_University_Press"},{"link_name":"University of New Hampshire Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_Hampshire_Press"},{"link_name":"University of Vermont Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vermont_Press"},{"link_name":"[379]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-upne-list-385"}],"text":"^ Per Cape Breton University Press's website: \"In 2014 ... the decision was made to terminate CBU Press as we know it today [but the press will work on] future publications on an ad hoc basis, under co-publication arrangements.\"[61]\n\n^ Jointly managed by Avignon University, École normale supérieure de Lyon, the French National Centre for Scientific Research, Jean Monnet University, Lumière University Lyon 2, and the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences.[124]\n\n^ Although the West German University Press was founded by and works closely with Ruhr University Bochum, the two are legally-separate entities.[157]\n\n^ The press is collectively supported by the libraries of Abertay University, the University of Dundee, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Napier University, the University of Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian University, the Glasgow School of Art, Heriot Watt University, The Open University, Queen Margaret University, Robert Gordon University. the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, Scotland's Rural College, University of St Andrews, the University of Stirling, the University of Strathclyde, the University of the Highlands and Islands, and the University of the West of Scotland.[340]\n\n^ Which comprises the University of Leeds, the University of Sheffield, and the University of York.[351]\n\n^ Associated University Presses was a consortium of five smaller university press imprints: Bucknell University Press, University of Delaware Press, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Lehigh University Press, and Susquehanna University Press.[360]\n\n^ A comprehensive list of all participating institutions can be found on the Lever Press website.[403]\n\n^ The press is supported by a group of Colorado public/private universities (namely, Adams State University, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Metropolitan State University of Denver, the University of Colorado, the University of Northern Colorado, Regis University, and Western State Colorado University), as well as by the University of Alaska, Utah State University, and the University of Wyoming systems.[460]\n\n^ This includes Emporia State University, Fort Hays State University, Kansas State University, Pittsburg State University, the University of Kansas, and Wichita State University.[500]\n\n^ This includes the following public and private institutions: Bellarmine University, Berea College, Centre College, Eastern Kentucky University, Georgetown College, Kentucky State University, Morehead State University, Murray State University, Northern Kentucky University, Spalding University, Transylvania University, University of Kentucky, University of Louisville, University of Pikeville, and Western Kentucky University. The consortium also includes the Filson Historical Society and the Kentucky Historical Society.[501]\n\n^ This includes Alcorn State University, Delta State University, Jackson State University, Mississippi State University, Mississippi University for Women, Mississippi Valley State University, University of Mississippi, and the University of Southern Mississippi.[503]\n\n^ Associated University Presses was a consortium of smaller university press imprints that included Brandeis University Press, Dartmouth College Press, Northeastern University Press, Tufts University Press, University of New Hampshire Press, and the University of Vermont Press.[379]","title":"Notes"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"University presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:University_presses"},{"title":"Higher education institution presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Higher_education_institution_presses"},{"title":"Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Learned_and_Professional_Society_Publishers"},{"title":"Association of Jesuit University Presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Jesuit_University_Presses"},{"title":"International Convention of University Presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Convention_of_University_Presses"}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_(automobile)
|
Essex (automobile)
|
["1 Corporate strategy","2 Essex cars","3 Essex production models","4 International production","5 Gallery","6 References","7 External links"]
|
Defunct American motor vehicle manufacturer
Essex logo
1919 Essex
Essex racecars on display in Salt Lake City, 1920
1920 Essex at the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum
1928 Essex Super Six (New Zealand)
The Essex was a brand of automobile produced by the Essex Motor Company between 1918 and 1922, and by Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan between 1922 and 1933.
Corporate strategy
During its production run, the Essex was considered a small car and was affordably priced. The Essex is generally credited with starting a trend away from open touring cars design toward enclosed passenger compartments.
Originally, the Essex was to be a product of the "Essex Motor Company," which was a wholly owned entity of Hudson. Essex enjoyed immediate popularity following its 1919 introduction. Essex Motors went so far as to lease the Studebaker auto factory in Detroit for the production of the car. More than 1.13 million Essex automobiles were sold by the time the Essex name was retired in 1932 and replaced by the Terraplane. That year the Essex Motor Company was dissolved and the cars officially became a product of Hudson.
Essex cars
Essex cars were designed to be moderately priced cars which would be affordable to the average family. Proving durable, their capabilities were checked upon and confirmed by AAA and the United States Post Office. In 1919, an Essex completed a 50-hour, 3,037.4 miles (4,888.2 km) endurance test in Cincinnati, Ohio, at an average speed of 60.75 miles per hour (97.77 km/h). The early Essex cars also captured many hill climb records. In a special Essex race car, Glen Shultz won the 1923 Pikes Peak Hill Climb. It had a 108.5-inch (2,760 mm) wheelbase.
Initially, Essex marketed a line of touring cars (open four-door cars with canvas tops), which was the most popular body style of cars in production at the time. While Essex added an enclosed sedan in 1920, it was the introduction of the 1922 closed coach, priced at $1,495 (US$27,213 in 2023 dollars ), $300 above that of the touring car. By 1925, the coach was priced below the touring car. While Henry Ford is credited with inventing the affordable car, it was Essex that made the enclosed car affordable.
In 1928, the big news was the use of four-wheel mechanical brakes. Essex boasted "piano hinge doors" which were exceptionally strong. An advertisement shows a man fully supported by an open door to demonstrate the strength of the hinge.
1926 Specs
Wheelbase = 110.5 in (2,807 mm)
Length = 14 ft 6 in (4,420 mm)
Turning Radius = 23 ft (7.0 m)
Road Clearance = 8.75 in (222 mm)
Brakes = 14 in (356 mm) drums
By 1929, the Essex was third in U.S. sales, behind Ford and Chevrolet.
Essex sales remained strong into 1931 before sales began to trend downward. For 1932 a redesigned Essex debuted and was named the Essex-Terraplane, a play on the word aeroplane. For 1934 the Essex name was dropped and the car was marketed as the Terraplane.
The instrument panel of the 1932 Hudson and Essex automobiles featured the first use of "warning lights" instead of gauges.
Essex production models
Essex Coach
International production
Essex motor vehicles were either exported as complete cars or locally built from knock-down kits in many countries, making the Essex marque well known internationally as well as domestically. Essex vehicles were locally built in Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Gallery
Essex Super Six Automobiles
1927 Essex Super Six Speedabout
1928 Essex Super Six 4-Door Sedan
1929 Essex Super Six Coupé
1930 Essex Super Six 4-Door Sedan
1930 Essex Super Six Model E Coupé
1930 Essex Super Six Model E 4-Door Sedan
1931 Essex "Boattail"
References
^ Lamm, Michael; Holls, Dave (1996). A century of automotive style: 100 years of American car design. Lamm-Morada. p. 29. ISBN 9780932128072. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
^ a b c Kimes, Beverly (1996). Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805-1942. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87341-428-4.
^ "Essex cars article". Remarkablecars.com. Archived from the original on 2013-07-08. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
^ Swift, Earl (2011). The Big Roads: The Untold Story of the Engineers, Visionaries, and Trailblazers Who Created the American Superhighways. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 88. ISBN 9780618812417. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
^ a b c d "1926 Essex Instruction Book". Oldcarbrochures.com. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
^ 1926 Hudson & Essex mechanical specifications & adjustments (PDF). hudsonterraplane.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
^ "1922 Affordable Closed Cars". Popular Mechanics. 173 (5): 50. May 1996. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Essex vehicles.
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The Essex is generally credited with starting a trend away from open touring cars design toward enclosed passenger compartments.[1]Originally, the Essex was to be a product of the \"Essex Motor Company,\" which was a wholly owned entity of Hudson. Essex enjoyed immediate popularity following its 1919 introduction. Essex Motors went so far as to lease the Studebaker auto factory in Detroit for the production of the car. More than 1.13 million Essex automobiles were sold by the time the Essex name was retired in 1932 and replaced by the Terraplane. That year the Essex Motor Company was dissolved and the cars officially became a product of Hudson.","title":"Corporate strategy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kimes1996-2"},{"link_name":"Pikes Peak Hill Climb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pikes_Peak_Hill_Climb"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kimes1996-2"},{"link_name":"sedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedan_(car)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-US-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kimes1996-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcarbrochures1926-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcarbrochures1926-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcarbrochures1926-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcarbrochures1926-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Terraplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraplane"},{"link_name":"warning lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiot_light"}],"text":"Essex cars were designed to be moderately priced cars which would be affordable to the average family. Proving durable, their capabilities were checked upon and confirmed by AAA and the United States Post Office. In 1919, an Essex completed a 50-hour, 3,037.4 miles (4,888.2 km) endurance test in Cincinnati, Ohio, at an average speed of 60.75 miles per hour (97.77 km/h).[2] The early Essex cars also captured many hill climb records. In a special Essex race car, Glen Shultz won the 1923 Pikes Peak Hill Climb.[3] It had a 108.5-inch (2,760 mm) wheelbase.[2]Initially, Essex marketed a line of touring cars (open four-door cars with canvas tops), which was the most popular body style of cars in production at the time. While Essex added an enclosed sedan in 1920, it was the introduction of the 1922 closed coach, priced at $1,495 (US$27,213 in 2023 dollars [4]), $300 above that of the touring car. By 1925, the coach was priced below the touring car. While Henry Ford is credited with inventing the affordable car, it was Essex that made the enclosed car affordable.[5]In 1928, the big news was the use of four-wheel mechanical brakes.[2] Essex boasted \"piano hinge doors\" which were exceptionally strong. An advertisement shows a man fully supported by an open door to demonstrate the strength of the hinge.1926 SpecsWheelbase = 110.5 in (2,807 mm) [6]\nLength = 14 ft 6 in (4,420 mm) [7]\nTurning Radius = 23 ft (7.0 m) [6]\nRoad Clearance = 8.75 in (222 mm) [6]\nBrakes = 14 in (356 mm) drums [6]By 1929, the Essex was third in U.S. sales, behind Ford and Chevrolet.[8]Essex sales remained strong into 1931 before sales began to trend downward. For 1932 a redesigned Essex debuted and was named the Essex-Terraplane, a play on the word aeroplane. For 1934 the Essex name was dropped and the car was marketed as the Terraplane.The instrument panel of the 1932 Hudson and Essex automobiles featured the first use of \"warning lights\" instead of gauges.","title":"Essex cars"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Essex Coach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_Coach"}],"text":"Essex Coach","title":"Essex production models"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Essex motor vehicles were either exported as complete cars or locally built from knock-down kits in many countries, making the Essex marque well known internationally as well as domestically. Essex vehicles were locally built in Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.","title":"International production"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stahls_Automotive_Collection_December_2021_140_(1927_Essex_Super_Six_Speedabout).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Essex_Super_Six_4-Door_Sedan_1928.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Essex_Super_Six_Coupe_1929.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Essex_Super_Six_4-Door_Sedan_1930_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Essex_Super_Six_Coupe_1931.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Essex_Super_Six_Model_E_4-Door_Sedan_1931.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1931_Essex_Super_Six_Sport_Roadster.jpg"}],"text":"Essex Super Six Automobiles\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1927 Essex Super Six Speedabout\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1928 Essex Super Six 4-Door Sedan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1929 Essex Super Six Coupé\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1930 Essex Super Six 4-Door Sedan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1930 Essex Super Six Model E Coupé\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1930 Essex Super Six Model E 4-Door Sedan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t1931 Essex \"Boattail\"","title":"Gallery"}]
|
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[{"reference":"Lamm, Michael; Holls, Dave (1996). A century of automotive style: 100 years of American car design. Lamm-Morada. p. 29. ISBN 9780932128072. Retrieved 30 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VO8mAQAAMAAJ&q=Due+to+the+inexpensive+1922+Essex+coach+revolutionized+body+making--in+addition+to+family+motoring.+It+made+the+closed+car+affordable.+The+revolution+had+to+do+with+the+body%27s+modular+assembly.+coach,+Essex+became+a+tremendous+bestseller","url_text":"A century of automotive style: 100 years of American car design"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780932128072","url_text":"9780932128072"}]},{"reference":"Kimes, Beverly (1996). Standard Catalog of American Cars 1805-1942. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87341-428-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87341-428-4","url_text":"0-87341-428-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Essex cars article\". Remarkablecars.com. Archived from the original on 2013-07-08. Retrieved 2012-05-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130708075719/http://www.remarkablecars.com/main/essex/essex.html","url_text":"\"Essex cars article\""},{"url":"http://www.remarkablecars.com/main/essex/essex.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker","url_text":"McCusker, J. J."},{"url":"https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf","url_text":"How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society","url_text":"American Antiquarian Society"}]},{"reference":"McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._McCusker","url_text":"McCusker, J. J."},{"url":"https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf","url_text":"How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society","url_text":"American Antiquarian Society"}]},{"reference":"Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. \"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\". Retrieved February 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-","url_text":"\"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–\""}]},{"reference":"Swift, Earl (2011). The Big Roads: The Untold Story of the Engineers, Visionaries, and Trailblazers Who Created the American Superhighways. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 88. ISBN 9780618812417. Retrieved 30 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=59dQ_rwoh3UC&dq=I+n+1922,+essex,+a+division+of+Hudson,+introduced+an+affordable,+completely+enclosed+car%E2%80%94+the+first+for+the+masses+sealed+against+the+weather,+with+glass+windows+and+a+hard+roof+%E2%80%94+and+motoring&pg=PA88","url_text":"The Big Roads: The Untold Story of the Engineers, Visionaries, and Trailblazers Who Created the American Superhighways"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780618812417","url_text":"9780618812417"}]},{"reference":"\"1926 Essex Instruction Book\". Oldcarbrochures.com. Retrieved 2012-05-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Essex/1926_Essex/1926_Essex_Instruction_Book/1926%20Essex%20Instruction%20Book-23.html","url_text":"\"1926 Essex Instruction Book\""}]},{"reference":"1926 Hudson & Essex mechanical specifications & adjustments (PDF). hudsonterraplane.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2012-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101218033454/http://hudsonterraplane.com/tech/1926/1926MechSpecs.pdf","url_text":"1926 Hudson & Essex mechanical specifications & adjustments"},{"url":"http://www.hudsonterraplane.com/tech/1926/1926MechSpecs.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"1922 Affordable Closed Cars\". Popular Mechanics. 173 (5): 50. May 1996. Retrieved 30 June 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MWUEAAAAMBAJ&dq=Essex+car+affordable&pg=PA50","url_text":"\"1922 Affordable Closed Cars\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge
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Juan de Fuca Ridge
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["1 Discovery","2 Geologic history","3 Notable features","4 Eruptions and earthquakes","5 Tectonic activity","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 46°N 130°W / 46°N 130°W / 46; -130Divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America
Location of the Juan de Fuca ridge off the coast of North America. Magnetic striping on either side of the ridge helps date the rock and determine spreading rate and age of the plate.
The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a mid-ocean spreading center and divergent plate boundary located off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America, named after Juan de Fuca. The ridge separates the Pacific Plate to the west and the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east. It runs generally northward, with a length of approximately 500 kilometres (310 mi). The ridge is a section of what remains from the larger Pacific-Farallon Ridge which used to be the primary spreading center of this region, driving the Farallon Plate underneath the North American Plate through the process of plate tectonics. Today, the Juan de Fuca Ridge pushes the Juan de Fuca Plate underneath the North American plate, forming the Cascadia Subduction Zone.
Discovery
The first indications of a submarine ridge off the coast of the Pacific Northwest was discovered by the USS Tuscarora, a United States Navy sloop under the command of George Belknap, in 1874. Surveying a route for an undersea cable between the United States and Japan, the USS Tuscarora discovered a submarine mountain range approximately 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Cape Flattery, which they did not consider a major discovery because throughout their voyage they found other locations with a larger profile, making the ridge seem insignificant in comparison.
Geologic history
Basalt pillow lava from Juan de Fuca Ridge
The Juan de Fuca Ridge was at one point a part of the larger Pacific-Farallon ridge system. Approximately 30 million years ago, the Farallon Plate, being driven outwards by the Pacific-Farallon ridge, was pushed underneath the North American Plate, splitting what remained into the Juan de Fuca Plate to the North and the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate to the South.
Notable features
Node locations of the OOI cabled observatory network
Axial Seamount is a submarine volcano located on the ridge at a depth of 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) below sea level, rising 700 metres (2,300 ft) above the average ridge height. Axial is the most active volcano in the northeastern Pacific basin, and an underwater cabled observatory has been installed there as a part of the National Science Foundation's Ocean Observatories Initiative, making it one of the best studied volcanoes along mid-ocean ridges globally.
The Endeavour segment in the northern end of the ridge is another active and highly studied region. Sharp chemical and thermal contrasts, high levels of seismic activity, dense biological communities, and unique hydrothermal systems all make the segment a primary focus of research.
Some of the most intense and most active hydrothermal vents are located along the Endeavour segment, with more than 800 individual known chimneys within the ridge's central region, and a total of five major hydrothermal fields along the ridge. These chimneys release large amounts of sulphur-rich minerals into the water, which allow bacteria to oxidize organic compounds and metabolize anaerobically. This allows for a diverse ecosystem of organisms to exist in the low-oxygen conditions near the seafloor around the ridge.
Eruptions and earthquakes
Bathymetric diagram of the Axial Seamount, showing the 1998 eruption and segmentation between the CoAxial, Axial, and Vance segments of the ridge
The first documented eruption on the Juan de Fuca Ridge took place on the Cleft segment in 1986 and 1987. Hydrothermal megaplumes indicated a large rifting event, releasing hydrothermal fluids as a result of lavas being extruded from a dike. A majority of the eruptions along the ridge are dike injection events, where molten rock is extruded between cracks in the crust's sheeted dike layer. Typically eruptive events can be predicted, as they are preceded by large earthquake swarms in the region.
A significant event took place in June 1993, lasting 24 days at the CoAxial segment. Cruises deployed as a result of the eruption sampled event plumes, cooling lava flows, and discovered microbial communities living on the seafloor around the ridge.
In February 1996, an event consisting of 4,093 earthquakes, lasting 34 days was recorded at the Axial Volcano, yielding similar scientific results to the 1993 eruption.
In January 1998 an event consisting of 8,247 earthquakes lasted 11 days at Axial Seamount. Lava was released from the caldera of the volcano, flowing down the southern side of the mountain, creating a sheet flow over 3 km long and 800m wide. This was the first time an underwater eruption had been monitored in-situ in real-time.
In June 1999, 1,863 earthquakes were recorded over 5 days, and a hydrothermal temperature increase was observed at the Main Endeavour segment.
In September 2001, 14,215 earthquakes were detected over a 25-day period in the Middle Valley segment.
Researchers at Oregon State University suggested the Axial Seamount had an eruption interval of approximately 16 years, which would place the next major Axial eruption in 2014. In 2011, during a dive on the seamount, new lava flows were discovered and some instruments had been buried in lava flows, indicating the volcano had erupted since the last expedition to the ridge. This is considered the first successful forecast of a seamount eruption. The caldera floor dropped by more than 2 meters after the eruption, and the rate at which it inflates as Axial's magma chamber refills can be used to once again predict the next eruption.
Tectonic activity
The ridge is a medium rate spreading center, moving outwards at a rate of approximately 6 centimetres (2.4 in) per year. Tectonic activity along the ridge is monitored primarily with the U.S. Navy's Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) array of hydrophones, allowing for real time detection of earthquakes and eruptive events.
The Juan de Fuca Plate is being pushed east underneath the North American Plate, forming what is known as the Cascadia subduction zone off the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The plate does not subduct smoothly and can become 'locked' with the North American plate. When this happens, strain builds up until the contact suddenly slips, triggering massive earthquakes up to or greater than magnitude 9. Major earthquakes along this zone occur on average every 550 years and can have major impacts on the physical structure of the North American continent and seafloor.
See also
Accretion (geology)
Axial Seamount
Cascadia Channel
Explorer Ridge
Forearc
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
Gorda Ridge
Overlapping spreading centers
References
^ Cummings, Henry (1874). Cruise of the U.S.S. "Tuscarora". pp. 25–27.
^ Menard, H.W. (1978). "Fragmentation of the Farallon plate by pivoting subduction". Journal of Geology. 86 (1): 99–110. Bibcode:1978JG.....86...99M. doi:10.1086/649658. S2CID 130003124.
^ Lonsdale, P.F. (1991). "Structural patterns of the Pacific floor offshore of peninsular California". Marine and Petroleum Geology. 47: 87–125.
^ a b "Axial Seamount". PMEL Earth-Ocean Interactions Program. NOAA. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "Interactive Oceans – Axial Seamount". Archived from the original on 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2017-06-09.
^ Kelley, D.S.; Carbotte, S.M.; Caress, D.W.; Clague, D.A.; Delaney, J.R.; Gill, J.B.; Hadaway, H.; Holden, J.F.; Hooft, E.E.E. (2012). "Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge". Oceanography. 25. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2012.03.
^ Clague, DA; Caress; Thompson; Calarco; Holden; Butterfield (2008). "Abundance and distribution of hydrothermal chimneys and mounds on the Endeavour Ridge determined by 1-m resolution AUV multibeam mapping surveys". Earth and Space Science News. 2008: V41B–2079. Bibcode:2008AGUFM.V41B2079C.
^ Huaiyang, Zhou; Li; Peng; Wang; Meng (2009). "Microbial diversity of a sulfide black smoker in main endeavour hydrothermal vent field, Juan de Fuca Ridge". The Journal of Microbiology. 47 (3): 235–47. doi:10.1007/s12275-008-0311-z. PMID 19557339. S2CID 23755913.
^ Chadwick, Bill. "Cleft Segment".
^ a b c d e f Dziak, R.P.; Bohnenstiehl, D.R.; Cowen, J.P.; Baker, E.T.; Rubin, K.H.; Haxel, J.H.; Fowler, M.J. (2007). "Rapid dike emplacement leads to eruptions and hydrothermal plume release during seafloor spreading events". Geology. 35 (7): 579–582. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..579D. doi:10.1130/g23476a.1.
^ Embley, R.W.; Chadwick, W.W.; Clague, D.; Stakes, D. (1999). "1998 Eruption of Axial Volcano: Multibeam anomalies and seafloor observations" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (23): 3425–3428. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.3425E. doi:10.1029/1999gl002328.
^ Chadwick, W.W. (2006). "Vertical deformation monitoring at Axial Seamount since its 1998 eruption using deep-sea pressure sensors" (PDF). Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 150 (1–3): 313–327. Bibcode:2006JVGR..150..313C. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.006.
^ "Axial Seamount – Index of Monthly Reports". July 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-01-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Global predictions from Hydrothermal Plume Surveys".
External links
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Magnetic striping on either side of the ridge helps date the rock and determine spreading rate and age of the plate.The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a mid-ocean spreading center and divergent plate boundary located off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America, named after Juan de Fuca. The ridge separates the Pacific Plate to the west and the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east. It runs generally northward, with a length of approximately 500 kilometres (310 mi). The ridge is a section of what remains from the larger Pacific-Farallon Ridge which used to be the primary spreading center of this region, driving the Farallon Plate underneath the North American Plate through the process of plate tectonics. Today, the Juan de Fuca Ridge pushes the Juan de Fuca Plate underneath the North American plate, forming the Cascadia Subduction Zone.","title":"Juan de Fuca Ridge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"USS Tuscarora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Tuscarora"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"sloop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloop-of-war"},{"link_name":"George Belknap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Belknap"},{"link_name":"submarine mountain range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_mountain_range"},{"link_name":"Cape Flattery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Flattery"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The first indications of a submarine ridge off the coast of the Pacific Northwest was discovered by the USS Tuscarora, a United States Navy sloop under the command of George Belknap, in 1874. Surveying a route for an undersea cable between the United States and Japan, the USS Tuscarora discovered a submarine mountain range approximately 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Cape Flattery, which they did not consider a major discovery because throughout their voyage they found other locations with a larger profile, making the ridge seem insignificant in comparison.[1]","title":"Discovery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Basalt_Lava_from_Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge_-_Smithsonian_Rock_Sample.jpg"},{"link_name":"Basalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt"},{"link_name":"pillow lava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillow_lava"},{"link_name":"Farallon Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_Plate"},{"link_name":"North American Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Plate"},{"link_name":"Juan de Fuca Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate"},{"link_name":"Cocos Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_Plate"},{"link_name":"Nazca Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca_Plate"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Basalt pillow lava from Juan de Fuca RidgeThe Juan de Fuca Ridge was at one point a part of the larger Pacific-Farallon ridge system. Approximately 30 million years ago, the Farallon Plate, being driven outwards by the Pacific-Farallon ridge, was pushed underneath the North American Plate, splitting what remained into the Juan de Fuca Plate to the North and the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate to the South.[2][3]","title":"Geologic history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OOI_Regional_Scale_Nodes_Locations.jpg"},{"link_name":"Axial Seamount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_Seamount"},{"link_name":"submarine volcano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_volcano"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"cabled observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabled_observatory"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Ocean Observatories Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Observatories_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"hydrothermal vents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"anaerobically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_organism"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Node locations of the OOI cabled observatory networkAxial Seamount is a submarine volcano located on the ridge at a depth of 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) below sea level, rising 700 metres (2,300 ft) above the average ridge height.[4] Axial is the most active volcano in the northeastern Pacific basin, and an underwater cabled observatory has been installed there as a part of the National Science Foundation's Ocean Observatories Initiative, making it one of the best studied volcanoes along mid-ocean ridges globally.[4][5]The Endeavour segment in the northern end of the ridge is another active and highly studied region. Sharp chemical and thermal contrasts, high levels of seismic activity, dense biological communities, and unique hydrothermal systems all make the segment a primary focus of research.[6]Some of the most intense and most active hydrothermal vents are located along the Endeavour segment, with more than 800 individual known chimneys within the ridge's central region, and a total of five major hydrothermal fields along the ridge.[7] These chimneys release large amounts of sulphur-rich minerals into the water, which allow bacteria to oxidize organic compounds and metabolize anaerobically.[8] This allows for a diverse ecosystem of organisms to exist in the low-oxygen conditions near the seafloor around the ridge.","title":"Notable features"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axial_Seamount_bathymetry.jpg"},{"link_name":"dike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(geology)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"sheeted dike layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheeted_dyke_complex"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Bathymetric diagram of the Axial Seamount, showing the 1998 eruption and segmentation between the CoAxial, Axial, and Vance segments of the ridgeThe first documented eruption on the Juan de Fuca Ridge took place on the Cleft segment in 1986 and 1987. Hydrothermal megaplumes indicated a large rifting event, releasing hydrothermal fluids as a result of lavas being extruded from a dike.[9] A majority of the eruptions along the ridge are dike injection events, where molten rock is extruded between cracks in the crust's sheeted dike layer. Typically eruptive events can be predicted, as they are preceded by large earthquake swarms in the region.A significant event took place in June 1993, lasting 24 days at the CoAxial segment. Cruises deployed as a result of the eruption sampled event plumes, cooling lava flows, and discovered microbial communities living on the seafloor around the ridge.[10]In February 1996, an event consisting of 4,093 earthquakes, lasting 34 days was recorded at the Axial Volcano, yielding similar scientific results to the 1993 eruption.[10]In January 1998 an event consisting of 8,247 earthquakes lasted 11 days at Axial Seamount.[10] Lava was released from the caldera of the volcano, flowing down the southern side of the mountain, creating a sheet flow over 3 km long and 800m wide.[11] This was the first time an underwater eruption had been monitored in-situ in real-time.In June 1999, 1,863 earthquakes were recorded over 5 days, and a hydrothermal temperature increase was observed at the Main Endeavour segment.[10]In September 2001, 14,215 earthquakes were detected over a 25-day period in the Middle Valley segment.[10]Researchers at Oregon State University suggested the Axial Seamount had an eruption interval of approximately 16 years, which would place the next major Axial eruption in 2014.[12] In 2011, during a dive on the seamount, new lava flows were discovered and some instruments had been buried in lava flows, indicating the volcano had erupted since the last expedition to the ridge. This is considered the first successful forecast of a seamount eruption. The caldera floor dropped by more than 2 meters after the eruption, and the rate at which it inflates as Axial's magma chamber refills can be used to once again predict the next eruption.[13]","title":"Eruptions and earthquakes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"Juan de Fuca Plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate"},{"link_name":"Cascadia subduction zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone"},{"link_name":"strain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"massive earthquakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake"},{"link_name":"magnitude 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale"}],"text":"The ridge is a medium rate spreading center, moving outwards at a rate of approximately 6 centimetres (2.4 in) per year.[14] Tectonic activity along the ridge is monitored primarily with the U.S. Navy's Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) array of hydrophones, allowing for real time detection of earthquakes and eruptive events.[10]The Juan de Fuca Plate is being pushed east underneath the North American Plate, forming what is known as the Cascadia subduction zone off the coast of the Pacific Northwest. The plate does not subduct smoothly and can become 'locked' with the North American plate. When this happens, strain builds up until the contact suddenly slips, triggering massive earthquakes up to or greater than magnitude 9. Major earthquakes along this zone occur on average every 550 years and can have major impacts on the physical structure of the North American continent and seafloor.","title":"Tectonic activity"}]
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[{"image_text":"Location of the Juan de Fuca ridge off the coast of North America. Magnetic striping on either side of the ridge helps date the rock and determine spreading rate and age of the plate.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Magnetic_anomalies_off_west_coast_of_North_America.gif/220px-Magnetic_anomalies_off_west_coast_of_North_America.gif"},{"image_text":"Basalt pillow lava from Juan de Fuca Ridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Basalt_Lava_from_Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge_-_Smithsonian_Rock_Sample.jpg/220px-Basalt_Lava_from_Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge_-_Smithsonian_Rock_Sample.jpg"},{"image_text":"Node locations of the OOI cabled observatory network","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/OOI_Regional_Scale_Nodes_Locations.jpg/307px-OOI_Regional_Scale_Nodes_Locations.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bathymetric diagram of the Axial Seamount, showing the 1998 eruption and segmentation between the CoAxial, Axial, and Vance segments of the ridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Axial_Seamount_bathymetry.jpg/220px-Axial_Seamount_bathymetry.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Accretion (geology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_(geology)"},{"title":"Axial Seamount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_Seamount"},{"title":"Cascadia Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_Channel"},{"title":"Explorer Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_Ridge"},{"title":"Forearc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forearc"},{"title":"Geology of the Pacific Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Pacific_Northwest"},{"title":"Gorda Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorda_Ridge"},{"title":"Overlapping spreading centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overlapping_spreading_centers"}]
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[{"reference":"Cummings, Henry (1874). Cruise of the U.S.S. \"Tuscarora\". pp. 25–27.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Menard, H.W. (1978). \"Fragmentation of the Farallon plate by pivoting subduction\". Journal of Geology. 86 (1): 99–110. Bibcode:1978JG.....86...99M. doi:10.1086/649658. S2CID 130003124.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978JG.....86...99M","url_text":"1978JG.....86...99M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F649658","url_text":"10.1086/649658"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130003124","url_text":"130003124"}]},{"reference":"Lonsdale, P.F. (1991). \"Structural patterns of the Pacific floor offshore of peninsular California\". Marine and Petroleum Geology. 47: 87–125.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Axial Seamount\". PMEL Earth-Ocean Interactions Program. NOAA. Retrieved 30 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/axial_site.html","url_text":"\"Axial Seamount\""}]},{"reference":"\"Interactive Oceans – Axial Seamount\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2017-06-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120307085615/http://www.ooi.washington.edu/story/Axial+Seamount","url_text":"\"Interactive Oceans – Axial Seamount\""},{"url":"http://www.ooi.washington.edu/story/Axial+Seamount","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kelley, D.S.; Carbotte, S.M.; Caress, D.W.; Clague, D.A.; Delaney, J.R.; Gill, J.B.; Hadaway, H.; Holden, J.F.; Hooft, E.E.E. (2012). \"Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge\". Oceanography. 25. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2012.03.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzanne_Carbotte","url_text":"Carbotte, S.M."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2012.03","url_text":"\"Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2012.03","url_text":"10.5670/oceanog.2012.03"}]},{"reference":"Clague, DA; Caress; Thompson; Calarco; Holden; Butterfield (2008). \"Abundance and distribution of hydrothermal chimneys and mounds on the Endeavour Ridge determined by 1-m resolution AUV multibeam mapping surveys\". Earth and Space Science News. 2008: V41B–2079. Bibcode:2008AGUFM.V41B2079C.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008AGUFM.V41B2079C","url_text":"2008AGUFM.V41B2079C"}]},{"reference":"Huaiyang, Zhou; Li; Peng; Wang; Meng (2009). \"Microbial diversity of a sulfide black smoker in main endeavour hydrothermal vent field, Juan de Fuca Ridge\". The Journal of Microbiology. 47 (3): 235–47. doi:10.1007/s12275-008-0311-z. PMID 19557339. S2CID 23755913.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12275-008-0311-z","url_text":"10.1007/s12275-008-0311-z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19557339","url_text":"19557339"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23755913","url_text":"23755913"}]},{"reference":"Chadwick, Bill. \"Cleft Segment\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/geology/cleft.html","url_text":"\"Cleft Segment\""}]},{"reference":"Dziak, R.P.; Bohnenstiehl, D.R.; Cowen, J.P.; Baker, E.T.; Rubin, K.H.; Haxel, J.H.; Fowler, M.J. (2007). \"Rapid dike emplacement leads to eruptions and hydrothermal plume release during seafloor spreading events\". Geology. 35 (7): 579–582. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..579D. doi:10.1130/g23476a.1.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/dzia2986/dzia2986.shtml","url_text":"\"Rapid dike emplacement leads to eruptions and hydrothermal plume release during seafloor spreading events\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Geo....35..579D","url_text":"2007Geo....35..579D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2Fg23476a.1","url_text":"10.1130/g23476a.1"}]},{"reference":"Embley, R.W.; Chadwick, W.W.; Clague, D.; Stakes, D. (1999). \"1998 Eruption of Axial Volcano: Multibeam anomalies and seafloor observations\" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (23): 3425–3428. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.3425E. doi:10.1029/1999gl002328.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/staff/chadwick/pubs/Embley_1999_GRL.pdf","url_text":"\"1998 Eruption of Axial Volcano: Multibeam anomalies and seafloor observations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999GeoRL..26.3425E","url_text":"1999GeoRL..26.3425E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1029%2F1999gl002328","url_text":"10.1029/1999gl002328"}]},{"reference":"Chadwick, W.W. (2006). \"Vertical deformation monitoring at Axial Seamount since its 1998 eruption using deep-sea pressure sensors\" (PDF). Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 150 (1–3): 313–327. Bibcode:2006JVGR..150..313C. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.006.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/staff/chadwick/pubs/Chadwick_2006_Axial_JVGR.pdf","url_text":"\"Vertical deformation monitoring at Axial Seamount since its 1998 eruption using deep-sea pressure sensors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JVGR..150..313C","url_text":"2006JVGR..150..313C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvolgeores.2005.07.006","url_text":"10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.006"}]},{"reference":"\"Axial Seamount – Index of Monthly Reports\". July 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-01-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120117064635/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1301-021&volpage=var","url_text":"\"Axial Seamount – Index of Monthly Reports\""}]},{"reference":"\"Global predictions from Hydrothermal Plume Surveys\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/PlumeStudies/GlobalPredictions.html","url_text":"\"Global predictions from Hydrothermal Plume Surveys\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svay_Rieng_Province
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Svay Rieng province
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["1 Districts and municipalities","1.1 Religion","2 Geography","3 Culture","4 Notable people","5 References","6 External links"]
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Coordinates: 11°4′N 105°49′E / 11.067°N 105.817°E / 11.067; 105.817Province in Cambodia
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Province in CambodiaSvay Rieng
ស្វាយរៀងProvinceSvay Rieng Provinceខេត្តស្វាយរៀងBavet
SealMap of Cambodia highlighting Svay RiengCoordinates: 11°4′N 105°49′E / 11.067°N 105.817°E / 11.067; 105.817Country CambodiaProvincial status1907CapitalSvay RiengLargest cityBavetGovernment • GovernorPeng Pouthisa (CPP) • National Assembly5 / 125
Area • Total2,966 km2 (1,145 sq mi) • Rank21stPopulation (2019) • Total 525,497 • Rank13th • Density177/km2 (460/sq mi) • Rank6thTime zoneUTC+07:00 (ICT)Dialing code+855ISO 3166 codeKH-20
This article contains Khmer text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Khmer script.
Svay Rieng (Khmer: ស្វាយរៀង, UNGEGN: Svay Riĕng , lit. 'The Mango's Range') is a province (khaet) in Cambodia. Located in the southeast, the province juts into Vietnam (Long An and Tây Ninh), which surrounds it to the north, east and south. The only other Cambodian province to border Svay Rieng is Prey Veng. The capital is Svay Rieng while the largest city is Bavet, which is the international border between Cambodia and Vietnam.
Districts and municipalities
The province is subdivided into 6 districts and 2 municipalities.
ISO code
District
Khmer
20-01
Chantrea
ស្រុកចន្ទ្រា
20-02
Kampong Rou
ស្រុកកំពង់រោទិ៍
20-03
Rumduol
ស្រុករំដួល
20-04
Romeas Haek
ស្រុករមាសហែក
20-05
Svay Chrum
ស្រុកស្វាយជ្រំ
20-06
Svay Rieng Municipality
ក្រុងស្វាយរៀង
20-07
Svay Teab
ស្រុកស្វាយទាប
20-08
Bavet Municipality
ក្រុងបាវិត
These 6 districts and 2 municipalities are subdivided into 84 khums and 690 phums.
Religion
Religion in Svay Rieng (2019 census)
Buddhism (99.8%) Islam (0.1%) Christianity (0.1%) Animism and Other religions (0.1%)
The state religion is Theravada Buddhism. More than 99.8% of the people in Svay Rieng are Buddhists, It's the second most Buddhist province in the country. Chams have been practicing Islam for hundreds of years. A small percentage follow Christianity.
Geography
The province projects into Vietnam and is referred to as the Parrot's Beak (Vietnamese: Mỏ Vẹt).
Culture
Dance
Svay Rieng province is the birthplace of the Cambodian coconut dance. It originated around 1960 in Romeas Haek District. The dance is a performance with coconuts involving men and women.
Notable people
U Sam Ouer, poet and former UN delegate
Khieu Samphan, former president and convicted war criminal
Thun Sophea, kickboxer
References
^ "General Population Census of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2019 – Final Results" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics. Ministry of Planning. 26 January 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
^ "Final General Population Census 2019-English.pdf" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics Ministry of planning. October 2020.
^ Titthara, M. (2002, December). Nuts About Dancing. Leisure Cambodia. Retrieved August 15, 2020, from http://www.leisurecambodia.com/news/detail.php?id=67
External links
Provincial resources
Official tourist site
Places adjacent to Svay Rieng province
Tây Ninh province, Vietnam
Prey Veng province
Svay Rieng province
Long An province, Vietnam
vte Svay Rieng provinceSvay RiengDistricts
Bavet Municipality (city)
Chanthrea
Kampong Rou
Romdoul
Romeas Haek
Svay Chrom
Svay Rieng Municipality
city
Svay Theab
vteProvinces of CambodiaAutonomous municipality
Phnom Penh
Provinces
Banteay Meanchey
Battambang
Kampong Cham
Kampong Chhnang
Kampong Speu
Kampong Thom
Kampot
Kandal
Kep
Koh Kong
Kratié
Mondulkiri
Oddar Meanchey
Pailin
Pursat
Preah Sihanouk
Preah Vihear
Prey Veng
Ratanakiri
Siem Reap
Stung Treng
Svay Rieng
Takeo
Tboung Khmum
This Cambodian location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty
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London Naval Treaty
|
["1 Conference","2 Terms","3 Aftermath","4 See also","5 Notes","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
|
1930 international arms control treaty
For the 1936 treaty, see Second London Naval Treaty.
London Naval TreatyInternational Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval ArmamentMembers of the United States delegation en route to the conference, January 1930TypeArms controlContextWorld War ISigned22 April 1930 (1930-04-22)LocationLondonEffective27 October 1930 (1930-10-27)Expiration31 December 1936 (1936-12-31) (Except for Part IV)Negotiators
Henry L. Stimson
Ramsay MacDonald
André Tardieu
Dino Grandi
Wakatsuki Reijirō
Signatories
Herbert Hoover
George V
Gaston Doumergue
Victor Emmanuel III
Hirohito
Parties
United States
British Empire
French Third Republic
Kingdom of Italy
Empire of Japan
DepositaryLeague of NationsLanguageEnglish
The London Naval Treaty, officially the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament, was an agreement between the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States that was signed on 22 April 1930. Seeking to address issues not covered in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which had created tonnage limits for each nation's surface warships, the new agreement regulated submarine warfare, further controlled cruisers and destroyers, and limited naval shipbuilding.
Ratifications were exchanged in London on 27 October 1930, and the treaty went into effect on the same day, but it was largely ineffective.
The treaty was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 6 February 1931.
Conference
Menu and List of Official Toasts at formal dinner which opened the London Naval Conference of 1930
The signing of the treaty remains inextricably intertwined with the ongoing negotiations, which began before the official start of the London Naval Conference of 1930, evolved throughout the progress of the official conference schedule, and continued for years afterward.
Terms
The treaty was seen as an extension of the conditions agreed in the Washington Naval Treaty, an effort to prevent a naval arms race after World War I.
The conference was a revival of the efforts that had gone into the 1927 Geneva Naval Conference at which the various negotiators had been unable to reach agreement because of bad feelings between the British and the American governments. The problem may have initially arisen from discussions held between US President President Herbert Hoover and UK Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald at Rapidan Camp in 1929, but a range of factors affected tensions, which were exacerbated by the other nations at the conference.
Under the treaty, the standard displacement of submarines was restricted to 2,000 tons, with each major power being allowed to keep three submarines of up to 2,800 tons except that France was allowed to keep one. The submarine gun caliber was also restricted for the first time to 6.1 in (155 mm) with one exception, an already-constructed French submarine being allowed to retain 8 in (203 mm) guns. That put an end to the 'big-gun' submarine concept pioneered by the British M class and the French Surcouf.
The treaty also established a distinction between cruisers armed with guns up to 6.1 in (155 mm) ("light cruisers" in unofficial parlance) from those with guns up to 8 in (203 mm) ("heavy cruisers"). The number of heavy cruisers was limited: Britain was permitted 15 with a total tonnage of 147,000, the Americans 18 totalling 180,000, and the Japanese 12 totalling 108,000 tons. For light cruisers, no numbers were specified but tonnage limits were 143,500 tons for the Americans, 192,200 tons for the British, and 100,450 tons for the Japanese.
Destroyer tonnage was also limited, with destroyers being defined as ships of less than 1,850 tons and guns up to 5.1 in (130 mm). The Americans and the British were permitted up to 150,000 tons and Japan 105,500 tons.
Article 22 relating to submarine warfare declared international law applied to them as to surface vessels. Also, merchant vessels that demonstrated "persistent refusal to stop" or "active resistance" could be sunk without the ship's crew and passengers being first delivered to a "place of safety."
Article 8 outlined smaller surface combatants. Ships between 600 and 2,000 tons, with guns not exceeding 6 in (152 mm) with a maximum of four gun mounts above 3 in (76 mm) without torpedo armament and up to 20 kn (37 km/h), were exempt from tonnage limitations. The maximum specifications were designed around the French Bougainville-class avisos, which were in construction at the time.
Warships under 600 tons were also completely exempt. That led to creative attempts to use the unlimited nature of the exemption with the Italian Spica-class torpedo boats, Japanese Chidori-class torpedo boats, French La Melpomène-class torpedo boats and British Kingfisher-class sloops.
Aftermath
The next phase of attempted naval arms control was the Second Geneva Naval Conference in 1932. That year, Italy "retired" two battleships, twelve cruisers, 25 destroyers and 12 submarines; in all, 130,000 tons of naval vessels were scrapped or put into reserve. Active negotiations among the other treaty signatories continued during the following years.
That was followed by the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.
See also
Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament
Washington Naval Treaty
Second London Naval Treaty – List of treaties signed in London.
Treaty of London – List of treaties signed in London.
May 15 Incident – attempted coup in Japan
Notes
^ John Maurer, and Christopher Bell, eds. At the crossroads between peace and war: the London Naval Conference in 1930 (Naval Institute Press, 2014).
^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 112, pp. 66–96.
^ Steiner, Zara S. (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933, pp. 587-591.
^ U.S. Department of State. "The London Naval Conference, 1930". Retrieved 20 March 2014.
^ "Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930". Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2006.
^ John, Jordan (13 September 2016). Warship 2016. Conway. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-1-84486-326-6.
^ "Italy Will Retire 130,000 tons of Navy; Two Battleships, All That She Owns, Are Included in the Sweeping Economy Move. Four New Cruisers to go Eight Old Ones, 25 Destroyers and 12 Submarines Also to Be Taken Out of Service". New York Times. 18 August 1932.
^ "Naval Men See Hull on the London Talks; Admiral Leigh and Commander Wilkinson Will Sail Today to Act as Advisers". New York Times. 9 June 1934.
Further reading
Baker, A. D. III (1989). "Battlefleets and Diplomacy: Naval Disarmament Between the Two World Wars". Warship International. XXVI (3): 217–255. ISSN 0043-0374.
Dingman, Roger. Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914–1922 (1976)
Goldstein, Erik, and John H. Maurer, eds. The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Taylor & Francis, 1994).
Maurer, John, and Christopher Bell, eds. At the Crossroads between Peace and War: The London Naval Conference in 1930 (Naval Institute Press, 2014).
Redford, Duncan. "Collective Security and Internal Dissent: The Navy League's Attempts to Develop a New Policy towards British Naval Power between 1919 and the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty." History 96.321 (2011): 48–67.
Roskill, Stephen. Naval Policy Between Wars. Volume I: The Period of Anglo-American Antagonism 1919–1929 (Seaforth Publishing, 2016).
Steiner, Zara S. (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822114-2; OCLC 58853793
External links
Text of the treaty
vteInterwar Naval Arms Limitation
Washington Treaty (1922)
Geneva Conference (1927)
London Treaty (1930)
Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments
Anglo-German Agreement (1935)
London Treaty (1936)
vteHerbert Hoover
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Cabinet
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Judicial appointments
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Other events
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Books
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Elections
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Category
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|
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That led to creative attempts to use the unlimited nature of the exemption with the Italian Spica-class torpedo boats, Japanese Chidori-class torpedo boats, French La Melpomène-class torpedo boats and British Kingfisher-class sloops.[6]","title":"Terms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second Geneva Naval Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Naval_Conference"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Second London Naval Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty"}],"text":"The next phase of attempted naval arms control was the Second Geneva Naval Conference in 1932. That year, Italy \"retired\" two battleships, twelve cruisers, 25 destroyers and 12 submarines; in all, 130,000 tons of naval vessels were scrapped or put into reserve.[7] Active negotiations among the other treaty signatories continued during the following years.[8]That was followed by the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936.","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933, pp. 587","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rJ9JJIVmFpkC&q=The+Lights+that+Failed:+European+International+History+1919-1933"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"The London Naval Conference, 1930\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/london-naval-conf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120731025604/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84486-326-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-326-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Italy Will Retire 130,000 tons of Navy; Two Battleships, All That She Owns, Are Included in the Sweeping Economy Move. Four New Cruisers to go [plus] Eight Old Ones, 25 Destroyers and 12 Submarines Also to Be Taken Out of Service\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/1932/08/18/archives/italy-will-retire-130000-tons-of-navy-two-battleships-all-that-she.html?sq=burzagli+ernesto&scp=1&st=p"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"\"Naval Men See Hull on the London Talks; Admiral Leigh and Commander Wilkinson Will Sail Today to Act as Advisers\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/1934/06/09/archives/naval-men-see-hull-on-the-london-talks-admiral-leigh-and-commander.html"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"}],"text":"^ John Maurer, and Christopher Bell, eds. At the crossroads between peace and war: the London Naval Conference in 1930 (Naval Institute Press, 2014).\n\n^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 112, pp. 66–96.\n\n^ Steiner, Zara S. (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933, pp. 587-591.\n\n^ U.S. Department of State. \"The London Naval Conference, 1930\". Retrieved 20 March 2014.\n\n^ \"Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930\". Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2006.\n\n^ John, Jordan (13 September 2016). Warship 2016. Conway. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-1-84486-326-6.\n\n^ \"Italy Will Retire 130,000 tons of Navy; Two Battleships, All That She Owns, Are Included in the Sweeping Economy Move. Four New Cruisers to go [plus] Eight Old Ones, 25 Destroyers and 12 Submarines Also to Be Taken Out of Service\". New York Times. 18 August 1932.\n\n^ \"Naval Men See Hull on the London Talks; Admiral Leigh and Commander Wilkinson Will Sail Today to Act as Advisers\". New York Times. 9 June 1934.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0043-0374","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374"},{"link_name":"The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rJ9JJIVmFpkC&q=The+Lights+that+Failed:+European+International+History+1919-1933"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-822114-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-822114-2"},{"link_name":"OCLC 58853793","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/58853793"}],"text":"Baker, A. D. III (1989). \"Battlefleets and Diplomacy: Naval Disarmament Between the Two World Wars\". Warship International. XXVI (3): 217–255. ISSN 0043-0374.\nDingman, Roger. Power in the Pacific: The Origins of Naval Arms Limitation, 1914–1922 (1976)\nGoldstein, Erik, and John H. Maurer, eds. The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Taylor & Francis, 1994).\nMaurer, John, and Christopher Bell, eds. At the Crossroads between Peace and War: The London Naval Conference in 1930 (Naval Institute Press, 2014).\nRedford, Duncan. \"Collective Security and Internal Dissent: The Navy League's Attempts to Develop a New Policy towards British Naval Power between 1919 and the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty.\" History 96.321 (2011): 48–67.\nRoskill, Stephen. Naval Policy Between Wars. Volume I: The Period of Anglo-American Antagonism 1919–1929 (Seaforth Publishing, 2016).\nSteiner, Zara S. (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822114-2; OCLC 58853793","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Menu and List of Official Toasts at formal dinner which opened the London Naval Conference of 1930","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Londonnavalconference2.jpg/220px-Londonnavalconference2.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/J._Ramsay_MacDonald_LCCN2014715885_%28cropped%29.jpg/100px-J._Ramsay_MacDonald_LCCN2014715885_%28cropped%29.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_for_the_Limitation_of_Naval_Armament"},{"title":"Washington Naval Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty"},{"title":"Second London Naval Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty"},{"title":"Treaty of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"May 15 Incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_15_Incident"}]
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[{"reference":"U.S. Department of State. \"The London Naval Conference, 1930\". Retrieved 20 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/london-naval-conf","url_text":"\"The London Naval Conference, 1930\""}]},{"reference":"\"Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930\". Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120731025604/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument","url_text":"\"Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930\""},{"url":"https://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"John, Jordan (13 September 2016). Warship 2016. Conway. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-1-84486-326-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84486-326-6","url_text":"978-1-84486-326-6"}]},{"reference":"Baker, A. D. III (1989). \"Battlefleets and Diplomacy: Naval Disarmament Between the Two World Wars\". Warship International. XXVI (3): 217–255. ISSN 0043-0374.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374","url_text":"0043-0374"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rJ9JJIVmFpkC&q=The+Lights+that+Failed:+European+International+History+1919-1933","external_links_name":"The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933, pp. 587"},{"Link":"https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/london-naval-conf","external_links_name":"\"The London Naval Conference, 1930\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120731025604/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument","external_links_name":"\"Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, (Part IV, Art. 22, relating to submarine warfare). London, 22 April 1930\""},{"Link":"https://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/310?OpenDocument","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1932/08/18/archives/italy-will-retire-130000-tons-of-navy-two-battleships-all-that-she.html?sq=burzagli+ernesto&scp=1&st=p","external_links_name":"\"Italy Will Retire 130,000 tons of Navy; Two Battleships, All That She Owns, Are Included in the Sweeping Economy Move. Four New Cruisers to go [plus] Eight Old Ones, 25 Destroyers and 12 Submarines Also to Be Taken Out of Service\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1934/06/09/archives/naval-men-see-hull-on-the-london-talks-admiral-leigh-and-commander.html","external_links_name":"\"Naval Men See Hull on the London Talks; Admiral Leigh and Commander Wilkinson Will Sail Today to Act as Advisers\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374","external_links_name":"0043-0374"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rJ9JJIVmFpkC&q=The+Lights+that+Failed:+European+International+History+1919-1933","external_links_name":"The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933."},{"Link":"http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/58853793","external_links_name":"OCLC 58853793"},{"Link":"http://www.navweaps.com/index_tech/tech-089_London_Treaty_1930.php","external_links_name":"Text of the treaty"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/144217678","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007496529305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ko2011654114&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StarTalk_(podcast)
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StarTalk (podcast)
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["1 Television series","2 See also","3 References"]
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Podcast hosted by Neil DeGrasse Tyson
PodcastStarTalk RadioPresentationHosted byNeil deGrasse TysonGenrePopular science, comedyProductionProductionCurved Light ProductionsTheme music composed byRoy HarterNo. of seasons13 (as of July 2022)No. of episodes767 (as of 12 July 2022)PublicationOriginal releaseJune 1, 2009 (2009-06-01)RelatedAdaptationsStarTalk (American talk show)Websitestartalkradio.net
StarTalk is a podcast on science, comedy, and popular culture hosted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, with various comic and celebrity co-hosts and frequent guests from the worlds of science and entertainment. Past co-hosts have included Colin Jost, Lynne Koplitz, Leighann Lord, Eugene Mirman, Chuck Nice, John Oliver, and Kristen Schaal. Guests have included astronaut Buzz Aldrin, actor Morgan Freeman, George Takei, comedian Joan Rivers, Arianna Huffington, YouTuber Sam Denby, Richard Dawkins and writer Mary Roach. StarTalk has a segment called Cosmic Queries, in which listeners send in questions about the universe to be answered on the show.
In May 2014, Rolling Stone ranked StarTalk at number 13 on its list of "The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now".
On February 29, 2016, it was announced that there would be a spinoff podcast, StarTalk All-Stars, whose rotating hosts will be former StarTalk guests. In addition, the regular StarTalk comedy co-hosts will appear.
Starting on February 1, 2017, a second spinoff, Playing with Science, was launched to discuss the science of sports. It is hosted by Gary O'Reilly and frequent StarTalk co-host Chuck Nice.
StarTalk is partially funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation.
As an homage to Jack Horkheimer, an astronomer who hosted the weekly television show Star Gazers on PBS, Tyson frequently ends his podcast with Horkheimer's trademark sign-off "Keep looking up!"
Television series
Main article: StarTalk (U.S. talk show)
In January 2015, the Washington Post reported that a late-night talk show called Star Talk, hosted by Tyson, would air on the National Geographic Channel starting in April 2015. On July 29, 2015, it was announced that the show was renewed for a second season.
As of February 4, 2016, audio recordings of all twenty TV episodes have subsequently aired as podcast episodes.
See also
Science communication
References
^ "About Us". StarTalk Radio Show with Neil deGrasse Tyson. Curved Light Productions.
^ "StarTalk Radio Show by Neil deGrasse Tyson".
^ "Listen Up: The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now". Rolling Stone. May 8, 2014.
^ BREAKING NEWS: StarTalk Radio Announces New Spin-Off Show: StarTalk All-Stars
^ Welcome to Playing with Science
^ "Project Details: StarTalk Radio Show". Informal Science. National Science Foundation.
^ Tyson, Neil deGrasse (11 June 2015). "Reddit AMA 11 June 2015". Reddit. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
^ Berenson, Tessa (January 8, 2015). "Neil deGrasse Tyson Is Getting His Own Talk Show". Time. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
^ Breaking News: StarTalk TV Season 2 Premiere Announcement
vteNeil deGrasse TysonBooks
Death by Black Hole: And Other Cosmic Quandaries (2007)
The Pluto Files: The Rise and Fall of America's Favorite Planet (2009)
Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier (2012)
Welcome to the Universe: An Astrophysical Tour (2016)
Astrophysics for People in a Hurry (2017)
Accessory to War: The Unspoken Alliance Between Astrophysics and the Military (2018)
TV shows
400 Years of the Telescope (2009)
Nova ScienceNow (2006–2011)
The Universe (2005–2008)
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey (2014)
StarTalk (2015–2019)
Cosmos: Possible Worlds (2020)
Other
StarTalk (podcast) (2009–present)
13123 Tyson
"Flatline"
Manhattanhenge
This article about internet radio, web series, streaming television or podcasting is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"podcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcast"},{"link_name":"Neil deGrasse Tyson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_deGrasse_Tyson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Colin Jost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Jost"},{"link_name":"Lynne Koplitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynne_Koplitz"},{"link_name":"Leighann Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leighann_Lord"},{"link_name":"Eugene Mirman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Mirman"},{"link_name":"Chuck Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Nice"},{"link_name":"John Oliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Oliver_(comedian)"},{"link_name":"Kristen Schaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristen_Schaal"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Buzz Aldrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin"},{"link_name":"Morgan Freeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Freeman"},{"link_name":"George Takei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Takei"},{"link_name":"Joan Rivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Rivers"},{"link_name":"Arianna Huffington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianna_Huffington"},{"link_name":"Sam Denby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Denby"},{"link_name":"Richard Dawkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins"},{"link_name":"Mary Roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Roach"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"Comedy Podcasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_comedy_podcasts"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rs-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gary O'Reilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_O%27Reilly"},{"link_name":"Chuck Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Nice"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nsf-6"},{"link_name":"Jack Horkheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Horkheimer"},{"link_name":"Star Gazers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Gazers"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"PodcastStarTalk is a podcast on science, comedy, and popular culture hosted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, with various comic and celebrity co-hosts and frequent guests from the worlds of science and entertainment.[1] Past co-hosts have included Colin Jost, Lynne Koplitz, Leighann Lord, Eugene Mirman, Chuck Nice, John Oliver, and Kristen Schaal.[2] Guests have included astronaut Buzz Aldrin, actor Morgan Freeman, George Takei, comedian Joan Rivers, Arianna Huffington, YouTuber Sam Denby, Richard Dawkins and writer Mary Roach. StarTalk has a segment called Cosmic Queries, in which listeners send in questions about the universe to be answered on the show.In May 2014, Rolling Stone ranked StarTalk at number 13 on its list of \"The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now\".[3]On February 29, 2016, it was announced that there would be a spinoff podcast, StarTalk All-Stars, whose rotating hosts will be former StarTalk guests. In addition, the regular StarTalk comedy co-hosts will appear.[4]Starting on February 1, 2017, a second spinoff, Playing with Science, was launched to discuss the science of sports. It is hosted by Gary O'Reilly and frequent StarTalk co-host Chuck Nice.[5]StarTalk is partially funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation.[6]As an homage to Jack Horkheimer, an astronomer who hosted the weekly television show Star Gazers on PBS, Tyson frequently ends his podcast with Horkheimer's trademark sign-off \"Keep looking up!\"[7]","title":"StarTalk (podcast)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"Star Talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StarTalk_(2015_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"National Geographic Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-berenson-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-season2-9"}],"text":"In January 2015, the Washington Post reported that a late-night talk show called Star Talk, hosted by Tyson, would air on the National Geographic Channel starting in April 2015.[8] On July 29, 2015, it was announced that the show was renewed for a second season.[9]As of February 4, 2016, audio recordings of all twenty TV episodes have subsequently aired as podcast episodes.","title":"Television series"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Science communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_communication"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"About Us\". StarTalk Radio Show with Neil deGrasse Tyson. Curved Light Productions.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.startalkradio.net/about-us/","url_text":"\"About Us\""}]},{"reference":"\"StarTalk Radio Show by Neil deGrasse Tyson\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.startalkradio.net/shows-archive/","url_text":"\"StarTalk Radio Show by Neil deGrasse Tyson\""}]},{"reference":"\"Listen Up: The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now\". Rolling Stone. May 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/pictures/listen-up-the-20-best-comedy-podcasts-right-now-20140508/13-startalk-radio-0282329","url_text":"\"Listen Up: The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone","url_text":"Rolling Stone"}]},{"reference":"\"Project Details: StarTalk Radio Show\". Informal Science. National Science Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"http://informalscience.org/projects/ic-000-000-000-108/StarTalk_Radio_Show","url_text":"\"Project Details: StarTalk Radio Show\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation","url_text":"National Science Foundation"}]},{"reference":"Tyson, Neil deGrasse (11 June 2015). \"Reddit AMA 11 June 2015\". Reddit. Retrieved 13 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reddit.com/r/Art/comments/39fthj/i_am_neil_degrasse_tyson_an_astrophysicist_but_i/","url_text":"\"Reddit AMA 11 June 2015\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit","url_text":"Reddit"}]},{"reference":"Berenson, Tessa (January 8, 2015). \"Neil deGrasse Tyson Is Getting His Own Talk Show\". Time. Retrieved 12 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://time.com/3659253/neil-degrasse-tyson-show/","url_text":"\"Neil deGrasse Tyson Is Getting His Own Talk Show\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=StarTalk_(podcast)&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=StarTalk_(podcast)&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://startalkradio.net/","external_links_name":"startalkradio.net"},{"Link":"http://www.startalkradio.net/about-us/","external_links_name":"\"About Us\""},{"Link":"http://www.startalkradio.net/shows-archive/","external_links_name":"\"StarTalk Radio Show by Neil deGrasse Tyson\""},{"Link":"https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/pictures/listen-up-the-20-best-comedy-podcasts-right-now-20140508/13-startalk-radio-0282329","external_links_name":"\"Listen Up: The 20 Best Comedy Podcasts Right Now\""},{"Link":"http://www.startalkradio.net/breaking-news-startalk-radio-announces-new-spin-off-show-startalk-all-stars/","external_links_name":"BREAKING NEWS: StarTalk Radio Announces New Spin-Off Show: StarTalk All-Stars"},{"Link":"https://www.startalkradio.net/show/welcome-playing-science/","external_links_name":"Welcome to Playing with Science"},{"Link":"http://informalscience.org/projects/ic-000-000-000-108/StarTalk_Radio_Show","external_links_name":"\"Project Details: StarTalk Radio Show\""},{"Link":"https://www.reddit.com/r/Art/comments/39fthj/i_am_neil_degrasse_tyson_an_astrophysicist_but_i/","external_links_name":"\"Reddit AMA 11 June 2015\""},{"Link":"http://time.com/3659253/neil-degrasse-tyson-show/","external_links_name":"\"Neil deGrasse Tyson Is Getting His Own Talk Show\""},{"Link":"http://www.startalkradio.net/breaking-news-startalk-tv-season-2-premiere-announcement/","external_links_name":"Breaking News: StarTalk TV Season 2 Premiere Announcement"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=StarTalk_(podcast)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact_of_Territet
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Pact of Territet
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["1 Background","2 Rapprochement","3 The pact","4 Follow-up","5 New designs","6 Review of dynastic proposals","7 In historiography","8 See also","9 Footnotes","10 Further reading","11 External links"]
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Alfonso XIII (left/top) and Jaime III (right/bottom)
Pact of Territet (Spanish: El Pacto de Territet) was an attempt to mend the long-standing dynastic feud between two Spanish Borbón branches and their supporters, known as the Alfonsists and the Carlists. In September 1931 it was agreed between two competitive exiled claimants, posing as Alfonso XIII and Jaime III. The deal envisioned that a new Spanish constituent assembly would pronounce who should be the king, and both pretenders pledged to accept the verdict. It was also tacitly understood that the following king should be Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, descendant of the Alfonsist branch but supposed to embrace Carlist political principles. Following unexpected death of Jaime III the agreement was questioned by his Carlist successor, posing as Alfonso Carlos I; he demanded further declarations on part of the Alfonsists. As they failed to materialize, both branches stuck to their own principles and the deal was abandoned. In historiography there are doubts about details of the agreement, and some authors question its very existence.
Background
Carlist wars in art
In the 1830s the ruling Spanish house of Borbón suffered breakup, conditioned by two distinct visions of what the legitimate succession law was. The family got politically divided into two branches, the Alfonsists and the Carlists. The former got the upper hand and following a civil war – related also to other major cleavages – secured their rule in Madrid, while the latter went on exile. Alfonsism and Carlism became two political currents organized around loyalty to different Borbón branches, though there was also major ideological difference; the former embraced Liberalism, the latter opted for Traditionalism. The split continued up to the 20th century, with another civil war in the 1870s and a series of other minor violent conflicts. In the 1920s it seemed that Carlism was on its last legs, reduced to a minor political movement close to extinction. However, the fall of the Spanish monarchy in 1931 dramatically changed the setting. Suddenly also the Alfonsist branch found itself exiled from Spain, claiming the throne which no longer existed.
When the Second Spanish Republic was born, the Alfonsist dynastic head was the 45-year-old Alfonso de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena, who as king Alfonso XIII ruled Spain between 1886 and 1931 (furtherly referred as Don Alfonso). At the time he had 6 children, including 4 sons. His oldest son Alfonso de Borbón y Battenberg was declared Príncipe de Asturias, a traditional title reserved for the official successor to the throne, though he was physically impaired and there were some doubts as to his ability to rule. At the time the Carlist dynastic head was the 61-year-old Jaime de Borbón y Borbón-Parma, who inherited the claim from his late father in 1909 and was recognized by his followers as king Jaime III (furtherly referred as Don Jaime). He was not married, had no children and given his age and bachelor status, he was highly unlikely to have any descendants. The next-in-line to the Carlist throne was Don Jaime's paternal uncle, the 82-year-old Alfonso Carlos de Borbón y Austria-Este, who also had no children (furtherly referred as Don Alfonso Carlos). Hence, it was almost certain that the direct line of Carlist claimants would extinguish, probably with childless death of Don Alfonso Carlos first and then with the childless death of Don Jaime. It was not clear who would inherit the Carlist claim later.
republic declared, 1931
Both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime referred to each other as "cousin", though their family relation was distant; their great-grandparents were brothers and they had a common great-great-grandfather, the king of Spain Carlos IV. They maintained some correspondence, scarce and formal, but in correct tone; usually it was reduced to greetings related to various family events. However, there were also cases of somewhat warmer exchange, e.g. following the 1921 Annual disaster Don Jaime wrote that he was ready to join Don Alfonso's soldiers in Africa seeking revenge; Don Alfonso thanked him cordially and declared that the moment was not opportune. It is not clear whether before 1931 the two have ever met in person; except an awkward 1908 incident of unsure credibility, reportedly having taken place in France, theoretically they might have met outside Spain during grand events related to family life of European royals, like weddings or funerals, but no source confirms this. Don Alfonso and Don Alfonso Carlos maintained some more intense correspondence related to financial problems of the latter after the fall of Austro-Hungarian empire; in the 1920s the official Spanish diplomacy greatly assisted him in terms of ensuring safe status of his real estate in republican Austria.
Rapprochement
Don Alfonso on exile
Though for almost 100 years in a bitter dynastical feud, in 1931 the Alfonsists and the Carlists found themselves driven somewhat closer by their shared hostility towards the newly established republic. Also, sudden reduction of Don Alfonso to the status of an exile put him on similar footing to Don Jaime, which facilitated communication. All this tended to "weaken objections to the consideration of joint political activity with fusion as a possible final goal". Don Jaime was driven by the acute succession problem; Don Alfonso was desperate to "grab at anything which might boost the slender chance of a restoration". In both movements there were currents which supported opening talks on some sort of dynastical agreement, possibly even leading up to final reconciliation of the two branches. However, within both movements there were also currents vehemently opposed to any deal. Many Carlists were infuriated by an idea of a compromise with the hated liberal dynasty that generations of their forefathers fought (and died) to topple. In the Alfonsist ranks, not fully recovered from bewilderment and shock following the rapid fall of the monarchy, the opposition to any deal with the Carlists was less pronounced. However, there were also doubts about abandoning liberal principles for the sake of adopting ultra-reactionary features.
Having left Spain from the port of Valencia in April 1931 the former king Don Alfonso travelled by sea to Marseilles and then further on towards Paris. He set his residence in Fontainebleau, first in a hotel and then in a chateau, purchased soon afterwards. At that time Don Jaime, who usually shuttled between his palace in the Austrian Frohsdorf and his apartment in Paris, resided in the French capital. It is not clear whether the two have met in person in Paris prior to late summer of 1931. However, at one point in the spring of 1931 they decided to open talks on some sort of dynastic agreement; no source consulted provides information who initiated the negotiations. Both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime appointed their envoys, respectively Julio Dánvila Rivera and José Maria Gómez Pujadas. They met in late May 1931 in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, at the residence of a French legitmist Vicomtesse de la Gironde. As they found promising perspectives, Dánvila and Gómez Pujadas reported to their kings accordingly.
Don Jaime, 1920s
Direct correspondence between the two claimants followed before Don Jaime left Paris for his traditional summer residence in Frohsdorf. He formed an informal body, made of prestigious Carlists, who were consulted on the proposals. No details are known though it seems that basic principles of some consensus were agreed at the time; also a so-called Comité de Accíon, the body called to discuss would-be violent action against the republic, continued talks with the Alfonsists in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and San Sebastián. Don Jaime was reportedly strongly influenced by his secretary Francisco Melgar, Rafael de Olazábal and especially by Gómez Pujadas, who travelled to Frohsdorf to convince his king; they were allegedly from the onset determined to work towards a fusion and towards passing succession rights to the Alfonsist branch. It is not clear who in the direct entourage of Don Alfonso – apart from Dánvila – was pushing towards a deal; other of his negotiators named are Juan de la Cierva y Peñafiel and generals Miguel Ponte y Manso de Zúñiga and Luis Orgaz Yoldi. Further phone calls between Don Alfonso and Don Jaime followed. Details and drafting of a written document was left to Dánvila and Gómez.
The pact
Territet
Dánvila and Gómez agreed the text and having obtained approval of their monarchs they signed the draft in the Swiss locality of Territet on September 12, 1931; it was subject to later royal ratification.
The drafted agreement was titled Pacto de familia and formulated as 6 points, in which the signatories declared that:
1. they would not attempt to restore monarchy by force, they would instruct their supporters to work in the spirit of monarchist unity and that they would co-operate with any genuinely Spanish ("de orden puramente españolista") government to set up a Constituent Cortes
2. they would not attempt to re-enter Spain until a new constitution is agreed (they did not mean a constitution at the time discussed in the republican Cortes, to be adopted in December 1931)
3. they would not require all their supporters to follow the agreement, which is a family deal
4. they would accept any sovereign nominated by the Constituent Cortes ("Soberano hecho por las Cortes")
5. in case Don Alfonso is elected as king, Don Jaime would renounce his claim and ask Don Alfonso Carlos to follow suit
6. in case Don Jaime is elected as king, he would recognize all rights of Don Alfonso ("reconocerá la categoría, tratamiento y beneficios que correspondian as mi primo don Alfonso") and demand that his successor be nominated
Scholars claim it was tacitly assumed that Cortes would be corporatively organized and that it in case Don Jaime is elected, his successor would be the third son of Don Alfonso, Don Juan. In earlier correspondence Don Jaime declared he was ready to educate Don Juan, at that time 18-years-old, in principles of Traditionalism. The final paragraph stated – apart from grandiose references to prosperity of Spain – that the document was signed in two copies. The draft has not been made public.
By late September Don Jaime has returned to Paris. Don Alfonso visited him in his apartment on either September 22 or 23 (Don Jaime insisted that as he was the head of the family, Don Alfonso should visit him first), and Don Jaime re-visited Don Alfonso in his chateau in Fontainebleau on September 25, 1931. It is not clear whether they ratified the Territet draft; some scholars claim so, some claim otherwise and some do not take a firm stand, referring to a "supposedly signed" pact. Afterwards they issued a public statement, which declared common will to strengthen family relations, which before had been marked by political, though not personal discrepancies. The same document declared they would work jointly to build a common front, tasked to save Spain from anarchy and communism. In a later separate statement, issued by Don Jaime only, the author noted that "neither my cousin nor I have abdicated our rights, for this is simply a matter of political agreement with no other goal than the happiness of Spain". None of the public statements contained a reference to any family pact.
Don Jaime on his death bed
The second son of Don Alfonso (neither Príncipe de Asturias nor Don Juan) was supposed to visit his namesake Don Jaime in Paris next Sunday, on October 4, 1931. However, on October 2 Don Jaime died unexpectedly due to heart failure; none of the sources consulted suggests it was anyhow related to talks on dynastical succession. The funeral mass in Paris was attended by Don Alfonso and his entire family, the funeral in Tenuta Reale estate near Viareggio was attended by Don Alfonso Carlos.
Follow-up
Don Alfonso Carlos
With death of Don Jaime the Carlist claim passed on Don Alfonso Carlos, resident in Vienna. Don Alfonso immediately sent him a letter and included the text of the Pact of Territet, with signatures of both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime at the bottom. It is not clear whether this was the moment when the octogenarian learnt the exact terms of the agreement or whether he had known them before. In the summer of 1931 he corresponded with Don Jaime on ongoing talks and was supportive of some dynastic agreement. However, he reportedly remained skeptical about details and according to his own later account he refused to sign or even support the draft at one stage of the negotiations. When responding to Don Alfonso on October 7 Don Alfonso Carlos expressed satisfaction that the pact signed would benefit Spain but remained ambiguous whether he was prepared to accept it. In early December 1931 in a private letter to one of his Carlist correspondents he approvingly referred to a joint monarchic pact intended to save Spain from communism and hinted at an interview (by telephone?) he had had with Don Alfonso. However, the content of the interview is not clear and it is not known whether Don Alfonso Carlos declared himself disposed towards endorsing the pact.
In late 1931 both claimants appointed their delegates, which met and held talks in Bordeaux. However, Don Alfonso Carlos started to introduce own conditions and demanded that Don Juan, if supposed to be the agreed Príncipe de Asturias, makes a public and official promise that he would rule in line with Traditionalist principles. On January 6, 1932, a statement was published on behalf of the two Alfonsos, though it is not clear whether indeed they signed it. In its first point it declared the will to form a common monarchist formation, which would work towards restoration of the monarchy. In the second point it declared that their followers were not necessarily obliged to follow such strategy. The third one declared Don Alfonso Carlos the head of the House of Borbón and the acting regent, which in an opportune moment would convoke the Cortes to work out details of the regime. Don Alfonso claimed also to have accepted "credo tradicionalista" and pledged to act in line with Traditionalist principles.
Don Juan (1927)
It seems that Don Alfonso Carlos was expecting some sort of further public declaration on part of Don Alfonso, referred to as "mi muy amado sobrino"; in this statement he was expected to declare legitimacy of the Carlist branch and de facto deny the legitimacy of his own. Later in January 1932 Don Alfonso expressed his intention to unify both branches under the Traditionalist standard, referred to Don Alfonso Carlos as "amado tio y jefe de mi familia", but did not endorse Carlist dynastic rights. In July 1932 Don Alfonso Carlos issued a statement which declared that his successor could only be the one who fully accepts Traditionalism. In September 1932 Don Alfonso Carlos was already growing skeptical about genuine Traditionalist views, declared by Don Alfonso. At that time in internal Carlist correspondence the 83-year-old admitted that after his death indeed the agnatic succession would pass on Don Alfonso, but he could not be considered a legitimate king unless in a solemn and official form he swears allegiance to Traditionalist rules and principles. In the fall of 1932 the two Alfonsos met in France, but the encounter produced no progress.
New designs
Calvo Sotelo
In September 1932 advisers of Don Alfonso, including José Calvo Sotelo, came out with a new plan. They suggested that Don Alfonso and his two oldest sons renounce their rights in favor of Don Juan and that Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates, again in favor of Don Juan, who embraces Traditionalism; there was no mention about either constituent Cortes or its choice. Again two negotiating teams were formed; they met in Paris and held talks, presided by Don Alfonso. Reportedly two teams were close to an agreement, including that Don Juan would go to Vienna and live with Don Alfonso Carlos, learning Traditionalist principles. However, Don Alfonso Carlos kept demanding that Don Alfonso recognizes legitimacy of the Carlist branch. At that point Don Alfonso either developed second thoughts or was persuaded by his advisers, mostly Conde de Romanones and Juan de la Cierva, that the concessions would be too far-reaching. Since late 1932 there was little follow-up and negotiations between the two claimants were drying out.
There was little progress in course of 1933, apart that Carlist and Alfonsist political structures in Spain, CT and RE, formed an electoral alliance; it was only grudgingly approved by Don Alfonso Carlos. Many leaders of RE were not averse towards incorporating elements from the Traditionalist ideological toolset, but not necessarily up to the point of denying legitimacy to the Alfonsist branch. In 1933 two oldest sons of Don Alfonso on basis of their physical impairment renounced their succession rights in favor of their younger brother Don Juan, but with no apparent relation to any dealings with the Carlists. Within the Carlist ranks unease about a would-be accord with the despised liberal branch was on the rise. The current known as Cruzadistas demanded clear declaration that no such thing was possible and advanced own dynastic solution; in return, Don Alfonso Carlos expulsed them from the Comunión.
Conde Rodezno
In 1934 Don Alfonso Carlos issued manifestos which claimed that recognition of legitimacy of the Carlist branch is the conditio sine qua non expected of any his successor. He also enforced resignation of Conde Rodezno from the post of jefe delegado, head of the Carlist political structures in Spain. Rodezno, strongly leaning towards a dynastical alliance, was replaced with Manuel Fal Conde, a politician hostile towards the ungodly liberal Alfonsist branch. Finally, also in 1934 Don Alfonso Carlos ordered withdrawal from TYRE, a platform of electoral and parliamentary co-ordination with RE.
In the summer of 1935 Don Alfonso travelled to Puchheim to invite Don Alfonso Carlos to the wedding of Don Juan. Perhaps he viewed it as a chance to renew talks about a succession deal, but Don Alfonso Carlos preferred to stick to purely family matters (and apologized he would not attend). Don Alfonso was left disappointed; this was the last meeting of the two. In January 1936 (the decision made public in April 1936) Don Alfonso Carlos decided about the Carlist succession: after his death the dynastic Carlist leader was to be Xavier Borbón-Parma, though not as a king but as a regent, supposed to supervise the process of electing a new king by a grand Carlist assembly. In internal correspondence he explicitly declared Pacto de Territet null and void. He made no further references to the pact before his death in September 1936. Neither the Alfonsists did; Don Alfonso when abdicating and Don Juan when assuming the claim in 1941 mentioned no agreement with the Carlists.
Review of dynastic proposals
CoA of Alfonso XIII
During all dynastic talks in 1931-1936 there were effectively 4 proposals on the table:
1. that a) constituent assembly elects either Don Alfonso or Don Jaime; b) the unelected claimant renounces his claim; c) whatever the choice is the following king be Don Juan; d) Don Juan accepts Traditionalist principles. In this version there was no mention about which dynasty, the Alfonsist or the Carlist, was legitimate. This was the proposal apparently agreed as Pact of Territet, but effectively rejected by Don Alfonso Carlos
2. the proposal similar to Pact of Territet (with Don Alfonso Carlos replacing the defunct Don Jaime), but with one additional point, namely that Don Alfonso declares legitimacy of the Carlist branch (and ipso facto, that his own branch did not hold legitimacy from 1833 up to this point). This was the proposal advanced by Don Alfonso Carlos and discussed between late 1931 and late 1932, but rejected by Don Alfonso
3. that a) Don Alfonso renounces his claim and his two older sons renounce their succession rights, all in favor of Don Juan; b) Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates in favor of Don Juan; c) Don Juan accepts Traditionalist principles. This was the proposal advanced by the Alfonsists in late 1932, but rejected by Don Alfonso Carlos
4. that a) Don Alfonso declares legitimacy of the Carlist branch (again ipso facto declaring that his own branch did not hold legitimacy from 1833 up to this point); b) Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates, either in favor of Don Alfonso or Don Juan. This was the proposal advanced by Don Alfonso Carlos since mid-1932 and the one he might have hoped for up until 1936, but rejected by Don Alfonso.
During later decades there were other attempts to end the dynastic conflict. In the 1940s within Carlism there was a current known as Juanismo or Rodeznismo, which advocated that under the regency of Don Javier and in line with guidelines from late Don Alfonso Carlos, there is a grand Carlist assembly organized; during that assembly representatives of this current hoped to have Don Juan declared as the Carlist king. The assembly in question has never materialized and in the mid-1950s it appeared that Don Javier intended to assume the claim himself. In response, representatives of the same Juanista current opened direct talks with Don Juan; in 1957 in an official and pompous act he solemnly accepted Traditionalist principles and was declared king by a major and prestigious group of Carlists. They hoped to marginalise supporters of Don Javier, but instead they found themselves in minority. Since the mid-1960s there were individual but fairly numerous Carlists, increasingly estranged by new ideological turn of the Borbón-Parmas, who turned towards the son of Don Juan, Don Juan Carlos. Many of them later recognized him as king Juan Carlos I, though not in any collective or official way.
Carlist standard
Today there is no current within Carlism which declares loyalty to Felipe de Borbón y Grecia as to king Felipe VI. There are factions which support Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma y Bourbon-Busset, Carlos Javier de Borbón-Parma y Nassau, Domingo de Habsburgo-Toscana y Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, or which do not support any particular person and any particular branch. There is also a branch which claims Carlist identity but rejects the monarchy altogether. The Alfonsists are very much united behind the current ruler, though their ranks diminish as monarchism is decreasingly popular in Spain.
In historiography
In historiography the Pact of Territet is generally approached as a minor episode which had no material impact on history of Spain; many even detailed works ignore it altogether and some prefer rather to talk about some rapprochement between the Alfonsists and the Carlists, but with no explicit reference to any pact. Moreover, there are grave doubts as to many questions related to the pact, including the one whether any agreement has ever been formalized, either as a pact or otherwise. Academic scholars demonstrate great caution and might refer to a "supposedly signed" pact or "polémico pacto". Though a facsimile has been published, some note that as no original documents have ever been found there is a high chance of falsification. In partisan Carlist historiography initially the existence of the pact was accepted. Later both Traditionalist and progressist currents joined forces in advancing the theory that the alleged pact was "apócrifo", an Alfonsist plot, a fake supposed to demonstrate that the Carlists had consented to Don Juan assuming the united monarchist claim.
Among those scholars who tend to accept that Pact of Territet has indeed been concluded there are various opinions as to its fate. Some claim that it was modeled on a so-called Pact of Dover of 1912, an agreement supposedly signed by exiled branches of the Portuguese Braganzas, which advanced a very similar dynastic solution. Most authors suggest that once marginalized, the Alfonsists and the Carlists (or Don Alfonso and Don Jaime personally) found themselves politically closer and decided to swallow historical enmity in pursuance a common goal, this is the monarchic restoration in Spain. Though there might be doubts as to good will of either one or both claimants, it is suggested that they decided to join forces without abandoning own dynastic logic, and some brand it as a "relatively sensible agreement". Most works point to personal initiative of both royals and present it not as an action triggered by their supporters, but rather as a personal initiative which had to overcome serious doubts among the rank-and-file.
The ultimate collapse of the Territet scheme – provided it has ever been agreed – is usually related to the unexpected death of Don Jaime. While Don Jaime was at times considered loose in terms of adherence to the doctrine, Don Alfonso Carlos was leaning towards the intransigent Traditionalist stand. He perfectly realized that extinction of the dynasty posed a threat to Carlist future, but he believed that a compromise with the Alfonsists in absence of their clear recognition of Carlist legitimacy was an even greater threat. One theory holds that Don Alfonso Carlos was initially not aware of the details, and it was only once he had realized the scale of concessions that he decided to backtrack. Some authors claim that Alfonso Carlos rejected the pact straight away, others maintain that in 1931-1933 he was unsure about the way forward and only around 1934 he decided to abandon the idea of a dynastic reconciliation, either because he had failed to extract from Don Alfonso recognition of legitimacy of the Carlist branch, or because he realized the Carlist rank-and-file would never accept a compromise with the Alfonsinos. As to Don Alfonso it is believed that up to 1935 he might have hoped for some sort of agreement, especially if it would benefit his son, Don Juan. Some conclude that "no firm explanation can be given for the apparent abandonment of an agreement signed only two weeks before".
See also
Alfonsism
Alfonso XIII
Carlism
Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime
Infante Jaime, Duke of Madrid
Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona
Footnotes
^ the classic liberal view in Antonio Pirala, Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y carlista, Madrid 1852, the work many times reprinted and re-worked until late 19th century; the classic Traditionalist view in Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. II: El precarlismo. Desde el pronuciamiento de Riego hasta la muerte de Fernando VII, Sevilla 1941. For academic account see e.g. Jordi Canal, El carlismo, Madrid 2000, ISBN 8420639478, pp. 28-120
^ Alfonso Bullón de Mendoza, La Primera guerra carlista, Madrid 1992
^ Canal 2000, pp. 120-273
^ Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, London 1975, pp. 39-40
^ for a monograph on Alfonso XIII following his deposition see Eduardo González Calleja, El ex-rey, Javier Moreno Luzón (ed.), Alfonso XIII, un político en el trono, Madrid 2005, ISBN 8495379597, pp. 403-436
^ there is no academic monograph on Don Jaime; for a hagiographic perspective see Francisco Melgar, Don Jaime el príncipe caballero, Madrid 1932
^ the best single work on Alfonso Carlos is Cristina de la Puente, José Ramón Urquijo Goitia, El autor: Alfonso de Borbón y Austria-Este, Alfonso de Borbón, Viaje al Cercano Oriente en 1686, Zaragoza 2012, ISBN 9788413403755, pp. XXXVII-LXXII
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70
^ Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. XXIX: Jaime III. Desde su proclamación en julio de 1909 hasta su fallecimiento en octubre de 1931, Sevilla 1960, p. 219
^ a car with Alfonso XIII was travelling from the Spanish border to Biarritz, while a car with Don Jaime was travelling South to Behovia; they met at a closed railway crossing near Urugne in France. While Don Jaime's entourage, including Rafael de Olazábal and Julio de Urquijo, rose to pay their respect to member of the royal family, Don Jaime kept sitting and stared at Alfonso XIII, who did not know the Carlist prince. The train passed in-between, the crossing was opened and two vehicles parted each its own way. Referred after La Correspondencia Militar 30.07.1908, available here
^ Ignacio Miguéliz Valcarlos (ed.), Una mirada intima al día a dia del ultimo pretendiente carlista, Pamplona 2017, ISBN 9788423534371, 2017, pp. 129, 134, 164, 379
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70
^ Blinkhorn 1975, pp. 70-71
^ the Alfonsist leader Goicoechea declared: "ayer nos separaba mucho; hoy casi nada; nada en lo porvenir", Javier Tusell, Historia de España en el siglo XX, vol. 2: La crísis de los años treinta, Madrid 2007, ISBN 9788430606306, p. 139
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70
^ it was from Paris that he issued a manifesto related to the newly-established republic in April 1931, Ferrer 1960, p. 284
^ in his 1954 account Julio Dánvila Rivera claims that some high-ranking Carlists met on social, not political grounds in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and during conversations the idea of dynastic talks was born, Julio Dánvila Rivera, Datos por la historia, ABC 20.07.1954
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70
^ Canal 2000, p. 291
^ it is not clear when exactly Don Jaime left Paris; his last known signed in the French capital is dated June 7, 1931, Ferrer 1940, p. 287
^ Juan-Cruz Allí Aranguren, El carlismo de Franco. De Rodezno a Carlos VIII , s.l. 2021, p. 63
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 211
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 212
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 215
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 213
^ fascimile published in Santiago Galindo Herrero, Historia de los partidos monárquicos bajo la Segunda República, Madrid 1954, p. 171, reproduced in print a number of times, see Ferrer 1960, pp. 288-289
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 218
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 63
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 62
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 213
^ Cesar Alcala, El falso pacto de Territet, El Correo Español 03.11.2021, available here
^ Canal 2000, p. 291
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71
^ Ferrer 1960, p. 218
^ Some scholars claim that the signature of Don Jaime was falsified and that he never could have signed this way, see Alcala 2021; others reproduce the document with no reservations, Ferrer 1960, pp. 288-289
^ in a letter of January 1933 to Lorenzo Sáenz, Don Alfonso Carlos wrote: "El famoso pacto firmado el 12 de septiembre de 1932 entre don Alfonso y Jaime, me lo envió don Alfonso al morir Jaime. Me quedé desconsolado al ver la firma de Jaime, pues está puesto en términos no tradicionalistas. Estaba dispuesto Jaime a reconocer por rey a don Alfonso, y volverse él infante si las Cortes ¡Constituyentes! lo deseaban. Don Alfonso deseaba tener mi firma, como va indicado en aquel pacto; yo me opuse absolutamente, pues soy tradicionalista decidido y antiliberal", quoted after José María Lamamie de Clairac, Negociaciones e intentos de pactos entre las dos ramas dinásticas, Informaciones 07.07.54, reproduced online here. It seems worth noting that in the summer of 1931, when the pact was being negotiated, the position of Alfonso Carlos seemed of little relevance; he was not expected to outlive Don Jaime and to assume the Carlist claim. Besides, since the late 1870s during 60 years he was scarcely engaged in Carlist politics and has never tried to influence his brother Carlos VII or his nephew Jaime III.
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 64
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 64
^ according to Galindo Herrero the Carlist team reportedly consisted of Esteban Bilbao, Rafael Olazábal, Luis Zuazola, José María Gómez de Pujadas and Manuel Senante; the Alfonist team was composed of conde de Vallellano, Quiñones de León, general Ponte, marqués de Albayda, Julio Dánvila and marqués de Cartagena. However, some Carlists claimed later there had been no teams, but loose meetings of single individuals of unclear prerogatives, Lamamie 1954
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 65
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 65-66
^ see Lamamie 1954
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 65
^ José Carlos Clemente, El carlismo en el novecientos español, Madrid 1999, ISBN 9788483741535, p. 79
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 66-67
^ Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, José María Pemán: pensamiento y trayectoria de un monárquico (1897-1941), Madrid 1996, ISBN 9788477863052, p. 60
^ for the Alfonsinos there were Calvo Sotelo, conde de Vallellano, marqués de Camps and either Sáinz Rodríguez or general Barrera; for the Carlists there were conde de Rodezno, José Luis Oriol and Rafael Olazábal, Galindo Herrero 1954, p. 171
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 85
^ in January 1933 Don Alfonso Carlos declared in private letter that "de modo que ningún pacto me ata a don Alfonso" but did not state explicitly whether he would ultimately reject or accept the Pact the Territet. During a later legitimist assembly in Mondonville Carlist leaders were aware of the pact, but neither the claimant nor his followers referred to it in internal discussions, Lamamie de Clairac 1954
^ some scholars claim– though they provide no reference to sources – that on January 8, 1933 Alfonso Carles explicitly rejected Pacto de Territer in a private letter to Lorenzo Sáenz, his Carlist correspondent, Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 718
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 156
^ Canal 2000, p. 306
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 70
^ Miguéliz Valcarlos 2009, pp. 480, 484
^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 92
^ Manuel Santa Cruz, Apuntes y documentos para la historia del tradicionalismo español, vols. 1-3, Sevilla 1979 , p. 9
^ Canal 2000, p. 447
^ Canal 2000, pp. 382-383
^ see the official website of Comunión Tradicionalista, available here
^ compare Manuel Martorell, El hijo de Carlos Hugo asume los derechos al trono de España, Cuartopoder 02.09.2010, available here
^ he styles himself as king, see Proclamación de Don Domingo de Habsburgo-Borbón y Hohenzollern, Rey legitimo de España, carloctavismo service, available here Archived 2014-05-23 at the Wayback Machine
^ see the official website of Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista, available here
^ see the website of Partido Carlista, available here
^ España es el país menos monárquico de las monarquías. Pero también el menos republicano, Magnet 04.08.2020, available here
^ compare Javier Tusell, Genoveva G. Queipo de Llano, Alfonso XIII, el rey polémico, Madrid 2012, ISBN 9788430608799
^ Tusell 2007, p. 139
^ Canal 2000, p. 291
^ González Calleja 2005, p. 416
^ Galindo Herrero 1954, p. 171
^ Julio Aróstegui, Don Juan de Borbón, Madrid 2002, p. 51
^ compare e.g. José María Lamamie de Clairac, Negociaciones e intentos de pactos entre las dos ramas dinásticas, Informaciones 07.07.54, p. 5, also Ferrer 1960, p. 213
^ Alcala 2021
^ one author refers to the text as "apócrifo", see José Carlos Clemente, El carlismo en su prensa, Madrid 1999, ISBN 9788424508159, p. 177
^ González Calleja 2005, p. 416
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71
^ this the perspective adopted in Blinkhorn 1975, Allí Aranguren 2021, González Calleja 2005 and others
^ Francisco Melgar, El noble final de la escisión dinástica, Madrid 1964, p. 116
^ Javier Tusell, Feliciano Montero García, José María Marín Arce, Las Derechas en la España contemporánea, Madrid 1997, ISBN 9788476585245, p. 217
^ Blinkhorn 1975, pp. 71, Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 64-67, 70, González Calleja 2005, p. 416
^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 321
Further reading
Juan-Cruz Allí Aranguren, El carlismo de Franco. De Rodezno a Carlos VIII , s.l. 2021
Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, London 1975, ISBN 9780521086349
Tomás Echeverría, El Pacto de Territet, Alfonso XIII y los carlistas, Madrid 1973, ISBN 9788440014979
Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. XXIX, Sevilla 1960
Santiago Galindo Herrero, Historia de los partidos monárquicos bajo la Segunda República, Madrid 1954
Francisco Melgar, El noble final de la escisión dinástica, Madrid 1964
External links
detailed accounts of Territet talks by some protagonists from 1954
Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfonso_XIII_the_king_of_Spain.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jaime_closeup.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alfonso XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XIII"},{"link_name":"Jaime III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Jaime,_Duke_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Borbón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"Alfonsists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsism"},{"link_name":"Carlists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlism"},{"link_name":"Alfonso XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XIII"},{"link_name":"Jaime III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Jaime,_Duke_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"Juan de Borbón y Battenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Juan,_Count_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Carlist political principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalism_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Alfonso Carlos I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Alfonso_Carlos,_Duke_of_San_Jaime"}],"text":"Alfonso XIII (left/top) and Jaime III (right/bottom)Pact of Territet (Spanish: El Pacto de Territet) was an attempt to mend the long-standing dynastic feud between two Spanish Borbón branches and their supporters, known as the Alfonsists and the Carlists. In September 1931 it was agreed between two competitive exiled claimants, posing as Alfonso XIII and Jaime III. The deal envisioned that a new Spanish constituent assembly would pronounce who should be the king, and both pretenders pledged to accept the verdict. It was also tacitly understood that the following king should be Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, descendant of the Alfonsist branch but supposed to embrace Carlist political principles. Following unexpected death of Jaime III the agreement was questioned by his Carlist successor, posing as Alfonso Carlos I; he demanded further declarations on part of the Alfonsists. As they failed to materialize, both branches stuck to their own principles and the deal was abandoned. In historiography there are doubts about details of the agreement, and some authors question its very existence.","title":"Pact of Territet"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cuadro_-Calderote-_Primera_Guerra_Carlistas_by_Ferrer_Dalmau.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cuadro_-Calderote-_Primera_Guerra_Carlistas_by_Ferrer_Dalmau.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Carlist_War"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Liberalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism"},{"link_name":"Traditionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalism_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"another civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Carlist_War"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Second Spanish Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic"},{"link_name":"Alfonso de Borbón y Battenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso,_Prince_of_Asturias_(1907%E2%80%931938)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"his late father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Carlos,_Duke_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-11543,_Madrid,_Ausrufung_der_Zweiten_Spanischen_Republik.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carlos IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Annual disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Annual"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Carlist wars in artIn the 1830s the ruling Spanish house of Borbón suffered breakup, conditioned by two distinct visions of what the legitimate succession law was. The family got politically divided into two branches, the Alfonsists and the Carlists.[1] The former got the upper hand and following a civil war – related also to other major cleavages – secured their rule in Madrid, while the latter went on exile.[2] Alfonsism and Carlism became two political currents organized around loyalty to different Borbón branches, though there was also major ideological difference; the former embraced Liberalism, the latter opted for Traditionalism. The split continued up to the 20th century, with another civil war in the 1870s and a series of other minor violent conflicts.[3] In the 1920s it seemed that Carlism was on its last legs, reduced to a minor political movement close to extinction. However, the fall of the Spanish monarchy in 1931 dramatically changed the setting. Suddenly also the Alfonsist branch found itself exiled from Spain, claiming the throne which no longer existed.[4]When the Second Spanish Republic was born, the Alfonsist dynastic head was the 45-year-old Alfonso de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena, who as king Alfonso XIII ruled Spain between 1886 and 1931 (furtherly referred as Don Alfonso). At the time he had 6 children, including 4 sons. His oldest son Alfonso de Borbón y Battenberg was declared Príncipe de Asturias, a traditional title reserved for the official successor to the throne, though he was physically impaired and there were some doubts as to his ability to rule.[5] At the time the Carlist dynastic head was the 61-year-old Jaime de Borbón y Borbón-Parma, who inherited the claim from his late father in 1909 and was recognized by his followers as king Jaime III (furtherly referred as Don Jaime).[6] He was not married, had no children and given his age and bachelor status, he was highly unlikely to have any descendants. The next-in-line to the Carlist throne was Don Jaime's paternal uncle, the 82-year-old Alfonso Carlos de Borbón y Austria-Este, who also had no children (furtherly referred as Don Alfonso Carlos).[7] Hence, it was almost certain that the direct line of Carlist claimants would extinguish, probably with childless death of Don Alfonso Carlos first and then with the childless death of Don Jaime. It was not clear who would inherit the Carlist claim later.[8]republic declared, 1931Both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime referred to each other as \"cousin\", though their family relation was distant; their great-grandparents were brothers and they had a common great-great-grandfather, the king of Spain Carlos IV. They maintained some correspondence, scarce and formal, but in correct tone; usually it was reduced to greetings related to various family events. However, there were also cases of somewhat warmer exchange, e.g. following the 1921 Annual disaster Don Jaime wrote that he was ready to join Don Alfonso's soldiers in Africa seeking revenge; Don Alfonso thanked him cordially and declared that the moment was not opportune.[9] It is not clear whether before 1931 the two have ever met in person; except an awkward 1908 incident of unsure credibility, reportedly having taken place in France,[10] theoretically they might have met outside Spain during grand events related to family life of European royals, like weddings or funerals, but no source confirms this. Don Alfonso and Don Alfonso Carlos maintained some more intense correspondence related to financial problems of the latter after the fall of Austro-Hungarian empire; in the 1920s the official Spanish diplomacy greatly assisted him in terms of ensuring safe status of his real estate in republican Austria.[11]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roi_Alfonso_XIII.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roi_Alfonso_XIII.jpg"},{"link_name":"Don Alfonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XIII"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Valencia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valencia"},{"link_name":"Marseilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Fontainebleau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fontainebleau"},{"link_name":"Frohsdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schloss_Frohsdorf"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Saint-Jean-de-Luz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Jean-de-Luz"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_Bourbon.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacques_Bourbon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Don Jaime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Jaime,_Duke_of_Madrid"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"San Sebastián","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Juan de la Cierva y Peñafiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cierva_y_Pe%C3%B1afiel"},{"link_name":"Miguel Ponte y Manso de Zúñiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_Ponte"},{"link_name":"Luis Orgaz Yoldi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Orgaz_Yoldi"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Don Alfonso on exileThough for almost 100 years in a bitter dynastical feud, in 1931 the Alfonsists and the Carlists found themselves driven somewhat closer by their shared hostility towards the newly established republic. Also, sudden reduction of Don Alfonso to the status of an exile put him on similar footing to Don Jaime, which facilitated communication. All this tended to \"weaken objections to the consideration of joint political activity with fusion as a possible final goal\".[12] Don Jaime was driven by the acute succession problem; Don Alfonso was desperate to \"grab at anything which might boost the slender chance of a restoration\".[13] In both movements there were currents which supported opening talks on some sort of dynastical agreement, possibly even leading up to final reconciliation of the two branches.[14] However, within both movements there were also currents vehemently opposed to any deal. Many Carlists were infuriated by an idea of a compromise with the hated liberal dynasty that generations of their forefathers fought (and died) to topple. In the Alfonsist ranks, not fully recovered from bewilderment and shock following the rapid fall of the monarchy, the opposition to any deal with the Carlists was less pronounced. However, there were also doubts about abandoning liberal principles for the sake of adopting ultra-reactionary features.[15]Having left Spain from the port of Valencia in April 1931 the former king Don Alfonso travelled by sea to Marseilles and then further on towards Paris. He set his residence in Fontainebleau, first in a hotel and then in a chateau, purchased soon afterwards. At that time Don Jaime, who usually shuttled between his palace in the Austrian Frohsdorf and his apartment in Paris, resided in the French capital.[16] It is not clear whether the two have met in person in Paris prior to late summer of 1931. However, at one point in the spring of 1931 they decided to open talks on some sort of dynastic agreement; no source consulted provides information who initiated the negotiations.[17] Both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime appointed their envoys, respectively Julio Dánvila Rivera and José Maria Gómez Pujadas. They met in late May 1931 in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, at the residence of a French legitmist Vicomtesse de la Gironde. As they found promising perspectives, Dánvila and Gómez Pujadas reported to their kings accordingly.[18]Don Jaime, 1920sDirect correspondence between the two claimants followed[19] before Don Jaime left Paris for his traditional summer residence in Frohsdorf.[20] He formed an informal body, made of prestigious Carlists, who were consulted on the proposals.[21] No details are known though it seems that basic principles of some consensus were agreed at the time;[22] also a so-called Comité de Accíon, the body called to discuss would-be violent action against the republic, continued talks with the Alfonsists in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and San Sebastián.[23] Don Jaime was reportedly strongly influenced by his secretary Francisco Melgar, Rafael de Olazábal and especially by Gómez Pujadas, who travelled to Frohsdorf to convince his king;[24] they were allegedly from the onset determined to work towards a fusion and towards passing succession rights to the Alfonsist branch.[25] It is not clear who in the direct entourage of Don Alfonso – apart from Dánvila – was pushing towards a deal; other of his negotiators named are Juan de la Cierva y Peñafiel and generals Miguel Ponte y Manso de Zúñiga and Luis Orgaz Yoldi. Further phone calls between Don Alfonso and Don Jaime followed. Details and drafting of a written document was left to Dánvila and Gómez.[26]","title":"Rapprochement"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ETH-BIB-Territet-LBS_H1-027709.tif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ETH-BIB-Territet-LBS_H1-027709.tif"},{"link_name":"Territet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territet"},{"link_name":"Territet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territet"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1931"},{"link_name":"corporatively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporatism"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Don Juan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Juan,_Count_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dom_Jaime_de_Bourbon,_sur_son_lit_de_mort,_1931.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dom_Jaime_de_Bourbon,_sur_son_lit_de_mort,_1931.jpg"},{"link_name":"second son of Don Alfonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Jaime,_Duke_of_Segovia"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Tenuta Reale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenuta_Reale_(Viareggio)"},{"link_name":"Viareggio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viareggio"}],"text":"TerritetDánvila and Gómez agreed the text and having obtained approval of their monarchs they signed the draft in the Swiss locality of Territet on September 12, 1931; it was subject to later royal ratification.The drafted agreement was titled Pacto de familia and formulated as 6 points, in which the signatories declared that:[27]1.\tthey would not attempt to restore monarchy by force, they would instruct their supporters to work in the spirit of monarchist unity and that they would co-operate with any genuinely Spanish (\"de orden puramente españolista\") government to set up a Constituent Cortes\n2.\tthey would not attempt to re-enter Spain until a new constitution is agreed (they did not mean a constitution at the time discussed in the republican Cortes, to be adopted in December 1931)\n3.\tthey would not require all their supporters to follow the agreement, which is a family deal\n4.\tthey would accept any sovereign nominated by the Constituent Cortes (\"Soberano hecho por las Cortes\")\n5.\tin case Don Alfonso is elected as king, Don Jaime would renounce his claim and ask Don Alfonso Carlos to follow suit\n6.\tin case Don Jaime is elected as king, he would recognize all rights of Don Alfonso (\"reconocerá la categoría, tratamiento y beneficios que correspondian as mi primo don Alfonso\") and demand that his successor be nominatedScholars claim it was tacitly assumed that Cortes would be corporatively organized[28] and that it in case Don Jaime is elected, his successor would be the third son of Don Alfonso, Don Juan. In earlier correspondence Don Jaime declared he was ready to educate Don Juan, at that time 18-years-old, in principles of Traditionalism. The final paragraph stated – apart from grandiose references to prosperity of Spain – that the document was signed in two copies. The draft has not been made public.By late September Don Jaime has returned to Paris. Don Alfonso visited him in his apartment on either September 22[29] or 23[30] (Don Jaime insisted that as he was the head of the family, Don Alfonso should visit him first),[31] and Don Jaime re-visited Don Alfonso in his chateau in Fontainebleau on September 25, 1931. It is not clear whether they ratified the Territet draft; some scholars claim so,[32] some claim otherwise[33] and some do not take a firm stand, referring to a \"supposedly signed\" pact.[34] Afterwards they issued a public statement, which declared common will to strengthen family relations, which before had been marked by political, though not personal discrepancies. The same document declared they would work jointly to build a common front, tasked to save Spain from anarchy and communism. In a later separate statement, issued by Don Jaime only, the author noted that \"neither my cousin nor I have abdicated our rights, for this is simply a matter of political agreement with no other goal than the happiness of Spain\".[35] None of the public statements contained a reference to any family pact.Don Jaime on his death bedThe second son of Don Alfonso (neither Príncipe de Asturias nor Don Juan) was supposed to visit his namesake Don Jaime in Paris next Sunday, on October 4, 1931.[36] However, on October 2 Don Jaime died unexpectedly due to heart failure; none of the sources consulted suggests it was anyhow related to talks on dynastical succession. The funeral mass in Paris was attended by Don Alfonso and his entire family, the funeral in Tenuta Reale estate near Viareggio was attended by Don Alfonso Carlos.","title":"The pact"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfonso_Carlos_1930s.jpg"},{"link_name":"Don Alfonso Carlos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Alfonso_Carlos,_Duke_of_San_Jaime"},{"link_name":"Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"octogenarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octogenarian"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Infante_Juan_by_Laszlo.jpg"},{"link_name":"Don Juan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Juan,_Count_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"Don Alfonso CarlosWith death of Don Jaime the Carlist claim passed on Don Alfonso Carlos, resident in Vienna. Don Alfonso immediately sent him a letter and included the text of the Pact of Territet, with signatures of both Don Alfonso and Don Jaime at the bottom.[37] It is not clear whether this was the moment when the octogenarian learnt the exact terms of the agreement or whether he had known them before. In the summer of 1931 he corresponded with Don Jaime on ongoing talks and was supportive of some dynastic agreement. However, he reportedly remained skeptical about details and according to his own later account he refused to sign or even support the draft at one stage of the negotiations.[38] When responding to Don Alfonso on October 7 Don Alfonso Carlos expressed satisfaction that the pact signed would benefit Spain but remained ambiguous whether he was prepared to accept it.[39] In early December 1931 in a private letter to one of his Carlist correspondents he approvingly referred to a joint monarchic pact intended to save Spain from communism and hinted at an interview (by telephone?) he had had with Don Alfonso.[40] However, the content of the interview is not clear and it is not known whether Don Alfonso Carlos declared himself disposed towards endorsing the pact.In late 1931 both claimants appointed their delegates,[41] which met and held talks in Bordeaux.[42] However, Don Alfonso Carlos started to introduce own conditions and demanded that Don Juan, if supposed to be the agreed Príncipe de Asturias, makes a public and official promise that he would rule in line with Traditionalist principles.[43] On January 6, 1932, a statement was published on behalf of the two Alfonsos, though it is not clear whether indeed they signed it.[44] In its first point it declared the will to form a common monarchist formation, which would work towards restoration of the monarchy. In the second point it declared that their followers were not necessarily obliged to follow such strategy. The third one declared Don Alfonso Carlos the head of the House of Borbón and the acting regent, which in an opportune moment would convoke the Cortes to work out details of the regime. Don Alfonso claimed also to have accepted \"credo tradicionalista\" and pledged to act in line with Traditionalist principles.[45]Don Juan (1927)It seems that Don Alfonso Carlos was expecting some sort of further public declaration on part of Don Alfonso, referred to as \"mi muy amado sobrino\"; in this statement he was expected to declare legitimacy of the Carlist branch and de facto deny the legitimacy of his own. Later in January 1932 Don Alfonso expressed his intention to unify both branches under the Traditionalist standard, referred to Don Alfonso Carlos as \"amado tio y jefe de mi familia\", but did not endorse Carlist dynastic rights. In July 1932 Don Alfonso Carlos issued a statement which declared that his successor could only be the one who fully accepts Traditionalism.[46] In September 1932 Don Alfonso Carlos was already growing skeptical about genuine Traditionalist views, declared by Don Alfonso. At that time in internal Carlist correspondence the 83-year-old admitted that after his death indeed the agnatic succession would pass on Don Alfonso, but he could not be considered a legitimate king unless in a solemn and official form he swears allegiance to Traditionalist rules and principles.[47] In the fall of 1932 the two Alfonsos met in France, but the encounter produced no progress.[48]","title":"Follow-up"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jos%C3%A9_Calvo_Sotelo,_retrato_en_Vida_Gallega_1936.jpg"},{"link_name":"Calvo Sotelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Calvo_Sotelo"},{"link_name":"José Calvo Sotelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Calvo_Sotelo"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Conde de Romanones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Figueroa,_1st_Count_of_Romanones"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"CT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditionalist_Communion"},{"link_name":"RE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Renovation"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Cruzadistas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carloctavismo"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conde_de_Rodezno.png"},{"link_name":"Conde Rodezno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Dom%C3%ADnguez_Ar%C3%A9valo"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Conde Rodezno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Dom%C3%ADnguez_Ar%C3%A9valo"},{"link_name":"Manuel Fal Conde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Fal_Conde"},{"link_name":"Puchheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attnang-Puchheim"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Xavier Borbón-Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Xavier_of_Bourbon-Parma"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"text":"Calvo SoteloIn September 1932 advisers of Don Alfonso, including José Calvo Sotelo, came out with a new plan. They suggested that Don Alfonso and his two oldest sons renounce their rights in favor of Don Juan and that Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates, again in favor of Don Juan, who embraces Traditionalism; there was no mention about either constituent Cortes or its choice. Again two negotiating teams were formed; they met in Paris and held talks, presided by Don Alfonso.[49] Reportedly two teams were close to an agreement, including that Don Juan would go to Vienna and live with Don Alfonso Carlos, learning Traditionalist principles. However, Don Alfonso Carlos kept demanding that Don Alfonso recognizes legitimacy of the Carlist branch. At that point Don Alfonso either developed second thoughts or was persuaded by his advisers, mostly Conde de Romanones and Juan de la Cierva, that the concessions would be too far-reaching.[50] Since late 1932 there was little follow-up and negotiations between the two claimants were drying out.[51]There was little progress in course of 1933,[52] apart that Carlist and Alfonsist political structures in Spain, CT and RE, formed an electoral alliance; it was only grudgingly approved by Don Alfonso Carlos. Many leaders of RE were not averse towards incorporating elements from the Traditionalist ideological toolset,[53] but not necessarily up to the point of denying legitimacy to the Alfonsist branch. In 1933 two oldest sons of Don Alfonso on basis of their physical impairment renounced their succession rights in favor of their younger brother Don Juan, but with no apparent relation to any dealings with the Carlists. Within the Carlist ranks unease about a would-be accord with the despised liberal branch was on the rise. The current known as Cruzadistas demanded clear declaration that no such thing was possible and advanced own dynastic solution; in return, Don Alfonso Carlos expulsed them from the Comunión.[54]Conde RodeznoIn 1934 Don Alfonso Carlos issued manifestos which claimed that recognition of legitimacy of the Carlist branch is the conditio sine qua non expected of any his successor.[55] He also enforced resignation of Conde Rodezno from the post of jefe delegado, head of the Carlist political structures in Spain. Rodezno, strongly leaning towards a dynastical alliance, was replaced with Manuel Fal Conde, a politician hostile towards the ungodly liberal Alfonsist branch. Finally, also in 1934 Don Alfonso Carlos ordered withdrawal from TYRE, a platform of electoral and parliamentary co-ordination with RE.In the summer of 1935 Don Alfonso travelled to Puchheim to invite Don Alfonso Carlos to the wedding of Don Juan. Perhaps he viewed it as a chance to renew talks about a succession deal, but Don Alfonso Carlos preferred to stick to purely family matters (and apologized he would not attend). Don Alfonso was left disappointed; this was the last meeting of the two.[56] In January 1936 (the decision made public in April 1936) Don Alfonso Carlos decided about the Carlist succession: after his death the dynastic Carlist leader was to be Xavier Borbón-Parma, though not as a king but as a regent, supposed to supervise the process of electing a new king by a grand Carlist assembly. In internal correspondence he explicitly declared Pacto de Territet null and void.[57] He made no further references to the pact before his death in September 1936. Neither the Alfonsists did; Don Alfonso when abdicating and Don Juan when assuming the claim in 1941 mentioned no agreement with the Carlists.[58]","title":"New designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Alfonso_XIII_of_Spain_(Order_of_the_Seraphim).svg"},{"link_name":"Don Javier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Xavier_of_Bourbon-Parma"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Don Juan Carlos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Carlos_I"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg"},{"link_name":"Felipe de Borbón y Grecia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felipe_VI"},{"link_name":"Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma y Bourbon-Busset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Sixtus_Henry_of_Bourbon-Parma"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Carlos Javier de Borbón-Parma y Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Carlos,_Duke_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Domingo de Habsburgo-Toscana y Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic_von_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"text":"CoA of Alfonso XIIIDuring all dynastic talks in 1931-1936 there were effectively 4 proposals on the table:1. that a) constituent assembly elects either Don Alfonso or Don Jaime; b) the unelected claimant renounces his claim; c) whatever the choice is the following king be Don Juan; d) Don Juan accepts Traditionalist principles. In this version there was no mention about which dynasty, the Alfonsist or the Carlist, was legitimate. This was the proposal apparently agreed as Pact of Territet, but effectively rejected by Don Alfonso Carlos\n2. the proposal similar to Pact of Territet (with Don Alfonso Carlos replacing the defunct Don Jaime), but with one additional point, namely that Don Alfonso declares legitimacy of the Carlist branch (and ipso facto, that his own branch did not hold legitimacy from 1833 up to this point). This was the proposal advanced by Don Alfonso Carlos and discussed between late 1931 and late 1932, but rejected by Don Alfonso\n3. that a) Don Alfonso renounces his claim and his two older sons renounce their succession rights, all in favor of Don Juan; b) Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates in favor of Don Juan; c) Don Juan accepts Traditionalist principles. This was the proposal advanced by the Alfonsists in late 1932, but rejected by Don Alfonso Carlos\n4. that a) Don Alfonso declares legitimacy of the Carlist branch (again ipso facto declaring that his own branch did not hold legitimacy from 1833 up to this point); b) Don Alfonso Carlos abdicates, either in favor of Don Alfonso or Don Juan. This was the proposal advanced by Don Alfonso Carlos since mid-1932 and the one he might have hoped for up until 1936, but rejected by Don Alfonso.During later decades there were other attempts to end the dynastic conflict. In the 1940s within Carlism there was a current known as Juanismo or Rodeznismo, which advocated that under the regency of Don Javier and in line with guidelines from late Don Alfonso Carlos, there is a grand Carlist assembly organized; during that assembly representatives of this current hoped to have Don Juan declared as the Carlist king. The assembly in question has never materialized and in the mid-1950s it appeared that Don Javier intended to assume the claim himself. In response, representatives of the same Juanista current opened direct talks with Don Juan; in 1957 in an official and pompous act he solemnly accepted Traditionalist principles and was declared king by a major and prestigious group of Carlists.[59] They hoped to marginalise supporters of Don Javier, but instead they found themselves in minority. Since the mid-1960s there were individual but fairly numerous Carlists, increasingly estranged by new ideological turn of the Borbón-Parmas, who turned towards the son of Don Juan, Don Juan Carlos. Many of them later recognized him as king Juan Carlos I, though not in any collective or official way.[60]Carlist standardToday there is no current within Carlism which declares loyalty to Felipe de Borbón y Grecia as to king Felipe VI. There are factions which support Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma y Bourbon-Busset,[61] Carlos Javier de Borbón-Parma y Nassau,[62] Domingo de Habsburgo-Toscana y Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,[63] or which do not support any particular person and any particular branch.[64] There is also a branch which claims Carlist identity but rejects the monarchy altogether.[65] The Alfonsists are very much united behind the current ruler, though their ranks diminish as monarchism is decreasingly popular in Spain.[66]","title":"Review of dynastic proposals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open_books_stacked.jpg"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"facsimile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facsimile"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Braganzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Braganza"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"text":"In historiography the Pact of Territet is generally approached as a minor episode which had no material impact on history of Spain; many even detailed works ignore it altogether[67] and some prefer rather to talk about some rapprochement between the Alfonsists and the Carlists, but with no explicit reference to any pact.[68] Moreover, there are grave doubts as to many questions related to the pact, including the one whether any agreement has ever been formalized, either as a pact or otherwise. Academic scholars demonstrate great caution and might refer to a \"supposedly signed\" pact[69] or \"polémico pacto\".[70] Though a facsimile has been published,[71] some note that as no original documents have ever been found there is a high chance of falsification.[72] In partisan Carlist historiography initially the existence of the pact was accepted.[73] Later both Traditionalist[74] and progressist[75] currents joined forces in advancing the theory that the alleged pact was \"apócrifo\", an Alfonsist plot, a fake supposed to demonstrate that the Carlists had consented to Don Juan assuming the united monarchist claim.Among those scholars who tend to accept that Pact of Territet has indeed been concluded there are various opinions as to its fate. Some claim that it was modeled on a so-called Pact of Dover of 1912, an agreement supposedly signed by exiled branches of the Portuguese Braganzas, which advanced a very similar dynastic solution.[76] Most authors suggest that once marginalized, the Alfonsists and the Carlists (or Don Alfonso and Don Jaime personally) found themselves politically closer and decided to swallow historical enmity in pursuance a common goal, this is the monarchic restoration in Spain. Though there might be doubts as to good will of either one or both claimants, it is suggested that they decided to join forces without abandoning own dynastic logic, and some brand it as a \"relatively sensible agreement\".[77] Most works point to personal initiative of both royals and present it not as an action triggered by their supporters, but rather as a personal initiative which had to overcome serious doubts among the rank-and-file.[78]The ultimate collapse of the Territet scheme – provided it has ever been agreed – is usually related to the unexpected death of Don Jaime. While Don Jaime was at times considered loose in terms of adherence to the doctrine, Don Alfonso Carlos was leaning towards the intransigent Traditionalist stand. He perfectly realized that extinction of the dynasty posed a threat to Carlist future, but he believed that a compromise with the Alfonsists in absence of their clear recognition of Carlist legitimacy was an even greater threat. One theory holds that Don Alfonso Carlos was initially not aware of the details, and it was only once he had realized the scale of concessions that he decided to backtrack.[79] Some authors claim that Alfonso Carlos rejected the pact straight away,[80] others maintain that in 1931-1933 he was unsure about the way forward and only around 1934 he decided to abandon the idea of a dynastic reconciliation, either because he had failed to extract from Don Alfonso recognition of legitimacy of the Carlist branch, or because he realized the Carlist rank-and-file would never accept a compromise with the Alfonsinos.[81] As to Don Alfonso it is believed that up to 1935 he might have hoped for some sort of agreement, especially if it would benefit his son, Don Juan. Some conclude that \"no firm explanation can be given for the apparent abandonment of an agreement signed only two weeks before\".[82]","title":"In historiography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Melchor Ferrer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melchor_Ferrer_Dalmau"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Julio de Urquijo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_de_Urquijo_e_Ibarra"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0001963401&page=1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//elcorreodeespana.com/historia/379121720/El-falso-pacto-de-Territet-Por-Cesar-Alcala.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hispanismo.org/historia-y-antropologia/24841-el-mito-del-llamado-pacto-de-territet-inventado-por-los-alfonsinos.html#:~:text=Primero.%20El%20pacto%20entre%20don%20Jaime%20y%20don,septiembre%20de%201931%20en%20Terradet%20%5B%20sic%5D%20%28Suiza%29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"Esteban Bilbao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esteban_de_Bilbao_Egu%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Manuel Senante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Senante_Martinez"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-42"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-43"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-44"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-47"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-50"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-52"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-53"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-54"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-55"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-57"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-58"},{"link_name":"Manuel Santa Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Ruiz_de_Galarreta_Mocoroa"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-59"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-60"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-61"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//carlismo.es/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-62"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cuartopoder.es/internacional/2010/09/02/el-hijo-de-carlos-hugo-asume-los-derechos-al-trono-de-espana/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-63"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.carloctavismo.org/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140523012018/http://www.carloctavismo.org/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-64"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.carlistas.es/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-65"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//partidocarlista.com/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-66"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//magnet.xataka.com/en-diez-minutos/espana-pais-monarquico-monarquias-tambien-republicano"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-67"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-68"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-69"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-70"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-71"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-72"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-73"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-74"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-75"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-76"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-77"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-78"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-79"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-80"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-81"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-82"}],"text":"^ the classic liberal view in Antonio Pirala, Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y carlista, Madrid 1852, the work many times reprinted and re-worked until late 19th century; the classic Traditionalist view in Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. II: El precarlismo. Desde el pronuciamiento de Riego hasta la muerte de Fernando VII, Sevilla 1941. For academic account see e.g. Jordi Canal, El carlismo, Madrid 2000, ISBN 8420639478, pp. 28-120\n\n^ Alfonso Bullón de Mendoza, La Primera guerra carlista, Madrid 1992\n\n^ Canal 2000, pp. 120-273\n\n^ Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, London 1975, pp. 39-40\n\n^ for a monograph on Alfonso XIII following his deposition see Eduardo González Calleja, El ex-rey, [in:] Javier Moreno Luzón (ed.), Alfonso XIII, un político en el trono, Madrid 2005, ISBN 8495379597, pp. 403-436\n\n^ there is no academic monograph on Don Jaime; for a hagiographic perspective see Francisco Melgar, Don Jaime el príncipe caballero, Madrid 1932\n\n^ the best single work on Alfonso Carlos is Cristina de la Puente, José Ramón Urquijo Goitia, El autor: Alfonso de Borbón y Austria-Este, [in:] Alfonso de Borbón, Viaje al Cercano Oriente en 1686, Zaragoza 2012, ISBN 9788413403755, pp. XXXVII-LXXII\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70\n\n^ Melchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. XXIX: Jaime III. Desde su proclamación en julio de 1909 hasta su fallecimiento en octubre de 1931, Sevilla 1960, p. 219\n\n^ a car with Alfonso XIII was travelling from the Spanish border to Biarritz, while a car with Don Jaime was travelling South to Behovia; they met at a closed railway crossing near Urugne in France. While Don Jaime's entourage, including Rafael de Olazábal and Julio de Urquijo, rose to pay their respect to member of the royal family, Don Jaime kept sitting and stared at Alfonso XIII, who did not know the Carlist prince. The train passed in-between, the crossing was opened and two vehicles parted each its own way. Referred after La Correspondencia Militar 30.07.1908, available here\n\n^ Ignacio Miguéliz Valcarlos (ed.), Una mirada intima al día a dia del ultimo pretendiente carlista, Pamplona 2017, ISBN 9788423534371, 2017, pp. 129, 134, 164, 379\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, pp. 70-71\n\n^ the Alfonsist leader Goicoechea declared: \"ayer nos separaba mucho; hoy casi nada; nada en lo porvenir\", Javier Tusell, Historia de España en el siglo XX, vol. 2: La crísis de los años treinta, Madrid 2007, ISBN 9788430606306, p. 139\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70\n\n^ it was from Paris that he issued a manifesto related to the newly-established republic in April 1931, Ferrer 1960, p. 284\n\n^ in his 1954 account Julio Dánvila Rivera claims that some high-ranking Carlists met on social, not political grounds in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and during conversations the idea of dynastic talks was born, Julio Dánvila Rivera, Datos por la historia, [in:] ABC 20.07.1954\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70\n\n^ Canal 2000, p. 291\n\n^ it is not clear when exactly Don Jaime left Paris; his last known signed in the French capital is dated June 7, 1931, Ferrer 1940, p. 287\n\n^ Juan-Cruz Allí Aranguren, El carlismo de Franco. De Rodezno a Carlos VIII [PhD thesis UNED], s.l. 2021, p. 63\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 70\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 211\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 212\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 215\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 213\n\n^ fascimile published in Santiago Galindo Herrero, Historia de los partidos monárquicos bajo la Segunda República, Madrid 1954, p. 171, reproduced in print a number of times, see Ferrer 1960, pp. 288-289\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 218\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 63\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 62\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 213\n\n^ Cesar Alcala, El falso pacto de Territet, [in:] El Correo Español 03.11.2021, available here\n\n^ Canal 2000, p. 291\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71\n\n^ Ferrer 1960, p. 218\n\n^ Some scholars claim that the signature of Don Jaime was falsified and that he never could have signed this way, see Alcala 2021; others reproduce the document with no reservations, Ferrer 1960, pp. 288-289\n\n^ in a letter of January 1933 to Lorenzo Sáenz, Don Alfonso Carlos wrote: \"El famoso pacto firmado el 12 de septiembre de 1932 [sic!] entre don Alfonso y Jaime, me lo envió don Alfonso al morir Jaime. Me quedé desconsolado al ver la firma de Jaime, pues está puesto en términos no tradicionalistas. Estaba dispuesto Jaime a reconocer por rey a don Alfonso, y volverse él infante si las Cortes ¡Constituyentes! lo deseaban. Don Alfonso deseaba tener mi firma, como va indicado en aquel pacto; yo me opuse absolutamente, pues soy tradicionalista decidido y antiliberal\", quoted after José María Lamamie de Clairac, Negociaciones e intentos de pactos entre las dos ramas dinásticas, [in:] Informaciones 07.07.54, reproduced online here. It seems worth noting that in the summer of 1931, when the pact was being negotiated, the position of Alfonso Carlos seemed of little relevance; he was not expected to outlive Don Jaime and to assume the Carlist claim. Besides, since the late 1870s during 60 years he was scarcely engaged in Carlist politics and has never tried to influence his brother Carlos VII or his nephew Jaime III.\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 64\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 64\n\n^ according to Galindo Herrero the Carlist team reportedly consisted of Esteban Bilbao, Rafael Olazábal, Luis Zuazola, José María Gómez de Pujadas and Manuel Senante; the Alfonist team was composed of conde de Vallellano, Quiñones de León, general Ponte, marqués de Albayda, Julio Dánvila and marqués de Cartagena. However, some Carlists claimed later there had been no teams, but loose meetings of single individuals of unclear prerogatives, Lamamie 1954\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 65\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 65-66\n\n^ see Lamamie 1954\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 65\n\n^ José Carlos Clemente, El carlismo en el novecientos español, Madrid 1999, ISBN 9788483741535, p. 79\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 66-67\n\n^ Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, José María Pemán: pensamiento y trayectoria de un monárquico (1897-1941), Madrid 1996, ISBN 9788477863052, p. 60\n\n^ for the Alfonsinos there were Calvo Sotelo, conde de Vallellano, marqués de Camps and either Sáinz Rodríguez or general Barrera; for the Carlists there were conde de Rodezno, José Luis Oriol and Rafael Olazábal, Galindo Herrero 1954, p. 171\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 85\n\n^ in January 1933 Don Alfonso Carlos declared in private letter that \"de modo que ningún pacto me ata a don Alfonso\" but did not state explicitly whether he would ultimately reject or accept the Pact the Territet. During a later legitimist assembly in Mondonville Carlist leaders were aware of the pact, but neither the claimant nor his followers referred to it in internal discussions, Lamamie de Clairac 1954\n\n^ some scholars claim– though they provide no reference to sources – that on January 8, 1933 Alfonso Carles explicitly rejected Pacto de Territer in a private letter to Lorenzo Sáenz, his Carlist correspondent, Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 718\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 156\n\n^ Canal 2000, p. 306\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 70\n\n^ Miguéliz Valcarlos 2009, pp. 480, 484\n\n^ Allí Aranguren 2021, p. 92\n\n^ Manuel Santa Cruz, Apuntes y documentos para la historia del tradicionalismo español, vols. 1-3, Sevilla 1979 , p. 9\n\n^ Canal 2000, p. 447\n\n^ Canal 2000, pp. 382-383\n\n^ see the official website of Comunión Tradicionalista, available here\n\n^ compare Manuel Martorell, El hijo de Carlos Hugo asume los derechos al trono de España, [in:] Cuartopoder 02.09.2010, available here\n\n^ he styles himself as king, see Proclamación de Don Domingo de Habsburgo-Borbón y Hohenzollern, Rey legitimo de España, [in:] carloctavismo service, available here Archived 2014-05-23 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ see the official website of Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista, available here\n\n^ see the website of Partido Carlista, available here\n\n^ España es el país menos monárquico de las monarquías. Pero también el menos republicano, [in:] Magnet 04.08.2020, available here\n\n^ compare Javier Tusell, Genoveva G. Queipo de Llano, Alfonso XIII, el rey polémico, Madrid 2012, ISBN 9788430608799\n\n^ Tusell 2007, p. 139\n\n^ Canal 2000, p. 291\n\n^ González Calleja 2005, p. 416\n\n^ Galindo Herrero 1954, p. 171\n\n^ Julio Aróstegui, Don Juan de Borbón, Madrid 2002, p. 51\n\n^ compare e.g. José María Lamamie de Clairac, Negociaciones e intentos de pactos entre las dos ramas dinásticas, [in:] Informaciones 07.07.54, p. 5, also Ferrer 1960, p. 213\n\n^ Alcala 2021\n\n^ one author refers to the text as \"apócrifo\", see José Carlos Clemente, El carlismo en su prensa, Madrid 1999, ISBN 9788424508159, p. 177\n\n^ González Calleja 2005, p. 416\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 71\n\n^ this the perspective adopted in Blinkhorn 1975, Allí Aranguren 2021, González Calleja 2005 and others\n\n^ Francisco Melgar, El noble final de la escisión dinástica, Madrid 1964, p. 116\n\n^ Javier Tusell, Feliciano Montero García, José María Marín Arce, Las Derechas en la España contemporánea, Madrid 1997, ISBN 9788476585245, p. 217\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, pp. 71, Allí Aranguren 2021, pp. 64-67, 70, González Calleja 2005, p. 416\n\n^ Blinkhorn 1975, p. 321","title":"Footnotes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Juan-Cruz Allí Aranguren, El carlismo de Franco. De Rodezno a Carlos VIII [PhD thesis UNED], s.l. 2021\nMartin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, London 1975, ISBN 9780521086349\nTomás Echeverría, El Pacto de Territet, Alfonso XIII y los carlistas, Madrid 1973, ISBN 9788440014979\nMelchor Ferrer, Historia del tradicionalismo español, vol. XXIX, Sevilla 1960\nSantiago Galindo Herrero, Historia de los partidos monárquicos bajo la Segunda República, Madrid 1954\nFrancisco Melgar, El noble final de la escisión dinástica, Madrid 1964","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"republic declared, 1931","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-11543%2C_Madrid%2C_Ausrufung_der_Zweiten_Spanischen_Republik.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-11543%2C_Madrid%2C_Ausrufung_der_Zweiten_Spanischen_Republik.jpg"},{"image_text":"Don Alfonso Carlos","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Alfonso_Carlos_1930s.jpg/160px-Alfonso_Carlos_1930s.jpg"},{"image_text":"Don Juan (1927)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Infante_Juan_by_Laszlo.jpg/160px-Infante_Juan_by_Laszlo.jpg"},{"image_text":"Calvo Sotelo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Jos%C3%A9_Calvo_Sotelo%2C_retrato_en_Vida_Gallega_1936.jpg/160px-Jos%C3%A9_Calvo_Sotelo%2C_retrato_en_Vida_Gallega_1936.jpg"},{"image_text":"Conde Rodezno","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Conde_de_Rodezno.png/160px-Conde_de_Rodezno.png"},{"image_text":"CoA of Alfonso XIII","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Coat_of_Arms_of_Alfonso_XIII_of_Spain_%28Order_of_the_Seraphim%29.svg/160px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Alfonso_XIII_of_Spain_%28Order_of_the_Seraphim%29.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Carlist standard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/220px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Open_books_stacked.jpg/220px-Open_books_stacked.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Alfonsism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsism"},{"title":"Alfonso XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XIII"},{"title":"Carlism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlism"},{"title":"Infante Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Alfonso_Carlos,_Duke_of_San_Jaime"},{"title":"Infante Jaime, Duke of Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Jaime,_Duke_of_Madrid"},{"title":"Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infante_Juan,_Count_of_Barcelona"}]
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[]
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[{"Link":"http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0001963401&page=1","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://elcorreodeespana.com/historia/379121720/El-falso-pacto-de-Territet-Por-Cesar-Alcala.html","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://hispanismo.org/historia-y-antropologia/24841-el-mito-del-llamado-pacto-de-territet-inventado-por-los-alfonsinos.html#:~:text=Primero.%20El%20pacto%20entre%20don%20Jaime%20y%20don,septiembre%20de%201931%20en%20Terradet%20%5B%20sic%5D%20%28Suiza%29","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://carlismo.es/","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://www.cuartopoder.es/internacional/2010/09/02/el-hijo-de-carlos-hugo-asume-los-derechos-al-trono-de-espana/","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"http://www.carloctavismo.org/","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140523012018/http://www.carloctavismo.org/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.carlistas.es/","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://partidocarlista.com/","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://magnet.xataka.com/en-diez-minutos/espana-pais-monarquico-monarquias-tambien-republicano","external_links_name":"here"},{"Link":"https://hispanismo.org/historia-y-antropologia/24841-el-mito-del-llamado-pacto-de-territet-inventado-por-los-alfonsinos.html#:~:text=Primero.%20El%20pacto%20entre%20don%20Jaime%20y%20don,septiembre%20de%201931%20en%20Terradet%20%5B%20sic%5D%20%28Suiza%29","external_links_name":"detailed accounts of Territet talks by some protagonists from 1954"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhK1ER3B4Hg","external_links_name":"Por Dios y por España; contemporary Carlist propaganda"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%27s_Theme
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Johnny's Theme
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["1 Development and evolution","1.1 1959: Two songs","1.2 1962: Johnny Carson","1.3 1962–92: The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson","2 Releases","3 Reception","4 Legacy","5 References","5.1 Footnotes","5.2 Bibliography"]
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Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson theme song
"Johnny's Theme"Song by Paul Anka and Johnny CarsonPublishedSeptember 12, 1962Genre
Jazz
big band
Composer(s)
Paul Anka
Johnny Carson
Lyricist(s)Johnny Carson
"Johnny's Theme" is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992. The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson, based on a previous composition by Anka. It was performed by The Tonight Show Band, which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award-winning debut album. The single release also earned a Grammy nomination.
"Johnny's Theme" has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums. It has appeared in several films, and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians, including Doc Severinsen's Big Band.
Development and evolution
1959: Two songs
"Johnny's Theme" began life as "Toot Sweet", a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti's Trumpets. It was released on Disney's Buena Vista label as the B-side to The Camarata Strings' single "Lost In a Fog".
"Tutti" Camarata, who was Annette Funicello's producer at the time, asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club. Anka added lyrics to "Toot Sweet" and published them under the title "It's Really Love", and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka. He recorded his own version of "It's Really Love" that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes; it was released on seven-inch EPs in France, Italy and Spain.
1962: Johnny Carson
When Johnny Carson, a fan of jazz music, was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962, he recognized that he would need a theme song. Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961; when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year, Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme.
Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for "It's Really Love" and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon, who were in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, making preparations for the show. McMahon said "it was the first time either one of us heard —and magic."
1962–92: The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson
"Johnny's Theme (The Tonight Show Theme)"Single by The Tonight Show Bandfrom the album The Tonight Show Band B-side"Skyliner"Released1986RecordedAugust 5–7, 1986Length1:17LabelAmherstSongwriter(s)Paul Anka, Johnny CarsonProducer(s)Jeff TyzikAllen VizzuttiAudio samplefilehelp
Shortly after sending the demo, Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by a "20-year-old kid." Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter's credit along with half of the royalties every time the song was played which would earn each man an average of about US$200,000 per year. Orange Coast estimated in 1999 that "Johnny's Theme" had been played more than 1,400,000 times.
The song was retired along with Carson in 1992; his iteration of The Tonight Show was called "the last widely public big-band forum." Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more "funky" theme for successor Jay Leno because "a swing tune doesn't reflect Jay at all jazz doesn't come to mind either."
Releases
Henry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2:44 arrangement of "Johnny's Theme" in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra. A version also appeared as part of Mancini's 2010 compilation Big Screen, Little Screen. Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973. Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia's Theme.
Doc Severinsen and the band recorded "Johnny's Theme" and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band, released in 1986. Amherst Records also released the track as a single, titled "Johnny's Theme (The Tonight Show Theme)", which debuted at #27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart. The song has been released on compilations of television themes, the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music, and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen (1998).
Reception
"Johnny's Theme" earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, losing to "Top Gun Anthem" at the awards presentation in 1987. The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band.
Legacy
In 2005, Doc Severinsen, Carson's bandleader starting in 1967, said the song worked so well because it was "accessible. People could understand what it was, and it was associated with Johnny." Larry King called it "one of the most familiar themes in American television history." Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night, "but everybody knows it. Simplicity is indeed royal."
The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia, though they "used to abound" with or without lyrics. For example, "Anka's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson."
"Johnny's Theme" has been included in numerous films including This Is My Life, Isn't She Great and Talk to Me. The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels from student to professional. Iowa State Cyclones men's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played "Johnny's Theme" before games at the Hilton Coliseum. Orr's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994.
Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour. His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety, "just to let you know who we are." Severinsen and The Roots played "Johnny's Theme" during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
References
Footnotes
^ "The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson". classicthemes.com. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
^ a b c d e Myers, Marc (January 7, 2014). "Tonight Show Theme: Evolution". JazzWax. Archived from the original on November 4, 2014. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
^ "Toot Sweet (It's Really Love)". B1. F-356 (Buena Vista Records). 1959. (Title as printed on the 45's label; Anka published the lyrics in March 1959.)
^ Conradt, Stacy (2012-07-11). "11 TV Theme Songs That Secretly Have Lyrics". Mental Floss. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
^ "Faibles Femmes (It's Really Love)". A1. ABC 45.9807 (ABC-Paramount). 1959. "Faibles Femmes (It's Really Love)". A1. SCMQ 1198 (Columbia Records). 1959. "Amor Sincero (It's Really Love)". B2. HP-9706 (Hispavox). 1959.
^ Cox 2002, p. 192.
^ a b c d e "Transcripts: Larry King Live Interview with Ed McMahon, Doc Severinsen". CNN. January 24, 2005. Retrieved November 5, 2014. The lyrics were never used for The Tonight Show.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ Ellerbee, Bobby. "How Johnny Carson's Tonight Show Theme Came About" (PDF). The Great Escape!. p. 3. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
^ "The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Credits". AllMusic. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
^ Rice, Darcy (March 1999). "He wrote that one, too?". Orange Coast. p. 36. Retrieved April 24, 2020. "In 1962, wrote the theme song for The Tonight Show, which has been performed more than 1,400,000 times." (The article does not clarify where performed or by whom; Carson's tenure comprised 4,531 broadcast episodes.){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ Kerley 2013, p. 99.
^ Woodard, Josef (July 16, 1992). "SOUNDS AROUND TOWN: Big-Band Lifeline ..." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
^ Waldron, Clarence (June 22, 1992). "Branford Marsalis and Jay Leno Give Tonight Show New Humor and New Sound". Jet. 82 (9): 57.
^ "Johnny's Theme (Theme from the 'Tonight Show')". B2. LSP 4630 (APRS-6426) (RCA Victor). 1972.
^ Big Screen, Little Screen. 7 (CD). ASIN B00004LMRK (RCA Records). 2010.
^ "Johnny's Theme". A1. BDA-364 (BDAS-364-A) (Buddah). 1973.
^ "Johnny's Theme". B1. R-8165 (Ranwood). 1976.
^ "The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
^ "Johnny's Theme (The Tonight Show Theme)" is the single's title as printed on the 45's label. At least two surviving copies of the accompanying picture sleeve used the title "The Tonight Show Theme (Johnny's Theme)".
^ "Radio & Records National Airplay: Jazz" (PDF). Radio & Records. October 17, 1986. Retrieved April 26, 2015 – via AmericanRadioHistory.com.
^ Television's Greatest Hits Vol. 1: 50s & 60s. 64. ASIN B000000GOI (Tee Vee Toons). 1985. Television's Greatest Themes, Vol. 13. 14. ASIN B00F48YZIG (TV Tunesters). 2013.
^ 25 Years of Chrysalis Music. 11 (CD). ASIN B006VDJI6C (Chrysalis). 1995.
^ The Very Best of Doc Severinsen. 16 (CD). ASIN B000001O7A (Amherst). 1998.
^ Moleski, Linda (January 31, 1987). "Grass Route" (PDF). Billboard. p. 63. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
^ "Winners (1986)". Grammy.com. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
^ Severo, Richard (November 3, 2005). "Skitch Henderson, 87, Tonight Show Bandleader, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved April 28, 2015.
^ Cox 2002, p. 193.
^ Farhi, Paul (May 31, 2008). "Cue TV theme as it fades into sunset: Original music that has helped define shows ..." The Washington Post. Retrieved April 28, 2015 – via Los Angeles Times.
^ Staff. "Paul Anka: Biography and Filmography". Hollywood.com. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
^ "Johnny's Theme" (from The Tonight Show) Spring Concert 2012 (video). YouTube (Heritage Christian High School Jazz Band). April 29, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2015. "Johnny's Theme" Concert (video). YouTube (South Shore Conservatory Summer Music Festival). May 1, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2015.
^ Denner, Andrew; Eastman, Emily, eds. (2014). "Iowa State Alumni Band Fall 2014 Newsletter" (PDF). Ames, Iowa. p. 10. Retrieved April 26, 2015. Borzi, Pat (January 18, 2014). "Iowa State's Legacy of Fervor and Success Is Handed Down". The New York Times. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
^ "Former The Tonight Show Band Leader Performs at Johnny Carson Theatre". Norfolk Daily News. Norfolk, Nebraska. September 27, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2014. Darr, Deanna (April 4, 2014). "Big Band, Big Sound: Severinsen takes Tonight Show Music on the Road". Rapid City Journal. Rapid City, South Dakota. Retrieved December 6, 2014.
^ "Doc Severinsen Performs Johnny Carson's Theme". Tumblr: The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (official). February 17, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
Bibliography
Cox, Stephen (2002). Here's Johnny! Thirty Years of America's Favorite Late-Night Entertainer (paperback ed.). Cumberland House Publishing. ISBN 978-1581822656. Cited as Cox 2002.
Kerley, Gary Lee (2013). Sickels, Robert C. (ed.). 100 Entertainers Who Changed America: An Encyclopedia of Pop Culture Luminaries. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598848311. Cited as Kerley 2013.
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Kevin Eubanks and The Tonight Show Band
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"instrumental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental"},{"link_name":"jazz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz"},{"link_name":"theme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_music"},{"link_name":"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Johnny_Carson"},{"link_name":"Paul Anka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Anka"},{"link_name":"Johnny Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson"},{"link_name":"The Tonight Show Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Band"},{"link_name":"Tommy Newsom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Newsom"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"single","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_(music)"},{"link_name":"Doc Severinsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doc_Severinsen"}],"text":"Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson theme song\"Johnny's Theme\" is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992. The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson, based on a previous composition by Anka. It was performed by The Tonight Show Band, which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award-winning debut album. The single release also earned a Grammy nomination.\"Johnny's Theme\" has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums. It has appeared in several films, and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians, including Doc Severinsen's Big Band.","title":"Johnny's Theme"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Development and evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JazzWax-2"},{"link_name":"Disney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"Buena Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buena_Vista_(brand)"},{"link_name":"B-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-side_and_B-side"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tootsweet-3"},{"link_name":"\"Tutti\" Camarata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvatore_Camarata"},{"link_name":"Annette Funicello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annette_Funicello"},{"link_name":"The Mickey Mouse Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mickey_Mouse_Club"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JazzWax-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11-themes-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JazzWax-2"},{"link_name":"EPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_play"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IRL-5"}],"sub_title":"1959: Two songs","text":"\"Johnny's Theme\" began life as \"Toot Sweet\", a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti's Trumpets.[2] It was released on Disney's Buena Vista label as the B-side to The Camarata Strings' single \"Lost In a Fog\".[3]\"Tutti\" Camarata, who was Annette Funicello's producer at the time, asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club.[2] Anka added lyrics to \"Toot Sweet\" and published them under the title \"It's Really Love\",[4] and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka. He recorded his own version of \"It's Really Love\" that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes;[2] it was released on seven-inch EPs in France, Italy and Spain.[5]","title":"Development and evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johnny Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson"},{"link_name":"The Tonight Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JazzWax-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECox2002192-6"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LKL-7"},{"link_name":"demo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demo_(music)"},{"link_name":"Ed McMahon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_McMahon"},{"link_name":"Fort Lauderdale, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lauderdale,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LKL-7"}],"sub_title":"1962: Johnny Carson","text":"When Johnny Carson, a fan of jazz music, was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962, he recognized that he would need a theme song.[2] Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961;[6] when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year, Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme.[7]Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for \"It's Really Love\" and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon, who were in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, making preparations for the show. McMahon said \"it was the first time either one of us heard [the song]—and magic.\"[7]","title":"Development and evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Skitch Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skitch_Henderson"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LKL-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JazzWax-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LKL-7"},{"link_name":"Orange Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Coast_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-played-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKerley201399-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retired-12"},{"link_name":"Branford Marsalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branford_Marsalis"},{"link_name":"Jay Leno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Leno"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leno-13"}],"sub_title":"1962–92: The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson","text":"Shortly after sending the demo, Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by a \"20-year-old kid.\"[7] Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter's credit along with half of the royalties every time the song was played[2] which would earn each man an average of about US$200,000 per year.[7] Orange Coast estimated in 1999 that \"Johnny's Theme\" had been played more than 1,400,000 times.[10]The song was retired along with Carson in 1992;[11] his iteration of The Tonight Show was called \"the last widely public big-band forum.\"[12] Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more \"funky\" theme for successor Jay Leno because \"a swing tune doesn't reflect Jay at all [and] jazz doesn't come to mind either.\"[13]","title":"Development and evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Henry Mancini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Mancini"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mancini1-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mancini2-15"},{"link_name":"Buddah Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddah_Records"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TopBrass-16"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Welk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Welk"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A1anda2-17"},{"link_name":"Doc Severinsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doc_Severinsen"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allmusic-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Radio & Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_%26_Records"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R&R-20"},{"link_name":"compilations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilation_album"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-compil-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chrysalis-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BestofDoc-23"}],"text":"Henry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2:44 arrangement of \"Johnny's Theme\" in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra.[14] A version also appeared as part of Mancini's 2010 compilation Big Screen, Little Screen.[15] Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973.[16] Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia's Theme.[17]Doc Severinsen and the band recorded \"Johnny's Theme\" and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band, released in 1986.[18] Amherst Records also released the track as a single, titled \"Johnny's Theme (The Tonight Show Theme)\",[19] which debuted at #27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart.[20] The song has been released on compilations of television themes,[21] the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music,[22] and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen (1998).[23]","title":"Releases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/29th_Annual_Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Pop Instrumental Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Instrumental_Performance"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grammy-nom-24"},{"link_name":"Top Gun Anthem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Gun_Anthem"},{"link_name":"Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Large_Jazz_Ensemble_Album"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grammy-win-25"}],"text":"\"Johnny's Theme\" earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance,[24] losing to \"Top Gun Anthem\" at the awards presentation in 1987. The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance, Big Band.[25]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-takeover-26"},{"link_name":"Larry King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_King"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LKL-7"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECox2002193-27"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Post-28"},{"link_name":"This Is My Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_My_Life_(1992_film)"},{"link_name":"Isn't She Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isn%27t_She_Great"},{"link_name":"Talk to Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_to_Me_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-films-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-live-30"},{"link_name":"Iowa State Cyclones men's basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_Cyclones_men%27s_basketball"},{"link_name":"Johnny Orr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Orr_(basketball,_born_1927)"},{"link_name":"Hilton Coliseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilton_Coliseum"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISU-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tour-32"},{"link_name":"The Roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Roots"},{"link_name":"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_Starring_Jimmy_Fallon"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roots-33"}],"text":"In 2005, Doc Severinsen, Carson's bandleader starting in 1967,[26] said the song worked so well because it was \"accessible. People could understand what it was, and it was associated with Johnny.\" Larry King called it \"one of the most familiar themes in American television history.\"[7] Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night, \"but everybody knows it. Simplicity is indeed royal.\"[27]The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia, though they \"used to abound\" with or without lyrics. For example, \"Anka's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson.\"[28]\"Johnny's Theme\" has been included in numerous films including This Is My Life, Isn't She Great and Talk to Me.[29] The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels from student to professional.[30] Iowa State Cyclones men's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played \"Johnny's Theme\" before games at the Hilton Coliseum. Orr's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994.[31]Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour. His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety, \"just to let you know who we are.\"[32] Severinsen and The Roots played \"Johnny's Theme\" during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.[33]","title":"Legacy"}]
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[{"reference":"\"The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson\". classicthemes.com. Retrieved November 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.classicthemes.com/50sTVThemes/themePages/tonight_Carson.html","url_text":"\"The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson\""}]},{"reference":"Myers, Marc (January 7, 2014). \"Tonight Show Theme: Evolution\". JazzWax. Archived from the original on November 4, 2014. Retrieved November 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Myers","url_text":"Myers, Marc"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141104115115/http://www.jazzwax.com/2014/01/tonight-show-theme-evolution.html","url_text":"\"Tonight Show Theme: Evolution\""},{"url":"http://www.jazzwax.com/2014/01/tonight-show-theme-evolution.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Conradt, Stacy (2012-07-11). \"11 TV Theme Songs That Secretly Have Lyrics\". Mental Floss. Retrieved 26 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://mentalfloss.com/article/31167/11-tv-theme-songs-secretly-have-lyrics","url_text":"\"11 TV Theme Songs That Secretly Have Lyrics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Transcripts: Larry King Live Interview with Ed McMahon, Doc Severinsen\". CNN. January 24, 2005. Retrieved November 5, 2014. The lyrics were never used for The Tonight Show.","urls":[{"url":"http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0501/24/lkl.01.html","url_text":"\"Transcripts: Larry King Live Interview with Ed McMahon, Doc Severinsen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN","url_text":"CNN"}]},{"reference":"Ellerbee, Bobby. \"How Johnny Carson's Tonight Show Theme Came About\" (PDF). The Great Escape!. p. 3. Retrieved November 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dixieswing.com/vol31.pdf","url_text":"\"How Johnny Carson's Tonight Show Theme Came About\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Credits\". AllMusic. Retrieved April 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/the-tonight-show-band-vol-1-mw0000649756/credits","url_text":"\"The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Credits\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"}]},{"reference":"Rice, Darcy (March 1999). \"He wrote that one, too?\". Orange Coast. p. 36. Retrieved April 24, 2020. \"In 1962, [Anka] wrote the theme song for The Tonight Show, which has been performed more than 1,400,000 times.\" (The article does not clarify where performed or by whom; Carson's tenure comprised 4,531 broadcast episodes.)","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rAQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA36","url_text":"\"He wrote that one, too?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Coast_(magazine)","url_text":"Orange Coast"}]},{"reference":"Woodard, Josef (July 16, 1992). \"SOUNDS AROUND TOWN: Big-Band Lifeline ...\" Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/1992-07-16/news/vl-3595_1_joe-vento-s-big-band","url_text":"\"SOUNDS AROUND TOWN: Big-Band Lifeline ...\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Waldron, Clarence (June 22, 1992). \"Branford Marsalis and Jay Leno Give Tonight Show New Humor and New Sound\". Jet. 82 (9): 57.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(magazine)","url_text":"Jet"}]},{"reference":"\"The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards\". AllMusic. Retrieved November 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allmusic.com/album/the-tonight-show-band-vol-1-mw0000649756","url_text":"\"The Tonight Show Band, Vol. 1: Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"}]},{"reference":"\"Radio & Records National Airplay: Jazz\" (PDF). Radio & Records. October 17, 1986. Retrieved April 26, 2015 – via AmericanRadioHistory.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanradiohistory.com/hd2/IDX-Business/Music/Archive-RandR-IDX/IDX/80s/86/RR-1986-10-17-OCR-Page-0074.pdf","url_text":"\"Radio & Records National Airplay: Jazz\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_%26_Records","url_text":"Radio & Records"}]},{"reference":"Moleski, Linda (January 31, 1987). \"Grass Route\" (PDF). Billboard. p. 63. Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Billboard/80s/1987/Billboard-1987-01-31.pdf","url_text":"\"Grass Route\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)","url_text":"Billboard"}]},{"reference":"\"Winners (1986)\". Grammy.com. Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.grammy.com/nominees/search?artist=&title=&year=1986&genre=All","url_text":"\"Winners (1986)\""}]},{"reference":"Severo, Richard (November 3, 2005). \"Skitch Henderson, 87, Tonight Show Bandleader, Dies\". The New York Times. Retrieved April 28, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/03/arts/music/03henderson.html","url_text":"\"Skitch Henderson, 87, Tonight Show Bandleader, Dies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Farhi, Paul (May 31, 2008). \"Cue TV theme as it fades into sunset: Original music that has helped define shows ...\" The Washington Post. Retrieved April 28, 2015 – via Los Angeles Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/2008/may/31/entertainment/et-tvthemes31","url_text":"\"Cue TV theme as it fades into sunset: Original music that has helped define shows ...\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Staff. \"Paul Anka: Biography and Filmography\". Hollywood.com. Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hollywood.com/celebrities/paul-anka-57239165","url_text":"\"Paul Anka: Biography and Filmography\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood.com","url_text":"Hollywood.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Johnny's Theme\" (from The Tonight Show) Spring Concert 2012 (video). YouTube (Heritage Christian High School Jazz Band). April 29, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35MJY46Komo","url_text":"\"Johnny's Theme\" (from The Tonight Show) Spring Concert 2012"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"\"Johnny's Theme\" Concert (video). YouTube (South Shore Conservatory Summer Music Festival). May 1, 2014. Retrieved January 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyqoQEW6nks","url_text":"\"Johnny's Theme\" Concert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"Denner, Andrew; Eastman, Emily, eds. (2014). \"Iowa State Alumni Band Fall 2014 Newsletter\" (PDF). Ames, Iowa. p. 10. Retrieved April 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isualum.org/documents/filelibrary/alumni_band/newsletters/2014FallNewsletter_161941D85EE55.pdf","url_text":"\"Iowa State Alumni Band Fall 2014 Newsletter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames,_Iowa","url_text":"Ames, Iowa"}]},{"reference":"Borzi, Pat (January 18, 2014). \"Iowa State's Legacy of Fervor and Success Is Handed Down\". The New York Times. Retrieved April 26, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/19/sports/ncaabasketball/iowa-states-legacy-of-fervor-and-success-is-handed-down.html","url_text":"\"Iowa State's Legacy of Fervor and Success Is Handed Down\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Former The Tonight Show Band Leader Performs at Johnny Carson Theatre\". Norfolk Daily News. Norfolk, Nebraska. September 27, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://norfolkdailynews.com/news/former-the-tonight-show-band-leader-performs-at-johnny-carson/article_7a050622-2783-11e3-89ab-001a4bcf6878.html","url_text":"\"Former The Tonight Show Band Leader Performs at Johnny Carson Theatre\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_Daily_News","url_text":"Norfolk Daily News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk,_Nebraska","url_text":"Norfolk, Nebraska"}]},{"reference":"Darr, Deanna (April 4, 2014). \"Big Band, Big Sound: Severinsen takes Tonight Show Music on the Road\". Rapid City Journal. Rapid City, South Dakota. Retrieved December 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://rapidcityjournal.com/blackhillstogo/arts-music/sound-check/big-band-big-sound-severinsen-takes-tonight-show-music-on/article_64d1bae7-0869-5284-add2-e49fdc69c024.html","url_text":"\"Big Band, Big Sound: Severinsen takes Tonight Show Music on the Road\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_City_Journal","url_text":"Rapid City Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_City,_South_Dakota","url_text":"Rapid City, South Dakota"}]},{"reference":"\"Doc Severinsen Performs Johnny Carson's Theme\". Tumblr: The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (official). February 17, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://fallontonight.tumblr.com/post/111304959425/web-exclusive-doc-severinsen-performs-the-theme","url_text":"\"Doc Severinsen Performs Johnny Carson's Theme\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumblr","url_text":"Tumblr"}]},{"reference":"Cox, Stephen (2002). Here's Johnny! Thirty Years of America's Favorite Late-Night Entertainer (paperback ed.). Cumberland House Publishing. ISBN 978-1581822656.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1581822656","url_text":"978-1581822656"}]},{"reference":"Kerley, Gary Lee (2013). Sickels, Robert C. (ed.). 100 Entertainers Who Changed America: An Encyclopedia of Pop Culture Luminaries. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598848311.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC-CLIO","url_text":"ABC-CLIO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781598848311","url_text":"9781598848311"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasons_(DJs)
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Freemasons (DJs)
|
["1 Biography","1.1 2005–2007: Early career","1.2 2007–2009: Unmixed and Shakedown 2","1.3 2010–present: Shakedown 3","2 Discography","2.1 Freemasons albums","2.2 Freemasons singles","2.3 Pegasus singles","2.4 Pegasus promotional singles","2.5 Remixes","2.6 Production credits","3 References","4 External links"]
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English-Irish DJ band
FreemasonsAlso known asBN3The AlibiWalkenFunk FanaticsPegasusF9OriginBrighton, East Sussex, England, UKGenresHousefunky housenu-discoEurodanceYears active2003–presentLabelsLoadedMembers
James Wiltshire
Russell Small
Freemasons are a DJ duo from Brighton, East Sussex, England. The act consists of the producers Russell Small (who is also one half of the house production duo Phats & Small) and James Wiltshire (who also works with Phats & Small under the alias 'Jimmy Gomez').
Biography
2005–2007: Early career
Their name is taken from the Brighton pub, Freemasons Tavern, which they frequently visit. The duo also record and remix under the similar-sounding "Freemaison" name, which is also the name of their record label that was founded in 2005. Freemasons have also produced tracks under the names of Alibi, Walken, Funk Fanatics and BN3 (which is part of their hometown of Hove's postal code).
In 2005, the duo transformed Jackie Moore's 1979 #1 Billboard Hot Dance Club Play track "This Time Baby", and Tina Turner's 1999 hit "When the Heartache Is Over", into an international nightclub hit as "Love on My Mind". A #11 hit in the UK, it was also released in the United States on their U.S. label, the New York based Ultra Records.
Freemasons were also the remixers on Faith Evans' 2005 #1 Hot Dance Club Play and #4 Hot Dance Airplay hit, "Mesmerized". Their follow-up song, "Watchin'" was released in the United States in 2006 with Amanda Wilson as the lead vocalist for the track. "Watchin'" peaked at #1 on the Hot Dance Club Play and within the Top 20 of the Hot Dance Airplay chart. The third original single from Freemasons, "Rain Down Love", reached the Top 20 of the Hot Dance Airplay chart. Their fourth single (released digitally), "Nothing but a Heartache" featuring vocals from Sylvia Mason-James, was released in June 2007. Freemasons also remixed Beyoncé's original song, "Déjà Vu" in 2006 (for which they were nominated for a Grammy Award). They followed this up with further remixes of "Ring the Alarm", "Beautiful Liar" (duet with Shakira), and "Green Light". They also co-produced "The One" on Kylie Minogue's album X with Richard Stannard and remixed the song for single release in May 2008.
2007–2009: Unmixed and Shakedown 2
On 29 October 2007, Freemasons released Unmixed, an album containing unmixed versions of most of their mixes to date. As a bonus, there is a data track containing samples and a cappella versions of "Unmixed". In 2007, Freemasons worked with Kelly Rowland, to produce the remix of her single "Work", for the non-American markets. That same year they were rumored to be producing an album for Donna Summer, but the project fell through due to scheduling commitments.
The follow-up to their own version of "Uninvited", "When You Touch Me", was released in the UK on 30 June 2008. The song featured Katherine Ellis. The music video premiered in May 2008. The song entered the UK Singles Chart in June 2008 and reached its peak of #23 on 6 July.
Beyoncé's sister, Solange Knowles used the duo's production skills to create her single "I Decided" for its release in 2008.
On 15 June 2009, Freemasons released the song "Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)", featuring Sophie Ellis-Bextor, in the UK. The single peaked at #13 in the UK, making it their fifth Top 20 hit on the UK Singles Chart, and was a smash hit on the club charts. It had success in the European charts. X Factor 2008 winner Alexandra Burke confirmed on her official website that Freemasons had produced tracks for her debut album.
2010–present: Shakedown 3
The duo released a remix EP Summer of Pride Mix digitally on 15 August 2010 which peaked at #23 on the UK Dance Singles Chart. The single (including an edited version) was released in the UK on 5 December 2010. "Believer" features R&B singer Wynter Gordon.
In April 2012, Russell discussed with fans after a gig in Bournemouth about talk of signing a new contract on Ministry of Sound's label, to release an album in early 2013. He is quoted as saying, "It's still early days, however they have said that they will want lots of collaborations. It's something to look forward to."
Wiltshire now produces music with F9-Audio F9-audio. Small continues to DJ around the world and produce music with production partner DNO P.
Discography
Freemasons albums
Title
Album details
Peak chart positions
Certifications
UK
UKDance
UKComp
BEL
NED
SCO
Shakedown
Released: 22 January 2007
Label: Loaded
Formats: CD, digital download
81
1
—
—
—
—
Unmixed
Released: 29 October 2007
Label: Loaded
Formats: CD, digital download
58
6
—
26
85
88
UK: Silver
Shakedown 2
Released: 29 June 2009
Label: Loaded
Formats: CD, digital download
—
9
17
—
—
—
Shakedown 3
Released: 4 August 2014
Label: Loaded
Formats: CD, digital download
—
10
76
—
—
—
"—" denotes items that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
Freemasons singles
Year
Title
Peak chart positions
Certifications
Album
UK
UKDance
AUS
BEL
FIN
FRA
IRE
NED
SCO
USDance
2005
"Love on My Mind" (featuring Amanda Wilson)
11
7
46
27
—
70
38
26
22
2
Shakedown
2006
"Watchin'" (featuring Amanda Wilson)
19
2
—
34
5
—
49
29
16
24
2007
"Rain Down Love" (featuring Siedah Garrett)
12
4
96
20
8
—
—
53
9
—
"Nothing but a Heartache" (featuring Sylvia Mason-James)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
"Uninvited" (featuring Bailey Tzuke)
8
1
—
2
—
11
50
4
9
23
UK: Silver
Unmixed
2008
"When You Touch Me" (featuring Katherine Ellis)
23
2
—
28
—
—
—
30
10
—
2009
"If" (featuring Hazel Fernandes)
—
—
—
—
22
—
—
—
—
—
"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)" (featuring Sophie Ellis-Bextor)
13
2
51
33
19
—
38
51
5
—
Shakedown 2
2010
"Believer" (featuring Wynter Gordon)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
46
—
11
Shakedown 3
2013
"Bring It Back"
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
"Dirty Organ" (featuring Joel Edwards)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
"Tears" (featuring Katherine Ellis)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2014
"U Drive Me Crazy" (featuring Joel Edwards)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2015
"True Love Survivor" (featuring Solah)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2016
"Firebird" (Presents F9)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
"—" denotes items that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
Notes
^ "Uninvited" peaked at umber 39 on the ARIA physical sales chart.
Pegasus singles
Year
Title
1998
"Pegasus"
2013
"Into My Arms"
"Gorecki" (featuring Levana)
Pegasus promotional singles
Year
Title
2014
"Pegasus Rising"
"True Love Survivor" (featuring Hana)
Remixes
Year
Artist
Title
2004
B.E.D. (featuring Chloe Myers)
"Before I Leave"
U-Neeq (featuring Freddie Mercury)
"Love Kills"
2005
Suntan (featuring Tia)
"The Beach"
Studio B
"I See Girls"
Jamiroquai
"(Don't) Give Hate a Chance"
The Disco Boys
"For You"
Faith Evans
"Mesmerized"
Xavier
"Give Me the Night"
Herd & Fitz (featuring Abigail Bailey)
"I Just Can't Get Enough"
Trick vs Freemasons
"Zap Me Lovely (The Nokia Song)"
Steve Mac vs Mosquito (featuring Steve Smith)
"Lovin' You More"
Studio B
"C'mon, Get It On"
Black Fras
"Movin' Into Light"
Angie Stone
"I Wasn't Kidding"
2006
Beyoncé (featuring Jay-Z)
"Déjà Vu"
Beyoncé
"Ring the Alarm"
Fatboy Slim
"Right Here, Right Now"
Loleatta Holloway
"Love Sensation"
Luther Vandross
"Shine"
Blaze (featuring Barbara Tucker)
"Most Precious Love 2006"
Supafly Inc.
"Moving Too Fast"
Heather Headley
"In My Mind"
2007
Disco Freaks
"Take Me 2 the Sun"
Beyoncé & Shakira
"Beautiful Liar"
Beyoncé
"Green Light"
Patrick Alavi
"Goldbass"
Alibi vs Rockefeller (featuring Marvin Gaye)
"Sexual Healing"
Kelly Rowland
"Work"
2008
Gusto (featuring Amanda Wilson)
"Disco's Revenge 2008"
Kylie Minogue
"The One"
Solange
"I Decided"
"Sandcastle Disco"
Moby (featuring Shayna Steele)
"Disco Lies"
Eric Prydz
"Pjanoo"
The Outsiders (featuring Amanda Wilson)
"Keep This Fire Burning"
Funk Fanatics (featuring Peyton)
"Love Is the Answer"
2009
Whitney Houston
"Million Dollar Bill"
Mr. DYF (featuring Shena)
"Hold On"
Eurythmics
"Here Comes the Rain Again"
2010
Faith Hill
"Breathe"
Shakira
"Gypsy"
Sophie Ellis-Bextor
"Bittersweet"
Hurts
"Wonderful Life"
Shakira (featuring Freshlyground)
"Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)"
Shakira (featuring Dizzee Rascal)
"Loca"
Pegasus
"Pegasus"
George Michael
"I Want Your Sex"
Rihanna
"Only Girl (In the World)"
2011
Alexis Jordan
"Good Girl"
Yasmin
"Finish Line"
Yasmin (featuring Shy FX & Ms. Dynamite)
"Light Up (The World)"
Nightcrawlers (featuring Taio Cruz)
"Cryin' Over You"
Hurts
"Better Than Love"
2012
Adele
"Rolling in the Deep"
Justice
"Phantom Pt. II"
Emeli Sandé
"Heaven"
Rizzle Kicks
"Mama Do the Hump"
Katy Perry
"Part of Me"
Christophe Willem
"Starlite"
2013
Depeche Mode
"Heaven"
Hurts
"Exile"
John Newman
"Cheating"
Pegasus
"Into My Arms"
Rubylux vs Freemasons
"The World Goes Quiet"
London Grammar
"Nightcall"
2014
Pegasus (featuring Levana Wolf)
"Gorecki"
Gorgon City (featuring Jennifer Hudson)
"Go All Night"
2015
Therese
"Put 'Em High 2015"
2016
Sophie Ellis-Bextor
"Come with Us"
Sophie Ellis-Bextor
"Crystallise"
2017
Sophie Ellis-Bextor
"Wild Forever"
2018
Metro feat. Nelly Furtado
"Sticks & stones"
Paloma Faith
"Make Your Own Kind of Music"
All Saints
"After All"
2019
Eden xo
"Have It All"
Jamie Hannah
"Sound of My Youth"
Molly Hammar
"Words"
Will Young
"Your Love"
Diana Rouvas
"Wait for No One"
Alphabeat
"Shadows"
I Am Boleyn
"Too Much"
2020
Alanis Morissette
"Smiling"
Sia
"Together"
Annie
"The Streets Where I Belong"
Kylie Minogue
"Say Something"
Gary Barlow
"Incredible"
2021
Marisha Wallace
"Faith"
Steps
"A Hundred Years of Winter"
Production credits
2007 "The One" - Kylie Minogue (Freemasons, R. Stannard)
2008 "I Decided, Pt. 2" - Solange (Freemasons, The Neptunes)
2010 "Bittersweet" - Sophie Ellis-Bextor (Freemasons, Biffco)
References
^ IMO Records. "Freemasons Biography" Archived 5 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, IMO Records, Retrieved on 14 February 2012.
^ Freemasons Archived 19 June 2007 at archive.today
^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 214. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
^ Louis Pattison (2 November 2007). "Dance Review - Freemasons, Unmixed". BBC. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
^ "Freemasons Unmixed". I Like Music. Retrieved 21 January 2008.
^ "Song performance". A-Charts. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
^ Freemasons & Sophie Ellis-Bextor Archived 13 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b "UK chart peaks". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ UK Freemason dance albums chart peaks:
"Shakedown". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Unmixed". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Shakedown 2". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Shakedown 3". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ UK Freemason compilation albums chart peaks:
"Shakedown 2". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Shakedown 3". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ a b "Belgian (Flanders) chart peaks". ultratop.be. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ a b "Dutch chart peaks". dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ Scottish Freemasons albums chart peaks:
"Unmixed". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ a b "BPI Certification". British Phonographic Industry. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ Freemasons UK dance singles chart peaks:
"Love on My Mind". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Watchin'". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Rain Down Love". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Uninvited". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"When You Touch Me". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "Australian chart peaks". australian-charts.com. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
"ARIA Top 100 Singles – Week Commencing 31st August 2009" (PDF). ARIA Charts (1018): 4. 31 August 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2013.
^ a b Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988–2010 (PDF ed.). Mt Martha, Victoria, Australia: Moonlight Publishing. p. 108.
^ Finnish chart peaks "Sisältää hitin: Levyt ja esittäjät Suomen musiikkilistoilla vuodesta 1961" (in Finnish). Sisältää Hitin - Suomen listalevyt (Timo Pennanen). Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "French chart peaks". lescharts.com. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "Irish chart peaks". irish-charts.com. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ Freemasons Scottish singles chart peaks:
"Love on My Mind". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Watchin'". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Rain Down Love". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Uninvited". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"When You Touch Me". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ "US dance airplay chart peaks". Billboard. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
External links
Russell Small Music
www.freemasonsmusic.com
vteFreemasonsStudio albums
Shakedown
Shakedown 2
Shakedown 3
Other releases
Green Light – Freemasons EP
Unmixed
Singles
"Love on My Mind"
"Watchin'"
"Rain Down Love"
"Nothing but a Heartache"
"Uninvited"
"When You Touch Me"
"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)"
Authority control databases National
France
BnF data
Artists
MusicBrainz
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"Brighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"producers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_producer"},{"link_name":"house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_music"},{"link_name":"duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duet_(music)"},{"link_name":"Phats & Small","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phats_%26_Small"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Freemasons are a DJ duo from Brighton, East Sussex, England. The act consists of the producers Russell Small (who is also one half of the house production duo Phats & Small) and James Wiltshire (who also works with Phats & Small under the alias 'Jimmy Gomez').[1]","title":"Freemasons (DJs)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_house"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Freemasons Tavern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasons_Tavern,_Hove"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction"},{"link_name":"remix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remix"},{"link_name":"record label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_label"},{"link_name":"Hove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hove"},{"link_name":"Jackie Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Moore_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Billboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Hot Dance Club Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Dance_Club_Songs"},{"link_name":"This Time Baby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Time_Baby#Jackie_Moore_version"},{"link_name":"Tina Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina_Turner"},{"link_name":"When the Heartache Is Over","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Heartache_Is_Over"},{"link_name":"Love on My Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_on_My_Mind_(Freemasons_song)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-British_Hit_Singles_&_Albums-3"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Ultra Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_Records"},{"link_name":"Faith Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_Evans"},{"link_name":"Hot Dance Airplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Dance_Airplay"},{"link_name":"Mesmerized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesmerized_(song)"},{"link_name":"Watchin'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchin%27"},{"link_name":"Amanda Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Top 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"Rain Down Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_Down_Love"},{"link_name":"Sylvia Mason-James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_Mason-James"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Déjà Vu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_Vu_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"Ring the Alarm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_the_Alarm"},{"link_name":"Beautiful Liar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beautiful_Liar"},{"link_name":"Shakira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakira"},{"link_name":"Green Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Light_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"The One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_One_(Kylie_Minogue_song)"},{"link_name":"Kylie Minogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylie_Minogue"},{"link_name":"X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_(Kylie_Minogue_album)"}],"sub_title":"2005–2007: Early career","text":"Their name is taken from the Brighton pub,[2] Freemasons Tavern, which they frequently visit. The duo also record and remix under the similar-sounding \"Freemaison\" name, which is also the name of their record label that was founded in 2005. Freemasons have also produced tracks under the names of Alibi, Walken, Funk Fanatics and BN3 (which is part of their hometown of Hove's postal code).In 2005, the duo transformed Jackie Moore's 1979 #1 Billboard Hot Dance Club Play track \"This Time Baby\", and Tina Turner's 1999 hit \"When the Heartache Is Over\", into an international nightclub hit as \"Love on My Mind\". A #11 hit in the UK,[3] it was also released in the United States on their U.S. label, the New York based Ultra Records.Freemasons were also the remixers on Faith Evans' 2005 #1 Hot Dance Club Play and #4 Hot Dance Airplay hit, \"Mesmerized\". Their follow-up song, \"Watchin'\" was released in the United States in 2006 with Amanda Wilson as the lead vocalist for the track. \"Watchin'\" peaked at #1 on the Hot Dance Club Play and within the Top 20 of the Hot Dance Airplay chart. The third original single from Freemasons, \"Rain Down Love\", reached the Top 20 of the Hot Dance Airplay chart. Their fourth single (released digitally), \"Nothing but a Heartache\" featuring vocals from Sylvia Mason-James, was released in June 2007. Freemasons also remixed Beyoncé's original song, \"Déjà Vu\" in 2006 (for which they were nominated for a Grammy Award). They followed this up with further remixes of \"Ring the Alarm\", \"Beautiful Liar\" (duet with Shakira), and \"Green Light\". They also co-produced \"The One\" on Kylie Minogue's album X with Richard Stannard and remixed the song for single release in May 2008.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unmixed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmixed"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"a cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Kelly Rowland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Rowland"},{"link_name":"Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(Kelly_Rowland_song)"},{"link_name":"Donna Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donna_Summer"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Uninvited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninvited_(song)"},{"link_name":"When You Touch Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_You_Touch_Me"},{"link_name":"Katherine Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Ellis"},{"link_name":"UK Singles Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Solange Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solange_Knowles"},{"link_name":"I Decided","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Decided_(song)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartbreak_(Make_Me_a_Dancer)"},{"link_name":"Sophie Ellis-Bextor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Ellis-Bextor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"X Factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X_Factor_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Alexandra Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Burke"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"2007–2009: Unmixed and Shakedown 2","text":"On 29 October 2007, Freemasons released Unmixed, an album containing unmixed versions of most of their mixes to date.[4] As a bonus, there is a data track containing samples and a cappella versions of \"Unmixed\".[5] In 2007, Freemasons worked with Kelly Rowland, to produce the remix of her single \"Work\", for the non-American markets. That same year they were rumored to be producing an album for Donna Summer, but the project fell through due to scheduling commitments.[citation needed]The follow-up to their own version of \"Uninvited\", \"When You Touch Me\", was released in the UK on 30 June 2008. The song featured Katherine Ellis. The music video premiered in May 2008. The song entered the UK Singles Chart in June 2008 and reached its peak of #23 on 6 July.[citation needed]Beyoncé's sister, Solange Knowles used the duo's production skills to create her single \"I Decided\" for its release in 2008.[6]On 15 June 2009, Freemasons released the song \"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)\", featuring Sophie Ellis-Bextor, in the UK.[7] The single peaked at #13 in the UK, making it their fifth Top 20 hit on the UK Singles Chart, and was a smash hit on the club charts. It had success in the European charts. X Factor 2008 winner Alexandra Burke confirmed on her official website that Freemasons had produced tracks for her debut album.[citation needed]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"R&B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues"},{"link_name":"Wynter Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wynter_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Bournemouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Sound"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"2010–present: Shakedown 3","text":"The duo released a remix EP Summer of Pride Mix digitally on 15 August 2010 which peaked at #23 on the UK Dance Singles Chart. The single (including an edited version) was released in the UK on 5 December 2010. \"Believer\" features R&B singer Wynter Gordon.In April 2012, Russell discussed with fans after a gig in Bournemouth about talk of signing a new contract on Ministry of Sound's label, to release an album in early 2013. He is quoted as saying, \"It's still early days, however they have said that they will want lots of collaborations. It's something to look forward to.\"Wiltshire now produces music with F9-Audio F9-audio. Small continues to DJ around the world and produce music with production partner DNO P.[citation needed]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Freemasons albums","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARIA-17"}],"sub_title":"Freemasons singles","text":"Notes^ \"Uninvited\" peaked at umber 39 on the ARIA physical sales chart.[17]","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Pegasus singles","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Pegasus promotional singles","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Remixes","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_One_(Kylie_Minogue_song)"},{"link_name":"Kylie Minogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylie_Minogue"},{"link_name":"Solange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solange_Knowles"},{"link_name":"Bittersweet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bittersweet_(Sophie_Ellis-Bextor_song)"},{"link_name":"Sophie Ellis-Bextor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_Ellis-Bextor"}],"sub_title":"Production credits","text":"2007 \"The One\" - Kylie Minogue (Freemasons, R. Stannard)\n2008 \"I Decided, Pt. 2\" - Solange (Freemasons, The Neptunes)\n2010 \"Bittersweet\" - Sophie Ellis-Bextor (Freemasons, Biffco)","title":"Discography"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 214. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-904994-10-5","url_text":"1-904994-10-5"}]},{"reference":"Louis Pattison (2 November 2007). \"Dance Review - Freemasons, Unmixed\". BBC. Retrieved 21 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/release/qg54/","url_text":"\"Dance Review - Freemasons, Unmixed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"\"Freemasons Unmixed\". I Like Music. Retrieved 21 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ilikemusic.com/dance/Freemasons_UNMIXED-4248","url_text":"\"Freemasons Unmixed\""}]},{"reference":"\"Song performance\". A-Charts. Retrieved 18 August 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://acharts.us/song/37211","url_text":"\"Song performance\""}]},{"reference":"\"UK chart peaks\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/2069/freemasons/","url_text":"\"UK chart peaks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"Shakedown\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-albums-chart/20070128/105/","url_text":"\"Shakedown\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"Unmixed\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-albums-chart/20071104/105/","url_text":"\"Unmixed\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakedown 2\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-albums-chart/20090712/105/","url_text":"\"Shakedown 2\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakedown 3\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-albums-chart/20140907/105/","url_text":"\"Shakedown 3\""}]},{"reference":"\"Shakedown 2\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-compilations-chart/20090705/7503/","url_text":"\"Shakedown 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"Shakedown 3\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/official-compilations-chart/20140810/7503/","url_text":"\"Shakedown 3\""}]},{"reference":"\"Belgian (Flanders) chart peaks\". ultratop.be. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ultratop.be/nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Freemasons","url_text":"\"Belgian (Flanders) chart peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dutch chart peaks\". dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Freemasons","url_text":"\"Dutch chart peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Unmixed\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-albums-chart/20080713/40/","url_text":"\"Unmixed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"BPI Certification\". British Phonographic Industry. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150315204844/http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards.aspx","url_text":"\"BPI Certification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Phonographic_Industry","url_text":"British Phonographic Industry"},{"url":"http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Love on My Mind\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20050424/104/","url_text":"\"Love on My Mind\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"Watchin'\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20060305/104/","url_text":"\"Watchin'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rain Down Love\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20070121/104/","url_text":"\"Rain Down Love\""}]},{"reference":"\"Uninvited\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20071028/104/","url_text":"\"Uninvited\""}]},{"reference":"\"When You Touch Me\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20080810/104/","url_text":"\"When You Touch Me\""}]},{"reference":"\"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/dance-singles-chart/20090712/104/","url_text":"\"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Australian chart peaks\". australian-charts.com. Retrieved 17 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Freemasons","url_text":"\"Australian chart peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"ARIA Top 100 Singles – Week Commencing 31st August 2009\" (PDF). ARIA Charts (1018): 4. 31 August 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20091004130000/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/23790/20091005-0000/issue1018.pdf","url_text":"\"ARIA Top 100 Singles – Week Commencing 31st August 2009\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARIA_Charts","url_text":"ARIA Charts"},{"url":"http://www.aria.com.au/issue1018.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ryan, Gavin (2011). Australia's Music Charts 1988–2010 (PDF ed.). Mt Martha, Victoria, Australia: Moonlight Publishing. p. 108.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Sisältää hitin: Levyt ja esittäjät Suomen musiikkilistoilla vuodesta 1961\" (in Finnish). Sisältää Hitin - Suomen listalevyt (Timo Pennanen). Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://suomenlistalevyt.blogspot.co.uk/2015/08/fre-fal.html","url_text":"\"Sisältää hitin: Levyt ja esittäjät Suomen musiikkilistoilla vuodesta 1961\""}]},{"reference":"\"French chart peaks\". lescharts.com. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Freemasons","url_text":"\"French chart peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Irish chart peaks\". irish-charts.com. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://irish-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Freemasons","url_text":"\"Irish chart peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Love on My Mind\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20050501/41/","url_text":"\"Love on My Mind\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_Charts_Company","url_text":"Official Charts Company"}]},{"reference":"\"Watchin'\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20060305/41/","url_text":"\"Watchin'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rain Down Love\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20070114/41/","url_text":"\"Rain Down Love\""}]},{"reference":"\"Uninvited\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20071028/41/","url_text":"\"Uninvited\""}]},{"reference":"\"When You Touch Me\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20080706/41/","url_text":"\"When You Touch Me\""}]},{"reference":"\"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)\". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20090628/41/","url_text":"\"Heartbreak (Make Me a Dancer)\""}]},{"reference":"\"US dance airplay chart peaks\". Billboard. Retrieved 20 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.billboard.com/artist/302479/freemasons/chart?sort=date&f=348","url_text":"\"US dance airplay chart peaks\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Slessor
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Mary Slessor
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["1 Early life","2 Missionary Work","3 Among the Okoyong and Efik","4 Death","5 Honours and legacy","6 See also","7 Gallery","8 References","9 Further reading","9.1 Books","9.2 Booklet","10 External links"]
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Scottish Presbyterian missionary (1848–1915)
Mary SlessorBorn2 December 1848 (1848-12-02)Aberdeen, ScotlandDied13 January 1915(1915-01-13) (aged 66)Use Ikot Oku, Calabar, Colony and Protectorate of NigeriaKnown forChristian missionary work in Africa, women's rights, and rescuing children from infanticide
Monument to Mary Slessor, Steeple Church, Dundee
Mary Mitchell Slessor (2 December 1848 – 13 January 1915) was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary to Nigeria. Once in Nigeria, Slessor learned Efik, one of the numerous local languages, then began teaching. Because of her understanding of the native language and her bold personality Slessor gained the trust and acceptance of the locals and was able to spread Christianity while promoting women's rights and protecting native children. She is most famous for her role in helping to stop the common practice of infanticide of twins in Okoyong, an area of Cross River State, Nigeria.
Early life
Mary Slessor
Mary Mitchell Slessor was born on 2 December 1848 in Gilcomston, Aberdeen, Scotland, to a poor working-class family who could not afford proper education. She was the second of seven children of Robert and Mary Slessor. Her father, originally from Buchan, was a shoemaker by trade. Her mother was born in Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire, and was a deeply religious woman. In 1859, the family moved to Dundee in search of work. Robert Slessor was an alcoholic and, unable to keep up shoemaking, took a job as a labourer in a mill. Her mother was a skilled weaver and went to work in the mills. At the age of eleven, Mary began work as a "half-timer" in the Baxter Brothers' Mill, meaning she spent half of her day at a school provided by the mill owners and the other half working for the company.
The Slessors lived in the slums of Dundee. Mary Slessor's father and both brothers died of pneumonia, leaving behind only Mary, her mother, and two sisters. By age fourteen, Mary had become a skilled jute worker at the mill, working from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with just an hour for breakfast and lunch.
Her mother was a devout Presbyterian who read each issue of the Missionary Record, a monthly magazine published by the United Presbyterian Church (later the United Free Church of Scotland) to inform members of missionary activities and needs. Slessor developed an interest in religion, and when a mission was instituted in Quarry Pend (close by the Wishart Church), she wanted to teach. Slessor started her mission at the age of 27, upon hearing that David Livingstone, the famous missionary and explorer, had died. She decided then that she wanted to follow in his footsteps.
Missionary Work
Eventually, Slessor applied to the Foreign Mission Board of the United Presbyterian Church. After training in Edinburgh, she set sail in the SS Ethiopia on 5 August 1876 with her cousin Robert Mitchell Beedie, a missionary from New Deer in Buchan and arrived at her destination in West Africa just over a month later.
Slessor, 28 years of age, was first assigned to the Calabar region in the land of the Efik people. She was warned that they believed in traditional West African religion and had superstitions about women giving birth to twins. Slessor lived in the missionary compound for three years, working first in the missions in Old Town and Creek Town. She wanted to go deeper into Calabar, but contracted malaria and was forced to return to Scotland to recover, leaving Calabar for Dundee in 1879. After 16 months in Scotland, Slessor returned to Calabar, this time to a new assignment three miles farther into Calabar, in Old Town. Since Slessor assigned a large portion of her salary to support her mother and sisters in Scotland, she economised by eating the native food.
Mary Slessor is pictured with adopted children Jean, Alice, Maggie and May, in an image taken in Scotland.
Issues Slessor confronted as a young missionary included the lack of Western education, as well as widespread human sacrifice at the death of a village elder, who, it was believed, required servants and retainers to accompany him into the next world.
According to biographer W. P. Livingstone, when two deputies went out to inspect the Mission in 1881–82, they were much impressed. They stated, "… she enjoys the unreserved friendship and confidence of the people and has much influence over them". This they attributed partly to the singular ease with which Slessor spoke the language.
After only three more years, Slessor returned to Scotland on yet another health furlough. During the next three years, Slessor looked after her mother and sister (who had also fallen ill), and spoke at many churches, sharing stories from the Calabar area.
Slessor then returned to an area farther away from central Calabar, from the areas which had already eliminated the more heathen practices. She saved hundreds of twins out of the bush, where they had been left either to starve to death or to be eaten by animals. She helped heal the sick and stop the practice of determining guilt by making the suspects drink poison. As a missionary, she went to other tribes, spreading the word of Jesus Christ.
During this third mission to Calabar, Slessor received news that her mother and sister had died. She was overcome with loneliness, writing, "There is no one to write and tell my stories and nonsense to." She had also found a sense of independence, writing, "Heaven is now nearer to me than Britain, and no one will worry about me if I go up country."
Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, which provided practical vocational training to Efiks. The superstitious threat against twins was not only in Calabar; but also spread to a town called Arochukwu on the far west of Calabar. The people of Calabar belong to the Efik tribe though the popular Arochukwu town is in the Igbo tribe's region. Both Calabar and Arochukwu share some common cultures and are in southeastern Nigeria, precisely Cross River State and Abia State respectively.
Among the Okoyong and Efik
Pots in which twin babies were exposed to die (circa 1880)
In August 1888, Slessor travelled north to Okoyong, an area where male missionaries had been killed. She thought her teachings, and the fact she was a woman, would be less threatening to unreached tribes. For 15 years, Slessor lived with the Okoyong and the Efik people. She learned to speak the native Efik language, and made close personal friendships wherever she went, becoming known for her pragmatism and humour. Slessor lived a simple life in a traditional house with Efiks. Her insistence on lone stations often led her into conflict with the authorities and gained her a reputation for eccentricity. However, her exploits were heralded in Britain, and she became known as the "white queen of Okoyong". Slessor continued her focus on evangelism, settling disputes, encouraging trade, establishing social changes and introducing Western education.
It was the belief in the area that the birth of twins was considered a particularly evil curse. Natives feared that the father of one of the infants was a 'devil child', and that the mother had been guilty of a great sin. Unable to determine which twin was fathered by the evil spirit, the natives often abandoned both babies in clay pots to die. In most of Calabar the practice had been eliminated by the Missionaries and King Eyo Honesty II. Slessor left the area of Calabar and moved further in to Okoyong. She adopted every child she found abandoned, and sent out twins' missioners to find, protect and care for them at the Mission House. Some mission compounds were alive with babies. Slessor once saved a pair of twins, a boy and a girl, but the boy did not survive. Mary took the girl as her daughter and called her Janie. She took Janie home to Scotland with her on at least one visit.
In 1892, Slessor became vice-consul in Okoyong, presiding over the native court. In 1905 she was named vice-president of Ikot Obong native court. In 1913, she was awarded the Order of St John. Slessor's health began to suffer in her later years, but she remained in Calabar, where she died in 1915.
Death
Memorial plaque on Mary Slessor's grave at Calabar, eastern Nigeria, in 1981
For the last four decades of her life, Slessor suffered intermittent fevers from the malaria she contracted during her first station to Calabar. However, she downplayed the personal costs, and never gave up her mission work to return permanently to Scotland. The fevers eventually weakened Slessor to the point she could no longer walk long distances in the rainforest but had to be pushed along in a handcart. In early January 1915, while at her remote station near Use Ikot Oku, she suffered a particularly severe fever. Slessor died on 13 January 1915.
Her body was transported down the Cross River to Duke Town for the colonial equivalent of a state funeral. A Union Jack covered her coffin. Attendees included the provincial commissioner, along with other senior British officials in full uniform. Flags at government buildings were flown at half-mast. Nigeria's Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard, telegraphed his "deepest regrets" from Lagos and published a warm eulogy in the government gazette.
A report on her death in The Southern Reporter of 21 January 1915 mentions a time she spent on furlough in Bowden, Roxburghshire, Scottish Borders. It states that "She and her four adopted African children were a centre of great attraction and helped to deepen the interest of the whole community in the Foreign Mission work of the Church." It praises her strong force character, her unostentatious manner, and her zeal for the tribes around Calabar.
Honours and legacy
Slessor's work in Okoyong earned her the Efik nickname of "Obongawan Okoyong" (Queen of Okoyong). This name is still used commonly to refer to her in Calabar.
Several memorials in and around the Efik provinces of Calabar and Okoyong testify to the value placed on her work. Some of these include:
a high school named in honour of Slessor in Arochukwu
Mary Slessor Road in Calabar
Mary Slessor Roundabout
Mary Slessor Street in Coventry
Mary Slessor Church
Statues of her (usually carrying twins) at various locations in Calabar
A female hostel in the University of Nigeria Nsukka is named Mary Slessor Hall in her honour.
A girls' house, "Slessor House", was named after her in Achimota School, Ghana.
In Scotland, a bust of Slessor is now in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. In Aberdeen a memorial stands in the city's Union Terrace Gardens and in Dundee, a new city centre park is named 'Slessor Gardens' in her honour. There are also streets named after her in Glasgow, Dundee and Oldmeldrum in Scotland, and in Coventry in England.
Slessor was honoured on a 1997 bank note by Clydesdale Bank for the World Heritage Series and Famous Scots Series. She was featured on the back of the bank's £10 note, highlighting her work in Calabar. The note also features a map of Calabar, a lithographic vignette depicting her work with children, and a sailing ship emblem.
Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor (1988 RR4) named to mark her centenary celebrations on 13 January 2015.
In 1950, the anthropologist Charles Partridge, a friend of Slessor when both were in Nigeria, donated letters from her, along with a recording of her voice, now The Slessor Collection at Dundee Central Library; he said of her: "She was a very remarkable woman. I look back on her friendship with reverence- one of the greatest honours that have befallen me."
Mary Slessor is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 11 January.
See also
List of female adventurers
People on Scottish banknotes
Killing of twins in Nigeria
Gallery
"Mary Slessor, Ma Eme, Chief Edim and Ekenge People", Calabar, late 19th century
"Mary Slessor Presiding at Okoyong Court, Calabar", late 19th century
"Mary Slessor and her family", Calabar, late 19th century
References
^ "Mary Slessor".
^ a b c Imbua, David Lishilinimle (2013). "Robbing Others to Pay Mary Slessor: Unearthing the Authentic Heroes and Heroines of the Abolition of Twin-Killing in Calabar". African Economic History. 41: 139–158. ISSN 0145-2258. JSTOR 43863309.
^ a b c d Livingstone, WP (1927), Mary Slessor of Calabar, Pioneer Missionary (PDF), London: Hodder & Stoughton.
^ a b c Hardage, Jeannette, "Slessor, Mary", Dictionary of African Christian Biography, archived from the original on 30 April 2013.
^ a b c Mary Slessor: 'Mother of All the Peoples', New Rochelle, NY: Holy Trinity, archived from the original on 2 December 2012.
^ "Becoming a Missionary". Mary Slessor Foundation.org. Scotland. June 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
^ Quinn, Frederick, "Mary Slessor, 1848–1915", Dictionary of African Christian Biography, archived from the original on 30 April 2013.
^ Taylor, William H. (1996). Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846-1960. BRILL. pp. 127–128. ISBN 90-04-10713-4.
^ Taylor, William H (1996). Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846–1960. Brill. pp. 127–28. ISBN 90-04-10713-4.
^ Biographical history, Edinburgh University.
^ White, Donna (29 August 2010). "Red-hot designers hail Scots missionary for inspiring African style". The Daily Record. Retrieved 6 September 2011.
^ Proctor, JH (2000). "Serving God and the Empire: Mary Slessor in South-Eastern Nigeria, 1876–1915". Journal of Religion in Africa. 30 (1). Brill: 45–61. doi:10.1163/157006600X00483. JSTOR 1581622.
^ "Eminent Missionary's Death". The Southern Reporter. 21 January 1915.
^ "Achimota School. - Timeline - Facebook". Facebook. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022.
^ "August 5: Mary Slessor". This Day in Presbyterian History. 5 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
^ Jet propulsion laboratory, NASA.
^ "Dundee Central Library: Slessor Collection". www.mundus.ac.uk. Retrieved 20 October 2019.
^ "Charles Partridge (Biographical details)". The British Museum. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
^ "The Calendar". The Church of England. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
Further reading
Books
Benge, Janet & Geoff (c. 1999) Mary Slessor: Forward Into Calabar. YWAM Publishing. 205 pp. ISBN 1-57658-148-9.
Bueltmann, A. J. White Queen of the Cannibals: The Story of Mary Slessor. Moody Press, Chicago.
Gruffydd, Gan Ceridwen Brenhines Y Diffeithwch (Mary Slessor) Llundain, in Welsh, 1926.
Hardage, Jeanette (2010), Mary Slessor Everybody's Mother, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 978-0-7188-9185-5.
Mcfarlan, Donald (1961). White Queen: The Story of Mary Slessor. Lutterworth Press.
Purves, Carol. From Jute to Jungle: The Mary Slessor Story. ISBN 978-1-291-75378-3.
Robertson, Elizabeth (2008), Mary Slessor: The Barefoot Missionary (revised ed.), Edinburgh: NMS Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-90166350-1.
Booklet
Rev. J. Harrison Hudson, Rev. Thomas W. Jarvie, Rev. Jock Stein. "Let the Fire Burn" – A Study of R. M. McCheyne, Robert Annan and Mary Slessor. Out-of-print booklet, 1978, Handsel Publications (formerly of Dundee), now Handsel Press. D.15545, 15546 under 'Mary Slessor' in List of Reference Works, Local Studies Department of Dundee Central Library, The Wellgate, Dundee, DD1 1DB.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mary Slessor.
Dundee City Library Local Research Biography
Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Mary Slessor
Mary Slessor Biographies
"Triumphs of Florence Nightingale, Francis Schaeffer, Mary Slessor and Alexander Solzhenitsyn", Heroes of history.
The Committee of Scottish Bankers "Clydesdale Bank - £10 Famous Scots Series"
vteProtestant missions to AfricaPeople
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John Philip
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Once in Nigeria, Slessor learned Efik, one of the numerous local languages, then began teaching. Because of her understanding of the native language and her bold personality Slessor gained the trust and acceptance of the locals and was able to spread Christianity while promoting women's rights and protecting native children. She is most famous for her role in helping to stop the common practice of infanticide of twins in Okoyong, an area of Cross River State, Nigeria.[1][2]","title":"Mary Slessor"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary-slessor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gilcomston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilcomston_South_Church"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Buchan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchan"},{"link_name":"Oldmeldrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldmeldrum"},{"link_name":"Aberdeenshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeenshire"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-3"},{"link_name":"Dundee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundee"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dacb-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dacb-4"},{"link_name":"jute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trinity-5"},{"link_name":"United Presbyterian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Presbyterian_Church_(Scotland)"},{"link_name":"United Free Church of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Free_Church_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dacb-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trinity-5"},{"link_name":"David Livingstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Livingstone"}],"text":"Mary SlessorMary Mitchell Slessor was born on 2 December 1848 in Gilcomston, Aberdeen, Scotland, to a poor working-class family who could not afford proper education. She was the second of seven children of Robert and Mary Slessor. Her father, originally from Buchan, was a shoemaker by trade. Her mother was born in Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire, and was a deeply religious woman.[3] In 1859, the family moved to Dundee in search of work. Robert Slessor was an alcoholic and, unable to keep up shoemaking, took a job as a labourer in a mill. Her mother was a skilled weaver and went to work in the mills.[4] At the age of eleven, Mary began work as a \"half-timer\" in the Baxter Brothers' Mill, meaning she spent half of her day at a school provided by the mill owners and the other half working for the company.The Slessors lived in the slums of Dundee. Mary Slessor's father and both brothers died of pneumonia, leaving behind only Mary, her mother, and two sisters.[4] By age fourteen, Mary had become a skilled jute worker at the mill, working from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with just an hour for breakfast and lunch.[5]Her mother was a devout Presbyterian who read each issue of the Missionary Record, a monthly magazine published by the United Presbyterian Church (later the United Free Church of Scotland) to inform members of missionary activities and needs.[4] Slessor developed an interest in religion, and when a mission was instituted in Quarry Pend (close by the Wishart Church), she wanted to teach.[5] Slessor started her mission at the age of 27, upon hearing that David Livingstone, the famous missionary and explorer, had died. She decided then that she wanted to follow in his footsteps.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"New Deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deer"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trinity-5"},{"link_name":"Calabar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabar"},{"link_name":"Efik people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efik_people"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary-slessor-and-adopted-children.jpg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-quinn-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-3"},{"link_name":"Jesus Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lishilinimle-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Hope Waddell Training Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Waddell_Training_Institute"},{"link_name":"Arochukwu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arochukwu"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Eventually, Slessor applied to the Foreign Mission Board of the United Presbyterian Church. After training in Edinburgh, she set sail in the SS Ethiopia on 5 August 1876 with her cousin Robert Mitchell Beedie, a missionary from New Deer in Buchan and arrived at her destination in West Africa just over a month later.[6]Slessor, 28 years of age,[5] was first assigned to the Calabar region in the land of the Efik people. She was warned that they believed in traditional West African religion and had superstitions about women giving birth to twins. Slessor lived in the missionary compound for three years, working first in the missions in Old Town and Creek Town. She wanted to go deeper into Calabar, but contracted malaria and was forced to return to Scotland to recover, leaving Calabar for Dundee in 1879.[3] After 16 months in Scotland, Slessor returned to Calabar, this time to a new assignment three miles farther into Calabar, in Old Town. Since Slessor assigned a large portion of her salary to support her mother and sisters in Scotland, she economised by eating the native food.Mary Slessor is pictured with adopted children Jean, Alice, Maggie and May, in an image taken in Scotland.Issues Slessor confronted as a young missionary included the lack of Western education, as well as widespread human sacrifice at the death of a village elder, who, it was believed, required servants and retainers to accompany him into the next world.[7]According to biographer W. P. Livingstone, when two deputies went out to inspect the Mission in 1881–82, they were much impressed. They stated, \"… she enjoys the unreserved friendship and confidence of the people and has much influence over them\". This they attributed partly to the singular ease with which Slessor spoke the language.[3]After only three more years, Slessor returned to Scotland on yet another health furlough. During the next three years, Slessor looked after her mother and sister (who had also fallen ill), and spoke at many churches, sharing stories from the Calabar area.Slessor then returned to an area farther away from central Calabar, from the areas which had already eliminated the more heathen practices. She saved hundreds of twins out of the bush, where they had been left either to starve to death or to be eaten by animals. She helped heal the sick and stop the practice of determining guilt by making the suspects drink poison. As a missionary, she went to other tribes, spreading the word of Jesus Christ.[2]During this third mission to Calabar, Slessor received news that her mother and sister had died. She was overcome with loneliness, writing, \"There is no one to write and tell my stories and nonsense to.\" She had also found a sense of independence, writing, \"Heaven is now nearer to me than Britain, and no one will worry about me if I go up country.\"[8]Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, which provided practical vocational training to Efiks. The superstitious threat against twins was not only in Calabar; but also spread to a town called Arochukwu on the far west of Calabar. The people of Calabar belong to the Efik tribe though the popular Arochukwu town is in the Igbo tribe's region. Both Calabar and Arochukwu share some common cultures and are in southeastern Nigeria, precisely Cross River State and Abia State respectively.[9]","title":"Missionary Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pots_in_which_Twin_Babies_were_Exposed_(imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-016).jpg"},{"link_name":"twin babies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twins"},{"link_name":"Okoyong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akpap-Okoyong"},{"link_name":"Efik people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efik_people"},{"link_name":"Efik language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efik_language"},{"link_name":"in clay pots to die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_exposure"},{"link_name":"Eyo Honesty II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyo_Honesty_II"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lishilinimle-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-3"},{"link_name":"vice-consul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice-consul"},{"link_name":"Order of St John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Saint_John_(chartered_1888)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eul-10"}],"text":"Pots in which twin babies were exposed to die (circa 1880)In August 1888, Slessor travelled north to Okoyong, an area where male missionaries had been killed. She thought her teachings, and the fact she was a woman, would be less threatening to unreached tribes. For 15 years, Slessor lived with the Okoyong and the Efik people. She learned to speak the native Efik language, and made close personal friendships wherever she went, becoming known for her pragmatism and humour. Slessor lived a simple life in a traditional house with Efiks. Her insistence on lone stations often led her into conflict with the authorities and gained her a reputation for eccentricity. However, her exploits were heralded in Britain, and she became known as the \"white queen of Okoyong\". Slessor continued her focus on evangelism, settling disputes, encouraging trade, establishing social changes and introducing Western education.It was the belief in the area that the birth of twins was considered a particularly evil curse. Natives feared that the father of one of the infants was a 'devil child', and that the mother had been guilty of a great sin. Unable to determine which twin was fathered by the evil spirit, the natives often abandoned both babies in clay pots to die. In most of Calabar the practice had been eliminated by the Missionaries and King Eyo Honesty II. Slessor left the area of Calabar and moved further in to Okoyong. She adopted every child she found abandoned, and sent out twins' missioners to find, protect and care for them at the Mission House. Some mission compounds were alive with babies.[2][3] Slessor once saved a pair of twins, a boy and a girl, but the boy did not survive. Mary took the girl as her daughter and called her Janie. She took Janie home to Scotland with her on at least one visit.In 1892, Slessor became vice-consul in Okoyong, presiding over the native court. In 1905 she was named vice-president of Ikot Obong native court. In 1913, she was awarded the Order of St John. Slessor's health began to suffer in her later years, but she remained in Calabar, where she died in 1915.[10]","title":"Among the Okoyong and Efik"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary_Slessor_Grave_Calabar_Nigeria_11.81_edited-2.jpg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DailyRecord-11"},{"link_name":"Cross River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_River_(Nigeria)"},{"link_name":"Duke Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akwa_Akpa"},{"link_name":"Sir Frederick Lugard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard"},{"link_name":"eulogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eulogy"},{"link_name":"government gazette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nigeria_Gazette"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ServingGod-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Memorial plaque on Mary Slessor's grave at Calabar, eastern Nigeria, in 1981For the last four decades of her life, Slessor suffered intermittent fevers from the malaria she contracted during her first station to Calabar. However, she downplayed the personal costs, and never gave up her mission work to return permanently to Scotland. The fevers eventually weakened Slessor to the point she could no longer walk long distances in the rainforest but had to be pushed along in a handcart. In early January 1915, while at her remote station near Use Ikot Oku, she suffered a particularly severe fever. Slessor died on 13 January 1915.[11]Her body was transported down the Cross River to Duke Town for the colonial equivalent of a state funeral. A Union Jack covered her coffin. Attendees included the provincial commissioner, along with other senior British officials in full uniform. Flags at government buildings were flown at half-mast. Nigeria's Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard, telegraphed his \"deepest regrets\" from Lagos and published a warm eulogy in the government gazette.[12]A report on her death in The Southern Reporter of 21 January 1915 mentions a time she spent on furlough in Bowden, Roxburghshire, Scottish Borders. It states that \"She and her four adopted African children were a centre of great attraction and helped to deepen the interest of the whole community in the Foreign Mission work of the Church.\" It praises her strong force character, her unostentatious manner, and her zeal for the tribes around Calabar.[13]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Okoyong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Okoyong&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Arochukwu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arochukwu"},{"link_name":"University of Nigeria Nsukka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nigeria_Nsukka"},{"link_name":"Achimota School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achimota_School"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"National Wallace Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wallace_Monument"},{"link_name":"Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen"},{"link_name":"Dundee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundee"},{"link_name":"1997 bank note","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clydesdale_Bank#Commemorative_banknotes"},{"link_name":"Clydesdale Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clydesdale_Bank"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets:_4001%E2%80%935000"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Charles Partridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Partridge_(anthropologist)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"remembered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_saints_(Church_of_England)"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"commemoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemoration_(observance)"},{"link_name":"11 January","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_11"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Slessor's work in Okoyong earned her the Efik nickname of \"Obongawan Okoyong\" (Queen of Okoyong). This name is still used commonly to refer to her in Calabar.Several memorials in and around the Efik provinces of Calabar and Okoyong testify to the value placed on her work. Some of these include:a high school named in honour of Slessor in Arochukwu\nMary Slessor Road in Calabar\nMary Slessor Roundabout\nMary Slessor Street in Coventry\nMary Slessor Church\nStatues of her (usually carrying twins) at various locations in CalabarA female hostel in the University of Nigeria Nsukka is named Mary Slessor Hall in her honour.A girls' house, \"Slessor House\", was named after her in Achimota School, Ghana.[14]In Scotland, a bust of Slessor is now in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. In Aberdeen a memorial stands in the city's Union Terrace Gardens and in Dundee, a new city centre park is named 'Slessor Gardens' in her honour. There are also streets named after her in Glasgow, Dundee and Oldmeldrum in Scotland, and in Coventry in England.Slessor was honoured on a 1997 bank note by Clydesdale Bank for the World Heritage Series and Famous Scots Series. She was featured on the back of the bank's £10 note, highlighting her work in Calabar. The note also features a map of Calabar, a lithographic vignette depicting her work with children, and a sailing ship emblem.[15]Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor (1988 RR4)[16] named to mark her centenary celebrations on 13 January 2015.In 1950, the anthropologist Charles Partridge, a friend of Slessor when both were in Nigeria, donated letters from her, along with a recording of her voice, now The Slessor Collection at Dundee Central Library;[17] he said of her: \"She was a very remarkable woman. I look back on her friendship with reverence- one of the greatest honours that have befallen me.\"[18]Mary Slessor is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 11 January.[19]","title":"Honours and legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22Mary_Slessor,_Ma_Eme,_Chief_Edim_and_Ekenge_People%22,_Calabar,_late_19th_century_(imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-025).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22Mary_Slessor_Presiding_at_Okoyong_Court,_Calabar%22,_late_19th_century_(imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-032).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22Mary_Slessor_and_her_family%22,_Calabar,_late_19th_century_(imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-019).jpg"}],"text":"\"Mary Slessor, Ma Eme, Chief Edim and Ekenge People\", Calabar, late 19th century\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"Mary Slessor Presiding at Okoyong Court, Calabar\", late 19th century\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"Mary Slessor and her family\", Calabar, late 19th century","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-57658-148-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57658-148-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7188-9185-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-9185-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-291-75378-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-291-75378-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-90166350-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-90166350-1"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Benge, Janet & Geoff (c. 1999) Mary Slessor: Forward Into Calabar. YWAM Publishing. 205 pp. ISBN 1-57658-148-9.\nBueltmann, A. J. White Queen of the Cannibals: The Story of Mary Slessor. Moody Press, Chicago.\nGruffydd, Gan Ceridwen Brenhines Y Diffeithwch (Mary Slessor) Llundain, in Welsh, 1926.\nHardage, Jeanette (2010), Mary Slessor Everybody's Mother, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 978-0-7188-9185-5.\nMcfarlan, Donald (1961). White Queen: The Story of Mary Slessor. Lutterworth Press.\nPurves, Carol. From Jute to Jungle: The Mary Slessor Story. ISBN 978-1-291-75378-3.\nRobertson, Elizabeth (2008), Mary Slessor: The Barefoot Missionary (revised ed.), Edinburgh: NMS Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-90166350-1.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Booklet","text":"Rev. J. Harrison Hudson, Rev. Thomas W. Jarvie, Rev. Jock Stein. \"Let the Fire Burn\" – A Study of R. M. McCheyne, Robert Annan and Mary Slessor. Out-of-print booklet, 1978, Handsel Publications (formerly of Dundee), now Handsel Press. D.15545, 15546 under 'Mary Slessor' in List of Reference Works, Local Studies Department of Dundee Central Library, The Wellgate, Dundee, DD1 1DB.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Monument to Mary Slessor, Steeple Church, Dundee","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Monument_to_Mary_Slessor%2C_Steeple_Church%2C_Dundee.jpg/285px-Monument_to_Mary_Slessor%2C_Steeple_Church%2C_Dundee.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mary Slessor","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Mary-slessor.jpg/150px-Mary-slessor.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mary Slessor is pictured with adopted children Jean, Alice, Maggie and May, in an image taken in Scotland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/70/Mary-slessor-and-adopted-children.jpg/220px-Mary-slessor-and-adopted-children.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pots in which twin babies were exposed to die (circa 1880)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pots_in_which_Twin_Babies_were_Exposed_%28imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-016%29.jpg/220px-Pots_in_which_Twin_Babies_were_Exposed_%28imp-cswc-GB-237-CSWC47-LS2-016%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Memorial plaque on Mary Slessor's grave at Calabar, eastern Nigeria, in 1981","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Mary_Slessor_Grave_Calabar_Nigeria_11.81_edited-2.jpg/220px-Mary_Slessor_Grave_Calabar_Nigeria_11.81_edited-2.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"List of female adventurers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_adventurers"},{"title":"People on Scottish banknotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_on_banknotes#Scotland"},{"title":"Killing of twins in Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_twins_in_Nigeria"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Mary Slessor\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historymakers.info/inspirational-christians/mary-slessor.html","url_text":"\"Mary Slessor\""}]},{"reference":"Imbua, David Lishilinimle (2013). \"Robbing Others to Pay Mary Slessor: Unearthing the Authentic Heroes and Heroines of the Abolition of Twin-Killing in Calabar\". African Economic History. 41: 139–158. ISSN 0145-2258. JSTOR 43863309.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2258","url_text":"0145-2258"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43863309","url_text":"43863309"}]},{"reference":"Livingstone, WP (1927), Mary Slessor of Calabar, Pioneer Missionary (PDF), London: Hodder & Stoughton","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tracts.ukgo.com/slessor2of14.pdf","url_text":"Mary Slessor of Calabar, Pioneer Missionary"}]},{"reference":"Hardage, Jeannette, \"Slessor, Mary\", Dictionary of African Christian Biography, archived from the original on 30 April 2013","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130430151936/http://dacb.org/stories/nigeria/slessor_mary.html","url_text":"Dictionary of African Christian Biography"},{"url":"http://www.dacb.org/stories/nigeria/slessor_mary.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mary Slessor: 'Mother of All the Peoples', New Rochelle, NY: Holy Trinity, archived from the original on 2 December 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121202044437/http://www.holytrinitynewrochelle.org/yourti19263.html","url_text":"Mary Slessor: 'Mother of All the Peoples'"},{"url":"http://www.holytrinitynewrochelle.org/yourti19263.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Becoming a Missionary\". Mary Slessor Foundation.org. Scotland. June 2015. Retrieved 4 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://maryslessor.org/2015/06/becoming-a-missionary","url_text":"\"Becoming a Missionary\""}]},{"reference":"Quinn, Frederick, \"Mary Slessor, 1848–1915\", Dictionary of African Christian Biography, archived from the original on 30 April 2013","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130430152710/http://dacb.org/stories/nigeria/slessor2_mary.html","url_text":"Dictionary of African Christian Biography"},{"url":"http://www.dacb.org/stories/nigeria/slessor2_mary.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, William H. (1996). Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846-1960. BRILL. pp. 127–128. ISBN 90-04-10713-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vjqqzE4ByhMC&pg=PA127","url_text":"Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846-1960"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10713-4","url_text":"90-04-10713-4"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, William H (1996). Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846–1960. Brill. pp. 127–28. ISBN 90-04-10713-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vjqqzE4ByhMC&pg=PA127","url_text":"Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846–1960"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10713-4","url_text":"90-04-10713-4"}]},{"reference":"Biographical history, Edinburgh University","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mundus.ac.uk/cats/2/81.htm","url_text":"Biographical history"}]},{"reference":"White, Donna (29 August 2010). \"Red-hot designers hail Scots missionary for inspiring African style\". The Daily Record. Retrieved 6 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/life/women/fashion-and-beauty/2010/08/29/red-hot-designers-hail-scots-missionary-for-inspiring-african-style-86908-22521443/","url_text":"\"Red-hot designers hail Scots missionary for inspiring African style\""}]},{"reference":"Proctor, JH (2000). \"Serving God and the Empire: Mary Slessor in South-Eastern Nigeria, 1876–1915\". Journal of Religion in Africa. 30 (1). Brill: 45–61. doi:10.1163/157006600X00483. JSTOR 1581622.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006600X00483","url_text":"10.1163/157006600X00483"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581622","url_text":"1581622"}]},{"reference":"\"Eminent Missionary's Death\". The Southern Reporter. 21 January 1915.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Achimota School. - Timeline - Facebook\". Facebook. Archived from the original on 26 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/47446981740/10152030385256741","url_text":"\"Achimota School. - Timeline - Facebook\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook","url_text":"Facebook"},{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/AchimotaSchool/posts/10152030385256741","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"August 5: Mary Slessor\". This Day in Presbyterian History. 5 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thisday.pcahistory.org/2017/08/august-5-4/","url_text":"\"August 5: Mary Slessor\""}]},{"reference":"Jet propulsion laboratory, NASA","urls":[{"url":"http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=4793;orb=1;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#discovery","url_text":"Jet propulsion laboratory"}]},{"reference":"\"Dundee Central Library: Slessor Collection\". www.mundus.ac.uk. Retrieved 20 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mundus.ac.uk/cats/55/1045.htm","url_text":"\"Dundee Central Library: Slessor Collection\""}]},{"reference":"\"Charles Partridge (Biographical details)\". The British Museum. Retrieved 4 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/term_details.aspx?bioId=36688","url_text":"\"Charles Partridge (Biographical details)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_British_Museum","url_text":"The British Museum"}]},{"reference":"\"The Calendar\". The Church of England. Retrieved 27 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar","url_text":"\"The Calendar\""}]},{"reference":"Hardage, Jeanette (2010), Mary Slessor Everybody's Mother, Lutterworth Press, ISBN 978-0-7188-9185-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-9185-5","url_text":"978-0-7188-9185-5"}]},{"reference":"Robertson, Elizabeth (2008), Mary Slessor: The Barefoot Missionary (revised ed.), Edinburgh: NMS Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-90166350-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-90166350-1","url_text":"978-1-90166350-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Triumphs of Florence Nightingale, Francis Schaeffer, Mary Slessor and Alexander Solzhenitsyn\", Heroes of history","urls":[{"url":"http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page33.html","url_text":"\"Triumphs of Florence Nightingale, Francis Schaeffer, Mary Slessor and Alexander Solzhenitsyn\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.M.F._Smith
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T. M. F. Smith
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["1 Selected bibliography","2 References"]
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British statistician (1934–2019)
Terence Michael Frederick Smith (18 January 1934 – 7 December 2019) was a British statistician known for his research in survey sampling.
Fred Smith gained his first degree in 1959.
He succeeded Prof Maurice Quenouille as Professor of Statistics at the University of Southampton in 1975. He received the Guy Medal in bronze from the Royal Statistical Society in 1979. In 1983 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.
He was President of the Royal Statistical Society in 1991–1993.
Selected bibliography
Smith, T. M. F. (1984). "Present Position and Potential Developments: Some Personal Views: Sample surveys". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 147 (2): 208–221. doi:10.2307/2981677. JSTOR 2981677.
Smith, T. M. F. (1993). "Populations and Selection: Limitations of Statistics (Presidential address)". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 156 (2): 144–166. doi:10.2307/2982726. JSTOR 2982726. (Portrait of T. M. F. Smith on page 144)
Smith, T. M. F. (2001). "Biometrika centenary: Sample surveys". Biometrika. 88 (1): 167–243. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.1.167.
Smith, T. M. F. (2001). "Biometrika centenary: Sample surveys". In D. M. Titterington and D. R. Cox (ed.). Biometrika: One Hundred Years. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–194. ISBN 0-19-850993-6.
Smith, T. M. F.; Staetsky, L. (2007). "The teaching of statistics in UK universities". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 170 (3): 581–622. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2007.00482.x. MR 2380589.
References
^ Fred Smith 1934-2019
^ "T. M. F. Smith, 1934–2019; Harvey Goldstein, 1939–2020; Allan Henry Seheult, 1942–2019;John Francis Bithell, 1939–2020; M. H. A. Davis, 1945–2020". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (Statistics in Society). 183 (3): 1313–1322. 2020. doi:10.1111/rssa.12580.
^ Statistics: THe Art of Conjecture: T M F Smith
^ Smith, T. M. F. (2001). "Biometrika centenary: Sample surveys". Biometrika. 88 (1): 167–243. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.1.167.
^ View/Search Fellows of the ASA, accessed 2016-10-22.
^ Smith, T. M. F. (1993). "Populations and Selection: Limitations of Statistics (Presidential address)". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 156 (2): 144–166. doi:10.2307/2982726. JSTOR 2982726. (Portrait of T. M. F. Smith on page 144) The Royal Statistical Society lists Smith as the 1991–1993 President in its list of presidents of the Royal Statistical Society, which available on-line: List of presidents Archived 2008-10-13 at the Wayback Machine
vteGuy MedallistsGold Medallists
Charles Booth (1892)
Robert Giffen (1894)
Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1900)
Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (1907)
Patrick G. Craigie (1908)
G. Udny Yule (1911)
T. H. C. Stevenson (1920)
A. William Flux (1930)
A. L. Bowley (1935)
Major Greenwood (1945)
R. A. Fisher (1946)
A. Bradford Hill (1953)
E. S. Pearson (1955)
Frank Yates (1960)
Harold Jeffreys (1962)
Jerzy Neyman (1966)
M. G. Kendall (1968)
M. S. Bartlett (1969)
Harald Cramér (1972)
David Cox (1973)
G. A. Barnard (1975)
Roy Allen (1978)
D. G. Kendall (1981)
Henry Daniels (1984)
Bernard Benjamin (1986)
Robin Plackett (1987)
Peter Armitage (1990)
George E. P. Box (1993)
Peter Whittle (1996)
Michael Healy (1999)
Dennis Lindley (2002)
John Nelder (2005)
James Durbin (2008)
C. R. Rao (2011)
John Kingman (2013)
Bradley Efron (2014)
Adrian Smith (2016)
Stephen Buckland (2019)
David Spiegelhalter (2020)
Nancy Reid (2022)
Silver Medallists
John Glover (1893)
Augustus Sauerbeck (1894)
A. L. Bowley (1895)
F. J. Atkinson (1897)
C. S. Loch (1899)
Richard Crawford (1900)
Thomas A. Welton (1901)
R. H. Hooker (1902)
Yves Guyot (1903)
D. A. Thomas (1904)
R. H. Rew (1905)
W. H. Shaw (1906)
N. A. Humphreys (1907)
Edward Brabrook (1909)
G. H. Wood (1910)
R. Dudfield (1913)
S. Rowson (1914)
S. J. Chapman (1915)
J. S. Nicholson (1918)
J. C. Stamp (1919)
A. William Flux (1921)
H. W. Macrosty (1927)
Ethel Newbold (1928)
H. E. Soper (1930)
J. H. Jones (1934)
Ernest Charles Snow (1935)
R. G. Hawtrey (1936)
E. C. Ramsbottom (1938)
L. Isserlis (1939)
H. Leak (1940)
M. G. Kendall (1945)
Harry Campion (1950)
F. A. A. Menzler (1951)
M. S. Bartlett (1952)
J. O. Irwin (1953)
L. H. C. Tippett (1954)
D. G. Kendall (1955)
Henry Daniels (1957)
G. A. Barnard (1958)
E. C. Fieller (1960)
D. R. Cox (1961)
P. V. Sukhatme (1962)
George E. P. Box (1964)
C. R. Rao (1965)
Peter Whittle (1966)
Dennis Lindley (1968)
Robin Plackett (1973)
James Durbin (1976)
John Nelder (1977)
Peter Armitage (1978)
Michael Healy (1979)
M. Stone (1980)
John Kingman (1981)
Henry Wynn (1982)
Julian Besag (1983)
J. C. Gittins (1984)
A. Bissell (1985)
W. Pridmore (1985)
Richard Peto (1986)
John Copas (1987)
John Aitchison (1988)
F. P. Kelly (1989)
David Clayton (1990)
R. L. Smith (1991)
Robert Nicholas Curnow (1992)
A. F. M. Smith (1993)
David Spiegelhalter (1994)
B. W. Silverman (1995)
Steffen Lauritzen (1996)
Peter Diggle (1997)
Harvey Goldstein (1998)
Peter Green (1999)
Walter Gilks (2000)
Philip Dawid (2001)
David Hand (2002)
Kanti Mardia (2003)
Peter Donnelly (2004)
Peter McCullagh (2005)
Michael Titterington (2006)
Howell Tong (2007)
Gareth Roberts (2008)
Sylvia Richardson (2009)
Iain M. Johnstone (2010)
P. G. Hall (2011)
David Firth (2012)
Brian Ripley (2013)
Jianqing Fan (2014)
Anthony Davison (2015)
Nancy Reid (2016)
Neil Shephard (2017)
Peter Bühlmann (2018)
Susan Murphy (2019)
Arnaud Doucet (2020)
Håvard Rue (2021)
Paul Fearnhead (2022)
Bronze Medallists
William Gemmell Cochran (1936)
R. F. George (1938)
W. J. Jennett (1949)
Peter Armitage (1962)
James Durbin (1966)
F. Downton (1967)
Robin Plackett (1968)
M. C. Pike (1969)
P. G. Moore (1970)
D. J. Bartholomew (1971)
G. N. Wilkinson (1974)
A. F. Bissell (1975)
P. L. Goldsmith (1976)
A. F. M. Smith (1977)
Philip Dawid (1978)
T. M. F. Smith (1979)
A. J. Fox (1980)
S. J. Pocock (1982)
Peter McCullagh (1983)
Bernard Silverman (1984)
David Spiegelhalter (1985)
D. F. Hendry (1986)
Peter Green (1987)
S. C. Darby (1988)
S. M. Gore (1989)
Valerie Isham (1990)
M. G. Kenward (1991)
C. Jennison (1992)
Jonathan Tawn (1993)
R. F. A. Poultney (1994)
Iain M. Johnstone (1995)
J. N. S. Matthews (1996)
Gareth Roberts (1997)
D. Firth (1998)
P. W. F. Smith
J. Forster (1999)
J. Wakefield (2000)
Guy Nason (2001)
Geert Molenberghs (2002)
Peter Lynn (2003)
Nicola Best (2004)
Steve Brooks (2005)
Matthew Stephens (2006)
Paul Fearnhead (2007)
Fiona Steele (2008)
Chris Holmes (2009)
Omiros Papaspiliopoulos (2010)
Nicolai Meinshausen (2011)
Richard Samworth (2012)
Piotr Fryzlewicz (2013)
Ming Yuan (2014)
Jinchi Lv (2015)
Yingying Fan (2017)
Peng Ding (2018)
Jonas Peters (2019)
Rachel McCrea (2020)
Pierre E. Jacob (2021)
Rajan Shah (2022)
vtePresidents of the Royal Statistical Society19th century
1834–1836 The Marquess of Lansdowne
1836–1838 Sir Charles Lemon, Bt
1838–1840 The Earl FitzWilliam
1840–1842 Viscount Sandon
1842–1843 The Marquess of Lansdowne
1843–1845 Lord Ashley
1845–1847 The Lord Monteagle of Brandon
1847–1849 The Earl FitzWilliam
1849–1851 The Earl of Harrowby
1851–1853 The Lord Overstone
1853–1855 The Earl FitzWilliam
1855–1857 The Earl of Harrowby
1857–1859 Lord Stanley
1859–1861 Lord John Russell
1861–1863 Sir John Pakington, Bt
1863–1865 William Henry Sykes
1865–1867 The Lord Houghton
1867–1869 William Ewart Gladstone
1869–1871 William Newmarch
1871–1873 William Farr
1873–1875 William Guy
1875–1877 James Heywood
1877–1879 George Shaw-Lefevre
1879–1880 Thomas Brassey
1880–1882 James Caird
1882–1884 Robert Giffen
1884–1886 Rawson W. Rawson
1886–1888 George Goschen
1888–1890 Thomas Graham Balfour
1890–1892 Frederic J. Mouat
1892–1894 Charles Booth
1894–1896 The Lord Farrer
1896–1897 John Biddulph Martin
1897 Alfred Edmund Bateman
1897–1899 Leonard Courtney
1899–1900 Henry Fowler
1900–1902 The Lord Avebury
20th century
1902–1904 Patrick George Craigie
1904–1905 Sir Francis Powell, Bt
1905–1906 The Earl of Onslow
1906–1907 Richard Martin
1907–1909 Sir Charles Dilke, Bt
1909–1910 Jervoise Athelstane Baines
1910–1912 Lord George Hamilton
1912–1914 Francis Ysidro Edgeworth
1914–1915 The Lord Welby
1915–1916 Lord George Hamilton
1916–1918 Bernard Mallet, Registrar General
1918–1920 Herbert Samuel
1920–1922 R. Henry Rew
1922–1924 The Lord Emmott
1924–1926 Udny Yule
1926–1928 The Viscount D'Abernon
1928–1930 A. William Flux
1930–1932 Sir Josiah Stamp
1932–1934 The Lord Meston
1934–1936 Major Greenwood
1936–1938 The Lord Kennet
1938–1940 Arthur Lyon Bowley
1940–1941 Henry William Macrosty
1941 Hector Leak
1941–1943 William Beveridge
1943–1945 Ernest Charles Snow
1945–1947 The Lord Woolton
1947–1949 David Heron
1949–1950 Sir Geoffrey Heyworth
1950–1952 Austin Bradford Hill
1952–1954 Ronald Fisher
1954–1955 The Lord Piercy
1955–1957 Egon Pearson
1957–1959 Harry Campion
1959–1960 Hugh Beaver
1960–1962 Maurice Kendall
1962–1964 Joseph Oscar Irwin
1964–1965 Sir Paul Chambers
1965–1966 L. H. C. Tippett
1966–1967 M. S. Bartlett
1967–1968 Frank Yates
1968–1969 Arthur Cockfield
1969–1970 R. G. D. Allen
1970–1971 Bernard Benjamin
1971–1972 George Alfred Barnard
1972–1973 Harold Wilson
1973–1974 D. J. Finney
1974–1975 Henry Daniels
1975–1977 Stella Cunliffe
1977–1978 Henry Wynn
1978–1980 Sir Claus Moser
1980–1982 David Cox
1982–1984 Peter Armitage
1984–1985 Walter Bodmer
1985–1986 John Nelder
1986–1987 James Durbin
1987–1989 John Kingman
1989–1991 Peter G. Moore
1991–1993 T. M. F. Smith
1993–1995 D. J. Bartholomew
1995–1997 Adrian Smith
1997–1999 Robert Nicholas Curnow
1999–2001 Denise Lievesley
21st century
2001–2003 Peter Green
2003–2005 Andy Grieve
2005–2007 Tim Holt
2008–2009 David Hand
2010–2010 Bernard Silverman (resigned Feb 2010; replaced pro tem by David Hand)
2011–2012 Valerie Isham
2013–2014 John Pullinger
2014–2016 Peter Diggle
2017–2018 David Spiegelhalter
2019– Deborah Ashby
Category
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National
Norway
Germany
Israel
United States
Netherlands
Academics
Scopus
zbMATH
Other
IdRef
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In 1983 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.[5]He was President of the Royal Statistical Society in 1991–1993.[6]","title":"T. M. F. 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M. F. (1984). \"Present Position and Potential Developments: Some Personal Views: Sample surveys\". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 147 (2): 208–221. doi:10.2307/2981677. JSTOR 2981677.\nSmith, T. M. F. (1993). \"Populations and Selection: Limitations of Statistics (Presidential address)\". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 156 (2): 144–166. doi:10.2307/2982726. JSTOR 2982726. (Portrait of T. M. F. Smith on page 144)\nSmith, T. M. F. (2001). \"Biometrika centenary: Sample surveys\". Biometrika. 88 (1): 167–243. doi:10.1093/biomet/88.1.167.\nSmith, T. M. F. (2001). \"Biometrika centenary: Sample surveys\". In D. M. Titterington and D. R. Cox (ed.). Biometrika: One Hundred Years. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–194. ISBN 0-19-850993-6.\nSmith, T. M. F.; Staetsky, L. (2007). \"The teaching of statistics in UK universities\". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A. 170 (3): 581–622. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2007.00482.x. MR 2380589.","title":"Selected bibliography"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luz_Rivas
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Luz Rivas
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["1 Background","2 Political career","3 2018 California State Assembly","4 2020 California State Assembly","5 References","6 External links"]
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American politician (born 1974)
Luz RivasMember of the California AssemblyIncumbentAssumed office June 11, 2018Preceded byRaul BocanegraConstituency39th district (2018–2022)43rd district (2022–present)
Personal detailsBornLuz Maria Rivas (1974-02-06) February 6, 1974 (age 50)Los Angeles, California, U.S.Political partyDemocraticEducationMassachusetts Institute of Technology (BS)Harvard University (MEd)WebsiteCampaign website
Luz Maria Rivas (born February 6, 1974) is an American politician from the state of California. A member of the Democratic Party, she has served in the California State Assembly since 2018. She represents California's 43rd State Assembly district, which includes San Fernando, Sylmar, and Pacoima.
Background
Rivas is from Los Angeles. She earned a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, worked for Motorola, and then earned a Master of Education from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She founded a non-profit organization based in Pacoima, Los Angeles, to encourage school age girls to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. She also served on Los Angeles' City Public Works Commission.
Political career
Following Raul Bocanegra's resignation from the California Assembly, Rivas declared her candidacy in the special election to succeed him. Rivas won the special election on June 5, 2018, and was sworn into office on June 11.
Rivas has opposed legislative proposals that would reduce the stringent regulations on affordable housing construction along California's coast (which includes many of the state's most affluent and segregated areas). She has sought to limit the ability of religious institutions to build more housing.
Tony Cárdenas, the incumbent U.S. Representative for California's 29th congressional district, announced that he would not run for reelection in the 2024 elections. Rivas announced her candidacy for the seat, with Cárdenas' endorsement.
Rivas is a member of the California Legislative Progressive Caucus.
2018 California State Assembly
See also: California State Assembly election, 2018
California's 39th State Assembly district election, 2018
Primary election
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Luz Rivas
20,453
43.9
Republican
Ricardo Antonio Benitez
11,679
25.1
Democratic
Patty López
6,783
14.6
Democratic
Antonio Sanchez
4,705
10.1
Democratic
Patrea Patrick
1,740
3.7
Democratic
Bonnie Corwin
1,220
2.6
Total votes
46,580
100.0
General election
Democratic
Luz Rivas (incumbent)
85,027
77.7
Republican
Ricardo Antonio Benitez
24,468
22.3
Total votes
109,495
100.0
Democratic hold
2020 California State Assembly
2020 California's 39th State Assembly district election
Primary election
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Democratic
Luz Rivas (incumbent)
37,867
77.1%
Republican
Ricardo Benitez
11,237
22.9%
Total votes
References
^ a b c Kevin Modesti (January 8, 2018). "New candidate for Bocanegra's Assembly seat touts record of empowering women – Daily News". Dailynews.com. Retrieved June 8, 2018.
^ "This MIT Grad Plans to Change the Lives of Thousands of Latina Girls". HuffPost. August 28, 2014.
^ Kevin Modesti (June 5, 2018). "Democrats Luz Rivas and Jesse Gabriel elected to Assembly from San Fernando Valley – Daily News". Dailynews.com. Retrieved June 8, 2018.
^ "Two Democrats sworn into office to replace California assemblymen accused of sexual misconduct". Los Angeles Times. June 11, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2018.
^ Christopher, Ben (July 6, 2023). "My house or my beach? How California's housing crisis could weaken its coastal protections". CalMatters.
^ Gardiner, Dustin; Korte, Lara; Govindarao, Sejal (August 17, 2023). "A sea change for housing". POLITICO.
^ Christopher, Ben (November 22, 2023). "Speaker Rivas shuffles the leadership deck and YIMBYs win". CalMatters.
^ Logan, Erin B. (November 20, 2023). "Assemblymember Luz Rivas will run to replace Tony Cárdenas in Congress". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 20, 2023.
^ "Legislative Progressive Caucus". assembly.ca.gov. California State Assembly. Retrieved April 11, 2024.
External links
Join California - Luz Maria Rivas
vteMembers of the California State Assembly2023–24 Session
Speaker of the Assembly
Robert Rivas
Speaker pro tempore
Jim Wood (D)
Majority Leader
Cecilia Aguiar-Curry (D)
Minority Leader
James Gallagher (R)
▌Megan Dahle (R)
▌Jim Wood (D)
▌James Gallagher (R)
▌Cecilia Aguiar-Curry (D)
▌Joe Patterson (R)
▌Kevin McCarty (D)
▌Josh Hoover (R)
▌Jim Patterson (R)
▌Heath Flora (R)
▌Stephanie Nguyen (D)
▌Lori Wilson (D)
▌Damon Connolly (D)
▌Carlos Villapudua (D)
▌Buffy Wicks (D)
▌Tim Grayson (D)
▌Rebecca Bauer-Kahan (D)
▌Matt Haney (D)
▌Mia Bonta (D)
▌Phil Ting (D)
▌Liz Ortega (D)
▌Diane Papan (D)
▌Juan Alanis (R)
▌Marc Berman (D)
▌Alex Lee (D)
▌Ash Kalra (D)
▌Evan Low (D)
▌Esmeralda Soria (D)
▌Gail Pellerin (D)
▌Robert Rivas (D)
▌Dawn Addis (D)
▌Joaquin Arambula (D)
Vacant
▌Devon Mathis (R)
▌Tom Lackey (R)
▌Jasmeet Bains (D)
▌Eduardo Garcia (D)
▌Gregg Hart (D)
▌Steve Bennett (D)
▌Juan Carrillo (D)
▌Pilar Schiavo (D)
▌Chris Holden (D)
▌Jacqui Irwin (D)
▌Luz Rivas (D)
▌Laura Friedman (D)
▌James Ramos (D)
▌Jesse Gabriel (D)
▌Greg Wallis (R)
▌Blanca Rubio (D)
▌Mike Fong (D)
▌Eloise Reyes (D)
▌Rick Zbur (D)
▌Wendy Carrillo (D)
▌Freddie Rodriguez (D)
▌Miguel Santiago (D)
▌Isaac Bryan (D)
▌Lisa Calderon (D)
▌Reggie Jones-Sawyer (D)
▌Sabrina Cervantes (D)
▌Phillip Chen (R)
▌Corey Jackson (D)
▌Tina McKinnor (D)
▌Anthony Rendon (D)
▌Bill Essayli (R)
▌Blanca Pacheco (D)
▌Mike Gipson (D)
▌Al Muratsuchi (D)
▌Sharon Quirk-Silva (D)
▌Avelino Valencia (D)
▌Josh Lowenthal (D)
▌Tri Ta (R)
▌Kate Sanchez (R)
▌Diane Dixon (R)
▌Cottie Petrie-Norris (D)
▌Laurie Davies (R)
▌Marie Waldron (R)
▌Brian Maienschein (D)
▌Tasha Boerner (D)
▌Chris Ward (D)
▌Akilah Weber (D)
▌David Alvarez (D)
▌Democratic (62)
▌Republican (18)
California State Legislature
California State Assembly
California State Senate
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"California State Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Assembly"},{"link_name":"California's 43rd State Assembly district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%27s_43rd_State_Assembly_district"},{"link_name":"San Fernando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Fernando,_California"},{"link_name":"Sylmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylmar"},{"link_name":"Pacoima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacoima"}],"text":"Luz Maria Rivas (born February 6, 1974) is an American politician from the state of California. A member of the Democratic Party, she has served in the California State Assembly since 2018. She represents California's 43rd State Assembly district, which includes San Fernando, Sylmar, and Pacoima.","title":"Luz Rivas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bachelor of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"Master of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Education"},{"link_name":"Harvard Graduate School of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Graduate_School_of_Education"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-candidate-1"},{"link_name":"Pacoima, Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacoima,_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"science, technology, engineering, and mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-candidate-1"}],"text":"Rivas is from Los Angeles. She earned a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, worked for Motorola, and then earned a Master of Education from the Harvard Graduate School of Education.[1] She founded a non-profit organization based in Pacoima, Los Angeles, to encourage school age girls to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.[2] She also served on Los Angeles' City Public Works Commission.[1]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Raul Bocanegra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raul_Bocanegra"},{"link_name":"special election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_election"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-candidate-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Tony Cárdenas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_C%C3%A1rdenas"},{"link_name":"U.S. Representative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Representative"},{"link_name":"California's 29th congressional district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%27s_29th_congressional_district"},{"link_name":"2024 elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections_in_California"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"California Legislative Progressive Caucus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Legislative_Progressive_Caucus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Following Raul Bocanegra's resignation from the California Assembly, Rivas declared her candidacy in the special election to succeed him.[1] Rivas won the special election on June 5, 2018,[3] and was sworn into office on June 11.[4]Rivas has opposed legislative proposals that would reduce the stringent regulations on affordable housing construction along California's coast (which includes many of the state's most affluent and segregated areas).[5][6] She has sought to limit the ability of religious institutions to build more housing.[7]Tony Cárdenas, the incumbent U.S. Representative for California's 29th congressional district, announced that he would not run for reelection in the 2024 elections. Rivas announced her candidacy for the seat, with Cárdenas' endorsement.[8]Rivas is a member of the California Legislative Progressive Caucus.[9]","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California State Assembly election, 2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Assembly_election,_2018"}],"text":"See also: California State Assembly election, 2018","title":"2018 California State Assembly"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"2020 California State Assembly"}]
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[{"reference":"Kevin Modesti (January 8, 2018). \"New candidate for Bocanegra's Assembly seat touts record of empowering women – Daily News\". Dailynews.com. Retrieved June 8, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailynews.com/2018/01/08/new-candidate-for-bocanegras-assembly-seat-touts-record-of-empowering-women/","url_text":"\"New candidate for Bocanegra's Assembly seat touts record of empowering women – Daily News\""}]},{"reference":"\"This MIT Grad Plans to Change the Lives of Thousands of Latina Girls\". HuffPost. August 28, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/28/luz-rivas-technology-diy-girls_n_5730442.html","url_text":"\"This MIT Grad Plans to Change the Lives of Thousands of Latina Girls\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HuffPost","url_text":"HuffPost"}]},{"reference":"Kevin Modesti (June 5, 2018). \"Democrats Luz Rivas and Jesse Gabriel elected to Assembly from San Fernando Valley – Daily News\". Dailynews.com. Retrieved June 8, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailynews.com/2018/06/05/after-scandals-two-la-area-districts-to-elect-new-assembly-members/amp/","url_text":"\"Democrats Luz Rivas and Jesse Gabriel elected to Assembly from San Fernando Valley – Daily News\""}]},{"reference":"\"Two Democrats sworn into office to replace California assemblymen accused of sexual misconduct\". Los Angeles Times. June 11, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/politics/essential/la-pol-ca-essential-politics-may-2018-two-democrats-sworn-into-office-to-1528745014-htmlstory.html","url_text":"\"Two Democrats sworn into office to replace California assemblymen accused of sexual misconduct\""}]},{"reference":"Christopher, Ben (July 6, 2023). \"My house or my beach? How California's housing crisis could weaken its coastal protections\". CalMatters.","urls":[{"url":"http://calmatters.org/housing/2023/07/california-coast-housing-bill/","url_text":"\"My house or my beach? How California's housing crisis could weaken its coastal protections\""}]},{"reference":"Gardiner, Dustin; Korte, Lara; Govindarao, Sejal (August 17, 2023). \"A sea change for housing\". POLITICO.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.politico.com/newsletters/california-playbook/2023/08/17/a-sea-change-on-housing-00111602","url_text":"\"A sea change for housing\""}]},{"reference":"Christopher, Ben (November 22, 2023). \"Speaker Rivas shuffles the leadership deck and YIMBYs win\". CalMatters.","urls":[{"url":"http://calmatters.org/politics/capitol/2023/11/california-legislature-leadership-housing/","url_text":"\"Speaker Rivas shuffles the leadership deck and YIMBYs win\""}]},{"reference":"Logan, Erin B. (November 20, 2023). \"Assemblymember Luz Rivas will run to replace Tony Cárdenas in Congress\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2023-11-20/luz-rivas-replace-tony-cardenas-in-congress","url_text":"\"Assemblymember Luz Rivas will run to replace Tony Cárdenas in Congress\""}]},{"reference":"\"Legislative Progressive Caucus\". assembly.ca.gov. California State Assembly. Retrieved April 11, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.assembly.ca.gov/offices-caucuses/legislative-progressive-caucus","url_text":"\"Legislative Progressive Caucus\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://luzforassembly.com/","external_links_name":"Campaign website"},{"Link":"https://www.dailynews.com/2018/01/08/new-candidate-for-bocanegras-assembly-seat-touts-record-of-empowering-women/","external_links_name":"\"New candidate for Bocanegra's Assembly seat touts record of empowering women – Daily News\""},{"Link":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/28/luz-rivas-technology-diy-girls_n_5730442.html","external_links_name":"\"This MIT Grad Plans to Change the Lives of Thousands of Latina Girls\""},{"Link":"https://www.dailynews.com/2018/06/05/after-scandals-two-la-area-districts-to-elect-new-assembly-members/amp/","external_links_name":"\"Democrats Luz Rivas and Jesse Gabriel elected to Assembly from San Fernando Valley – Daily News\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/politics/essential/la-pol-ca-essential-politics-may-2018-two-democrats-sworn-into-office-to-1528745014-htmlstory.html","external_links_name":"\"Two Democrats sworn into office to replace California assemblymen accused of sexual misconduct\""},{"Link":"http://calmatters.org/housing/2023/07/california-coast-housing-bill/","external_links_name":"\"My house or my beach? How California's housing crisis could weaken its coastal protections\""},{"Link":"https://www.politico.com/newsletters/california-playbook/2023/08/17/a-sea-change-on-housing-00111602","external_links_name":"\"A sea change for housing\""},{"Link":"http://calmatters.org/politics/capitol/2023/11/california-legislature-leadership-housing/","external_links_name":"\"Speaker Rivas shuffles the leadership deck and YIMBYs win\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2023-11-20/luz-rivas-replace-tony-cardenas-in-congress","external_links_name":"\"Assemblymember Luz Rivas will run to replace Tony Cárdenas in Congress\""},{"Link":"https://www.assembly.ca.gov/offices-caucuses/legislative-progressive-caucus","external_links_name":"\"Legislative Progressive Caucus\""},{"Link":"http://www.joincalifornia.com/candidate/14477","external_links_name":"Join California - Luz Maria Rivas"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alborz_University_of_Medical_Sciences
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Alborz University of Medical Sciences
|
["1 Faculties","2 See also","3 External links","4 References"]
|
Coordinates: 35°50′34″N 51°00′26″E / 35.842786596971656°N 51.00725564712512°E / 35.842786596971656; 51.00725564712512Alborz University of Medical Sciencesدانشگاه علوم پزشكی و خدمات بهداشتی درمانی البرز Daneshgah-e Olum-e Pezeshki-ye AlborzTypePublicEstablished2010PresidentShahram SayadiAcademic staff209Students2457 LocationKaraj, Alborz province, IranCampusUrban
Alborz University of Medical Sciences (ABZUMS) is a medical school in Alborz Province of Iran. Located in the city of Karaj, the university was established in 2010.
The university offers degrees in 7 schools including residencies and fellowships, and administers hospitals and clinics in Karaj city and province of Alborz.
Faculties
Faculty of medicine in winter
Faculty of Medicine
Faculty of Dentistry
Faculty of Pharmacy
Faculty of Health
Faculty of Paramedical Sciences
Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery
Faculty of Medical Urgency
See also
Higher Education in Iran
External links
Official website
References
^ حوزه ریاست
^ سامانه علمسنجی دانشگاههای علوم پزشگی کشور
^ سامانه علمسنجی دانشگاههای علوم پزشگی کشور
35°50′34″N 51°00′26″E / 35.842786596971656°N 51.00725564712512°E / 35.842786596971656; 51.00725564712512
vtePublic medical universities in IranGroup 1
Gilan
Mazandaran
Golestan
Semnan
Babol
Shahroud
Group 2
Tabriz
Urmia
Ardabil
Group 3
Hamedan
Kermanshah
Kurdistan
Ilam
Group 4
Ahvaz
Lorestan
Dezful
Abadan
Group 5
Shiraz
Hormozgan
Yasuj
Bushehr
Jahrom
Fasa
Group 6
Zanjan
Alborz
Qom
Qazvin
Arak
Group 7
Isfahan
Yazd
Shahrekord
Kashan
Group 8
Kerman
Zahedan
Rafsanjan
Zabol
Jiroft
Bam
Iranshahr
Group 9
Mashhad
Birjand
North Khorasan
Sabzevar
Gonabad
Torbat Heydarieh
Group 10
Tehran
Shahid Beheshti
Iran
Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences
Baqiyatallah
Shahed
AJA
Independentfaculties
Asadabad
Esfarayen
Behbahan
Torbat Jam
Khalkhal
Khomein
Khoy
Saveh
Sarab
Sirjan
Shoushtar
Gerash
Larestan
Maragheh
Neyshabur
Authority control databases
ISNI
VIAF
This Iran university, college or other higher education institution article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alborz Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alborz_Province"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Karaj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaj"},{"link_name":"Alborz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alborz"}],"text":"Alborz University of Medical Sciences (ABZUMS) is a medical school in Alborz Province of Iran. Located in the city of Karaj, the university was established in 2010.The university offers degrees in 7 schools including residencies and fellowships, and administers hospitals and clinics in Karaj city and province of Alborz.","title":"Alborz University of Medical Sciences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abzums_medical_school_in_winter.jpg"}],"text":"Faculty of medicine in winterFaculty of Medicine\nFaculty of Dentistry\nFaculty of Pharmacy\nFaculty of Health\nFaculty of Paramedical Sciences\nFaculty of Nursing and Midwifery\nFaculty of Medical Urgency","title":"Faculties"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Faculty of medicine in winter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Abzums_medical_school_in_winter.jpg/250px-Abzums_medical_school_in_winter.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Higher Education in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Education_in_Iran"}]
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[]
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[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Alborz_University_of_Medical_Sciences¶ms=35.842786596972_N_51.007255647125_E_","external_links_name":"35°50′34″N 51°00′26″E / 35.842786596971656°N 51.00725564712512°E / 35.842786596971656; 51.00725564712512"},{"Link":"http://www.abzums.ac.ir/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://education.abzums.ac.ir/portal/home/?14314/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%87-%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA","external_links_name":"حوزه ریاست"},{"Link":"http://usid.research.ac.ir/University.php?universityId=93","external_links_name":"سامانه علمسنجی دانشگاههای علوم پزشگی کشور"},{"Link":"http://usid.research.ac.ir/University.php?universityId=93","external_links_name":"سامانه علمسنجی دانشگاههای علوم پزشگی کشور"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Alborz_University_of_Medical_Sciences¶ms=35.842786596972_N_51.007255647125_E_","external_links_name":"35°50′34″N 51°00′26″E / 35.842786596971656°N 51.00725564712512°E / 35.842786596971656; 51.00725564712512"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000446516731","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/37150083944914942114","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alborz_University_of_Medical_Sciences&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/59th_Annual_Grammy_Awards
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59th Annual Grammy Awards
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["1 Performers","2 Presenters","2.1 Premiere ceremony","3 Nominees and winners","3.1 General","3.2 Pop","3.3 Dance/Electronic","3.4 Contemporary Instrumental","3.5 Rock","3.6 Alternative","3.7 R&B","3.8 Rap","3.9 Country","3.10 New Age","3.11 Jazz","3.12 Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music","3.13 Latin","3.14 American Roots","3.15 Reggae","3.16 World Music","3.17 Children's","3.18 Spoken Word","3.19 Comedy","3.20 Musical Theatre","3.21 Music for Visual Media","3.22 Composing","3.23 Arranging","3.24 Packaging","3.25 Notes","3.26 Historical","3.27 Engineered Album","3.28 Producer","3.29 Remixer","3.30 Surround Sound","3.31 Classical","3.32 Music Video/Film","4 Special Merit Awards","4.1 MusiCares Person of the Year","4.2 Lifetime Achievement Award","4.3 Trustees Award","4.4 Technical Grammy Award","4.5 Music Educator Award","5 Grammy Hall of Fame inductions","6 In Memoriam","7 Multiple nominations and awards","8 Changes","8.1 Best New Artist guidelines","8.2 Blues categories","8.3 Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category renamed","9 References","10 External links"]
|
2017 edition of award ceremony
59th Annual Grammy AwardsOfficial posterDateFebruary 12, 2017LocationStaples CenterLos Angeles, CaliforniaHosted byJames CordenMost awardsAdele (5)Most nominationsBeyoncé (9)Websitehttp://www.grammy.com/ Television/radio coverageNetworkCBSViewership26.07 million
← 58th ·
Grammy Awards
· 60th →
The 59th Annual Grammy Awards ceremony was held on February 12, 2017. The CBS network broadcast the show live from the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The ceremony recognized the best recordings, compositions, and artists of the eligibility year, which ran from October 1, 2015, to September 30, 2016.
James Corden hosted the ceremony for the first time. The pre-telecast ceremony (officially named The Premiere Ceremony) was held on the same day prior to the main event and was hosted by comedian Margaret Cho.
The nominations were announced on December 6, 2016. Beyoncé acquired the most nominations with nine. Drake, Rihanna, and Kanye West received eight nominations each, while Chance the Rapper followed with seven nominations. Tom Elmhirst won six awards from six nominations as an engineer/mixer. Among the artists, Adele was the biggest winner of the night, receiving five trophies, including Album of the Year for 25, Record of the Year, and Song of the Year for "Hello". Adele also became the first musician in history to win all three general field awards in the same ceremony twice, previously winning all three categories in 2012. David Bowie and Greg Kurstin followed with four trophies. Chance the Rapper won for Best New Artist alongside two other awards.
Performers
Performers adapted from International Business Times.
Artist(s)
Song(s)
Adele
"Hello"
The Weeknd Daft Punk
"Starboy" (intro) "I Feel It Coming"
Keith Urban Carrie Underwood
"The Fighter"
Ed Sheeran
"Shape of You"
Lukas Graham Kelsea Ballerini
"7 Years" "Peter Pan"
Beyoncé
"Love Drought" "Sandcastles"
Bruno Mars
"That's What I Like"
Katy Perry Skip Marley
"Chained to the Rhythm"
William Bell Gary Clark Jr.
"Born Under a Bad Sign"
Maren Morris Alicia Keys
"Once"
Adele
Tribute to George Michael "Fastlove"
Metallica Lady Gaga
"Moth into Flame"
Sturgill Simpson The Dap-Kings
Tribute to Sharon Jones "All Around You"
Demi Lovato Tori Kelly Little Big Town Andra Day
Tribute to the Bee Gees "Stayin' Alive" "Tragedy" "How Deep Is Your Love""Night Fever"
A Tribe Called Quest Anderson .Paak Busta Rhymes Consequence
"Award Tour" "Movin Backwards" "We the People...."
The Time Bruno Mars
Tribute to Prince "Jungle Love" "The Bird" "Let's Go Crazy"
Pentatonix
"ABC"
Chance the RapperKirk FranklinFrancis and the LightsTamela MannNicole Steen
"How Great""All We Got"
John Legend Cynthia Erivo
In Memoriam"God Only Knows"
Presenters
Source: Grammy.com
Jennifer Lopez – presented Best New Artist
Paris Jackson – introduced the Weeknd and Daft Punk
John Travolta – introduced Keith Urban and Carrie Underwood
Nick Jonas – presented Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
Katharine McPhee and The Chainsmokers – presented Best Rock Song
Ryan Seacrest – introduced Lukas Graham and Kelsea Ballerini
Tina Knowles – introduced Beyoncé
Camila Cabello and Thomas Rhett – presented Best Country Solo Performance
Little Big Town – introduced Katy Perry and Skip Marley
William Bell and Gary Clark Jr. – presented Best Urban Contemporary Album
Gina Rodriguez – introduced Maren Morris and Alicia Keys
Taraji P. Henson – presented Best Rap Album
Laverne Cox – introduced Metallica and Lady Gaga
Dwight Yoakam – introduced Sturgill Simpson
DNCE – introduced Demi Lovato, Tori Kelly, Little Big Town and Andra Day
Celine Dion – presented Song of the Year
Solange – introduced A Tribe Called Quest and Anderson .Paak
Halsey and Jason Derulo – introduced Chance the Rapper and Kirk Franklin
Tim McGraw and Faith Hill – presented Record of the Year and Album of the Year
Premiere ceremony
In order of appearance:
Margaret Cho - main host (presented Rock, Pop, Producer and Visual Media categories and Best Musical Theater Album)
Lauren Daigle and For King and Country (presented Gospel/Contemporary Christian, Engineering (Non Classical), Packaging and Arranging categories and Best Historical Album, Best Album Notes, Best Surround Sound Album and Best Instrumental Composition)
O'Connor Band - "Ruby, Are You Mad At Your Man?"
René Marie (presented Gospel categories, Best New Age Album, Best World Music Album, Best Children's Album, Best Spoken Word Album, Best Music Video and Best Music Film)
Ravi Coltrane and Third Coast Percussion - "Mallet Quartet"
Sarah Jarosz (presented Classical, Engineering (Classical) and Dance categories)
Judy Collins - "Suzanne" (Tribute to Leonard Cohen)
Brendon Urie (presented Best Contemporary Instrumental Album, Jazz, Country categories and Best Roots Gospel Album)
Northern Cree and Carla Morrison - "Cree Cuttin'"/"Un Beso"
Mya (presented Latin and American Roots categories)
Ziggy Marley - "Amen"
Jimmy Jam (presented R&B and Rap categories and Best Reggae Album, Best Comedy Album)
Nominees and winners
Taken from the Grammys website.
The winners are in bold.
General
Record of the Year
"Hello" – Adele
Greg Kurstin, producer; Julian Burg, Tom Elmhirst, Emile Haynie, Greg Kurstin, Liam Nolan, Alex Pasco & Joe Visciano, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers
"Formation" – Beyoncé
Beyoncé Knowles, Mike Will Made-It & Pluss, producers; Jaycen Joshua & Stuart White, engineers/mixers; Dave Kutch, mastering engineer
"7 Years" – Lukas Graham
Future Animals & Pilo, producers; Delbert Bowers, Sebastian Fogh, Stefan Forrest & David LaBrel, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne, mastering engineer
"Work" – Rihanna featuring Drake
Boi-1da, producer; Noel "Gadget" Campbell, Kuk Harrell, Manny Marroquin, Noah "40" Shebib & Marcos Tovar, engineers/mixers; Chris Gehringer, mastering engineer
"Stressed Out" – Twenty One Pilots
Mike Elizondo & Tyler Joseph, producers; Neal Avron & Adam Hawkins, engineers/mixers; Chris Gehringer, mastering engineer
Album of the Year
25 – Adele
Danger Mouse, Samuel Dixon, Paul Epworth, Greg Kurstin, Max Martin, Ariel Rechtshaid, Shellback, The Smeezingtons & Ryan Tedder, producers; Julian Burg, Austen Jux Chandler, Cameron Craig, Samuel Dixon, Tom Elmhirst, Declan Gaffney, Serban Ghenea, John Hanes, Emile Haynie, Jan Holzner, Michael Ilbert, Chris Kasych, Greg Kurstin, Charles Moniz, Liam Nolan, Alex Pasco, Mike Piersante, Ariel Rechtshaid, Rich Rich, Dave Schiffman, Joe Visciano & Matt Wiggins, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers
Lemonade – Beyoncé
James Blake, Kendrick Lamar, The Weeknd & Jack White, featured artists; Vincent Berry II, Ben Billions, James Blake, Boots, Jonny Coffer, DannyBoyStyles, Michael Dean, Alex Delicata, Diplo, Derek Dixie, Kevin Garrett, Diana Gordon, HazeBanga, Hit-Boy, Just Blaze, King Henry, Beyoncé Knowles, Ezra Koenig, Jeremy McDonald, MeLo-X, Mike Will Made-It, Pluss, Jack White & Malik Yusef, producers; Mike Dean, Jaycen Joshua, Greg Koller, Tony Maserati, Lester Mendoza, Vance Powell, Joshua V. Smith & Stuart White, engineers/mixers; Dave Kutch, mastering engineer
Purpose – Justin Bieber
Big Sean, Diplo, Halsey, Travis Scott & Skrillex, featured artists; The Audibles, Axident, Justin Bieber, Big Taste, Benny Blanco, Blood, Jason "Poo Bear" Boyd, Scott "Scooter" Braun, Mike Dean, Diplo, Gladius, Josh Gudwin, Nico Hartikainen, Mark "The Mogul" Jackson, Steve James, Ian Kirkpatrick, Maejor, MdL, Skrillex, Jeremy Snyder & Soundz, producers; Simon Cohen, Diplo, Mark "Exit" Goodchild, Josh Gudwin, Jaycen Joshua, Manny Marroquin, Chris "Tek" O'Ryan, Johannes Raassina, Gregg Rominiecki, Chris Sclafani, Skrillex, Dylan William & Andrew Wuepper, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers
Views – Drake
dvsn, Future, Kyla, PartyNextDoor, Rihanna & Wizkid, featured artists; Brian Alexander-Morgan, Axlfoliethc, Beat Bully, Boi-1Da, Cardo, Dwayne "Supa Dups" Chin-Quee, Daxz, DJ Dahi, Frank Dukes, Maneesh, Murda Beatz, Nineteen85, Ricci Riera, Allen Ritter, Noah "40" Shebib, Southside, Sevn Thomas, Jordan Ullman, Kanye West, Wizkid & Young Exclusive, producers; Noel Cadastre, Noel "Gadget" Campbell, Seth Firkins, David "Prep" Bijan Huges & Noah "40" Shebib, engineers/mixers; Chris Athens, mastering engineer
A Sailor's Guide to Earth – Sturgill Simpson
Sturgill Simpson, producer; Geoff Allan, David Ferguson & Sean Sullivan, engineers/mixers; Gavin Lurssen, mastering engineer
Song of the Year
"Hello"
Adele Adkins & Greg Kurstin, songwriters (Adele)
"Formation"
Khalif Brown, Asheton Hogan, Beyoncé Knowles & Michael L. Williams II, songwriters (Beyoncé)
"I Took a Pill in Ibiza"
Mike Posner, songwriter (Mike Posner)
"Love Yourself"
Justin Bieber, Benjamin Levin & Ed Sheeran, songwriters (Justin Bieber)
"7 Years"
Lukas Forchhammer, Stefan Forrest, Morten Pilegaard & Morten Ristorp, songwriters (Lukas Graham)
Best New Artist
Chance the Rapper
Kelsea Ballerini
The Chainsmokers
Maren Morris
Anderson .Paak
Pop
Best Pop Solo Performance
"Hello" – Adele
"Hold Up" – Beyoncé
"Love Yourself" – Justin Bieber
"Piece by Piece" (Idol Version) – Kelly Clarkson
"Dangerous Woman" – Ariana Grande
Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
"Stressed Out" – Twenty One Pilots
"Closer" – The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey
"7 Years" – Lukas Graham
"Work" – Rihanna featuring Drake
"Cheap Thrills" – Sia featuring Sean Paul
Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album
Summertime: Willie Nelson Sings Gershwin – Willie Nelson
Cinema – Andrea Bocelli
Fallen Angels – Bob Dylan
Stages Live – Josh Groban
Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway – Barbra Streisand
Best Pop Vocal Album
25 – Adele
Purpose – Justin Bieber
Dangerous Woman – Ariana Grande
Confident – Demi Lovato
This Is Acting – Sia
Dance/Electronic
Best Dance Recording
"Don't Let Me Down" – The Chainsmokers featuring Daya
The Chainsmokers, producers; Jordan Young, mixer
"Tearing Me Up" – Bob Moses
Bob Moses, producers; Mark "Spike" Stent, mixer
"Never Be Like You" – Flume featuring Kai
Harley Streten, producer; Eric J Dubowsky, mixer
"'Rinse & Repeat" – Riton featuring Kah-Lo
Riton, producer; Wez Clarke, mixer
"Drinkee" – Sofi Tukker
Sofi Tukker, producers; Bryan Wilson, mixer
Best Dance/Electronic Album
Skin – Flume
Electronica 1: The Time Machine – Jean-Michel Jarre
Epoch – Tycho
Barbara Barbara, We Face a Shining Future – Underworld
Louie Vega Starring...XXVIII – Little Louie Vega
Contemporary Instrumental
Best Contemporary Instrumental Album
Culcha Vulcha – Snarky Puppy
Human Nature – Herb Alpert
When You Wish Upon a Star – Bill Frisell
Way Back Home: Live from Rochester, NY – Steve Gadd Band
Unspoken – Chuck Loeb
Rock
Best Rock Performance
"Blackstar" – David Bowie
"Joe" (Live from Austin City Limits) – Alabama Shakes
"Don't Hurt Yourself" – Beyoncé featuring Jack White
"The Sound of Silence" (Live on Conan) – Disturbed
"Heathens" – Twenty One Pilots
Best Metal Performance
"Dystopia" – Megadeth
"Shock Me" – Baroness
"Silvera" – Gojira
"Rotting in Vain" – Korn
"The Price Is Wrong" – Periphery
Best Rock Song
"Blackstar"
David Bowie, songwriter (David Bowie)
"Burn the Witch"
Radiohead, songwriters (Radiohead)
"Hardwired"
James Hetfield & Lars Ulrich, songwriters (Metallica)
"Heathens"
Tyler Joseph, songwriter (Twenty One Pilots)
"My Name Is Human"
Rich Meyer, Ryan Meyer & Johnny Stevens, songwriters (Highly Suspect)
Best Rock Album
Tell Me I'm Pretty – Cage the Elephant
California – Blink-182
Magma – Gojira
Death of a Bachelor – Panic! at the Disco
Weezer – Weezer
Alternative
Best Alternative Music Album
Blackstar – David Bowie
22, A Million – Bon Iver
The Hope Six Demolition Project – PJ Harvey
Post Pop Depression – Iggy Pop
A Moon Shaped Pool – Radiohead
R&B
Best R&B Performance
"Cranes in the Sky" – Solange
"Turnin' Me Up" – BJ the Chicago Kid
"Permission" – Ro James
"I Do" – Musiq Soulchild
"Needed Me" – Rihanna
Best Traditional R&B Performance
"Angel" – Lalah Hathaway
"The Three of Me" – William Bell
"Woman's World" – BJ the Chicago Kid
"Sleeping with the One I Love" – Fantasia
"Can't Wait" – Jill Scott
Best R&B Song
"Lake by the Ocean"
Hod David & Musze, songwriters (Maxwell)
"Come and See Me"
J. Brathwaite, Aubrey Graham & Noah Shebib, songwriters (PartyNextDoor featuring Drake)
"Exchange"
Michael Hernandez & Bryson Tiller, songwriters (Bryson Tiller)
"Kiss It Better"
Jeff Bhasker, Robyn Fenty, John-Nathan Glass & Teddy Sinclair, songwriters (Rihanna)
"Luv"
Magnus August Høiberg, Benjamin Levin & Daystar Peterson, songwriters (Tory Lanez)
Best Urban Contemporary Album
Lemonade – Beyoncé
Ology – Gallant
We Are King – KING
Malibu – Anderson .Paak
Anti – Rihanna
Best R&B Album
Lalah Hathaway Live – Lalah Hathaway
In My Mind – BJ the Chicago Kid
Velvet Portraits – Terrace Martin
Healing Season – Mint Condition
Smoove Jones – Mýa
Rap
Best Rap Performance
"No Problem" – Chance the Rapper featuring Lil Wayne & 2 Chainz
"Panda" – Desiigner
"Pop Style" – Drake featuring The Throne
"All the Way Up" – Fat Joe & Remy Ma featuring French Montana & Infared
"THat Part" – ScHoolboy Q featuring Kanye West
Best Rap/Sung Performance
"Hotline Bling" – Drake
"Freedom" – Beyoncé featuring Kendrick Lamar
"Broccoli" – DRAM featuring Lil Yachty
"Ultralight Beam" – Kanye West featuring Chance the Rapper, Kelly Price, Kirk Franklin & The-Dream
"Famous" – Kanye West featuring Rihanna and Swizz Beatz
Best Rap Song
"Hotline Bling"
Aubrey Graham & Paul Jefferies, songwriters (Drake)
"All the Way Up"
Joseph Cartagena, Edward Davadi, Shandel Green, Karim Kharbouch, Andre Christopher Lyon, Reminisce Mackie & Marcello Valenzano, songwriters (Fat Joe & Remy Ma featuring French Montana & Infared)
"Famous"
Chancellor Bennett, Ross Birchard, Ernest Brown, Andrew Dawson, Kasseem Dean, Mike Dean, Noah Goldstein, Kejuan Muchita, Patrick Reynolds, Kanye West, Cydel Young & Malik Yusef, songwriters (Kanye West featuring Rihanna)
"No Problem"
Chancellor Bennett, Dwayne Carter, Rachel Cato, Peter Cottontale, Tauheed Epps, Jonathan Hoard, Cam O'bi, Ivan Rosenberg, Conor Szymanski, Lakeithsha Williams & Jaime Woods, songwriters (Chance the Rapper featuring Lil Wayne and 2 Chainz)
"Ultralight Beam"
Chancellor Bennett, Kasseem Dean, Mike Dean, Kirk Franklin, Noah Goldstein, Samuel Griesemer, Terius Nash, Jerome Potter, Kelly Price, Nico "Donnie Trumpet" Segal, Derek Watkins, Kanye West, Cydel Young & Malik Yusef, songwriters (Kanye West featuring Chance The Rapper, Kelly Price, Kirk Franklin & The-Dream)
Best Rap Album
Coloring Book – Chance the Rapper
and the Anonymous Nobody... – De La Soul
Major Key – DJ Khaled
Views – Drake
Blank Face LP – ScHoolboy Q
The Life of Pablo – Kanye West
Country
Best Country Solo Performance
"My Church" – Maren Morris
"Love Can Go to Hell" – Brandy Clark
"Vice" – Miranda Lambert
"Church Bells" – Carrie Underwood
"Blue Ain't Your Color" – Keith Urban
Best Country Duo/Group Performance
"Jolene" – Pentatonix featuring Dolly Parton
"Different for Girls" – Dierks Bentley featuring Elle King
"21 Summer" – Brothers Osborne
"Setting the World on Fire" – Kenny Chesney & Pink
"Think of You" – Chris Young with Cassadee Pope
Best Country Song
"Humble and Kind"
Lori McKenna, songwriter (Tim McGraw)
"Blue Ain't Your Color"
Clint Lagerberg, Hillary Lindsey & Steven Lee Olsen, songwriters (Keith Urban)
"Die a Happy Man"
Sean Douglas, Thomas Rhett & Joe Spargur, songwriters (Thomas Rhett)
"My Church"
busbee & Maren Morris, songwriters (Maren Morris)
"Vice"
Miranda Lambert, Shane McAnally & Josh Osborne, songwriters (Miranda Lambert)
Best Country Album
A Sailor's Guide to Earth – Sturgill Simpson
Big Day in a Small Town – Brandy Clark
Full Circle – Loretta Lynn
Hero – Maren Morris
Ripcord – Keith Urban
New Age
Best New Age Album
White Sun II – White Sun
Orogen – John Burke
Dark Sky Island – Enya
Inner Passion – Peter Kater & Tina Guo
Rosetta – Vangelis
Jazz
Best Improvised Jazz Solo
"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" – John Scofield, soloist
"Countdown" – Joey Alexander, soloist
"In Movement" – Ravi Coltrane, soloist
"We See" – Fred Hersch, soloist
"I Concentrate on You" – Brad Mehldau, soloist
Best Jazz Vocal Album
Take Me to the Alley – Gregory Porter
Sound of Red – René Marie
Upward Spiral – Branford Marsalis Quartet with special guest Kurt Elling
Harlem on My Mind – Catherine Russell
The Sting Variations – The Tierney Sutton Band
Best Jazz Instrumental Album
Country for Old Men – John Scofield
Book of Intuition – Kenny Barron Trio
Dr. Um – Peter Erskine
Sunday Night at the Vanguard – The Fred Hersch Trio
Nearness – Joshua Redman & Brad Mehldau
Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album
Presidential Suite: Eight Variations on Freedom – Ted Nash Big Band
Real Enemies – Darcy James Argue's Secret Society
MONK'estra, Vol. 1 – John Beasley
Kaleidoscope Eyes: Music of the Beatles – John Daversa
All L.A. Band – Bob Mintzer
Best Latin Jazz Album
Tribute to Irakere: Live in Marciac – Chucho Valdés
Entre Colegas – Andy González
Madera Latino: A Latin Jazz Perspective on the Music of Woody Shaw – Brian Lynch & various artists
Canto América – Michael Spiro/Wayne Wallace La Orquesta Sinfonietta
30 – Trio Da Paz
Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music
Best Gospel Performance/Song
"God Provides" – Tamela Mann
Kirk Franklin, songwriter
"It's Alright, It's OK" – Shirley Caesar featuring Anthony Hamilton
Stanley Brown & Courtney Rumble, songwriters
"You're Bigger " – Jekalyn Carr
Allundria Carr, songwriter
"Made a Way " – Travis Greene
Travis Greene, songwriter
"Better" – Hezekiah Walker
Jason Clayborn, Gabriel Hatcher & Hezekiah Walker, songwriters
Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song
"Thy Will" – Hillary Scott & The Scott Family
Bernie Herms, Hillary Scott & Emily Weisband, songwriters
"Trust in You" – Lauren Daigle
Lauren Daigle, Michael Farren & Paul Mabury, songwriters
"Priceless" – For King & Country
Benjamin Backus, Seth Mosley, Joel Smallbone, Luke Smallbone & Tedd Tjornhom, songwriters
"King of the World" – Natalie Grant
Natalie Grant, Becca Mizell & Samuel Mizell, songwriters
"Chain Breaker" – Zach Williams
Mia Fieldes, Jonathan Smith & Zach Williams, songwriters
Best Gospel Album
Losing My Religion – Kirk Franklin
Listen – Tim Bowman, Jr.
Fill This House – Shirley Caesar
A Worshipper's Heart – Todd Dulaney
Demonstrate – William Murphy
Best Contemporary Christian Music Album
Love Remains – Hillary Scott & The Scott Family
Poets & Saints – All Sons & Daughters
American Prodigal – Crowder
Be One – Natalie Grant
Youth Revival – Hillsong Young & Free
Best Roots Gospel Album
Hymns That Are Important to Us – Joey + Rory
Better Together – Gaither Vocal Band
Nature's Symphony in 432 – The Isaacs
Hymns and Songs of Inspiration – Gordon Mote
God Don't Never Change: The Songs of Blind Willie Johnson – (Various Artists); Jeffrey Gaskill, producer
Latin
Best Latin Pop Album
Un Besito Más – Jesse & Joy
Ilusión – Gaby Moreno
Similares – Laura Pausini
Seguir Latiendo – Sanalejo
Buena Vida – Diego Torres
Best Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album
iLevitable – ile
L.H.O.N. (La Humanidad o Nosotros) – Illya Kuryaki and the Valderramas
Buenaventura – La Santa Cecilia
Los Rakas – Los Rakas
Amor Supremo – Carla Morrison
Best Regional Mexican Music Album (Including Tejano)
Un Azteca en el Azteca, Vol. 1 (En Vivo) – Vicente Fernández
Raíces – Banda El Recodo de Cruz Lizárraga
Hecho a Mano – Joss Favela
Generación Maquinaria Est. 2006 – La Maquinaria Norteña
Tributo a Joan Sebastian y Rigoberto Alfaro – Mariachi Divas de Cindy Shea
Best Tropical Latin Album
Donde Están? – Jose Lugo & Guasábara Combo
Conexión – Fonseca
La Fantasia Homenaje a Juan Formell – Formell y Los Van Van
35 Aniversario – Grupo Niche
La Sonora Santanera en Su 60 Aniversario – Sonora Santanera
American Roots
Best American Roots Performance
"House of Mercy" – Sarah Jarosz
"Ain't No Man" – The Avett Brothers
"Mother's Children Have a Hard Time" – The Blind Boys of Alabama
"Factory Girl" – Rhiannon Giddens
"Wreck You" – Lori McKenna
Best American Roots Song
"Kid Sister"
Vince Gill, songwriter (The Time Jumpers)
"Alabama at Night"
Robbie Fulks, songwriter (Robbie Fulks)
"City Lights"
Jack White, songwriter (Jack White/The White Stripes)
"Gulfstream"
Eric Adcock & Roddie Romero, songwriters (Roddie Romero and the Hub City All-Stars)
"Wreck You"
Lori McKenna & Felix McTeigue, songwriters (Lori McKenna)
Best Americana Album
This Is Where I Live – William Bell
True Sadness – The Avett Brothers
The Cedar Creek Sessions – Kris Kristofferson
The Bird and the Rifle – Lori McKenna
Kid Sister – The Time Jumpers
Best Bluegrass Album
Coming Home – O'Connor Band with Mark O'Connor
Original Traditional – Blue Highway
Burden Bearer – Doyle Lawson & Quicksilver
The Hazel and Alice Sessions – Laurie Lewis & The Right Hands
North by South – Claire Lynch
Best Traditional Blues Album
Porcupine Meat – Bobby Rush
Can't Shake the Feeling – Lurrie Bell
Live at the Greek Theatre – Joe Bonamassa
Blues & Ballads (A Folksinger's Songbook: Volumes I & II) – Luther Dickinson
The Soul of Jimmie Rodgers – Vasti Jackson
Best Contemporary Blues Album
The Last Days of Oakland – Fantastic Negrito
Love Wins Again – Janiva Magness
Bloodline – Kenny Neal
Give It Back to You – The Record Company
Everybody Wants a Piece – Joe Louis Walker
Best Folk Album
Undercurrent – Sarah Jarosz
Silver Skies Blue – Judy Collins & Ari Hest
Upland Stories – Robbie Fulks
Factory Girl – Rhiannon Giddens
Weighted Mind – Sierra Hull
Best Regional Music Album
E Walea – Kalani Pe'a
Broken Promised Land – Barry Jean Ancelet & Sam Broussard
It's a Cree Thing – Northern Cree
Gulfstream – Roddie Romero and the Hub City All-Stars
I Wanna Sing Right: Rediscovering Lomax in the Evangeline Country – (Various Artists); Joshua Caffery & Joel Savoy, producers
Reggae
Best Reggae Album
Ziggy Marley – Ziggy Marley
Sly & Robbie Presents... Reggae For Her – Devin Di Dakta & J.L
Rose Petals – J Boog
Everlasting – Raging Fyah
Falling Into Place – Rebelution
SOJA: Live in Virginia – SOJA
World Music
Best World Music Album
Sing Me Home – Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble
Destiny – Celtic Woman
Walking in the Footsteps of Our Fathers – Ladysmith Black Mambazo
Land of Gold – Anoushka Shankar
Dois Amigos, Um Século de Música: Multishow Live – Caetano Veloso & Gilberto Gil
Children's
Best Children's Album
Infinity Plus One – Secret Agent 23 Skidoo
Explorer of the World – Frances England
Novelties – Recess Monkey
Press Play – Brady Rymer And The Little Band That Could
Saddle Up – The Okee Dokee Brothers
Spoken Word
Best Spoken Word Album (includes Poetry, Audio Books and Storytelling)
In Such Good Company: Eleven Years of Laughter, Mayhem, and Fun in the Sandbox – Carol Burnett
The Girl with the Lower Back Tattoo – Amy Schumer
M Train – Patti Smith
Under The Big Black Sun: A Personal History of L.A. Punk – Various Artists
Unfaithful Music & Disappearing Ink – Elvis Costello
Comedy
Best Comedy Album
Talking for Clapping – Patton Oswalt
...America...Great... – David Cross
American Myth – Margaret Cho
Boyish Girl Interrupted – Tig Notaro
Live at the Apollo – Amy Schumer
Musical Theatre
Best Musical Theater Album
The Color Purple – Danielle Brooks, Cynthia Erivo & Jennifer Hudson, principal soloists; Stephen Bray, Van Dean, Frank Filipetti, Roy Furman, Joan Raffe, Scott Sanders & Jhett Tolentino, producers; (Stephen Bray, Brenda Russell & Allee Willis, composers/lyricists) (New Broadway Cast)
Bright Star – Carmen Cusack, principal soloist; Jay Alix, Peter Asher & Una Jackman, producers; Steve Martin, composer; Edie Brickell, composer & lyricist (Original Broadway Cast)
Fiddler on the Roof – Danny Burstein, principal soloist; Louise Gund, David Lai & Ted Sperling, producers; (Jerry Bock, composer; Sheldon Harnick, lyricist) (2016 Broadway Cast)
Kinky Boots – Killian Donnelly & Matt Henry, principal soloists; Sammy James, Jr., Cyndi Lauper, Stephen Oremus & William Wittman, producers; (Cyndi Lauper, composer & lyricist) (Original West End Cast)
Waitress – Jessie Mueller, principal soloist; Neal Avron, Sara Bareilles & Nadia DiGiallonardo, producers; Sara Bareilles, composer & lyricist (Original Broadway Cast)
Music for Visual Media
Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media
Miles Ahead – (Miles Davis & Various Artists)
Steve Berkowitz, Don Cheadle & Robert Glasper, compilation producers
Amy – (Various Artists)
Salaam Remi & Mark Ronson, compilation producers
Straight Outta Compton – (Various Artists)
O'Shea Jackson & Andre Young, compilation producers
Suicide Squad (Collector's Edition) – (Various Artists)
Mike Caren, Darren Higman & Kevin Weaver, compilation producers
Vinyl: The Essentials Season 1 – (Various Artists)
Stewart Lerman, Randall Poster & Kevin Weaver, compilation producers
Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media
Star Wars: The Force Awakens – John Williams, composer
Bridge of Spies – Thomas Newman, composer
The Hateful Eight – Ennio Morricone, composer
The Revenant – Alva Noto & Ryuichi Sakamoto, composers
Stranger Things, Vol. 1 – Kyle Dixon & Michael Stein, composers
Stranger Things, Vol. 2 – Kyle Dixon & Michael Stein, composers
Best Song Written for Visual Media
"Can't Stop the Feeling!" – Max Martin, Shellback & Justin Timberlake, songwriters (performed by Justin Timberlake, Anna Kendrick, Gwen Stefani, James Corden, Zooey Deschanel, Walt Dohrn, Ron Funches, Caroline Hjelt, Aino Jawo, Christopher Mintz-Plasse & Kunal Nayyar)
"Heathens" – Tyler Joseph, songwriter (performed by Twenty One Pilots)
"Just Like Fire" – Oscar Holter, Max Martin, Pink & Shellback, songwriters (performed by Pink)
"Purple Lamborghini" – Shamann Cooke, Sonny Moore & William Roberts, songwriters (performed by Skrillex & Rick Ross)
"Try Everything" – Mikkel S. Eriksen, Sia & Tor Erik Hermansen, songwriters (performed by Shakira)
"The Veil" – Peter Gabriel, songwriter (performed by Peter Gabriel)
Composing
Best Instrumental Composition
"Spoken at Midnight"
Ted Nash, composer (Ted Nash Big Band)
"Bridge of Spies (End Title)"
Thomas Newman, composer (Thomas Newman)
"The Expensive Train Set (An Epic Sarahnade for Big Band)"
Tim Davies, composer (Tim Davies Big Band)
"Flow"
Alan Ferber, composer (Alan Ferber Nonet)
"L'Ultima Diligenza Di Red Rock – Verisione Integrale"
Ennio Morricone, composer (Ennio Morricone)
Arranging
Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella
"You and I"
Jacob Collier, arranger (Jacob Collier)
"Ask Me Now"
John Beasley, arranger (John Beasley)
"Good 'Swing' Wenceslas"
Sammy Nestico, arranger (The Count Basie Orchestra)
"Linus & Lucy"
Christian Jacob, arranger (The Phil Norman Tentet)
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
John Daversa, arranger (John Daversa)
"We Three Kings"
Ted Nash, arranger (Jazz At Lincoln Center Orchestra With Wynton Marsalis)
Best Arrangement, Instruments and Vocals
"Flintstones"
Jacob Collier, arranger (Jacob Collier)
"Do You Hear What I Hear?"
Gordon Goodwin, arranger2 (Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band Featuring Take 6)
"Do You Want to Know a Secret
John Daversa, arranger (John Daversa Featuring Renee Olstead)
"The Music"
Alan Broadbent, arranger (Kristin Chenoweth)
"Somewhere (Dirty Blvd) (Extended Version)"
Billy Childs & Larry Klein, arrangers (Lang Lang Featuring Lisa Fischer & Jeffrey Wright)
Packaging
Best Recording Package
Blackstar
Jonathan Barnbrook, art director (David Bowie)
Anti (Deluxe Edition)
Ciarra Pardo & Robyn Fenty, art directors (Rihanna)
Human Performance
Andrew Savage, art director (Parquet Courts)
Sunset Motel
Sarah Dodds & Shauna Dodds, art directors (Reckless Kelly)
22, A Million
Eric Timothy Carlson, art director (Bon Iver)
Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package
Édith Piaf 1915–2015
Gérard Lo Monaco, art director (Édith Piaf)
401 Days
Jonathan Dagan & Mathias Høst Normark, art directors (J.Views)
I Like It When You Sleep, For You Are So Beautiful Yet So Unaware Of It
Samuel Burgess-Johnson & Matthew Healy, art directors (The 1975)
Paper Wheels (Deluxe Limited Edition)
Matt Taylor, art director (Trey Anastasio)
Tug of War (Deluxe Edition)
Simon Earith & James Musgrave, art directors (Paul McCartney)
Notes
Best Album Notes
Sissle and Blake Sing Shuffle Along
Ken Bloom & Richard Carlin, album notes writers (Eubie Blake & Noble Sissle)
The Complete Monument & Columbia Albums Collection
Mikal Gilmore, album notes writer (Kris Kristofferson)
The Knoxville Sessions, 1929–1930: Knox County Stomp
Ted Olson & Tony Russell, album notes writers (Various Artists)
Ork Records: New York, New York
Rob Sevier & Ken Shipley, album notes writers (Various Artists)
Waxing The Gospel: Mass Evangelism & The Phonograph, 1890–1990
Richard Martin, album notes writer (Various Artists)
Historical
Best Historical Album
The Cutting Edge 1965–1966: The Bootleg Series, Vol. 12 (Collector's Edition)
Steve Berkowitz & Jeff Rosen, compilation producers; Mark Wilder, mastering engineer (Bob Dylan)
Music of Morocco from the Library of Congress: Recorded By Paul Bowles, 1959
April G. Ledbetter, Steven Lance Ledbetter, Bill Nowlin & Philip D. Schuyler, compilation producers; Rick Fisher & Michael Graves, mastering engineers (Various Artists)
Ork Records: New York, New York
Rob Sevier & Ken Shipley, compilation producers; Jeff Lipton & Maria Rice, mastering engineers (Various Artists)
Vladimir Horowitz: The Unreleased Live Recordings 1966–1983
Bernard Horowitz, Andreas K. Meyer & Robert Russ, compilation producers; Andreas K. Meyer & Jeanne Montalvo, mastering engineers (Vladimir Horowitz)
Waxing The Gospel: Mass Evangelism & the Phonograph, 1890–1990
Michael Devecka, Meagan Hennessey & Richard Martin, compilation producers; Michael Devecka, David Giovannoni, Michael Khanchalian & Richard Martin, mastering engineers (Various Artists)
Engineered Album
Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical
Blackstar
David Bowie, Tom Elmhirst, Kevin Killen & Tony Visconti, engineers; Joe LaPorta, mastering engineer (David Bowie)
Are You Serious
Tchad Blake & David Boucher, engineers; Bob Ludwig, mastering engineer (Andrew Bird)
Dig In Deep
Ryan Freeland, engineer; Kim Rosen, mastering engineer (Bonnie Raitt)
Hit N Run Phase Two
Booker T., Dylan Dresdow, Chris James, Prince & Justin Stanley, engineers; Dylan Dresdow, mastering engineer (Prince)
Undercurrent
Shani Gandhi & Gary Paczosa, engineers; Paul Blakemore, mastering engineer (Sarah Jarosz)
Best Engineered Album, Classical
The Ghosts of Versailles
Mark Donahue, Fred Vogler & David L Williams, engineers (James Conlon, Guanqun Yu, Joshua Guerrero, Patricia Racette, Christopher Maltman, Lucy Schaufer, Lucas Meachem, Los Angeles Opera Chorus and Orchestra)
Dutilleux: Sur le même accord; Les Citations; Mystère de l'instant & Timbres, espace, mouvement
Alexander Lipay & Dmitriy Lipay, engineers (Ludovic Morlot & Seattle Symphony)
Reflections
Morten Lindberg, engineer (Øyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene)
Shadow of Sirius
Silas Brown & David Frost, engineers; Silas Brown
Shostakovich: Under Stalin's Shadow – Symphonies Nos. 5, 8 & 9
Shawn Murphy & Nick Squire, engineers; Tim Martyn, mastering engineer (Andris Nelsons & Boston Symphony Orchestra)
Producer
Producer of the Year, Non-Classical
Greg Kurstin
"Cheap Thrills" (Sia featuring Sean Paul)
"Hello" (Adele)
Love You to Death (Tegan and Sara)
"Million Years Ago" (Adele)
"Something in the Way You Move" (Ellie Goulding)
"Water Under the Bridge" (Adele)
Benny Blanco
"Cold Water" (Major Lazer featuring Justin Bieber & MØ)
"Friends" (Francis and the Lights featuring Bon Iver)
"Kill Em with Kindness" (Selena Gomez)
"Love Yourself" (Justin Bieber)
"Luv" (Tory Lanez)
"Wild Love" (Cashmere Cat featuring The Weeknd & Francis and the Lights)
Max Martin
"Can't Stop the Feeling!" (Justin Timberlake)
"Dangerous Woman" (Ariana Grande)
"Into You" (Ariana Grande)
"Just Like Fire" (Pink)
"Rise" (Katy Perry)
"Send My Love (To Your New Lover)" (Adele)
"Side to Side" (Ariana Grande featuring Nicki Minaj)
Nineteen85
"For Free" (DJ Khaled featuring Drake)
"Hotline Bling" (Drake)
"Not Nice" (PartyNextDoor)
"One Dance" (Drake featuring Wizkid & Kyla)
"Rising Water" (James Vincent McMorrow)
Sept. 5th (dvsn)
"Too Good" (Drake featuring Rihanna)
We Move (James Vincent McMorrow)
Ricky Reed
"Better" (Meghan Trainor featuring Yo Gotti)
"Cruel World" (Phantogram)
"Girls Talk Boys" (5 Seconds of Summer)
"HandClap" (Fitz and the Tantrums)
"Me Too" (Meghan Trainor)
"No" (Meghan Trainor)
"Sober" (DJ Snake featuring JRY)
"You Don't Get Me High Anymore" (Phantogram)
Producer of the Year, Classical
David Frost
Bach: The Cello Suites According to Anna Magdalena (Matt Haimovitz)
Bates: Anthology of Fantastic Zoology (Riccardo Muti & Chicago Symphony Orchestra)
Beethoven: Piano Sonatas, Vol. 5 (Jonathan Biss)
Brahms & Dvořák: Serenades (Boston Symphony Chamber Players)
Fitelberg: Chamber Works (ARC Ensemble)
Ispirare (Melia Watras)
Overtures to Bach (Matt Haimovitz)
Schoenberg: Kol Nidre; Shostakovich: Suite on Verses of Michelangelo Buonarroti (Ildar Abdrazakov, Alberto Mizrahi, Riccardo Muti, Duain Wolfe, Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Chorus)
Shadow of Sirius (Jerry F. Junkin and The University Of Texas Wind Ensemble)
Blanton Alspaugh
The Aeolian Organ at Duke University Chapel (Christopher Jacobson)
Bolcom: Canciones De Lorca & Prometheus (René Barbera, Jeffrey Biegel, Carl St. Clair, Pacific Chorale & Pacific Symphony)
Brahms: The Four Symphonies (Leonard Slatkin & Detroit Symphony Orchestra)
Copland: Appalachian Spring Complete Ballet; Hear Ye! Hear Ye! (Leonard Slatkin & Detroit Symphony Orchestra)
Corigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles (James Conlon, Guanqun Yu, Joshua Guerrero, Patricia Racette, Christopher Maltman, Lucy Schaufer, Lucas Meachem, Los Angeles Opera Chorus & Orchestra)
Dvořák: Symphonies Nos. 7 & 8 (Andrés Orozco-Estrada & Houston Symphony)
Dvořák: Symphony No. 6; Slavonic Dances (Andrés Orozoco-Estrada & Houston Symphony)
Floyd: Wuthering Heights (Joseph Mechavich, Heather Buck, Vale Rideout, Susanne Mentzer, Kelly Markgraf, Georgia Jarman, Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra & Florentine Opera Company)
Marina A. Ledin, Victor Ledin
Friedman: Original Piano Compositions (Joseph Banowetz)
Moszkowski: From Foreign Lands (Martin West & San Francisco Ballet Orchestra)
Judith Sherman
American First Sonatas (Cecile Licad)
Berlin: This Is The Life! (Rick Benjamin & Paragon Ragtime Orchestra)
Centennial Commissions, Vol. II (Charles Neidich & Pro Arte Quartet)
Gernsheim & Brahms: Piano Quintets (Reiko Uchida & Formosa Quartet)
Latin American & Spanish Masterpieces For Flute & Piano (Stephanie Jutt)
Similar Motion (Momenta Quartet)
Tchaikovsky: Complete Works For Violin & Orchestra (Jennifer Koh, Alexander Vedernikov & Odense Symphony Orchestra)
Tower: String Quartets Nos. 3-5 & Dumbarton Quintet (Miami String Quartet)
Robina G. Young
Johnson: Considering Matthew Shepard (Craig Hella Johnson & Conspirare)
Lutosławski: Concerto For Orchestra; Brahms: Piano Quartet (Miguel Harth-Bedoya & Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra)
Mozart: Keyboard Music, Vols. 8 & 9 (Kristian Bezuidenhout)
Prokofiev: Piano Concertos Nos. 2 & 5 (Vadym Kholodenko, Miguel Harth-Bedoya & Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra)
A Wondrous Mystery – Renaissance Choral Music for Christmas (Stile Antico)
Remixer
Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical
"Tearing Me Up" (RAC Remix)
André Allen Anjos, remixer (Bob Moses)
'"Cali Coast" (Psionics Remix)
Josh Williams, remixer (Soul Pacific)
"Heavy Star Movin'" (staRo Remix)
staRo, remixer (The Silver Lake Chorus)
"Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five" (Timo Maas & James Teej Remix)
Timo Maas & James Teej, remixers (Paul McCartney & Wings)
"Only" (Kaskade × Lipless Remix)
Kaskade & Lipless, remixer (Ry X)
"Wide Open" (Joe Goddard Remix)
Joe Goddard, remixer (The Chemical Brothers)
Surround Sound
Best Surround Sound Album
Dutilleux: Sur le même accord; Les Citations; Mystère de l'instant & Timbres, espace, mouvement
Alexander Lipay & Dmitriy Lipay, surround mix engineers; Dmitriy Lipay, surround mastering engineer; Dmitriy Lipay, surround producer (Ludovic Morlot & Seattle Symphony)
Johnson: Considering Matthew Shephard
Brad Michel, surround mix engineer; Brad Michel, surround mastering engineer; Robina G. Young, surround producer (Craig Hella Johnson & Conspirare)
Maja S.K. Ratkje: And Sing ...
Morten Lindberg, surround mix engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround mastering engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround producer (Maja S.K. Ratkje, Cikada & Oslo Sinfonietta)
Primus & The Chocolate Factory
Les Claypool, surround mix engineer; Stephen Marcussen, surround mastering engineer; Les Claypool, surround producer (Primus)
Reflections
Morten Lindberg, surround mix engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround mastering engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround producer (Øyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene)
Classical
Best Orchestral Performance
Shostakovich: Under Stalin's Shadow – Symphonies Nos. 5, 8 & 9
Andris Nelsons, conductor (Boston Symphony Orchestra)
Bates: Works for Orchestra
Michael Tilson Thomas, conductor (San Francisco Symphony)
Ibert: Orchestral Works
Neeme Järvi, conductor (Orchestre de la Suisse Romande)
Prokofiev: Symphony No. 5 In B-flat major, Op. 100
Mariss Jansons, conductor (Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra)
Rouse: Odna Zhizn; Symphonies 3 & 4; Prospero's Rooms
Alan Gilbert, conductor (New York Philharmonic)
Best Opera Recording
Corigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles
James Conlon, conductor; Joshua Guerrero, Christopher Maltman, Lucas Meachem, Patricia Racette, Lucy Schaufer & Guanqun Yu, soloists; Blanton Alspaugh, producer; Mark Donahue, Fred Vogler & David L Williams (engineers) (Los Angeles Opera Orchestra and Chorus)
Handel: Giulio Cesare
Giovanni Antonini, conductor; Cecilia Bartoli, Philippe Jaroussky, Andreas Scholl & Anne-Sofie von Otter, soloists; Samuel Theis, producer (Il Giardino Armonico)
Higdon: Cold Mountain
Miguel Harth-Bedoya, conductor; Emily Fons, Nathan Gunn, Isabel Leonard & Jay Hunter Morris, soloists; Elizabeth Ostrow, producer (The Santa Fe Opera Orchestra; Santa Fe Opera Apprentice Program for Singers)
Mozart: Le Nozze De Figaro
Yannick Nézet-Séguin, conductor; Thomas Hampson, Christiane Karg, Luca Pisaroni & Sonya Yoncheva, soloists; Daniel Zalay, producer (Chamber Orchestra of Europe; Vocalensemble Rastatt)
Szymanowski: Król Roger
Antonio Pappano, conductor; Georgia Jarman, Mariusz Kwiecień & Saimir Pirgu, soloists; Jonathan Allen, producer (Orchestra Of The Royal Opera House; Royal Opera Chorus)
Best Choral Performance
Penderecki Conducts Penderecki, Volume 1
Krzysztof Penderecki, conductor; Henryk Wojnarowski, choir director (Nikolay Didenko, Agnieszka Rehlis & Johanna Rusanen, soloists; Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra, orchestra; Warsaw Philharmonic Choir, choir)
Himmelrand
Elisabeth Holte, conductor (Marianne Reidarsdatter Eriksen, Ragnfrid Lie & Matilda Sterby, soloists; Inger-Lise Ulsrud, accompanist; Uranienborg Vokalensemble, choir)
Janáček: Glagolitic Mass
Edward Gardner, conductor; Håkon Matti Skrede, chorus master (Susan Bickley, Gábor Bretz, Sara Jakubiak & Stuart Skelton, soloists; Thomas Trotter, accompanist; Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, orchestra; Bergen Cathedral Choir, Bergen Philharmonic Choir, Choir of Collegium Musicum & Edvard Grieg Kor, choirs)
Lloyd: Bonhoeffer
Donald Nally, conductor (Malavika Godbole, John Grecia, Rebecca Harris & Thomas Mesa, soloists; The Crossing, ensemble)
Steinberg: Passion Week
Steven Fox, conductor (The Clarion Choir)
Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance
Third Coast Percussion
Steve Reich
Fitelberg: Chamber Works
ARC Ensemble
Reflections
Øyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene
Serious Business
Spektral Quartet
Trios from Our Homelands
Lincoln Trio
Best Classical Instrumental Solo
Daugherty: Tales of Hemingway
Zuill Bailey; Giancarlo Guerrero, conductor (Nashville Symphony)
Adams, J.: Scheherazade.2
Leila Josefowicz; David Robertson, conductor (Chester Englander; St. Louis Symphony)
Dvorák: Violin Concerto & Romance; Suk: Fantasy
Christian Tetzlaff; John Storgårds, conductor (Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra)
Mozart: Keyboard Music, Vols. 8 & 9
Kristian Bezuidenhout
1930's Violin Concertos, Vol. 2
Gil Shaham; Stéphane Denève, conductor (The Knights & Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra)
Best Classical Solo Vocal Album
Schumann & Berg
Dorothea Röschmann; Mitsuko Uchida, accompanist
Shakespeare Songs
Ian Bostridge; Antonio Pappano, accompanist (Michael Collins, Elizabeth Kenny, Lawrence Power & Adam Walker)
Monteverdi
Magdalena Kožená; Andrea Marcon, conductor (David Feldman, Michael Feyfar, Jakob Pilgram & Luca Tittoto; La Cetra Barockorchester Basel)
Mozart: The Weber Sisters
Sabine Devieilhe; Raphaël Pichon, conductor (Pygmalion)
Verismo
Anna Netrebko; Antonio Pappano, conductor (Yusif Eyvazov; Coro Dell'Accademia Nazionale Di Santa Cecilia; Orchestra Dell'Accademia Nazionale Di Santa Cecilia)
Best Classical Compendium
Daugherty: Tales of Hemingway; American Gothic; Once Upon a Castle
Giancarlo Guerrero, conductor; Tim Handley, producer
Gesualdo
Tõnu Kaljuste, conductor; Manfred Eicher, producer
Vaughan Williams: Discoveries
Martyn Brabbins, conductor; Ann McKay, producer
Wolfgang: Passing Through
Judith Farmer & Gernot Wolfgang, producers
Zappa: 200 Motels
The Suites – Esa-Pekka Salonen, conductor; Frank Filipetti & Gail Zappa, producers
Best Contemporary Classical Composition
Daugherty: Tales of Hemingway
Michael Daugherty, composer (Zuill Bailey, Giancarlo Guerrero & Nashville Symphony)
Bates: Anthology of Fantastic Zoology
Mason Bates, composer (Riccardo Muti & Chicago Symphony Orchestra)
Higdon: Cold Mountain
Jennifer Higdon, composer; Gene Scheer, librettist
Theofanidis: Bassoon Concerto
Christopher Theofanidis, composer (Martin Kuuskmann, Barry Jekowsky & Northwest Sinfonia)
Winger: Conversations with Nijinsky
C. F. Kip Winger, composer (Martin West & San Francisco Ballet Orchestra)
Music Video/Film
Best Music Video
"Formation" – Beyoncé
Melina Matsoukas, video director; Candice Dragonas, Juliette Larthe, Nathan Scherrer & Inga Veronique, video producers
"River" – Leon Bridges
Miles Jay, video director; Dennis Beier, Allison Kunzman & Saul Levitz, video producers
"Up&Up" – Coldplay
Vania Heymann & Gal Muggia, video directors; Candice Dragonas, Juliette Larthe, Nathan Scherrer & Natan Schottenfels, video producers
"Gosh" – Jamie XX
Romain Gavras, video director; Iconoclast, video producers
"Upside Down & Inside Out" – OK Go
Damian Kulash Jr. & Trish Sie, video directors; Melissa Murphy & John O'Grady, video producers
Best Music Film
The Beatles: Eight Days a Week The Touring Years – (The Beatles)
Ron Howard, video director; Brian Grazer, Ron Howard, Scott Pascucci & Nigel Sinclair, video producers
I'll Sleep When I'm Dead – Steve Aoki
Justin Krook, video director; Brent Almond, Matt Colon, David Gelb, Ryan Kavanaugh, Michael Theanne, Happy Walters & Matthew Weaver, video producers
Lemonade – Beyoncé
Beyoncé Knowles Carter & Kahlil Joseph, video directors; Ed Burke, Steve Pamon, Todd Tourso, Dora Melissa Vargas, Erinn Williams & Beyoncé Knowles Carter, video producer
The Music of Strangers – Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble
Morgan Neville, video director; Caitrin Rogers, video producer
American Saturday Night: Live From The Grand Ole Opry – (Various Artists)
George J. Flanigen IV, video director; Steve Buchanan, John Burke & Lindsey Clark, Robert Deaton, Pete Fisher & George J. Flanigen IV, video producers
Special Merit Awards
MusiCares Person of the Year
Tom Petty
Lifetime Achievement Award
Shirley Caesar
Ahmad Jamal
Charley Pride
Jimmie Rodgers
Nina Simone
Sly Stone
The Velvet Underground
Trustees Award
Thom Bell
Mo Ostin
Ralph S. Peer
Technical Grammy Award
Alan Dower Blumlein
Music Educator Award
Keith Hancock (of Tesoro High School in Las Flores, California)
Grammy Hall of Fame inductions
Main article: Grammy Hall of Fame
Title
Artist
Record Label
Year of Release
Genre
Format
"ABC"
The Jackson 5
Motown
1970
R&B
Single
"Changes"
David Bowie
RCA
1971
Art pop
Single
"City of New Orleans"
Arlo Guthrie
Reprise Records
1972
Folk
Single
"(Hep-Hep!) The Jumpin' Jive"
Cab Calloway and His Orchestra
Vocalion
1939
Swing
Single
"I Can't Make You Love Me"
Bonnie Raitt
Capitol
1991
Pop
Single
"I Get Around"
The Beach Boys
Capitol
1964
California Sound
Single
"I Got You Babe"
Sonny & Cher
Atco
1965
Pop
Single
"Jailhouse Rock"
Elvis Presley
RCA
1957
Rock and roll
Single
Lady Sings the Blues
Billie Holiday
Clef
1956
Jazz
Album
"Losing My Religion"
R.E.M.
Warner Bros.
1991
Alternative rock
Single
"Maggie May"
Rod Stewart
Mercury
1971
Rock
Single
"Mission: Impossible"
Lalo Schifrin
Dot
1967
Theme music
Single
Okie from Muskogee
Merle Haggard
Capitol
1969
Country
Album
Sign o' the Times
Prince
Paisley Park and Warner Bros.
1987
R&B
Album
"Smells Like Teen Spirit"
Nirvana
DGC
1991
Grunge
Single
"Smoke on the Water"
Deep Purple
Warner Bros.
1973
Hard Rock
Single
"Stack O' Lee Blues"
Mississippi John Hurt
Okeh
1928
Blues
Single
"Statesboro Blues"
Blind Willie McTell
Victor
1928
Blues
Single
Straight Outta Compton
N.W.A
Ruthless and Priority
1988
Gangsta rap
Album
"Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)"
Sly & The Family Stone
Epic
1969
Funk
Single
"Wake Up Little Susie"
The Everly Brothers
Cadence
1957
Country
Single
"The Wanderer"
Dion
Laurie
1961
R&B
Single
"When the Saints Go Marching In"
Louis Armstrong and His Orchestra
Decca
1938
Jazz
Single
"You Always Hurt the One You Love"
Mills Brothers
Decca
1944
Pop standard
Single
"You Don't Own Me"
Lesley Gore
Mercury
1963
Pop
Single
In Memoriam
Prior to the "In Memoriam" segment, Pentatonix paid tribute to Al Jarreau who died on the same day as the ceremony. The following people appeared in the In Memoriam segment:
Prince
Leonard Cohen
Keith Emerson
Greg Lake
John Wetton
Sharon Jones
Wayne Jackson
Rod Temperton
James Jamerson, Jr.
Ralph Stanley
Merle Haggard
Sonny James
Scotty Moore
Joey Feek
Bobby Vee
Lonnie Mack
Butch Trucks
Juan Gabriel
Emilio Navaira
Mose Allison
Toots Thielemans
Gato Barbieri
Nat Hentoff
Rudy Van Gelder
George Michael
Debbie Reynolds
Guy Clark
John D. Loudermilk
Milt Okun
Willie Joe Ligon
Stanley "Buckwater" Dural, Jr.
Billy Paul
Marvell Thomas
Bernie Worrell
Chips Moman
Pete Fountain
Frank Sinatra Jr.
Patrice Munsel
Zhou Xiaoyan
Sir Neville Marriner
Phife Dawg
Lee O'Denat
Muhammad Ali
Leon Russell
Howard Kaufman
Bill Ham
Phil Chess
Bob Krasnow
Tony Martell
Mary Stewart
James M. Nederlander
Chris Stone
Remo Belli
Sir George Martin
Multiple nominations and awards
The following received multiple nominations:
Nine:
Beyoncé
Eight:
Drake
Rihanna
Kanye West
Seven:
Chance the Rapper
Six:
Tom Elmhirst
Five:
Adele
Tyler Joseph
Four:
Justin Bieber
Benny Blanco
David Bowie
Tom Coyne
Mike Dean
Kirk Franklin
Greg Kurstin
Max Martin
Lori McKenna
Maren Morris
Three:
BJ the Chicago Kid
The Chainsmokers
John Daversa
Tom Elmhirst
Lukas Forchhammer
Jaycen Joshua
Morten Lindberg
Randy Merrill
Mike Will Made It
Ted Nash
Nineteen85
Antonio Pappano
Morten Ristorp
Noah "40" Shebib
Shellback
Sia
Twenty One Pilots
Jack White
Two:
Blanton Alspaugh
The Avett Brothers
Neal Avron
John Beasley
William Bell
Boi-1da
Julian Burg
John Burke
Noel "Gadget" Campbell
Shirley Caesar
Brandy Clark
Jacob Collier
Diplo
Kyle Dixon
The-Dream
Fat Joe
Frank Filipetti
Flume
Stefan Forrest
David Frost
Robbie Fulks
Chris Gehringer
Rhiannon Giddens
Gojira
Ariana Grande
Natalie Grant
Giancarlo Guerrero
Halsey
Lalah Hathaway
Emile Haynie
Fred Hersch
Hillary Scott & the Scott Family
Sarah Jarosz
Dave Kutch
Kendrick Lamar
Miranda Lambert
Lil Wayne
Alexander Lipay
Dmitriy Lipay
Liam Nolan
Lukas Graham
Remy Ma
Yo-Yo Ma & the Silk Road Ensemble
Manny Marroquin
Richard Martin
Brad Mehldau
French Montana
Ennio Morricone
Thomas Newman
Anderson .Paak
PartyNextDoor
Alex Pasco
Pink
Pluss
Kelly Price
Radiohead
Roddie Romero
ScHoolboy Q
Amy Schumer
John Scofield
Rob Sevier
Ken Shipley
Sturgill Simpson
Skrillex
Michael Stein
2 Chainz
Keith Urban
Stuart White
Robina G. Young
The following received multiple awards:
Six:
Tom Elmhirst
Five:
Adele
Four:
David Bowie
Greg Kurstin
Three:
Chance the Rapper
Two:
Beyoncé
Julian Burg
Jacob Collier
Tom Coyne
Drake
Kirk Franklin
Giancarlo Guerrero
Lalah Hathaway
Emile Haynie
Hillary Scott & the Scott Family
Sarah Jarosz
Max Martin
Randy Merrill
Ted Nash
John Scofield
Shellback
Changes
In June 2016, the Grammy organization announced a few minor changes to the voting and awarding process.
As of 2017, recordings released solely through streaming services will be eligible to enter the award process. These recordings will have to be available through streaming platforms. Applicable streaming services are paid subscription, full catalog, on-demand streaming/limited download platforms that have existed as such within the United States for at least one full year as of the submission deadline. All recordings entered must have an assigned International Standard Recording Code (ISRC).
Best New Artist guidelines
Existing Best New Artist rules were amended to remove the album barrier given current trends in how new music and developing artists are released and promoted. Currently many new artists first release singles, tracks, or EPs rather than full albums. To become eligible in the category of Best New Artist, the artist, duo, or group:
Must have released a minimum of five singles/tracks or one album, but no more than 30 singles/tracks or three albums.
May not have entered the category more than three times, including as a performing member of an established group.
Must have achieved a breakthrough into the public consciousness and impacted the musical landscape during the eligibility period.
Blues categories
The Best Blues Album category will branch into two distinct categories:
Best Traditional Blues Album (Blues recordings with traditional blues song and harmonic structures, including various subgenres such as Delta blues, Piedmont blues, jump/swing blues, Chicago blues, and classic/Southern soul).
Best Contemporary Blues Album (Recordings which may employ non-traditional blues rhythms such as funk, hip-hop, reggae, and rock, or which feature contemporary techniques such as synthesizers or loops).
It means a return to the situation prior to 2012, the year the categories were merged in a major overhaul.
Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category renamed
The Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category (in the Rap field) will be renamed as Best Rap/Sung Performance, to allow solo performances, a result of "the current state and future trajectory of rap by expanding the category beyond collaborations between rappers and vocalists to include recordings by a solo artist who blurs the lines between rapping and singing."
Additional amendments were made to the number and type of music creators recognized in the categories of Best Choral Performance and Best Jazz Vocal Album.
References
^ Porter, Rick (February 14, 2017). "Final Grammy numbers, plus 'AFV' and 'Dateline' adjust down: Sunday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on February 14, 2017. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
^ a b "The Recording Academy Announces Rule Amendments and Dates for the 59th Annual Grammy Awards Process". Grammy.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ "THE RECORDING ACADEMY® AND CBS EXTEND AGREEMENT TO BROADCAST THE GRAMMY AWARDS® THROUGH 2026". Grammy.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ Daniel, Holloway; Maureen, Ryan (November 22, 2016). "James Corden to Host Grammy Awards (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on November 29, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
^ "TUNE IN: MARGARET CHO TO HOST GRAMMY PREMIERE CEREMONY". The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
^ Johnston, Maura (6 December 2016). "Grammy nominations 2017: Beyoncé and R&B artists shine while rock suffers". Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
^ Unterberger, Andrew (6 December 2016). "Here Is the Complete List of Nominees for the 2017 Grammys". Billboard. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
^ "FINAL NOMINATIONS LIST" (PDF). The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
^ "59th Annual GRAMMY Awards Winners & Nominees". Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ "9 times women made grammy history". . Archived from the original on 2018-03-26. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
^ "Grammy Awards 2017: See the Full Winners List". Billboard. February 12, 2017. Archived from the original on February 2, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
^ Sharma, Dishya (February 12, 2017). "Grammys 2017 Live Update". International Business Times. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
^ "The 59th Grammys: performances, winners and red carpet looks – as it happened". Guardian. 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
^ Shaheem Reid (February 13, 2017). "Grammys 2017: Chance the Rapper, Kirk Franklin and gospel choir take audience to church". REVOLT. Archived from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
^ "Who's Performing At The GRAMMYs? From Adele To The Weeknd: Here's The Official Performer And Presenter List". Grammy.com. 11 February 2017. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
^ "Watch: 59th GRAMMY Awards Premiere Ceremony". Grammy.ciom. 12 February 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.
^ "59th Annual GRAMMY Awards Winners & Nominees". The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
^ Dionne, Zach. "JOHN LEGEND & CYNTHIA ERIVO SING 'GOD ONLY KNOWS' FOR GORGEOUS GRAMMYS IN MEMORIAM". Fuse.tv. Archived from the original on 2017-08-03. Retrieved 2017-08-03.
^ "GRAMMY In Memoriam: honoring those we lost in 2016". The Recording Academy.
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|
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Drake, Rihanna, and Kanye West received eight nominations each, while Chance the Rapper followed with seven nominations. Tom Elmhirst won six awards from six nominations as an engineer/mixer. Among the artists, Adele was the biggest winner of the night, receiving five trophies, including Album of the Year for 25, Record of the Year, and Song of the Year for \"Hello\". Adele also became the first musician in history to win all three general field awards in the same ceremony twice, previously winning all three categories in 2012.[10] David Bowie and Greg Kurstin followed with four trophies. Chance the Rapper won for Best New Artist alongside two other awards.[11]","title":"59th Annual Grammy Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Business Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Business_Times"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Performers adapted from International Business Times.[12][13]","title":"Performers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Lopez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Lopez"},{"link_name":"Best New Artist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_New_Artist"},{"link_name":"Paris Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Jackson"},{"link_name":"the Weeknd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weeknd"},{"link_name":"Daft Punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daft_Punk"},{"link_name":"John Travolta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Travolta"},{"link_name":"Keith Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Urban"},{"link_name":"Carrie Underwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie_Underwood"},{"link_name":"Nick Jonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Jonas"},{"link_name":"Best Pop Duo/Group Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Duo/Group_Performance"},{"link_name":"Katharine McPhee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_McPhee"},{"link_name":"The Chainsmokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chainsmokers"},{"link_name":"Best Rock Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Song"},{"link_name":"Ryan Seacrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Seacrest"},{"link_name":"Lukas Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Graham"},{"link_name":"Kelsea Ballerini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsea_Ballerini"},{"link_name":"Tina Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina_Knowles"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Camila Cabello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camila_Cabello"},{"link_name":"Thomas Rhett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Rhett"},{"link_name":"Best Country Solo Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Solo_Performance"},{"link_name":"Little Big Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Big_Town"},{"link_name":"Katy Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry"},{"link_name":"Skip Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_Marley"},{"link_name":"William Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bell_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Gary Clark Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Clark_Jr."},{"link_name":"Best Urban Contemporary Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Urban_Contemporary_Album"},{"link_name":"Gina Rodriguez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gina_Rodriguez"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"Alicia Keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicia_Keys"},{"link_name":"Taraji P. Henson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taraji_P._Henson"},{"link_name":"Best Rap Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rap_Album"},{"link_name":"Laverne Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laverne_Cox"},{"link_name":"Metallica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica"},{"link_name":"Lady Gaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gaga"},{"link_name":"Dwight Yoakam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_Yoakam"},{"link_name":"Sturgill Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgill_Simpson"},{"link_name":"DNCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNCE"},{"link_name":"Demi Lovato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Lovato"},{"link_name":"Tori Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori_Kelly"},{"link_name":"Little Big Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Big_Town"},{"link_name":"Andra Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andra_Day"},{"link_name":"Celine Dion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celine_Dion"},{"link_name":"Song of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Song_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Solange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solange_Knowles"},{"link_name":"A Tribe Called Quest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Tribe_Called_Quest"},{"link_name":"Anderson .Paak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_.Paak"},{"link_name":"Halsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Jason Derulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Derulo"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Tim McGraw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_McGraw"},{"link_name":"Faith Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_Hill"},{"link_name":"Record of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Record_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Album of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Album_of_the_Year"}],"text":"Source: Grammy.com[15]Jennifer Lopez – presented Best New Artist\nParis Jackson – introduced the Weeknd and Daft Punk\nJohn Travolta – introduced Keith Urban and Carrie Underwood\nNick Jonas – presented Best Pop Duo/Group Performance\nKatharine McPhee and The Chainsmokers – presented Best Rock Song\nRyan Seacrest – introduced Lukas Graham and Kelsea Ballerini\nTina Knowles – introduced Beyoncé\nCamila Cabello and Thomas Rhett – presented Best Country Solo Performance\nLittle Big Town – introduced Katy Perry and Skip Marley\nWilliam Bell and Gary Clark Jr. – presented Best Urban Contemporary Album\nGina Rodriguez – introduced Maren Morris and Alicia Keys\nTaraji P. Henson – presented Best Rap Album\nLaverne Cox – introduced Metallica and Lady Gaga\nDwight Yoakam – introduced Sturgill Simpson\nDNCE – introduced Demi Lovato, Tori Kelly, Little Big Town and Andra Day\nCeline Dion – presented Song of the Year\nSolange – introduced A Tribe Called Quest and Anderson .Paak\nHalsey and Jason Derulo – introduced Chance the Rapper and Kirk Franklin\nTim McGraw and Faith Hill – presented Record of the Year and Album of the Year","title":"Presenters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Margaret Cho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Cho"},{"link_name":"Best Musical Theater Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Musical_Theater_Album"},{"link_name":"Lauren Daigle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Daigle"},{"link_name":"For King and Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_King_and_Country_(band)"},{"link_name":"Best Historical Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Historical_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Album Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Album_Notes"},{"link_name":"Best Surround Sound Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Surround_Sound_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Instrumental Composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Instrumental_Composition"},{"link_name":"O'Connor Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Connor_Band"},{"link_name":"René Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Marie"},{"link_name":"Best New Age Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_New_Age_Album"},{"link_name":"Best World Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_World_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Children's Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Children%27s_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Spoken Word Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Spoken_Word_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Music Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Music_Video"},{"link_name":"Best Music Film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Music_Film"},{"link_name":"Ravi Coltrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Coltrane"},{"link_name":"Third Coast Percussion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Coast_Percussion"},{"link_name":"Mallet Quartet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallet_Quartet"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"Judy Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Collins"},{"link_name":"Suzanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzanne_(Leonard_Cohen_song)"},{"link_name":"Leonard Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Cohen"},{"link_name":"Brendon Urie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendon_Urie"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Instrumental Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Contemporary_Instrumental_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Roots Gospel Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Roots_Gospel_Album"},{"link_name":"Northern Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cree"},{"link_name":"Carla Morrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Morrison"},{"link_name":"Mya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mya_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Ziggy Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggy_Marley"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Jam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Jam_and_Terry_Lewis"},{"link_name":"Best Reggae Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Reggae_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Comedy Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Comedy_Album"}],"sub_title":"Premiere ceremony","text":"In order of appearance:[16]Margaret Cho - main host (presented Rock, Pop, Producer and Visual Media categories and Best Musical Theater Album)\nLauren Daigle and For King and Country (presented Gospel/Contemporary Christian, Engineering (Non Classical), Packaging and Arranging categories and Best Historical Album, Best Album Notes, Best Surround Sound Album and Best Instrumental Composition)\nO'Connor Band - \"Ruby, Are You Mad At Your Man?\"\nRené Marie (presented Gospel categories, Best New Age Album, Best World Music Album, Best Children's Album, Best Spoken Word Album, Best Music Video and Best Music Film)\nRavi Coltrane and Third Coast Percussion - \"Mallet Quartet\"\nSarah Jarosz (presented Classical, Engineering (Classical) and Dance categories)\nJudy Collins - \"Suzanne\" (Tribute to Leonard Cohen)\nBrendon Urie (presented Best Contemporary Instrumental Album, Jazz, Country categories and Best Roots Gospel Album)\nNorthern Cree and Carla Morrison - \"Cree Cuttin'\"/\"Un Beso\"\nMya (presented Latin and American Roots categories)\nZiggy Marley - \"Amen\"\nJimmy Jam (presented R&B and Rap categories and Best Reggae Album, Best Comedy Album)","title":"Presenters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Taken from the Grammys website.[17]\nThe winners are in bold.","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Record of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Record_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Hello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_(Adele_song)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Emile Haynie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Haynie"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Randy Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Merrill"},{"link_name":"Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_(song)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Mike Will Made-It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Will_Made-It"},{"link_name":"Pluss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheton_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Jaycen Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaycen_Joshua"},{"link_name":"7 Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_Years_(Lukas_Graham_song)"},{"link_name":"Lukas Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Graham"},{"link_name":"Stefan Forrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Forrest"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(Rihanna_song)"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Boi-1da","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boi-1da"},{"link_name":"Kuk Harrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuk_Harrell"},{"link_name":"Manny Marroquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Marroquin"},{"link_name":"Noah \"40\" Shebib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Chris Gehringer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Gehringer"},{"link_name":"Stressed Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressed_Out"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"Mike Elizondo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Elizondo"},{"link_name":"Tyler Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Neal Avron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Avron"},{"link_name":"Adam Hawkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Hawkins"},{"link_name":"Chris Gehringer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Gehringer"},{"link_name":"Album of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Album_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25_(Adele_album)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Danger Mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danger_Mouse_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Samuel Dixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Dixon"},{"link_name":"Paul Epworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Epworth"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Max Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Martin"},{"link_name":"Ariel Rechtshaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Rechtshaid"},{"link_name":"Shellback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellback_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"The Smeezingtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Smeezingtons"},{"link_name":"Ryan Tedder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Tedder"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Serban Ghenea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serban_Ghenea"},{"link_name":"Emile Haynie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Haynie"},{"link_name":"Charles Moniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Moniz"},{"link_name":"Mike Piersante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Piersante"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Randy Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Merrill"},{"link_name":"Lemonade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemonade_(Beyonc%C3%A9_album)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"James Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Blake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kendrick Lamar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendrick_Lamar"},{"link_name":"The Weeknd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weeknd"},{"link_name":"Jack White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_White"},{"link_name":"Ben Billions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Billions"},{"link_name":"Boots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boots_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Jonny Coffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonny_Coffer"},{"link_name":"DannyBoyStyles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DannyBoyStyles"},{"link_name":"Michael Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Dean_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Diplo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplo"},{"link_name":"Kevin Garrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Garrett_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Diana Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wynter_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Hit-Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit-Boy"},{"link_name":"Just Blaze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Blaze"},{"link_name":"Ezra Koenig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Koenig"},{"link_name":"MeLo-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeLo-X"},{"link_name":"Mike Will Made-It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Will_Made-It"},{"link_name":"Pluss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheton_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Jaycen Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaycen_Joshua"},{"link_name":"Tony Maserati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Maserati"},{"link_name":"Vance Powell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vance_Powell"},{"link_name":"Purpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purpose_(Justin_Bieber_album)"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Big Sean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Sean"},{"link_name":"Diplo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplo"},{"link_name":"Halsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Travis Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Scott"},{"link_name":"Skrillex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrillex"},{"link_name":"The Audibles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Audibles"},{"link_name":"Axident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axident"},{"link_name":"Benny Blanco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Blanco"},{"link_name":"Blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BloodPop"},{"link_name":"Jason \"Poo Bear\" Boyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poo_Bear"},{"link_name":"Scott \"Scooter\" Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooter_Braun"},{"link_name":"Mike Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Dean_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Ian Kirkpatrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Kirkpatrick_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Maejor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maejor"},{"link_name":"Soundz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundz"},{"link_name":"Simon Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Cohen"},{"link_name":"Jaycen Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaycen_Joshua"},{"link_name":"Manny Marroquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Marroquin"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Randy Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Merrill"},{"link_name":"Views","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Views_(album)"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"dvsn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvsn"},{"link_name":"Future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"Kyla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyla_(British_singer)"},{"link_name":"PartyNextDoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PartyNextDoor"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Wizkid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizkid_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Brian Alexander-Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Alexander_Morgan"},{"link_name":"Boi-1Da","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boi-1da"},{"link_name":"Cardo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardo_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Dwayne \"Supa Dups\" Chin-Quee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supa_Dups"},{"link_name":"DJ Dahi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Dahi"},{"link_name":"Frank Dukes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Dukes"},{"link_name":"Murda Beatz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murda_Beatz"},{"link_name":"Nineteen85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen85"},{"link_name":"Noah \"40\" Shebib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Southside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southside_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Sevn Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevn_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Jordan Ullman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majid_Jordan"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Seth Firkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Firkins"},{"link_name":"A Sailor's Guide to Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sailor%27s_Guide_to_Earth"},{"link_name":"Sturgill Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgill_Simpson"},{"link_name":"David Ferguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_R._Ferguson"},{"link_name":"Gavin Lurssen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Lurssen"},{"link_name":"Song of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Song_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Hello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_(Adele_song)"},{"link_name":"Adele Adkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_(song)"},{"link_name":"Khalif Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swae_Lee"},{"link_name":"Asheton Hogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheton_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé Knowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Michael L. Williams II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Will_Made_It"},{"link_name":"I Took a Pill in Ibiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Took_a_Pill_in_Ibiza"},{"link_name":"Mike Posner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Posner"},{"link_name":"Love Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Yourself"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Levin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Blanco"},{"link_name":"Ed Sheeran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Sheeran"},{"link_name":"7 Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_Years_(Lukas_Graham_song)"},{"link_name":"Lukas Forchhammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Forchhammer"},{"link_name":"Stefan Forrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Forrest"},{"link_name":"Morten Ristorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morten_Ristorp"},{"link_name":"Best New Artist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_New_Artist"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Kelsea Ballerini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsea_Ballerini"},{"link_name":"The Chainsmokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chainsmokers"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"Anderson .Paak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_.Paak"}],"sub_title":"General","text":"Record of the Year\"Hello\" – Adele\nGreg Kurstin, producer; Julian Burg, Tom Elmhirst, Emile Haynie, Greg Kurstin, Liam Nolan, Alex Pasco & Joe Visciano, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers\n\"Formation\" – Beyoncé\nBeyoncé Knowles, Mike Will Made-It & Pluss, producers; Jaycen Joshua & Stuart White, engineers/mixers; Dave Kutch, mastering engineer\n\"7 Years\" – Lukas Graham\nFuture Animals & Pilo, producers; Delbert Bowers, Sebastian Fogh, Stefan Forrest & David LaBrel, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne, mastering engineer\n\"Work\" – Rihanna featuring Drake\nBoi-1da, producer; Noel \"Gadget\" Campbell, Kuk Harrell, Manny Marroquin, Noah \"40\" Shebib & Marcos Tovar, engineers/mixers; Chris Gehringer, mastering engineer\n\"Stressed Out\" – Twenty One Pilots\nMike Elizondo & Tyler Joseph, producers; Neal Avron & Adam Hawkins, engineers/mixers; Chris Gehringer, mastering engineerAlbum of the Year25 – Adele\nDanger Mouse, Samuel Dixon, Paul Epworth, Greg Kurstin, Max Martin, Ariel Rechtshaid, Shellback, The Smeezingtons & Ryan Tedder, producers; Julian Burg, Austen Jux Chandler, Cameron Craig, Samuel Dixon, Tom Elmhirst, Declan Gaffney, Serban Ghenea, John Hanes, Emile Haynie, Jan Holzner, Michael Ilbert, Chris Kasych, Greg Kurstin, Charles Moniz, Liam Nolan, Alex Pasco, Mike Piersante, Ariel Rechtshaid, Rich Rich, Dave Schiffman, Joe Visciano & Matt Wiggins, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers\nLemonade – Beyoncé\nJames Blake, Kendrick Lamar, The Weeknd & Jack White, featured artists; Vincent Berry II, Ben Billions, James Blake, Boots, Jonny Coffer, DannyBoyStyles, Michael Dean, Alex Delicata, Diplo, Derek Dixie, Kevin Garrett, Diana Gordon, HazeBanga, Hit-Boy, Just Blaze, King Henry, Beyoncé Knowles, Ezra Koenig, Jeremy McDonald, MeLo-X, Mike Will Made-It, Pluss, Jack White & Malik Yusef, producers; Mike Dean, Jaycen Joshua, Greg Koller, Tony Maserati, Lester Mendoza, Vance Powell, Joshua V. Smith & Stuart White, engineers/mixers; Dave Kutch, mastering engineer\nPurpose – Justin Bieber\nBig Sean, Diplo, Halsey, Travis Scott & Skrillex, featured artists; The Audibles, Axident, Justin Bieber, Big Taste, Benny Blanco, Blood, Jason \"Poo Bear\" Boyd, Scott \"Scooter\" Braun, Mike Dean, Diplo, Gladius, Josh Gudwin, Nico Hartikainen, Mark \"The Mogul\" Jackson, Steve James, Ian Kirkpatrick, Maejor, MdL, Skrillex, Jeremy Snyder & Soundz, producers; Simon Cohen, Diplo, Mark \"Exit\" Goodchild, Josh Gudwin, Jaycen Joshua, Manny Marroquin, Chris \"Tek\" O'Ryan, Johannes Raassina, Gregg Rominiecki, Chris Sclafani, Skrillex, Dylan William & Andrew Wuepper, engineers/mixers; Tom Coyne & Randy Merrill, mastering engineers\nViews – Drake\ndvsn, Future, Kyla, PartyNextDoor, Rihanna & Wizkid, featured artists; Brian Alexander-Morgan, Axlfoliethc, Beat Bully, Boi-1Da, Cardo, Dwayne \"Supa Dups\" Chin-Quee, Daxz, DJ Dahi, Frank Dukes, Maneesh, Murda Beatz, Nineteen85, Ricci Riera, Allen Ritter, Noah \"40\" Shebib, Southside, Sevn Thomas, Jordan Ullman, Kanye West, Wizkid & Young Exclusive, producers; Noel Cadastre, Noel \"Gadget\" Campbell, Seth Firkins, David \"Prep\" Bijan Huges & Noah \"40\" Shebib, engineers/mixers; Chris Athens, mastering engineer\nA Sailor's Guide to Earth – Sturgill Simpson\nSturgill Simpson, producer; Geoff Allan, David Ferguson & Sean Sullivan, engineers/mixers; Gavin Lurssen, mastering engineerSong of the Year\"Hello\"\nAdele Adkins & Greg Kurstin, songwriters (Adele)\n\"Formation\"\nKhalif Brown, Asheton Hogan, Beyoncé Knowles & Michael L. Williams II, songwriters (Beyoncé)\n\"I Took a Pill in Ibiza\"\nMike Posner, songwriter (Mike Posner)\n\"Love Yourself\"\nJustin Bieber, Benjamin Levin & Ed Sheeran, songwriters (Justin Bieber)\n\"7 Years\"\nLukas Forchhammer, Stefan Forrest, Morten Pilegaard & Morten Ristorp, songwriters (Lukas Graham)Best New ArtistChance the Rapper\nKelsea Ballerini\nThe Chainsmokers\nMaren Morris\nAnderson .Paak","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Pop Solo Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Solo_Performance"},{"link_name":"Hello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_(Adele_song)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Hold Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hold_Up_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Love Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Yourself"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Piece by Piece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piece_by_Piece_(Kelly_Clarkson_song)"},{"link_name":"Idol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Idol"},{"link_name":"Kelly Clarkson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Clarkson"},{"link_name":"Dangerous Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_Woman_(song)"},{"link_name":"Ariana Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariana_Grande"},{"link_name":"Best Pop Duo/Group Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Duo/Group_Performance"},{"link_name":"Stressed Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressed_Out"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"Closer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closer_(The_Chainsmokers_song)"},{"link_name":"The Chainsmokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chainsmokers"},{"link_name":"Halsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"7 Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_Years_(Lukas_Graham_song)"},{"link_name":"Lukas Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Graham"},{"link_name":"Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(Rihanna_song)"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Cheap Thrills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheap_Thrills_(song)"},{"link_name":"Sia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia"},{"link_name":"Sean Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Paul"},{"link_name":"Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Traditional_Pop_Vocal_Album"},{"link_name":"Summertime: Willie Nelson Sings Gershwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summertime:_Willie_Nelson_Sings_Gershwin"},{"link_name":"Willie Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Nelson"},{"link_name":"Cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_(Andrea_Bocelli_album)"},{"link_name":"Andrea Bocelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Bocelli"},{"link_name":"Fallen Angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen_Angels_(Bob_Dylan_album)"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Stages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stages_(Josh_Groban_album)"},{"link_name":"Josh Groban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_Groban"},{"link_name":"Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encore:_Movie_Partners_Sing_Broadway"},{"link_name":"Barbra Streisand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand"},{"link_name":"Best Pop Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Pop_Vocal_Album"},{"link_name":"25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25_(Adele_album)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Purpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purpose_(Justin_Bieber_album)"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Dangerous Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_Woman_(album)"},{"link_name":"Ariana Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariana_Grande"},{"link_name":"Confident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confident_(Demi_Lovato_album)"},{"link_name":"Demi Lovato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Lovato"},{"link_name":"This Is Acting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Acting"},{"link_name":"Sia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia"}],"sub_title":"Pop","text":"Best Pop Solo Performance\"Hello\" – Adele\n\"Hold Up\" – Beyoncé\n\"Love Yourself\" – Justin Bieber\n\"Piece by Piece\" (Idol Version) – Kelly Clarkson\n\"Dangerous Woman\" – Ariana GrandeBest Pop Duo/Group Performance\"Stressed Out\" – Twenty One Pilots\n\"Closer\" – The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey\n\"7 Years\" – Lukas Graham\n\"Work\" – Rihanna featuring Drake\n\"Cheap Thrills\" – Sia featuring Sean PaulBest Traditional Pop Vocal AlbumSummertime: Willie Nelson Sings Gershwin – Willie Nelson\nCinema – Andrea Bocelli\nFallen Angels – Bob Dylan\nStages Live – Josh Groban\nEncore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway – Barbra StreisandBest Pop Vocal Album25 – Adele\nPurpose – Justin Bieber\nDangerous Woman – Ariana Grande\nConfident – Demi Lovato\nThis Is Acting – Sia","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Dance Recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Dance_Recording"},{"link_name":"Don't Let Me Down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Let_Me_Down_(The_Chainsmokers_song)"},{"link_name":"The Chainsmokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chainsmokers"},{"link_name":"Daya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daya_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Jordan Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Swivel"},{"link_name":"Bob Moses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Moses_(band)"},{"link_name":"Mark \"Spike\" Stent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_Stent"},{"link_name":"Never Be Like You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Be_Like_You"},{"link_name":"Flume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flume_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai_(Canadian_singer)"},{"link_name":"Eric J Dubowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_J"},{"link_name":"Rinse & Repeat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinse_%26_Repeat"},{"link_name":"Riton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riton_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kah-Lo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kah-Lo"},{"link_name":"Drinkee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinkee"},{"link_name":"Sofi Tukker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofi_Tukker"},{"link_name":"Best Dance/Electronic Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Dance/Electronic_Album"},{"link_name":"Skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_(Flume_album)"},{"link_name":"Flume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flume_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Electronica 1: The Time Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica_1:_The_Time_Machine"},{"link_name":"Jean-Michel Jarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Michel_Jarre"},{"link_name":"Epoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoch_(Tycho_album)"},{"link_name":"Tycho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Barbara Barbara, We Face a Shining Future","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Barbara,_We_Face_a_Shining_Future"},{"link_name":"Underworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underworld_(band)"},{"link_name":"Louie Vega Starring...XXVIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louie_Vega_Starring...XXVIII"},{"link_name":"Little Louie Vega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Louie_Vega"}],"sub_title":"Dance/Electronic","text":"Best Dance Recording\"Don't Let Me Down\" – The Chainsmokers featuring Daya\nThe Chainsmokers, producers; Jordan Young, mixer\n\"Tearing Me Up\" – Bob Moses\nBob Moses, producers; Mark \"Spike\" Stent, mixer\n\"Never Be Like You\" – Flume featuring Kai\nHarley Streten, producer; Eric J Dubowsky, mixer\n\"'Rinse & Repeat\" – Riton featuring Kah-Lo\nRiton, producer; Wez Clarke, mixer\n\"Drinkee\" – Sofi Tukker\nSofi Tukker, producers; Bryan Wilson, mixerBest Dance/Electronic AlbumSkin – Flume\nElectronica 1: The Time Machine – Jean-Michel Jarre\nEpoch – Tycho\nBarbara Barbara, We Face a Shining Future – Underworld\nLouie Vega Starring...XXVIII – Little Louie Vega","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Instrumental Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Contemporary_Instrumental_Album"},{"link_name":"Culcha Vulcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culcha_Vulcha"},{"link_name":"Snarky Puppy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snarky_Puppy"},{"link_name":"Herb Alpert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb_Alpert"},{"link_name":"Bill Frisell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Frisell"},{"link_name":"Steve Gadd Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Gadd"},{"link_name":"Chuck Loeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Loeb"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary Instrumental","text":"Best Contemporary Instrumental AlbumCulcha Vulcha – Snarky Puppy\nHuman Nature – Herb Alpert\nWhen You Wish Upon a Star – Bill Frisell\nWay Back Home: Live from Rochester, NY – Steve Gadd Band\nUnspoken – Chuck Loeb","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Rock Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Performance"},{"link_name":"Blackstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstar_(song)"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Austin City Limits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin_City_Limits"},{"link_name":"Alabama Shakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_Shakes"},{"link_name":"Don't Hurt Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_Hurt_Yourself_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jack White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_White"},{"link_name":"The Sound of Silence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_of_Silence#Cover_by_Disturbed"},{"link_name":"Conan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_(talk_show)"},{"link_name":"Disturbed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbed_(band)"},{"link_name":"Heathens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathens_(song)"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"Best Metal Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Metal_Performance"},{"link_name":"Dystopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystopia_(Megadeth_album)"},{"link_name":"Megadeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadeth"},{"link_name":"Baroness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroness_(band)"},{"link_name":"Gojira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojira_(band)"},{"link_name":"Rotting in Vain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotting_in_Vain"},{"link_name":"Korn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korn_(band)"},{"link_name":"Periphery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphery_(band)"},{"link_name":"Best Rock Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Song"},{"link_name":"Blackstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstar_(song)"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Burn the Witch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_the_Witch_(Radiohead_song)"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"},{"link_name":"Hardwired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwired_(Metallica_song)"},{"link_name":"James Hetfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hetfield"},{"link_name":"Lars Ulrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Ulrich"},{"link_name":"Metallica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica"},{"link_name":"Heathens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathens_(song)"},{"link_name":"Tyler Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"My Name Is Human","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Name_Is_Human"},{"link_name":"Highly Suspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_Suspect"},{"link_name":"Best Rock Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rock_Album"},{"link_name":"Tell Me I'm Pretty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_Me_I%27m_Pretty"},{"link_name":"Cage the Elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_the_Elephant"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_(Blink-182_album)"},{"link_name":"Blink-182","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink-182"},{"link_name":"Magma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(Gojira_album)"},{"link_name":"Gojira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojira_(band)"},{"link_name":"Death of a Bachelor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_a_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"Panic! at the Disco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic!_at_the_Disco"},{"link_name":"Weezer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weezer_(2016_album)"},{"link_name":"Weezer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weezer"}],"sub_title":"Rock","text":"Best Rock Performance\"Blackstar\" – David Bowie\n\"Joe\" (Live from Austin City Limits) – Alabama Shakes\n\"Don't Hurt Yourself\" – Beyoncé featuring Jack White\n\"The Sound of Silence\" (Live on Conan) – Disturbed\n\"Heathens\" – Twenty One PilotsBest Metal Performance\"Dystopia\" – Megadeth\n\"Shock Me\" – Baroness\n\"Silvera\" – Gojira\n\"Rotting in Vain\" – Korn\n\"The Price Is Wrong\" – PeripheryBest Rock Song\"Blackstar\"\nDavid Bowie, songwriter (David Bowie)\n\"Burn the Witch\"\nRadiohead, songwriters (Radiohead)\n\"Hardwired\"\nJames Hetfield & Lars Ulrich, songwriters (Metallica)\n\"Heathens\"\nTyler Joseph, songwriter (Twenty One Pilots)\n\"My Name Is Human\"\nRich Meyer, Ryan Meyer & Johnny Stevens, songwriters (Highly Suspect)Best Rock AlbumTell Me I'm Pretty – Cage the Elephant\nCalifornia – Blink-182\nMagma – Gojira\nDeath of a Bachelor – Panic! at the Disco\nWeezer – Weezer","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Alternative Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Alternative_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"Blackstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstar_(album)"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"22, A Million","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22,_A_Million"},{"link_name":"Bon Iver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon_Iver"},{"link_name":"The Hope Six Demolition Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hope_Six_Demolition_Project"},{"link_name":"PJ Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PJ_Harvey"},{"link_name":"Post Pop Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Pop_Depression"},{"link_name":"Iggy Pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iggy_Pop"},{"link_name":"A Moon Shaped Pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Moon_Shaped_Pool"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"}],"sub_title":"Alternative","text":"Best Alternative Music AlbumBlackstar – David Bowie\n22, A Million – Bon Iver\nThe Hope Six Demolition Project – PJ Harvey\nPost Pop Depression – Iggy Pop\nA Moon Shaped Pool – Radiohead","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best R&B Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Performance"},{"link_name":"Cranes in the Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranes_in_the_Sky"},{"link_name":"Solange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solange_Knowles"},{"link_name":"BJ the Chicago Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BJ_the_Chicago_Kid"},{"link_name":"Ro James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ro_James"},{"link_name":"Musiq Soulchild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musiq_Soulchild"},{"link_name":"Needed Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needed_Me"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Best Traditional R&B Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Traditional_R%26B_Performance"},{"link_name":"Lalah Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalah_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"William Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bell_(singer)"},{"link_name":"BJ the Chicago Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BJ_the_Chicago_Kid"},{"link_name":"Sleeping with the One I Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeping_with_the_One_I_Love"},{"link_name":"Fantasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasia_Barrino"},{"link_name":"Jill Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Scott_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Best R&B Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Song"},{"link_name":"Lake by the Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_by_the_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Musze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Come and See Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Come_and_See_Me"},{"link_name":"J. Brathwaite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PartyNextDoor"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Noah Shebib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_(song)"},{"link_name":"Bryson Tiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryson_Tiller"},{"link_name":"Kiss It Better","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiss_It_Better_(Rihanna_song)"},{"link_name":"Jeff Bhasker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Bhasker"},{"link_name":"Robyn Fenty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Teddy Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalia_Kills"},{"link_name":"Luv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luv_(Tory_Lanez_song)"},{"link_name":"Magnus August Høiberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashmere_Cat"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Levin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Blanco"},{"link_name":"Daystar Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory_Lanez"},{"link_name":"Best Urban Contemporary Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Urban_Contemporary_Album"},{"link_name":"Lemonade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemonade_(Beyonc%C3%A9_album)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Ology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ology_(album)"},{"link_name":"Gallant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallant_(singer)"},{"link_name":"We Are King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Are_King_(album)"},{"link_name":"KING","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_(R%26B_group)"},{"link_name":"Malibu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malibu_(album)"},{"link_name":"Anderson .Paak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_.Paak"},{"link_name":"Anti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti_(album)"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Best R&B Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_R%26B_Album"},{"link_name":"Lalah Hathaway Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalah_Hathaway_Live"},{"link_name":"Lalah Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalah_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"In My Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_My_Mind_(BJ_the_Chicago_Kid_album)"},{"link_name":"BJ the Chicago Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BJ_the_Chicago_Kid"},{"link_name":"Velvet Portraits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_Portraits"},{"link_name":"Terrace Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_Martin"},{"link_name":"Healing Season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healing_Season"},{"link_name":"Mint Condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mint_Condition"},{"link_name":"Smoove Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoove_Jones"},{"link_name":"Mýa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BDa"}],"sub_title":"R&B","text":"Best R&B Performance\"Cranes in the Sky\" – Solange\n\"Turnin' Me Up\" – BJ the Chicago Kid\n\"Permission\" – Ro James\n\"I Do\" – Musiq Soulchild\n\"Needed Me\" – RihannaBest Traditional R&B Performance\"Angel\" – Lalah Hathaway\n\"The Three of Me\" – William Bell\n\"Woman's World\" – BJ the Chicago Kid\n\"Sleeping with the One I Love\" – Fantasia\n\"Can't Wait\" – Jill ScottBest R&B Song\"Lake by the Ocean\"\nHod David & Musze, songwriters (Maxwell)\n\"Come and See Me\"\nJ. Brathwaite, Aubrey Graham & Noah Shebib, songwriters (PartyNextDoor featuring Drake)\n\"Exchange\"\nMichael Hernandez & Bryson Tiller, songwriters (Bryson Tiller)\n\"Kiss It Better\"\nJeff Bhasker, Robyn Fenty, John-Nathan Glass & Teddy Sinclair, songwriters (Rihanna)\n\"Luv\"\nMagnus August Høiberg, Benjamin Levin & Daystar Peterson, songwriters (Tory Lanez)Best Urban Contemporary AlbumLemonade – Beyoncé\nOlogy – Gallant\nWe Are King – KING\nMalibu – Anderson .Paak\nAnti – RihannaBest R&B AlbumLalah Hathaway Live – Lalah Hathaway\nIn My Mind – BJ the Chicago Kid\nVelvet Portraits – Terrace Martin\nHealing Season – Mint Condition\nSmoove Jones – Mýa","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Rap Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rap_Performance"},{"link_name":"No Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Problem_(Chance_the_Rapper_song)"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Lil Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Wayne"},{"link_name":"2 Chainz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Chainz"},{"link_name":"Panda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panda_(Desiigner_song)"},{"link_name":"Desiigner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiigner"},{"link_name":"Pop Style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_Style"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"The Throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch_the_Throne"},{"link_name":"All the Way Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_Way_Up_(Fat_Joe_and_Remy_Ma_song)"},{"link_name":"Fat Joe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Joe"},{"link_name":"Remy Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remy_Ma"},{"link_name":"French Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Montana"},{"link_name":"THat Part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THat_Part"},{"link_name":"ScHoolboy Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScHoolboy_Q"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Best Rap/Sung Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rap/Sung_Performance"},{"link_name":"Hotline Bling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotline_Bling"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Kendrick Lamar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendrick_Lamar"},{"link_name":"Broccoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broccoli_(D.R.A.M._song)"},{"link_name":"DRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAM_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"Lil Yachty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Yachty"},{"link_name":"Ultralight Beam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight_Beam"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Kelly Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Price"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"The-Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The-Dream"},{"link_name":"Famous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_(Kanye_West_song)"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Swizz Beatz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swizz_Beatz"},{"link_name":"Best Rap Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rap_Song"},{"link_name":"Hotline Bling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotline_Bling"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Paul Jefferies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen85"},{"link_name":"All the Way Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_the_Way_Up_(Fat_Joe_and_Remy_Ma_song)"},{"link_name":"Joseph Cartagena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Joe"},{"link_name":"Karim Kharbouch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Montana"},{"link_name":"Andre Christopher Lyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_%26_Dre"},{"link_name":"Reminisce Mackie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remy_Ma"},{"link_name":"Marcello Valenzano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cool_%26_Dre"},{"link_name":"Famous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_(Kanye_West_song)"},{"link_name":"Chancellor Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Ross Birchard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Mohawke"},{"link_name":"Andrew Dawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Dawson_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Kasseem Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swizz_Beatz"},{"link_name":"Mike Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Dean_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Kejuan Muchita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havoc_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Cydel Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyhi_the_Prynce"},{"link_name":"Malik Yusef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik_Yusef"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"No Problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Problem_(Chance_the_Rapper_song)"},{"link_name":"Chancellor Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Dwayne Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Wayne"},{"link_name":"Tauheed Epps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Chainz"},{"link_name":"Ultralight Beam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight_Beam"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Samuel Griesemer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samo_Sound_Boy"},{"link_name":"Terius Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The-Dream"},{"link_name":"Jerome Potter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samo_Sound_Boy#DJ_Dodger_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Kelly Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Price"},{"link_name":"Nico \"Donnie Trumpet\" Segal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nico_Segal"},{"link_name":"Derek Watkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonzworth_Bentley"},{"link_name":"Best Rap Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Rap_Album"},{"link_name":"Coloring Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloring_Book_(mixtape)"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"and the Anonymous Nobody...","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_the_Anonymous_Nobody..."},{"link_name":"De La Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_La_Soul"},{"link_name":"Major Key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_Key_(album)"},{"link_name":"DJ Khaled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Khaled"},{"link_name":"Views","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Views_(Drake_album)"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Blank Face LP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blank_Face_LP"},{"link_name":"ScHoolboy Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScHoolboy_Q"},{"link_name":"The Life of Pablo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Life_of_Pablo"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"}],"sub_title":"Rap","text":"Best Rap Performance\"No Problem\" – Chance the Rapper featuring Lil Wayne & 2 Chainz\n\"Panda\" – Desiigner\n\"Pop Style\" – Drake featuring The Throne\n\"All the Way Up\" – Fat Joe & Remy Ma featuring French Montana & Infared\n\"THat Part\" – ScHoolboy Q featuring Kanye WestBest Rap/Sung Performance\"Hotline Bling\" – Drake\n\"Freedom\" – Beyoncé featuring Kendrick Lamar\n\"Broccoli\" – DRAM featuring Lil Yachty\n\"Ultralight Beam\" – Kanye West featuring Chance the Rapper, Kelly Price, Kirk Franklin & The-Dream\n\"Famous\" – Kanye West featuring Rihanna and Swizz BeatzBest Rap Song\"Hotline Bling\"\nAubrey Graham & Paul Jefferies, songwriters (Drake)\n\"All the Way Up\"\nJoseph Cartagena, Edward Davadi, Shandel Green, Karim Kharbouch, Andre Christopher Lyon, Reminisce Mackie & Marcello Valenzano, songwriters (Fat Joe & Remy Ma featuring French Montana & Infared)\n\"Famous\"\nChancellor Bennett, Ross Birchard, Ernest Brown, Andrew Dawson, Kasseem Dean, Mike Dean, Noah Goldstein, Kejuan Muchita, Patrick Reynolds, Kanye West, Cydel Young & Malik Yusef, songwriters (Kanye West featuring Rihanna)\n\"No Problem\"\nChancellor Bennett, Dwayne Carter, Rachel Cato, Peter Cottontale, Tauheed Epps, Jonathan Hoard, Cam O'bi, Ivan Rosenberg, Conor Szymanski, Lakeithsha Williams & Jaime Woods, songwriters (Chance the Rapper featuring Lil Wayne and 2 Chainz)\n\"Ultralight Beam\"\nChancellor Bennett, Kasseem Dean, Mike Dean, Kirk Franklin, Noah Goldstein, Samuel Griesemer, Terius Nash, Jerome Potter, Kelly Price, Nico \"Donnie Trumpet\" Segal, Derek Watkins, Kanye West, Cydel Young & Malik Yusef, songwriters (Kanye West featuring Chance The Rapper, Kelly Price, Kirk Franklin & The-Dream)Best Rap AlbumColoring Book – Chance the Rapper\nand the Anonymous Nobody... – De La Soul\nMajor Key – DJ Khaled\nViews – Drake\nBlank Face LP – ScHoolboy Q\nThe Life of Pablo – Kanye West","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Country Solo Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Solo_Performance"},{"link_name":"My Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Church"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"Brandy Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandy_Clark"},{"link_name":"Vice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_(Miranda_Lambert_song)"},{"link_name":"Miranda Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Lambert"},{"link_name":"Church Bells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Bells_(song)"},{"link_name":"Carrie Underwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie_Underwood"},{"link_name":"Blue Ain't Your Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Ain%27t_Your_Color"},{"link_name":"Keith Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Urban"},{"link_name":"Best Country Duo/Group Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Duo/Group_Performance"},{"link_name":"Jolene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jolene_(song)#Pentatonix"},{"link_name":"Pentatonix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentatonix"},{"link_name":"Dolly Parton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_Parton"},{"link_name":"Different for Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Different_for_Girls_(song)"},{"link_name":"Dierks Bentley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dierks_Bentley"},{"link_name":"Elle King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elle_King"},{"link_name":"21 Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21_Summer"},{"link_name":"Brothers Osborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_Osborne"},{"link_name":"Setting the World on Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting_the_World_on_Fire"},{"link_name":"Kenny Chesney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Chesney"},{"link_name":"Pink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Think of You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_of_You_(Chris_Young_and_Cassadee_Pope_song)"},{"link_name":"Chris Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Young_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Cassadee Pope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassadee_Pope"},{"link_name":"Best Country Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Song"},{"link_name":"Humble and Kind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humble_and_Kind"},{"link_name":"Lori McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Tim McGraw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_McGraw"},{"link_name":"Blue Ain't Your Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Ain%27t_Your_Color"},{"link_name":"Hillary Lindsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Lindsey"},{"link_name":"Steven Lee Olsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Lee_Olsen"},{"link_name":"Keith Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Urban"},{"link_name":"Die a Happy Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_a_Happy_Man"},{"link_name":"Sean Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Douglas_(songwriter)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Rhett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Rhett"},{"link_name":"My Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My_Church_(song)"},{"link_name":"busbee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busbee"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"Vice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_(Miranda_Lambert_song)"},{"link_name":"Miranda Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Lambert"},{"link_name":"Shane McAnally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_McAnally"},{"link_name":"Josh Osborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh_Osborne"},{"link_name":"Best Country Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Country_Album"},{"link_name":"A Sailor's Guide to Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sailor%27s_Guide_to_Earth"},{"link_name":"Sturgill Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgill_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Big Day in a Small Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Day_in_a_Small_Town"},{"link_name":"Brandy Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandy_Clark"},{"link_name":"Full Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Circle_(Loretta_Lynn_album)"},{"link_name":"Loretta Lynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loretta_Lynn"},{"link_name":"Hero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_(Maren_Morris_album)"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"Ripcord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripcord_(album)"},{"link_name":"Keith Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Urban"}],"sub_title":"Country","text":"Best Country Solo Performance\"My Church\" – Maren Morris\n\"Love Can Go to Hell\" – Brandy Clark\n\"Vice\" – Miranda Lambert\n\"Church Bells\" – Carrie Underwood\n\"Blue Ain't Your Color\" – Keith UrbanBest Country Duo/Group Performance\"Jolene\" – Pentatonix featuring Dolly Parton\n\"Different for Girls\" – Dierks Bentley featuring Elle King\n\"21 Summer\" – Brothers Osborne\n\"Setting the World on Fire\" – Kenny Chesney & Pink\n\"Think of You\" – Chris Young with Cassadee PopeBest Country Song\"Humble and Kind\"\nLori McKenna, songwriter (Tim McGraw)\n\"Blue Ain't Your Color\"\nClint Lagerberg, Hillary Lindsey & Steven Lee Olsen, songwriters (Keith Urban)\n\"Die a Happy Man\"\nSean Douglas, Thomas Rhett & Joe Spargur, songwriters (Thomas Rhett)\n\"My Church\"\nbusbee & Maren Morris, songwriters (Maren Morris)\n\"Vice\"\nMiranda Lambert, Shane McAnally & Josh Osborne, songwriters (Miranda Lambert)Best Country AlbumA Sailor's Guide to Earth – Sturgill Simpson\nBig Day in a Small Town – Brandy Clark\nFull Circle – Loretta Lynn\nHero – Maren Morris\nRipcord – Keith Urban","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best New Age Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_New_Age_Album"},{"link_name":"White Sun II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sun_II"},{"link_name":"White Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sun_(musical_group)"},{"link_name":"Orogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogen_(album)"},{"link_name":"John Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Burke_(American_pianist)"},{"link_name":"Dark Sky Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Sky_Island"},{"link_name":"Enya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enya"},{"link_name":"Inner Passion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Passion"},{"link_name":"Peter Kater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kater"},{"link_name":"Tina Guo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tina_Guo"},{"link_name":"Rosetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(Vangelis_album)"},{"link_name":"Vangelis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vangelis"}],"sub_title":"New Age","text":"Best New Age AlbumWhite Sun II – White Sun\nOrogen – John Burke\nDark Sky Island – Enya\nInner Passion – Peter Kater & Tina Guo\nRosetta – Vangelis","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Improvised Jazz Solo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Improvised_Jazz_Solo"},{"link_name":"John Scofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Scofield"},{"link_name":"Joey Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey_Alexander"},{"link_name":"Ravi Coltrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravi_Coltrane"},{"link_name":"Fred Hersch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hersch"},{"link_name":"Brad Mehldau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Mehldau"},{"link_name":"Best Jazz Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Jazz_Vocal_Album"},{"link_name":"Take Me to the Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_Me_to_the_Alley"},{"link_name":"Gregory Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Porter"},{"link_name":"Sound of Red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_of_Red"},{"link_name":"René Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Marie"},{"link_name":"Upward Spiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upward_Spiral_(album)"},{"link_name":"Branford Marsalis Quartet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branford_Marsalis_Quartet"},{"link_name":"Kurt Elling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Elling"},{"link_name":"Harlem on My Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem_on_My_Mind"},{"link_name":"Catherine Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Russell_(singer)"},{"link_name":"The Sting Variations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sting_Variations"},{"link_name":"Tierney Sutton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierney_Sutton"},{"link_name":"Best Jazz Instrumental Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Jazz_Instrumental_Album"},{"link_name":"Country for Old Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_for_Old_Men"},{"link_name":"John Scofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Scofield"},{"link_name":"Book of Intuition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Intuition"},{"link_name":"Kenny Barron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Barron"},{"link_name":"Dr. Um","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Um"},{"link_name":"Peter Erskine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Erskine"},{"link_name":"Sunday Night at the Vanguard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Night_at_the_Vanguard"},{"link_name":"Fred Hersch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hersch"},{"link_name":"Nearness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearness_(album)"},{"link_name":"Joshua Redman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Redman"},{"link_name":"Brad Mehldau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Mehldau"},{"link_name":"Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Large_Jazz_Ensemble_Album"},{"link_name":"Presidential Suite: Eight Variations on Freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Suite:_Eight_Variations_on_Freedom"},{"link_name":"Ted Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nash_(saxophonist,_born_1960)"},{"link_name":"Real Enemies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Enemies"},{"link_name":"Darcy James Argue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcy_James_Argue"},{"link_name":"MONK'estra, Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presents_Monk%27estra,_Volume_1"},{"link_name":"John Beasley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Beasley_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kaleidoscope Eyes: Music of the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaleidoscope_Eyes:_Music_of_the_Beatles"},{"link_name":"John Daversa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daversa"},{"link_name":"Bob Mintzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Mintzer"},{"link_name":"Best Latin Jazz Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Latin_Jazz_Album"},{"link_name":"Chucho Valdés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chucho_Vald%C3%A9s"},{"link_name":"Entre Colegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entre_Colegas"},{"link_name":"Andy González","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Gonz%C3%A1lez_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Madera Latino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madera_Latino"},{"link_name":"Brian Lynch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Lynch_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Trio Da Paz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trio_da_Paz"}],"sub_title":"Jazz","text":"Best Improvised Jazz Solo\"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry\" – John Scofield, soloist\n\"Countdown\" – Joey Alexander, soloist\n\"In Movement\" – Ravi Coltrane, soloist\n\"We See\" – Fred Hersch, soloist\n\"I Concentrate on You\" – Brad Mehldau, soloistBest Jazz Vocal AlbumTake Me to the Alley – Gregory Porter\nSound of Red – René Marie\nUpward Spiral – Branford Marsalis Quartet with special guest Kurt Elling\nHarlem on My Mind – Catherine Russell\nThe Sting Variations – The Tierney Sutton BandBest Jazz Instrumental AlbumCountry for Old Men – John Scofield\nBook of Intuition – Kenny Barron Trio\nDr. Um – Peter Erskine\nSunday Night at the Vanguard – The Fred Hersch Trio\nNearness – Joshua Redman & Brad MehldauBest Large Jazz Ensemble AlbumPresidential Suite: Eight Variations on Freedom – Ted Nash Big Band\nReal Enemies – Darcy James Argue's Secret Society\nMONK'estra, Vol. 1 – John Beasley\nKaleidoscope Eyes: Music of the Beatles – John Daversa\nAll L.A. Band – Bob MintzerBest Latin Jazz AlbumTribute to Irakere: Live in Marciac – Chucho Valdés\nEntre Colegas – Andy González\nMadera Latino: A Latin Jazz Perspective on the Music of Woody Shaw – Brian Lynch & various artists\nCanto América – Michael Spiro/Wayne Wallace La Orquesta Sinfonietta\n30 – Trio Da Paz","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Gospel Performance/Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Gospel_Performance/Song"},{"link_name":"Tamela Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamela_Mann"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Shirley Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Anthony Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hamilton_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Jekalyn Carr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jekalyn_Carr"},{"link_name":"Travis Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Greene"},{"link_name":"Hezekiah Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezekiah_Walker"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Contemporary_Christian_Music_Performance/Song"},{"link_name":"Hillary Scott & The Scott Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Scott_(singer)#Hillary_Scott_&_the_Scott_Family"},{"link_name":"Bernie Herms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernie_Herms"},{"link_name":"Hillary Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Scott"},{"link_name":"Lauren Daigle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauren_Daigle"},{"link_name":"For King & Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_King_%26_Country_(band)"},{"link_name":"Seth Mosley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_Mosley"},{"link_name":"Tedd Tjornhom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedd_T"},{"link_name":"King of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_World_(Natalie_Grant_song)"},{"link_name":"Natalie Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Grant"},{"link_name":"Zach Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zach_Williams_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mia Fieldes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mia_Fieldes"},{"link_name":"Best Gospel Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Gospel_Album"},{"link_name":"Losing My Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Losing_My_Religion_(album)"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Listen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listen_(Tim_Bowman_Jr._album)"},{"link_name":"Tim Bowman, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Bowman,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Fill This House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fill_This_House"},{"link_name":"Shirley Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Todd Dulaney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd_Dulaney"},{"link_name":"William Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Murphy_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Christian Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Contemporary_Christian_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"Love Remains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Remains_(Hillary_Scott_album)"},{"link_name":"Hillary Scott & The Scott Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Scott_(singer)#Hillary_Scott_&_the_Scott_Family"},{"link_name":"Poets & Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poets_%26_Saints"},{"link_name":"All Sons & Daughters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Sons_%26_Daughters"},{"link_name":"American Prodigal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Prodigal"},{"link_name":"Crowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowder_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Be One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be_One"},{"link_name":"Natalie Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Grant"},{"link_name":"Youth Revival [Live]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth_Revival"},{"link_name":"Hillsong Young & Free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsong_Young_%26_Free"},{"link_name":"Best Roots Gospel Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Roots_Gospel_Album"},{"link_name":"Hymns That Are Important to Us","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymns_That_Are_Important_to_Us"},{"link_name":"Joey + Rory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey_%2B_Rory"},{"link_name":"Better Together","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_Together_(album)"},{"link_name":"Gaither Vocal Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaither_Vocal_Band"},{"link_name":"Nature's Symphony in 432","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature%27s_Symphony_in_432"},{"link_name":"The Isaacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Isaacs"},{"link_name":"Hymns and Songs of Inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymns_and_Songs_of_Inspiration"},{"link_name":"Gordon Mote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Mote"},{"link_name":"God Don't Never Change: The Songs of Blind Willie Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_Don%27t_Never_Change:_The_Songs_of_Blind_Willie_Johnson"}],"sub_title":"Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music","text":"Best Gospel Performance/Song\"God Provides\" – Tamela Mann\nKirk Franklin, songwriter\n\"It's Alright, It's OK\" – Shirley Caesar featuring Anthony Hamilton\nStanley Brown & Courtney Rumble, songwriters\n\"You're Bigger [Live]\" – Jekalyn Carr\nAllundria Carr, songwriter\n\"Made a Way [Live]\" – Travis Greene\nTravis Greene, songwriter\n\"Better\" – Hezekiah Walker\nJason Clayborn, Gabriel Hatcher & Hezekiah Walker, songwritersBest Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song\"Thy Will\" – Hillary Scott & The Scott Family\nBernie Herms, Hillary Scott & Emily Weisband, songwriters\n\"Trust in You\" – Lauren Daigle\nLauren Daigle, Michael Farren & Paul Mabury, songwriters\n\"Priceless\" – For King & Country\nBenjamin Backus, Seth Mosley, Joel Smallbone, Luke Smallbone & Tedd Tjornhom, songwriters\n\"King of the World\" – Natalie Grant\nNatalie Grant, Becca Mizell & Samuel Mizell, songwriters\n\"Chain Breaker\" – Zach Williams\nMia Fieldes, Jonathan Smith & Zach Williams, songwritersBest Gospel AlbumLosing My Religion – Kirk Franklin\nListen – Tim Bowman, Jr.\nFill This House – Shirley Caesar\nA Worshipper's Heart [Live] – Todd Dulaney\nDemonstrate [Live] – William MurphyBest Contemporary Christian Music AlbumLove Remains – Hillary Scott & The Scott Family\nPoets & Saints – All Sons & Daughters\nAmerican Prodigal – Crowder\nBe One – Natalie Grant\nYouth Revival [Live] – Hillsong Young & FreeBest Roots Gospel AlbumHymns That Are Important to Us – Joey + Rory\nBetter Together – Gaither Vocal Band\nNature's Symphony in 432 – The Isaacs\nHymns and Songs of Inspiration – Gordon Mote\nGod Don't Never Change: The Songs of Blind Willie Johnson – (Various Artists); Jeffrey Gaskill, producer","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Latin Pop Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Latin_Pop_Album"},{"link_name":"Un Besito Más","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Un_Besito_M%C3%A1s"},{"link_name":"Jesse & Joy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_%26_Joy"},{"link_name":"Gaby Moreno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaby_Moreno"},{"link_name":"Similares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simili_(album)"},{"link_name":"Laura Pausini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Pausini"},{"link_name":"Buena Vida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buena_Vida_(album)"},{"link_name":"Diego Torres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Torres_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Best Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Latin_Rock,_Urban_or_Alternative_Album"},{"link_name":"ile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILE_(singer)"},{"link_name":"L.H.O.N. (La Humanidad o Nosotros)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.H.O.N."},{"link_name":"Illya Kuryaki and the Valderramas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illya_Kuryaki_and_the_Valderramas"},{"link_name":"La Santa Cecilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Santa_Cecilia"},{"link_name":"Los Rakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Rakas"},{"link_name":"Amor Supremo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amor_Supremo"},{"link_name":"Carla Morrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Morrison"},{"link_name":"Best Regional Mexican Music Album (Including Tejano)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Regional_Mexican_or_Tejano_Album"},{"link_name":"Vicente Fernández","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicente_Fern%C3%A1ndez"},{"link_name":"Joss Favela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_Favela"},{"link_name":"Mariachi Divas de Cindy Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariachi_Divas_de_Cindy_Shea"},{"link_name":"Best Tropical Latin Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Tropical_Latin_Album"},{"link_name":"Conexión","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conexi%C3%B3n_(Fonseca_album)"},{"link_name":"Fonseca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonseca_(singer)"},{"link_name":"35 Aniversario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/35_Aniversario_(album)"},{"link_name":"Grupo Niche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grupo_Niche"},{"link_name":"Sonora Santanera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonora_Santanera"}],"sub_title":"Latin","text":"Best Latin Pop AlbumUn Besito Más – Jesse & Joy\nIlusión – Gaby Moreno\nSimilares – Laura Pausini\nSeguir Latiendo – Sanalejo\nBuena Vida – Diego TorresBest Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative AlbumiLevitable – ile\nL.H.O.N. (La Humanidad o Nosotros) – Illya Kuryaki and the Valderramas\nBuenaventura – La Santa Cecilia\nLos Rakas – Los Rakas\nAmor Supremo – Carla MorrisonBest Regional Mexican Music Album (Including Tejano)Un Azteca en el Azteca, Vol. 1 (En Vivo) – Vicente Fernández\nRaíces – Banda El Recodo de Cruz Lizárraga\nHecho a Mano – Joss Favela\nGeneración Maquinaria Est. 2006 – La Maquinaria Norteña\nTributo a Joan Sebastian y Rigoberto Alfaro – Mariachi Divas de Cindy SheaBest Tropical Latin AlbumDonde Están? – Jose Lugo & Guasábara Combo\nConexión – Fonseca\nLa Fantasia Homenaje a Juan Formell – Formell y Los Van Van\n35 Aniversario – Grupo Niche\nLa Sonora Santanera en Su 60 Aniversario – Sonora Santanera","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best American Roots Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_American_Roots_Performance"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"The Avett Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Avett_Brothers"},{"link_name":"The Blind Boys of Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blind_Boys_of_Alabama"},{"link_name":"Rhiannon Giddens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhiannon_Giddens"},{"link_name":"Lori McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Best American Roots Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_American_Roots_Song"},{"link_name":"Vince Gill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince_Gill"},{"link_name":"The Time Jumpers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Time_Jumpers"},{"link_name":"Robbie Fulks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Fulks"},{"link_name":"Jack White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_White"},{"link_name":"The White Stripes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_White_Stripes"},{"link_name":"Lori McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Felix McTeigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_McTeigue"},{"link_name":"Best Americana Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Americana_Album"},{"link_name":"This Is Where I Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Where_I_Live"},{"link_name":"William Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bell_(singer)"},{"link_name":"True Sadness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Sadness"},{"link_name":"The Avett Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Avett_Brothers"},{"link_name":"The Cedar Creek Sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cedar_Creek_Sessions"},{"link_name":"Kris Kristofferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson"},{"link_name":"The Bird and the Rifle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bird_and_the_Rifle"},{"link_name":"Lori McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_McKenna"},{"link_name":"The Time Jumpers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Time_Jumpers"},{"link_name":"Best Bluegrass Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Bluegrass_Album"},{"link_name":"Mark O'Connor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_O%27Connor"},{"link_name":"Original Traditional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Traditional"},{"link_name":"Blue Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Highway"},{"link_name":"Burden Bearer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_Bearer"},{"link_name":"Doyle Lawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doyle_Lawson"},{"link_name":"The Hazel and Alice Sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hazel_and_Alice_Sessions"},{"link_name":"Laurie Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Lewis"},{"link_name":"North by South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_by_South"},{"link_name":"Claire Lynch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claire_Lynch"},{"link_name":"Best Traditional Blues Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Traditional_Blues_Album"},{"link_name":"Porcupine Meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcupine_Meat"},{"link_name":"Bobby Rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Rush_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Lurrie Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurrie_Bell"},{"link_name":"Live at the Greek Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_at_the_Greek_Theatre_(Joe_Bonamassa_album)"},{"link_name":"Joe Bonamassa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Bonamassa"},{"link_name":"Luther Dickinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Dickinson"},{"link_name":"Vasti Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasti_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Blues Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Contemporary_Blues_Album"},{"link_name":"The Last Days of Oakland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Days_of_Oakland"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Negrito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Negrito"},{"link_name":"Love Wins Again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Wins_Again"},{"link_name":"Janiva Magness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janiva_Magness"},{"link_name":"Bloodline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodline_(Kenny_Neal_album)"},{"link_name":"Kenny Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Neal"},{"link_name":"The Record Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Record_Company"},{"link_name":"Everybody Wants a Piece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Wants_a_Piece"},{"link_name":"Joe Louis Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Louis_Walker"},{"link_name":"Best Folk Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Folk_Album"},{"link_name":"Undercurrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercurrent_(Sarah_Jarosz_album)"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"Silver Skies Blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Skies_Blue"},{"link_name":"Judy Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Collins"},{"link_name":"Ari Hest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari_Hest"},{"link_name":"Upland Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upland_Stories"},{"link_name":"Robbie Fulks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Fulks"},{"link_name":"Factory Girl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_Girl_(Rhiannon_Giddens_album)"},{"link_name":"Rhiannon Giddens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhiannon_Giddens"},{"link_name":"Weighted Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_Mind"},{"link_name":"Sierra Hull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Hull"},{"link_name":"Best Regional Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Regional_Roots_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"E Walea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_Walea"},{"link_name":"Kalani Pe'a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalani_Pe%27a"},{"link_name":"Barry Jean Ancelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Jean_Ancelet"},{"link_name":"Northern Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cree"},{"link_name":"Joel Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Savoy"}],"sub_title":"American Roots","text":"Best American Roots Performance\"House of Mercy\" – Sarah Jarosz\n\"Ain't No Man\" – The Avett Brothers\n\"Mother's Children Have a Hard Time\" – The Blind Boys of Alabama\n\"Factory Girl\" – Rhiannon Giddens\n\"Wreck You\" – Lori McKennaBest American Roots Song\"Kid Sister\"\nVince Gill, songwriter (The Time Jumpers)\n\"Alabama at Night\"\nRobbie Fulks, songwriter (Robbie Fulks)\n\"City Lights\"\nJack White, songwriter (Jack White/The White Stripes)\n\"Gulfstream\"\nEric Adcock & Roddie Romero, songwriters (Roddie Romero and the Hub City All-Stars)\n\"Wreck You\"\nLori McKenna & Felix McTeigue, songwriters (Lori McKenna)Best Americana AlbumThis Is Where I Live – William Bell\nTrue Sadness – The Avett Brothers\nThe Cedar Creek Sessions – Kris Kristofferson\nThe Bird and the Rifle – Lori McKenna\nKid Sister – The Time JumpersBest Bluegrass AlbumComing Home – O'Connor Band with Mark O'Connor\nOriginal Traditional – Blue Highway\nBurden Bearer – Doyle Lawson & Quicksilver\nThe Hazel and Alice Sessions – Laurie Lewis & The Right Hands\nNorth by South – Claire LynchBest Traditional Blues AlbumPorcupine Meat – Bobby Rush\nCan't Shake the Feeling – Lurrie Bell\nLive at the Greek Theatre – Joe Bonamassa\nBlues & Ballads (A Folksinger's Songbook: Volumes I & II) – Luther Dickinson\nThe Soul of Jimmie Rodgers – Vasti JacksonBest Contemporary Blues AlbumThe Last Days of Oakland – Fantastic Negrito\nLove Wins Again – Janiva Magness\nBloodline – Kenny Neal\nGive It Back to You – The Record Company\nEverybody Wants a Piece – Joe Louis WalkerBest Folk AlbumUndercurrent – Sarah Jarosz\nSilver Skies Blue – Judy Collins & Ari Hest\nUpland Stories – Robbie Fulks\nFactory Girl – Rhiannon Giddens\nWeighted Mind – Sierra HullBest Regional Music AlbumE Walea – Kalani Pe'a\nBroken Promised Land – Barry Jean Ancelet & Sam Broussard\nIt's a Cree Thing – Northern Cree\nGulfstream – Roddie Romero and the Hub City All-Stars\nI Wanna Sing Right: Rediscovering Lomax in the Evangeline Country – (Various Artists); Joshua Caffery & Joel Savoy, producers","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Reggae Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Reggae_Album"},{"link_name":"Ziggy Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggy_Marley_(album)"},{"link_name":"Ziggy Marley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggy_Marley"},{"link_name":"J Boog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-Boog"},{"link_name":"Raging Fyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raging_Fyah"},{"link_name":"Falling Into Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_Into_Place_(Rebelution_album)"},{"link_name":"Rebelution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebelution_(band)"},{"link_name":"SOJA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOJA"}],"sub_title":"Reggae","text":"Best Reggae AlbumZiggy Marley – Ziggy Marley\nSly & Robbie Presents... Reggae For Her – Devin Di Dakta & J.L\nRose Petals – J Boog\nEverlasting – Raging Fyah\nFalling Into Place – Rebelution\nSOJA: Live in Virginia – SOJA","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best World Music Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_World_Music_Album"},{"link_name":"Yo-Yo Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo-Yo_Ma"},{"link_name":"The Silk Road Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silk_Road_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Woman:_Destiny"},{"link_name":"Celtic Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Woman"},{"link_name":"Ladysmith Black Mambazo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladysmith_Black_Mambazo"},{"link_name":"Anoushka Shankar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoushka_Shankar"},{"link_name":"Caetano Veloso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caetano_Veloso"},{"link_name":"Gilberto Gil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilberto_Gil"}],"sub_title":"World Music","text":"Best World Music AlbumSing Me Home – Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble\nDestiny – Celtic Woman\nWalking in the Footsteps of Our Fathers – Ladysmith Black Mambazo\nLand of Gold – Anoushka Shankar\nDois Amigos, Um Século de Música: Multishow Live – Caetano Veloso & Gilberto Gil","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Children's Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Children%27s_Album"},{"link_name":"Secret Agent 23 Skidoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Agent_23_Skidoo"},{"link_name":"Frances England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_England"},{"link_name":"Recess Monkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recess_Monkey"},{"link_name":"The Okee Dokee Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Okee_Dokee_Brothers"}],"sub_title":"Children's","text":"Best Children's AlbumInfinity Plus One – Secret Agent 23 Skidoo\nExplorer of the World – Frances England\nNovelties – Recess Monkey\nPress Play – Brady Rymer And The Little Band That Could\nSaddle Up – The Okee Dokee Brothers","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Spoken Word Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Spoken_Word_Album"},{"link_name":"In Such Good Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Such_Good_Company"},{"link_name":"Carol Burnett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Burnett"},{"link_name":"The Girl with the Lower Back Tattoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Girl_with_the_Lower_Back_Tattoo"},{"link_name":"Amy Schumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Schumer"},{"link_name":"M Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_Train_(album)"},{"link_name":"Patti Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patti_Smith"},{"link_name":"Under The Big Black Sun: A Personal History of L.A. Punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Big_Black_Sun_(book)"},{"link_name":"Unfaithful Music & Disappearing Ink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfaithful_Music_%26_Disappearing_Ink"},{"link_name":"Elvis Costello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvis_Costello"}],"sub_title":"Spoken Word","text":"Best Spoken Word Album (includes Poetry, Audio Books and Storytelling)In Such Good Company: Eleven Years of Laughter, Mayhem, and Fun in the Sandbox – Carol Burnett\nThe Girl with the Lower Back Tattoo – Amy Schumer\nM Train – Patti Smith\nUnder The Big Black Sun: A Personal History of L.A. Punk – Various Artists\nUnfaithful Music & Disappearing Ink – Elvis Costello","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Comedy Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Comedy_Album"},{"link_name":"Patton Oswalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patton_Oswalt"},{"link_name":"David Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cross"},{"link_name":"Margaret Cho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Cho"},{"link_name":"Tig Notaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tig_Notaro"},{"link_name":"Amy Schumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Schumer"}],"sub_title":"Comedy","text":"Best Comedy AlbumTalking for Clapping – Patton Oswalt\n...America...Great... – David Cross\nAmerican Myth – Margaret Cho\nBoyish Girl Interrupted – Tig Notaro\nLive at the Apollo – Amy Schumer","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Musical Theater Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Musical_Theater_Album"},{"link_name":"The Color Purple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Color_Purple_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Danielle Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danielle_Brooks"},{"link_name":"Cynthia Erivo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Erivo"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Hudson"},{"link_name":"Stephen Bray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Bray"},{"link_name":"Frank Filipetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Filipetti"},{"link_name":"Scott Sanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Sanders_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Jhett Tolentino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhett_Tolentino"},{"link_name":"Stephen Bray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Bray"},{"link_name":"Brenda Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Russell"},{"link_name":"Allee Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allee_Willis"},{"link_name":"Bright Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright_Star_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Carmen Cusack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen_Cusack"},{"link_name":"Steve Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Martin"},{"link_name":"Edie Brickell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edie_Brickell"},{"link_name":"Fiddler on the Roof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof"},{"link_name":"Danny Burstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Burstein"},{"link_name":"Ted Sperling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Sperling"},{"link_name":"Jerry Bock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Bock"},{"link_name":"Sheldon Harnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_Harnick"},{"link_name":"Kinky Boots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinky_Boots_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Killian Donnelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killian_Donnelly"},{"link_name":"Cyndi Lauper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper"},{"link_name":"Stephen Oremus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Oremus"},{"link_name":"Cyndi Lauper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper"},{"link_name":"Waitress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waitress_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Jessie Mueller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessie_Mueller"},{"link_name":"Neal Avron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Avron"},{"link_name":"Sara Bareilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Bareilles"},{"link_name":"Sara Bareilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Bareilles"}],"sub_title":"Musical Theatre","text":"Best Musical Theater AlbumThe Color Purple – Danielle Brooks, Cynthia Erivo & Jennifer Hudson, principal soloists; Stephen Bray, Van Dean, Frank Filipetti, Roy Furman, Joan Raffe, Scott Sanders & Jhett Tolentino, producers; (Stephen Bray, Brenda Russell & Allee Willis, composers/lyricists) (New Broadway Cast)\nBright Star – Carmen Cusack, principal soloist; Jay Alix, Peter Asher & Una Jackman, producers; Steve Martin, composer; Edie Brickell, composer & lyricist (Original Broadway Cast)\nFiddler on the Roof – Danny Burstein, principal soloist; Louise Gund, David Lai & Ted Sperling, producers; (Jerry Bock, composer; Sheldon Harnick, lyricist) (2016 Broadway Cast)\nKinky Boots – Killian Donnelly & Matt Henry, principal soloists; Sammy James, Jr., Cyndi Lauper, Stephen Oremus & William Wittman, producers; (Cyndi Lauper, composer & lyricist) (Original West End Cast)\nWaitress – Jessie Mueller, principal soloist; Neal Avron, Sara Bareilles & Nadia DiGiallonardo, producers; Sara Bareilles, composer & lyricist (Original Broadway Cast)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Compilation_Soundtrack_for_Visual_Media"},{"link_name":"Miles Ahead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Ahead_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Miles Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_Davis"},{"link_name":"Don Cheadle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Cheadle"},{"link_name":"Robert Glasper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Glasper"},{"link_name":"Amy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Salaam Remi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salaam_Remi"},{"link_name":"Mark Ronson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Ronson"},{"link_name":"Straight Outta Compton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_Outta_Compton:_Music_from_the_Motion_Picture"},{"link_name":"O'Shea Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Cube"},{"link_name":"Andre Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dre"},{"link_name":"Suicide Squad (Collector's Edition)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_Squad_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Mike Caren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Caren"},{"link_name":"Kevin Weaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Weaver"},{"link_name":"Vinyl: The Essentials Season 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_(TV_series)#Music"},{"link_name":"Stewart Lerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Lerman"},{"link_name":"Kevin Weaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Weaver"},{"link_name":"Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Score_Soundtrack_for_Visual_Media"},{"link_name":"Star Wars: The Force Awakens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_The_Force_Awakens_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"John Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Williams"},{"link_name":"Bridge of Spies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_Spies_(film)#Music"},{"link_name":"Thomas Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newman"},{"link_name":"The Hateful Eight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hateful_Eight_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Ennio Morricone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennio_Morricone"},{"link_name":"The Revenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Revenant_(soundtrack)"},{"link_name":"Alva Noto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alva_Noto"},{"link_name":"Ryuichi Sakamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryuichi_Sakamoto"},{"link_name":"Stranger Things, Vol. 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranger_Things_(soundtrack)#Volume_1"},{"link_name":"Stranger Things, Vol. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranger_Things_(soundtrack)#Volume_2"},{"link_name":"Best Song Written for Visual Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Song_Written_for_Visual_Media"},{"link_name":"Can't Stop the Feeling!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%27t_Stop_the_Feeling!"},{"link_name":"Max Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Martin"},{"link_name":"Shellback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellback_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Justin Timberlake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Timberlake"},{"link_name":"Anna Kendrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Kendrick"},{"link_name":"Gwen Stefani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwen_Stefani"},{"link_name":"James Corden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Corden"},{"link_name":"Zooey Deschanel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooey_Deschanel"},{"link_name":"Walt Dohrn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Dohrn"},{"link_name":"Ron Funches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Funches"},{"link_name":"Caroline Hjelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Hjelt"},{"link_name":"Aino Jawo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aino_Jawo"},{"link_name":"Christopher Mintz-Plasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Mintz-Plasse"},{"link_name":"Kunal Nayyar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunal_Nayyar"},{"link_name":"Heathens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heathens_(song)"},{"link_name":"Tyler Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"Just Like Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Like_Fire"},{"link_name":"Pink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Purple Lamborghini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_Lamborghini"},{"link_name":"Sonny Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrillex"},{"link_name":"William Roberts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Ross"},{"link_name":"Try Everything","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Try_Everything"},{"link_name":"Mikkel S. Eriksen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_(production_team)"},{"link_name":"Sia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia"},{"link_name":"Tor Erik Hermansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_(production_team)"},{"link_name":"Shakira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakira"},{"link_name":"The Veil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowden_(film)#Music"},{"link_name":"Peter Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel"}],"sub_title":"Music for Visual Media","text":"Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual MediaMiles Ahead – (Miles Davis & Various Artists)\nSteve Berkowitz, Don Cheadle & Robert Glasper, compilation producers\nAmy – (Various Artists)\nSalaam Remi & Mark Ronson, compilation producers\nStraight Outta Compton – (Various Artists)\nO'Shea Jackson & Andre Young, compilation producers\nSuicide Squad (Collector's Edition) – (Various Artists)\nMike Caren, Darren Higman & Kevin Weaver, compilation producers\nVinyl: The Essentials Season 1 – (Various Artists)\nStewart Lerman, Randall Poster & Kevin Weaver, compilation producersBest Score Soundtrack for Visual MediaStar Wars: The Force Awakens – John Williams, composer\nBridge of Spies – Thomas Newman, composer\nThe Hateful Eight – Ennio Morricone, composer\nThe Revenant – Alva Noto & Ryuichi Sakamoto, composers\nStranger Things, Vol. 1 – Kyle Dixon & Michael Stein, composers\nStranger Things, Vol. 2 – Kyle Dixon & Michael Stein, composersBest Song Written for Visual Media\"Can't Stop the Feeling!\" – Max Martin, Shellback & Justin Timberlake, songwriters (performed by Justin Timberlake, Anna Kendrick, Gwen Stefani, James Corden, Zooey Deschanel, Walt Dohrn, Ron Funches, Caroline Hjelt, Aino Jawo, Christopher Mintz-Plasse & Kunal Nayyar)\n\"Heathens\" – Tyler Joseph, songwriter (performed by Twenty One Pilots)\n\"Just Like Fire\" – Oscar Holter, Max Martin, Pink & Shellback, songwriters (performed by Pink)\n\"Purple Lamborghini\" – Shamann Cooke, Sonny Moore & William Roberts, songwriters (performed by Skrillex & Rick Ross)\n\"Try Everything\" – Mikkel S. Eriksen, Sia & Tor Erik Hermansen, songwriters (performed by Shakira)\n\"The Veil\" – Peter Gabriel, songwriter (performed by Peter Gabriel)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Instrumental Composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Instrumental_Composition"},{"link_name":"Ted Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nash_(saxophonist,_born_1960)"},{"link_name":"Bridge of Spies (End Title)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_Spies_(film)#Music"},{"link_name":"Thomas Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newman"},{"link_name":"Tim Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Davies_(musician)"},{"link_name":"L'Ultima Diligenza Di Red Rock – Verisione Integrale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hateful_Eight_(soundtrack)#Track_listing"},{"link_name":"Ennio Morricone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennio_Morricone"}],"sub_title":"Composing","text":"Best Instrumental Composition\"Spoken at Midnight\"\nTed Nash, composer (Ted Nash Big Band)\n\"Bridge of Spies (End Title)\"\nThomas Newman, composer (Thomas Newman)\n\"The Expensive Train Set (An Epic Sarahnade for Big Band)\"\nTim Davies, composer (Tim Davies Big Band)\n\"Flow\"\nAlan Ferber, composer (Alan Ferber Nonet)\n\"L'Ultima Diligenza Di Red Rock – Verisione Integrale\"\nEnnio Morricone, composer (Ennio Morricone)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Arrangement,_Instrumental_or_A_Cappella"},{"link_name":"You and I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_and_I_(We_Can_Conquer_the_World)"},{"link_name":"Jacob Collier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Collier"},{"link_name":"John Beasley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Beasley_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Sammy Nestico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Nestico"},{"link_name":"Christian Jacob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Jacob_(musician)"},{"link_name":"John Daversa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daversa"},{"link_name":"Ted Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nash_(saxophonist,_born_1960)"},{"link_name":"Best Arrangement, Instruments and Vocals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Instrumental_Arrangement_Accompanying_Vocalist(s)"},{"link_name":"Flintstones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meet_the_Flintstones"},{"link_name":"Gordon Goodwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Goodwin"},{"link_name":"Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Goodwin%27s_Big_Phat_Band"},{"link_name":"Take 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_6"},{"link_name":"Renee Olstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renee_Olstead"},{"link_name":"Kristin Chenoweth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Chenoweth"},{"link_name":"Billy Childs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Childs"},{"link_name":"Larry Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Klein"}],"sub_title":"Arranging","text":"Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella\"You and I\"\nJacob Collier, arranger (Jacob Collier)\n\"Ask Me Now\"\nJohn Beasley, arranger (John Beasley)\n\"Good 'Swing' Wenceslas\"\nSammy Nestico, arranger (The Count Basie Orchestra)\n\"Linus & Lucy\"\nChristian Jacob, arranger (The Phil Norman Tentet)\n\"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\"\nJohn Daversa, arranger (John Daversa)\n\"We Three Kings\"\nTed Nash, arranger (Jazz At Lincoln Center Orchestra With Wynton Marsalis)Best Arrangement, Instruments and Vocals\"Flintstones\"\nJacob Collier, arranger (Jacob Collier)\n\"Do You Hear What I Hear?\"\nGordon Goodwin, arranger2 (Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band Featuring Take 6)\n\"Do You Want to Know a Secret\nJohn Daversa, arranger (John Daversa Featuring Renee Olstead)\n\"The Music\"\nAlan Broadbent, arranger (Kristin Chenoweth)\n\"Somewhere (Dirty Blvd) (Extended Version)\"\nBilly Childs & Larry Klein, arrangers (Lang Lang Featuring Lisa Fischer & Jeffrey Wright)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Recording Package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Recording_Package"},{"link_name":"Blackstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstar_(album)"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Barnbrook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Barnbrook"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Anti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti_(Rihanna_album)"},{"link_name":"Robyn Fenty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Human Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Performance"},{"link_name":"Parquet Courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parquet_Courts"},{"link_name":"Reckless Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reckless_Kelly_(band)"},{"link_name":"22, A Million","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22,_A_Million"},{"link_name":"Bon Iver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon_Iver"},{"link_name":"Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Boxed_or_Special_Limited_Edition_Package"},{"link_name":"Édith Piaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89dith_Piaf"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Dagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.viewz"},{"link_name":"I Like It When You Sleep, For You Are So Beautiful Yet So Unaware Of It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Like_It_When_You_Sleep,_for_You_Are_So_Beautiful_yet_So_Unaware_of_It"},{"link_name":"Samuel Burgess-Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Burgess-Johnson"},{"link_name":"The 1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_1975"},{"link_name":"Paper Wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_Wheels"},{"link_name":"Trey Anastasio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trey_Anastasio"},{"link_name":"Tug of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tug_of_War_(Paul_McCartney_album)#Archive_Collection_reissue"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"}],"sub_title":"Packaging","text":"Best Recording PackageBlackstar\nJonathan Barnbrook, art director (David Bowie)\nAnti (Deluxe Edition)\nCiarra Pardo & Robyn Fenty, art directors (Rihanna)\nHuman Performance\nAndrew Savage, art director (Parquet Courts)\nSunset Motel\nSarah Dodds & Shauna Dodds, art directors (Reckless Kelly)\n22, A Million\nEric Timothy Carlson, art director (Bon Iver)Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition PackageÉdith Piaf 1915–2015\nGérard Lo Monaco, art director (Édith Piaf)\n401 Days\nJonathan Dagan & Mathias Høst Normark, art directors (J.Views)\nI Like It When You Sleep, For You Are So Beautiful Yet So Unaware Of It\nSamuel Burgess-Johnson & Matthew Healy, art directors (The 1975)\nPaper Wheels (Deluxe Limited Edition)\nMatt Taylor, art director (Trey Anastasio)\nTug of War (Deluxe Edition)\nSimon Earith & James Musgrave, art directors (Paul McCartney)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Album Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Album_Notes"},{"link_name":"Shuffle Along","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuffle_Along"},{"link_name":"Ken Bloom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Bloom_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Eubie Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eubie_Blake"},{"link_name":"Noble Sissle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_Sissle"},{"link_name":"The Complete Monument & Columbia Albums Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Monument_%26_Columbia_Album_Collection"},{"link_name":"Mikal Gilmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikal_Gilmore"},{"link_name":"Kris Kristofferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Kristofferson"}],"sub_title":"Notes","text":"Best Album NotesSissle and Blake Sing Shuffle Along\nKen Bloom & Richard Carlin, album notes writers (Eubie Blake & Noble Sissle)\nThe Complete Monument & Columbia Albums Collection\nMikal Gilmore, album notes writer (Kris Kristofferson)\nThe Knoxville Sessions, 1929–1930: Knox County Stomp\nTed Olson & Tony Russell, album notes writers (Various Artists)\nOrk Records: New York, New York\nRob Sevier & Ken Shipley, album notes writers (Various Artists)\nWaxing The Gospel: Mass Evangelism & The Phonograph, 1890–1990\nRichard Martin, album notes writer (Various Artists)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Historical Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Historical_Album"},{"link_name":"The Cutting Edge 1965–1966: The Bootleg Series, Vol. 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bootleg_Series_Vol._12:_The_Cutting_Edge_1965%E2%80%931966"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Paul Bowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Bowles"},{"link_name":"Robert Russ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Russ_(music_producer)"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Horowitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Horowitz"}],"sub_title":"Historical","text":"Best Historical AlbumThe Cutting Edge 1965–1966: The Bootleg Series, Vol. 12 (Collector's Edition)\nSteve Berkowitz & Jeff Rosen, compilation producers; Mark Wilder, mastering engineer (Bob Dylan)\nMusic of Morocco from the Library of Congress: Recorded By Paul Bowles, 1959\nApril G. Ledbetter, Steven Lance Ledbetter, Bill Nowlin & Philip D. Schuyler, compilation producers; Rick Fisher & Michael Graves, mastering engineers (Various Artists)\nOrk Records: New York, New York\nRob Sevier & Ken Shipley, compilation producers; Jeff Lipton & Maria Rice, mastering engineers (Various Artists)\nVladimir Horowitz: The Unreleased Live Recordings 1966–1983\nBernard Horowitz, Andreas K. Meyer & Robert Russ, compilation producers; Andreas K. Meyer & Jeanne Montalvo, mastering engineers (Vladimir Horowitz)\nWaxing The Gospel: Mass Evangelism & the Phonograph, 1890–1990\nMichael Devecka, Meagan Hennessey & Richard Martin, compilation producers; Michael Devecka, David Giovannoni, Michael Khanchalian & Richard Martin, mastering engineers (Various Artists)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Engineered_Album,_Non-Classical"},{"link_name":"Blackstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstar_(album)"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Kevin Killen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Killen"},{"link_name":"Tony Visconti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Visconti"},{"link_name":"Joe LaPorta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_LaPorta"},{"link_name":"Are You Serious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are_You_Serious_(Andrew_Bird_album)"},{"link_name":"Tchad Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tchad_Blake"},{"link_name":"Bob Ludwig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Ludwig"},{"link_name":"Andrew Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Bird"},{"link_name":"Dig In Deep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dig_In_Deep"},{"link_name":"Bonnie Raitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnie_Raitt"},{"link_name":"Hit N Run Phase Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_n_Run_Phase_Two"},{"link_name":"Dylan Dresdow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dylan_Dresdow"},{"link_name":"Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Justin Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Stanley"},{"link_name":"Undercurrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercurrent_(Sarah_Jarosz_album)"},{"link_name":"Gary Paczosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Paczosa"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"Best Engineered Album, Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Engineered_Album,_Classical"},{"link_name":"The Ghosts of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghosts_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"James Conlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Conlon"},{"link_name":"Guanqun Yu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanqun_Yu"},{"link_name":"Patricia Racette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Racette"},{"link_name":"Christopher Maltman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Maltman"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Opera"},{"link_name":"Dutilleux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux"},{"link_name":"Sur le même accord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur_le_m%C3%AAme_accord"},{"link_name":"Timbres, espace, mouvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbres,_espace,_mouvement"},{"link_name":"Seattle Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Shostakovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich"},{"link_name":"5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._8_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._9_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"Andris Nelsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andris_Nelsons"},{"link_name":"Boston Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Symphony_Orchestra"}],"sub_title":"Engineered Album","text":"Best Engineered Album, Non-ClassicalBlackstar\nDavid Bowie, Tom Elmhirst, Kevin Killen & Tony Visconti, engineers; Joe LaPorta, mastering engineer (David Bowie)\nAre You Serious\nTchad Blake & David Boucher, engineers; Bob Ludwig, mastering engineer (Andrew Bird)\nDig In Deep\nRyan Freeland, engineer; Kim Rosen, mastering engineer (Bonnie Raitt)\nHit N Run Phase Two\nBooker T., Dylan Dresdow, Chris James, Prince & Justin Stanley, engineers; Dylan Dresdow, mastering engineer (Prince)\nUndercurrent\nShani Gandhi & Gary Paczosa, engineers; Paul Blakemore, mastering engineer (Sarah Jarosz)Best Engineered Album, ClassicalThe Ghosts of Versailles\nMark Donahue, Fred Vogler & David L Williams, engineers (James Conlon, Guanqun Yu, Joshua Guerrero, Patricia Racette, Christopher Maltman, Lucy Schaufer, Lucas Meachem, Los Angeles Opera Chorus and Orchestra)\nDutilleux: Sur le même accord; Les Citations; Mystère de l'instant & Timbres, espace, mouvement\nAlexander Lipay & Dmitriy Lipay, engineers (Ludovic Morlot & Seattle Symphony)\nReflections\nMorten Lindberg, engineer (Øyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene)\nShadow of Sirius\nSilas Brown & David Frost, engineers; Silas Brown\nShostakovich: Under Stalin's Shadow – Symphonies Nos. 5, 8 & 9\nShawn Murphy & Nick Squire, engineers; Tim Martyn, mastering engineer (Andris Nelsons & Boston Symphony Orchestra)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Producer of the Year, Non-Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Producer_of_the_Year,_Non-Classical"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Cheap Thrills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheap_Thrills_(song)"},{"link_name":"Sia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia"},{"link_name":"Sean Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Paul"},{"link_name":"Hello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_(Adele_song)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Love You to Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_You_to_Death_(Tegan_and_Sara_album)"},{"link_name":"Tegan and Sara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegan_and_Sara"},{"link_name":"Million Years Ago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_Years_Ago_(song)"},{"link_name":"Something in the Way You Move","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Something_in_the_Way_You_Move"},{"link_name":"Ellie Goulding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Goulding"},{"link_name":"Water Under the Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Under_the_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Benny Blanco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Blanco"},{"link_name":"Cold Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Water_(song)"},{"link_name":"Major Lazer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_Lazer"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"MØ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%98"},{"link_name":"Friends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_(Francis_and_the_Lights_song)"},{"link_name":"Francis and the Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_and_the_Lights"},{"link_name":"Bon Iver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bon_Iver"},{"link_name":"Kill Em with Kindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_Em_with_Kindness_(song)"},{"link_name":"Selena Gomez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selena_Gomez"},{"link_name":"Love Yourself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Yourself"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Luv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luv_(Tory_Lanez_song)"},{"link_name":"Tory Lanez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory_Lanez"},{"link_name":"Wild Love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Love_(Cashmere_Cat_song)"},{"link_name":"Cashmere Cat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashmere_Cat"},{"link_name":"The Weeknd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weeknd"},{"link_name":"Francis and the Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_and_the_Lights"},{"link_name":"Max Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Martin"},{"link_name":"Can't Stop the Feeling!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can%27t_Stop_the_Feeling!"},{"link_name":"Justin Timberlake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Timberlake"},{"link_name":"Dangerous Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_Woman_(song)"},{"link_name":"Ariana Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariana_Grande"},{"link_name":"Into You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Into_You_(Ariana_Grande_song)"},{"link_name":"Just Like Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_Like_Fire"},{"link_name":"Pink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Rise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_(Katy_Perry_song)"},{"link_name":"Katy Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katy_Perry"},{"link_name":"Send My Love (To Your New Lover)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Send_My_Love_(To_Your_New_Lover)"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Side to Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_to_Side"},{"link_name":"Nicki Minaj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicki_Minaj"},{"link_name":"Nineteen85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen85"},{"link_name":"For Free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_Free"},{"link_name":"DJ Khaled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Khaled"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Hotline Bling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotline_Bling"},{"link_name":"PartyNextDoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PartyNextDoor"},{"link_name":"One Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Dance"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Wizkid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizkid_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kyla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyla_(British_singer)"},{"link_name":"James Vincent McMorrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Vincent_McMorrow"},{"link_name":"Sept. 5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sept._5th"},{"link_name":"dvsn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvsn"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"We Move","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Move"},{"link_name":"Ricky Reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky_Reed"},{"link_name":"Better","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_(Meghan_Trainor_song)"},{"link_name":"Meghan Trainor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meghan_Trainor"},{"link_name":"Yo Gotti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo_Gotti"},{"link_name":"Phantogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantogram_(band)"},{"link_name":"Girls Talk Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girls_Talk_Boys"},{"link_name":"5 Seconds of Summer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_Seconds_of_Summer"},{"link_name":"HandClap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HandClap"},{"link_name":"Fitz and the Tantrums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitz_and_the_Tantrums"},{"link_name":"Me Too","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me_Too_(Meghan_Trainor_song)"},{"link_name":"No","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_(Meghan_Trainor_song)"},{"link_name":"DJ Snake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Snake"},{"link_name":"Producer of the Year, Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Producer_of_the_Year,_Classical"},{"link_name":"David Frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Bach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach"},{"link_name":"The Cello Suites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_Suites_(Bach)"},{"link_name":"Anna Magdalena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Magdalena_Bach"},{"link_name":"Matt Haimovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Haimovitz"},{"link_name":"Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason_Bates"},{"link_name":"Anthology of Fantastic Zoology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology_of_Fantastic_Zoology"},{"link_name":"Riccardo Muti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_Muti"},{"link_name":"Chicago Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Piano Sonatas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_sonatas_(Beethoven)"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Biss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Biss"},{"link_name":"Boston Symphony Chamber Players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Symphony_Chamber_Players"},{"link_name":"Fitelberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Fitelberg"},{"link_name":"Melia Watras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melia_Watras"},{"link_name":"Matt Haimovitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Haimovitz"},{"link_name":"Schoenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg"},{"link_name":"Suite on Verses of Michelangelo Buonarroti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_on_Verses_of_Michelangelo_Buonarroti"},{"link_name":"Ildar Abdrazakov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ildar_Abdrazakov"},{"link_name":"Riccardo Muti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_Muti"},{"link_name":"Duain Wolfe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duain_Wolfe"},{"link_name":"Chicago Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Chorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Chorus"},{"link_name":"Blanton Alspaugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanton_Alspaugh"},{"link_name":"Aeolian Organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian-Skinner"},{"link_name":"Duke University Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Chapel"},{"link_name":"Leonard Slatkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Slatkin"},{"link_name":"Detroit Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Copland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Copland"},{"link_name":"Appalachian Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Spring"},{"link_name":"Corigliano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Corigliano"},{"link_name":"The Ghosts of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghosts_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"Patricia Racette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Racette"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Opera"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Ballet Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Ballet_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Stile Antico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stile_Antico_(early_music_vocal_ensemble)"}],"sub_title":"Producer","text":"Producer of the Year, Non-ClassicalGreg Kurstin\n\"Cheap Thrills\" (Sia featuring Sean Paul)\n\"Hello\" (Adele)\nLove You to Death (Tegan and Sara)\n\"Million Years Ago\" (Adele)\n\"Something in the Way You Move\" (Ellie Goulding)\n\"Water Under the Bridge\" (Adele)\nBenny Blanco\n\"Cold Water\" (Major Lazer featuring Justin Bieber & MØ)\n\"Friends\" (Francis and the Lights featuring Bon Iver)\n\"Kill Em with Kindness\" (Selena Gomez)\n\"Love Yourself\" (Justin Bieber)\n\"Luv\" (Tory Lanez)\n\"Wild Love\" (Cashmere Cat featuring The Weeknd & Francis and the Lights)\nMax Martin\n\"Can't Stop the Feeling!\" (Justin Timberlake)\n\"Dangerous Woman\" (Ariana Grande)\n\"Into You\" (Ariana Grande)\n\"Just Like Fire\" (Pink)\n\"Rise\" (Katy Perry)\n\"Send My Love (To Your New Lover)\" (Adele)\n\"Side to Side\" (Ariana Grande featuring Nicki Minaj)\nNineteen85\n\"For Free\" (DJ Khaled featuring Drake)\n\"Hotline Bling\" (Drake)\n\"Not Nice\" (PartyNextDoor)\n\"One Dance\" (Drake featuring Wizkid & Kyla)\n\"Rising Water\" (James Vincent McMorrow)\nSept. 5th (dvsn)\n\"Too Good\" (Drake featuring Rihanna)\nWe Move (James Vincent McMorrow)\nRicky Reed\n\"Better\" (Meghan Trainor featuring Yo Gotti)\n\"Cruel World\" (Phantogram)\n\"Girls Talk Boys\" (5 Seconds of Summer)\n\"HandClap\" (Fitz and the Tantrums)\n\"Me Too\" (Meghan Trainor)\n\"No\" (Meghan Trainor)\n\"Sober\" (DJ Snake featuring JRY)\n\"You Don't Get Me High Anymore\" (Phantogram)Producer of the Year, ClassicalDavid Frost\nBach: The Cello Suites According to Anna Magdalena (Matt Haimovitz)\nBates: Anthology of Fantastic Zoology (Riccardo Muti & Chicago Symphony Orchestra)\nBeethoven: Piano Sonatas, Vol. 5 (Jonathan Biss)\nBrahms & Dvořák: Serenades (Boston Symphony Chamber Players)\nFitelberg: Chamber Works (ARC Ensemble)\nIspirare (Melia Watras)\nOvertures to Bach (Matt Haimovitz)\nSchoenberg: Kol Nidre; Shostakovich: Suite on Verses of Michelangelo Buonarroti (Ildar Abdrazakov, Alberto Mizrahi, Riccardo Muti, Duain Wolfe, Chicago Symphony Orchestra and Chorus)\nShadow of Sirius (Jerry F. Junkin and The University Of Texas Wind Ensemble)\nBlanton Alspaugh\nThe Aeolian Organ at Duke University Chapel (Christopher Jacobson)\nBolcom: Canciones De Lorca & Prometheus (René Barbera, Jeffrey Biegel, Carl St. Clair, Pacific Chorale & Pacific Symphony)\nBrahms: The Four Symphonies (Leonard Slatkin & Detroit Symphony Orchestra)\nCopland: Appalachian Spring Complete Ballet; Hear Ye! Hear Ye! (Leonard Slatkin & Detroit Symphony Orchestra)\nCorigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles (James Conlon, Guanqun Yu, Joshua Guerrero, Patricia Racette, Christopher Maltman, Lucy Schaufer, Lucas Meachem, Los Angeles Opera Chorus & Orchestra)\nDvořák: Symphonies Nos. 7 & 8 (Andrés Orozco-Estrada & Houston Symphony)\nDvořák: Symphony No. 6; Slavonic Dances (Andrés Orozoco-Estrada & Houston Symphony)\nFloyd: Wuthering Heights (Joseph Mechavich, Heather Buck, Vale Rideout, Susanne Mentzer, Kelly Markgraf, Georgia Jarman, Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra & Florentine Opera Company)\nMarina A. Ledin, Victor Ledin\nFriedman: Original Piano Compositions (Joseph Banowetz)\nMoszkowski: From Foreign Lands (Martin West & San Francisco Ballet Orchestra)\nJudith Sherman\nAmerican First Sonatas (Cecile Licad)\nBerlin: This Is The Life! (Rick Benjamin & Paragon Ragtime Orchestra)\nCentennial Commissions, Vol. II (Charles Neidich & Pro Arte Quartet)\nGernsheim & Brahms: Piano Quintets (Reiko Uchida & Formosa Quartet)\nLatin American & Spanish Masterpieces For Flute & Piano (Stephanie Jutt)\nSimilar Motion (Momenta Quartet)\nTchaikovsky: Complete Works For Violin & Orchestra (Jennifer Koh, Alexander Vedernikov & Odense Symphony Orchestra)\nTower: String Quartets Nos. 3-5 & Dumbarton Quintet (Miami String Quartet)\nRobina G. Young\nJohnson: Considering Matthew Shepard (Craig Hella Johnson & Conspirare)\nLutosławski: Concerto For Orchestra; Brahms: Piano Quartet (Miguel Harth-Bedoya & Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra)\nMozart: Keyboard Music, Vols. 8 & 9 (Kristian Bezuidenhout)\nProkofiev: Piano Concertos Nos. 2 & 5 (Vadym Kholodenko, Miguel Harth-Bedoya & Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra)\nA Wondrous Mystery – Renaissance Choral Music for Christmas (Stile Antico)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Remixed_Recording,_Non-Classical"},{"link_name":"André Allen Anjos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAC_(DJ)"},{"link_name":"Bob Moses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Moses_(band)"},{"link_name":"Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen_Hundred_and_Eighty-Five"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney & Wings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wings_(band)"},{"link_name":"Kaskade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaskade"},{"link_name":"Ry X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry_X"},{"link_name":"The Chemical Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chemical_Brothers"}],"sub_title":"Remixer","text":"Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical\"Tearing Me Up\" (RAC Remix)\nAndré Allen Anjos, remixer (Bob Moses)\n'\"Cali Coast\" (Psionics Remix)\nJosh Williams, remixer (Soul Pacific)\n\"Heavy Star Movin'\" (staRo Remix)\nstaRo, remixer (The Silver Lake Chorus)\n\"Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five\" (Timo Maas & James Teej Remix)\nTimo Maas & James Teej, remixers (Paul McCartney & Wings)\n\"Only\" (Kaskade × Lipless Remix)\nKaskade & Lipless, remixer (Ry X)\n\"Wide Open\" (Joe Goddard Remix)\nJoe Goddard, remixer (The Chemical Brothers)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Surround Sound Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Surround_Sound_Album"},{"link_name":"Dutilleux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux"},{"link_name":"Sur le même accord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur_le_m%C3%AAme_accord"},{"link_name":"Timbres, espace, mouvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbres,_espace,_mouvement"},{"link_name":"Ludovic Morlot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovic_Morlot"},{"link_name":"Seattle Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Craig Hella Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Hella_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Conspirare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspirare"},{"link_name":"Morten Lindberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morten_Lindberg_(sound_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Maja S.K. Ratkje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja_Ratkje"},{"link_name":"Primus & The Chocolate Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primus_%26_the_Chocolate_Factory_with_the_Fungi_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Les Claypool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Claypool"},{"link_name":"Stephen Marcussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Marcussen"},{"link_name":"Primus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primus_(band)"},{"link_name":"Trondheimsolistene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trondheim_Soloists"}],"sub_title":"Surround Sound","text":"Best Surround Sound AlbumDutilleux: Sur le même accord; Les Citations; Mystère de l'instant & Timbres, espace, mouvement\nAlexander Lipay & Dmitriy Lipay, surround mix engineers; Dmitriy Lipay, surround mastering engineer; Dmitriy Lipay, surround producer (Ludovic Morlot & Seattle Symphony)\nJohnson: Considering Matthew Shephard\nBrad Michel, surround mix engineer; Brad Michel, surround mastering engineer; Robina G. Young, surround producer (Craig Hella Johnson & Conspirare)\nMaja S.K. Ratkje: And Sing ...\nMorten Lindberg, surround mix engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround mastering engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround producer (Maja S.K. Ratkje, Cikada & Oslo Sinfonietta)\nPrimus & The Chocolate Factory\nLes Claypool, surround mix engineer; Stephen Marcussen, surround mastering engineer; Les Claypool, surround producer (Primus)\nReflections\nMorten Lindberg, surround mix engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround mastering engineer; Morten Lindberg, surround producer (Øyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Orchestral Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Orchestral_Performance"},{"link_name":"Shostakovich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich"},{"link_name":"5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._8_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._9_(Shostakovich)"},{"link_name":"Andris Nelsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andris_Nelsons"},{"link_name":"Boston Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason_Bates"},{"link_name":"Michael Tilson Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tilson_Thomas"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Neeme Järvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neeme_J%C3%A4rvi"},{"link_name":"Orchestre de la Suisse Romande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestre_de_la_Suisse_Romande"},{"link_name":"Mariss Jansons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariss_Jansons"},{"link_name":"Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Concertgebouw_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Alan Gilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Gilbert_(conductor)"},{"link_name":"New York Philharmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic"},{"link_name":"Best Opera Recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Opera_Recording"},{"link_name":"Corigliano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Corigliano"},{"link_name":"The Ghosts of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ghosts_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"James Conlon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Conlon"},{"link_name":"Christopher Maltman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Maltman"},{"link_name":"Lucas Meachem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Meachem"},{"link_name":"Patricia Racette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Racette"},{"link_name":"Guanqun Yu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanqun_Yu"},{"link_name":"Blanton Alspaugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanton_Alspaugh"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Opera"},{"link_name":"Handel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel"},{"link_name":"Giulio Cesare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giulio_Cesare"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Antonini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Antonini"},{"link_name":"Cecilia Bartoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Bartoli"},{"link_name":"Philippe Jaroussky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Jaroussky"},{"link_name":"Andreas Scholl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Scholl"},{"link_name":"Anne-Sofie von Otter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Sofie_von_Otter"},{"link_name":"Il Giardino Armonico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_Giardino_Armonico"},{"link_name":"Higdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Higdon"},{"link_name":"Cold Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Mountain_(opera)"},{"link_name":"Miguel Harth-Bedoya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_Harth-Bedoya"},{"link_name":"Nathan Gunn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Gunn"},{"link_name":"Isabel Leonard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Leonard"},{"link_name":"Jay Hunter Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Hunter_Morris"},{"link_name":"Mozart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart"},{"link_name":"Le Nozze De Figaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Marriage_of_Figaro"},{"link_name":"Yannick Nézet-Séguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yannick_N%C3%A9zet-S%C3%A9guin"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hampson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hampson"},{"link_name":"Christiane Karg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiane_Karg"},{"link_name":"Luca Pisaroni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Pisaroni"},{"link_name":"Sonya Yoncheva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonya_Yoncheva"},{"link_name":"Chamber Orchestra of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_Orchestra_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Szymanowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karol_Szymanowski"},{"link_name":"Król Roger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Roger"},{"link_name":"Antonio Pappano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pappano"},{"link_name":"Mariusz Kwiecień","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariusz_Kwiecie%C5%84"},{"link_name":"Saimir Pirgu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saimir_Pirgu"},{"link_name":"Best Choral Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Choral_Performance"},{"link_name":"Krzysztof Penderecki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Penderecki"},{"link_name":"Agnieszka Rehlis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnieszka_Rehlis"},{"link_name":"Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_National_Philharmonic_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Janáček","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%C5%A1_Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek"},{"link_name":"Glagolitic Mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolitic_Mass"},{"link_name":"Edward Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Gardner_(conductor)"},{"link_name":"Susan Bickley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Bickley"},{"link_name":"Thomas Trotter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Trotter_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_Philharmonic_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Donald Nally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Nally"},{"link_name":"The Crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crossing_(choral_ensemble)"},{"link_name":"Steven Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Fox"},{"link_name":"Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Small_Ensemble_Performance"},{"link_name":"Third Coast Percussion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Coast_Percussion"},{"link_name":"Fitelberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerzy_Fitelberg"},{"link_name":"ARC Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Royal_Conservatory_of_Music#ARC_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Trondheimsolistene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trondheim_Soloists"},{"link_name":"Spektral Quartet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spektral_Quartet"},{"link_name":"Lincoln Trio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Trio"},{"link_name":"Best Classical Instrumental Solo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Classical_Instrumental_Solo"},{"link_name":"Daugherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Daugherty"},{"link_name":"Tales of Hemingway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_of_Hemingway"},{"link_name":"Zuill Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuill_Bailey"},{"link_name":"Giancarlo Guerrero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Guerrero"},{"link_name":"Nashville Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Best Classical Solo Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Classical_Vocal_Solo"},{"link_name":"Schumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Schumann"},{"link_name":"Berg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alban_Berg"},{"link_name":"Dorothea Röschmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothea_R%C3%B6schmann"},{"link_name":"Mitsuko Uchida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsuko_Uchida"},{"link_name":"Raphaël Pichon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapha%C3%ABl_Pichon"},{"link_name":"Anna Netrebko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Netrebko"},{"link_name":"Best Classical Compendium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Classical_Compendium"},{"link_name":"Daugherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Daugherty"},{"link_name":"Tales of Hemingway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_of_Hemingway"},{"link_name":"Giancarlo Guerrero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Guerrero"},{"link_name":"Gesualdo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Gesualdo"},{"link_name":"Tõnu Kaljuste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B5nu_Kaljuste"},{"link_name":"Vaughan Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Vaughan_Williams"},{"link_name":"Martyn Brabbins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyn_Brabbins"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gernot_Wolfgang&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"200 Motels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/200_Motels"},{"link_name":"Esa-Pekka Salonen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esa-Pekka_Salonen"},{"link_name":"Frank Filipetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Filipetti"},{"link_name":"Gail Zappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail_Zappa"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Classical Composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Classical_Contemporary_Composition"},{"link_name":"Daugherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Daugherty"},{"link_name":"Tales of Hemingway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_of_Hemingway"},{"link_name":"Zuill Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuill_Bailey"},{"link_name":"Giancarlo Guerrero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Guerrero"},{"link_name":"Nashville Symphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville_Symphony"},{"link_name":"Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason_Bates"},{"link_name":"Anthology of Fantastic Zoology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology_of_Fantastic_Zoology"},{"link_name":"Riccardo Muti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riccardo_Muti"},{"link_name":"Chicago Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Cold Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_Mountain_(opera)"},{"link_name":"Jennifer Higdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Higdon"},{"link_name":"Gene Scheer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Scheer"},{"link_name":"Christopher Theofanidis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Theofanidis"},{"link_name":"Martin Kuuskmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kuuskmann"},{"link_name":"Barry Jekowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Jekowsky"},{"link_name":"Northwest Sinfonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Sinfonia"},{"link_name":"C. F. Kip Winger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kip_Winger"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Ballet Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Ballet_Orchestra"}],"sub_title":"Classical","text":"Best Orchestral PerformanceShostakovich: Under Stalin's Shadow – Symphonies Nos. 5, 8 & 9\nAndris Nelsons, conductor (Boston Symphony Orchestra)\nBates: Works for Orchestra\nMichael Tilson Thomas, conductor (San Francisco Symphony)\nIbert: Orchestral Works\nNeeme Järvi, conductor (Orchestre de la Suisse Romande)\nProkofiev: Symphony No. 5 In B-flat major, Op. 100\nMariss Jansons, conductor (Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra)\nRouse: Odna Zhizn; Symphonies 3 & 4; Prospero's Rooms\nAlan Gilbert, conductor (New York Philharmonic)Best Opera RecordingCorigliano: The Ghosts of Versailles\nJames Conlon, conductor; Joshua Guerrero, Christopher Maltman, Lucas Meachem, Patricia Racette, Lucy Schaufer & Guanqun Yu, soloists; Blanton Alspaugh, producer; Mark Donahue, Fred Vogler & David L Williams (engineers) (Los Angeles Opera Orchestra and Chorus)\nHandel: Giulio Cesare\nGiovanni Antonini, conductor; Cecilia Bartoli, Philippe Jaroussky, Andreas Scholl & Anne-Sofie von Otter, soloists; Samuel Theis, producer (Il Giardino Armonico)\nHigdon: Cold Mountain\nMiguel Harth-Bedoya, conductor; Emily Fons, Nathan Gunn, Isabel Leonard & Jay Hunter Morris, soloists; Elizabeth Ostrow, producer (The Santa Fe Opera Orchestra; Santa Fe Opera Apprentice Program for Singers)\nMozart: Le Nozze De Figaro\nYannick Nézet-Séguin, conductor; Thomas Hampson, Christiane Karg, Luca Pisaroni & Sonya Yoncheva, soloists; Daniel Zalay, producer (Chamber Orchestra of Europe; Vocalensemble Rastatt)\nSzymanowski: Król Roger\nAntonio Pappano, conductor; Georgia Jarman, Mariusz Kwiecień & Saimir Pirgu, soloists; Jonathan Allen, producer (Orchestra Of The Royal Opera House; Royal Opera Chorus)Best Choral PerformancePenderecki Conducts Penderecki, Volume 1\nKrzysztof Penderecki, conductor; Henryk Wojnarowski, choir director (Nikolay Didenko, Agnieszka Rehlis & Johanna Rusanen, soloists; Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra, orchestra; Warsaw Philharmonic Choir, choir)\nHimmelrand\nElisabeth Holte, conductor (Marianne Reidarsdatter Eriksen, Ragnfrid Lie & Matilda Sterby, soloists; Inger-Lise Ulsrud, accompanist; Uranienborg Vokalensemble, choir)\nJanáček: Glagolitic Mass\nEdward Gardner, conductor; Håkon Matti Skrede, chorus master (Susan Bickley, Gábor Bretz, Sara Jakubiak & Stuart Skelton, soloists; Thomas Trotter, accompanist; Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, orchestra; Bergen Cathedral Choir, Bergen Philharmonic Choir, Choir of Collegium Musicum & Edvard Grieg Kor, choirs)\nLloyd: Bonhoeffer\nDonald Nally, conductor (Malavika Godbole, John Grecia, Rebecca Harris & Thomas Mesa, soloists; The Crossing, ensemble)\nSteinberg: Passion Week\nSteven Fox, conductor (The Clarion Choir)Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble PerformanceThird Coast Percussion\nSteve Reich\nFitelberg: Chamber Works\nARC Ensemble\nReflections\nØyvind Gimse, Geir Inge Lotsberg & Trondheimsolistene\nSerious Business\nSpektral Quartet\nTrios from Our Homelands\nLincoln TrioBest Classical Instrumental SoloDaugherty: Tales of Hemingway\nZuill Bailey; Giancarlo Guerrero, conductor (Nashville Symphony)\nAdams, J.: Scheherazade.2\nLeila Josefowicz; David Robertson, conductor (Chester Englander; St. Louis Symphony)\nDvorák: Violin Concerto & Romance; Suk: Fantasy\nChristian Tetzlaff; John Storgårds, conductor (Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra)\nMozart: Keyboard Music, Vols. 8 & 9\nKristian Bezuidenhout\n1930's Violin Concertos, Vol. 2\nGil Shaham; Stéphane Denève, conductor (The Knights & Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra)Best Classical Solo Vocal AlbumSchumann & Berg\nDorothea Röschmann; Mitsuko Uchida, accompanist\nShakespeare Songs\nIan Bostridge; Antonio Pappano, accompanist (Michael Collins, Elizabeth Kenny, Lawrence Power & Adam Walker)\nMonteverdi\nMagdalena Kožená; Andrea Marcon, conductor (David Feldman, Michael Feyfar, Jakob Pilgram & Luca Tittoto; La Cetra Barockorchester Basel)\nMozart: The Weber Sisters\nSabine Devieilhe; Raphaël Pichon, conductor (Pygmalion)\nVerismo\nAnna Netrebko; Antonio Pappano, conductor (Yusif Eyvazov; Coro Dell'Accademia Nazionale Di Santa Cecilia; Orchestra Dell'Accademia Nazionale Di Santa Cecilia)Best Classical CompendiumDaugherty: Tales of Hemingway; American Gothic; Once Upon a Castle\nGiancarlo Guerrero, conductor; Tim Handley, producer\nGesualdo\nTõnu Kaljuste, conductor; Manfred Eicher, producer\nVaughan Williams: Discoveries\nMartyn Brabbins, conductor; Ann McKay, producer\nWolfgang: Passing Through\nJudith Farmer & Gernot Wolfgang, producers\nZappa: 200 Motels\nThe Suites – Esa-Pekka Salonen, conductor; Frank Filipetti & Gail Zappa, producersBest Contemporary Classical CompositionDaugherty: Tales of Hemingway\nMichael Daugherty, composer (Zuill Bailey, Giancarlo Guerrero & Nashville Symphony)\nBates: Anthology of Fantastic Zoology\nMason Bates, composer (Riccardo Muti & Chicago Symphony Orchestra)\nHigdon: Cold Mountain\nJennifer Higdon, composer; Gene Scheer, librettist\nTheofanidis: Bassoon Concerto\nChristopher Theofanidis, composer (Martin Kuuskmann, Barry Jekowsky & Northwest Sinfonia)\nWinger: Conversations with Nijinsky\nC. F. Kip Winger, composer (Martin West & San Francisco Ballet Orchestra)","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Music Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Music_Video"},{"link_name":"Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_(Beyonc%C3%A9_song)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Melina Matsoukas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melina_Matsoukas"},{"link_name":"Nathan Scherrer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Scherrer"},{"link_name":"Leon Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Bridges"},{"link_name":"Up&Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%26Up"},{"link_name":"Coldplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldplay"},{"link_name":"Vania Heymann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vania_Heymann"},{"link_name":"Jamie XX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie_XX"},{"link_name":"Romain Gavras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romain_Gavras"},{"link_name":"Upside Down & Inside Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upside_Down_%26_Inside_Out"},{"link_name":"OK Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OK_Go"},{"link_name":"Damian Kulash Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damian_Kulash"},{"link_name":"Trish Sie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trish_Sie"},{"link_name":"Best Music Film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Music_Film"},{"link_name":"The Beatles: Eight Days a Week The Touring Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles:_Eight_Days_a_Week"},{"link_name":"The Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Ron Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Howard"},{"link_name":"Brian Grazer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Grazer"},{"link_name":"Nigel Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_Sinclair"},{"link_name":"Steve Aoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Aoki"},{"link_name":"David Gelb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gelb"},{"link_name":"Ryan Kavanaugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Kavanaugh"},{"link_name":"Lemonade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemonade_(Beyonc%C3%A9_album)"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Kahlil Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahlil_Joseph"},{"link_name":"The Music of Strangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkroad_(arts_organization)"},{"link_name":"Yo-Yo Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo-Yo_Ma"},{"link_name":"The Silk Road Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silk_Road_Ensemble"},{"link_name":"Morgan Neville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Neville"},{"link_name":"Caitrin Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caitrin_Rogers"}],"sub_title":"Music Video/Film","text":"Best Music Video\"Formation\" – Beyoncé\nMelina Matsoukas, video director; Candice Dragonas, Juliette Larthe, Nathan Scherrer & Inga Veronique, video producers\n\"River\" – Leon Bridges\nMiles Jay, video director; Dennis Beier, Allison Kunzman & Saul Levitz, video producers\n\"Up&Up\" – Coldplay\nVania Heymann & Gal Muggia, video directors; Candice Dragonas, Juliette Larthe, Nathan Scherrer & Natan Schottenfels, video producers\n\"Gosh\" – Jamie XX\nRomain Gavras, video director; Iconoclast, video producers\n\"Upside Down & Inside Out\" – OK Go\nDamian Kulash Jr. & Trish Sie, video directors; Melissa Murphy & John O'Grady, video producersBest Music FilmThe Beatles: Eight Days a Week The Touring Years – (The Beatles)\nRon Howard, video director; Brian Grazer, Ron Howard, Scott Pascucci & Nigel Sinclair, video producers\nI'll Sleep When I'm Dead – Steve Aoki\nJustin Krook, video director; Brent Almond, Matt Colon, David Gelb, Ryan Kavanaugh, Michael Theanne, Happy Walters & Matthew Weaver, video producers\nLemonade – Beyoncé\nBeyoncé Knowles Carter & Kahlil Joseph, video directors; Ed Burke, Steve Pamon, Todd Tourso, Dora Melissa Vargas, Erinn Williams & Beyoncé Knowles Carter, video producer\nThe Music of Strangers – Yo-Yo Ma & The Silk Road Ensemble\nMorgan Neville, video director; Caitrin Rogers, video producer\nAmerican Saturday Night: Live From The Grand Ole Opry – (Various Artists)\nGeorge J. Flanigen IV, video director; Steve Buchanan, John Burke & Lindsey Clark, Robert Deaton, Pete Fisher & George J. Flanigen IV, video producers","title":"Nominees and winners"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tom Petty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Petty"}],"sub_title":"MusiCares Person of the Year","text":"Tom Petty","title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shirley Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Ahmad Jamal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Jamal"},{"link_name":"Charley Pride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charley_Pride"},{"link_name":"Jimmie Rodgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Rodgers_(country_singer)"},{"link_name":"Nina Simone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Simone"},{"link_name":"Sly Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sly_Stone"},{"link_name":"The Velvet Underground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Velvet_Underground"}],"sub_title":"Lifetime Achievement Award","text":"Shirley Caesar\nAhmad Jamal\nCharley Pride\nJimmie Rodgers\nNina Simone\nSly Stone\nThe Velvet Underground","title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thom Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thom_Bell"},{"link_name":"Mo Ostin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo_Ostin"},{"link_name":"Ralph S. Peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_S._Peer"}],"sub_title":"Trustees Award","text":"Thom Bell\nMo Ostin\nRalph S. Peer","title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alan Dower Blumlein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Dower_Blumlein"}],"sub_title":"Technical Grammy Award","text":"Alan Dower Blumlein","title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tesoro High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesoro_High_School"},{"link_name":"Las Flores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Flores,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"sub_title":"Music Educator Award","text":"Keith Hancock (of Tesoro High School in Las Flores, California)","title":"Special Merit Awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Grammy Hall of Fame inductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pentatonix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentatonix"},{"link_name":"Al Jarreau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jarreau"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Leonard Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Cohen"},{"link_name":"Keith Emerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Emerson"},{"link_name":"Greg Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Lake"},{"link_name":"John Wetton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wetton"},{"link_name":"Sharon Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharon_Jones"},{"link_name":"Wayne Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Jackson_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Rod Temperton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Temperton"},{"link_name":"James Jamerson, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Jamerson,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Ralph Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Stanley"},{"link_name":"Merle Haggard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merle_Haggard"},{"link_name":"Sonny James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_James"},{"link_name":"Scotty Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotty_Moore"},{"link_name":"Joey Feek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey_Feek"},{"link_name":"Bobby Vee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Vee"},{"link_name":"Lonnie Mack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonnie_Mack"},{"link_name":"Butch Trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butch_Trucks"},{"link_name":"Juan Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Gabriel"},{"link_name":"Emilio Navaira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_Navaira"},{"link_name":"Mose Allison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mose_Allison"},{"link_name":"Toots Thielemans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toots_Thielemans"},{"link_name":"Gato Barbieri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gato_Barbieri"},{"link_name":"Nat Hentoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_Hentoff"},{"link_name":"Rudy Van Gelder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudy_Van_Gelder"},{"link_name":"George Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Michael"},{"link_name":"Debbie Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debbie_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Guy Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Clark"},{"link_name":"John D. Loudermilk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Loudermilk"},{"link_name":"Milt Okun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milt_Okun"},{"link_name":"Willie Joe Ligon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Willie_Joe_Ligon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Stanley \"Buckwater\" Dural, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckwheat_Zydeco"},{"link_name":"Billy Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Paul"},{"link_name":"Marvell Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvell_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Bernie Worrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernie_Worrell"},{"link_name":"Chips Moman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chips_Moman"},{"link_name":"Pete Fountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete_Fountain"},{"link_name":"Frank Sinatra Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Sinatra_Jr."},{"link_name":"Patrice Munsel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrice_Munsel"},{"link_name":"Zhou Xiaoyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou_Xiaoyan"},{"link_name":"Sir Neville Marriner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Neville_Marriner"},{"link_name":"Phife Dawg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phife_Dawg"},{"link_name":"Lee O'Denat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_O%27Denat"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali"},{"link_name":"Leon Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Russell"},{"link_name":"Bill Ham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Ham"},{"link_name":"Phil Chess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Chess"},{"link_name":"Bob Krasnow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Krasnow"},{"link_name":"Tony Martell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Martell"},{"link_name":"James M. Nederlander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_M._Nederlander"},{"link_name":"Chris Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Stone_(entrepreneur)"},{"link_name":"Remo Belli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remo_Belli"},{"link_name":"Sir George Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_George_Martin"}],"text":"Prior to the \"In Memoriam\" segment, Pentatonix paid tribute to Al Jarreau who died on the same day as the ceremony. The following people appeared in the In Memoriam segment:[18][19]Prince\nLeonard Cohen\nKeith Emerson\nGreg Lake\nJohn Wetton\nSharon Jones\nWayne Jackson\nRod Temperton\nJames Jamerson, Jr.\nRalph Stanley\nMerle Haggard\nSonny James\nScotty Moore\nJoey Feek\nBobby Vee\nLonnie Mack\nButch Trucks\nJuan Gabriel\nEmilio Navaira\nMose Allison\nToots Thielemans\nGato Barbieri\nNat Hentoff\nRudy Van Gelder\nGeorge Michael\nDebbie Reynolds\nGuy Clark\nJohn D. Loudermilk\nMilt Okun\nWillie Joe Ligon\nStanley \"Buckwater\" Dural, Jr.\nBilly Paul\nMarvell Thomas\nBernie Worrell\nChips Moman\nPete Fountain\nFrank Sinatra Jr.\nPatrice Munsel\nZhou Xiaoyan\nSir Neville Marriner\nPhife Dawg\nLee O'Denat\nMuhammad Ali\nLeon Russell\nHoward Kaufman\nBill Ham\nPhil Chess\nBob Krasnow\nTony Martell\nMary Stewart\nJames M. Nederlander\nChris Stone\nRemo Belli\nSir George Martin","title":"In Memoriam"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Rihanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rihanna"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"Tyler Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler_Joseph"},{"link_name":"Justin Bieber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Bieber"},{"link_name":"Benny Blanco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Blanco"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Mike Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Dean_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Max Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Martin"},{"link_name":"Lori McKenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_McKenna"},{"link_name":"Maren Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maren_Morris"},{"link_name":"BJ the Chicago Kid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BJ_the_Chicago_Kid"},{"link_name":"The Chainsmokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chainsmokers"},{"link_name":"John Daversa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daversa"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Lukas Forchhammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Forchhammer"},{"link_name":"Jaycen Joshua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaycen_Joshua"},{"link_name":"Morten Lindberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morten_Lindberg_(sound_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Randy Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Merrill"},{"link_name":"Mike Will Made It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Will_Made_It"},{"link_name":"Ted Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nash_(saxophonist,_born_1960)"},{"link_name":"Nineteen85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteen85"},{"link_name":"Antonio Pappano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pappano"},{"link_name":"Morten Ristorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morten_Ristorp"},{"link_name":"Noah \"40\" Shebib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_%2240%22_Shebib"},{"link_name":"Shellback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellback_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Sia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sia"},{"link_name":"Twenty One Pilots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty_One_Pilots"},{"link_name":"Jack White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_White"},{"link_name":"Blanton Alspaugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanton_Alspaugh"},{"link_name":"The Avett Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Avett_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Neal Avron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Avron"},{"link_name":"John Beasley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Beasley_(musician)"},{"link_name":"William Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bell_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Boi-1da","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boi-1da"},{"link_name":"John Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Burke_(American_pianist)"},{"link_name":"Shirley Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Brandy Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandy_Clark"},{"link_name":"Jacob Collier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Collier"},{"link_name":"Diplo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplo"},{"link_name":"The-Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The-Dream"},{"link_name":"Fat Joe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Joe"},{"link_name":"Frank Filipetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Filipetti"},{"link_name":"Flume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flume_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Stefan Forrest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Forrest"},{"link_name":"David Frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Frost_(producer)"},{"link_name":"Robbie Fulks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Fulks"},{"link_name":"Rhiannon Giddens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhiannon_Giddens"},{"link_name":"Gojira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gojira_(band)"},{"link_name":"Ariana Grande","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariana_Grande"},{"link_name":"Natalie Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie_Grant"},{"link_name":"Giancarlo Guerrero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Guerrero"},{"link_name":"Halsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halsey_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Lalah Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalah_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"Emile Haynie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Haynie"},{"link_name":"Fred Hersch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hersch"},{"link_name":"Hillary Scott & the Scott Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Scott_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"Kendrick Lamar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendrick_Lamar"},{"link_name":"Miranda Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Lambert"},{"link_name":"Lil Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil_Wayne"},{"link_name":"Lukas Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukas_Graham"},{"link_name":"Remy Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remy_Ma"},{"link_name":"Yo-Yo Ma & the Silk Road Ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo-Yo_Ma"},{"link_name":"Manny Marroquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Marroquin"},{"link_name":"Brad Mehldau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Mehldau"},{"link_name":"French Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Montana"},{"link_name":"Ennio Morricone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennio_Morricone"},{"link_name":"Thomas Newman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Newman"},{"link_name":"Anderson .Paak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_.Paak"},{"link_name":"PartyNextDoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PartyNextDoor"},{"link_name":"Pink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Pluss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asheton_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Kelly Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_Price"},{"link_name":"Radiohead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohead"},{"link_name":"ScHoolboy Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScHoolboy_Q"},{"link_name":"Amy Schumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Schumer"},{"link_name":"John Scofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Scofield"},{"link_name":"Sturgill Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgill_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Skrillex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrillex"},{"link_name":"2 Chainz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Chainz"},{"link_name":"Keith Urban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_Urban"},{"link_name":"Tom Elmhirst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Elmhirst"},{"link_name":"Adele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele"},{"link_name":"David Bowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bowie"},{"link_name":"Greg Kurstin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Kurstin"},{"link_name":"Chance the Rapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance_the_Rapper"},{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jacob Collier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Collier"},{"link_name":"Tom Coyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Coyne_(music_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Drake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Kirk Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Giancarlo Guerrero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Guerrero"},{"link_name":"Lalah Hathaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalah_Hathaway"},{"link_name":"Emile Haynie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Haynie"},{"link_name":"Hillary Scott & the Scott Family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Scott_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Sarah Jarosz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Jarosz"},{"link_name":"Max Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Martin"},{"link_name":"Ted Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_Nash_(saxophonist,_born_1960)"},{"link_name":"John Scofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Scofield"},{"link_name":"Shellback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellback_(record_producer)"}],"text":"The following received multiple nominations:Nine:\n\nBeyoncé\nEight:\n\nDrake\nRihanna\nKanye West\n\n\nSeven:\n\nChance the Rapper\nSix:\n\nTom Elmhirst\nFive:\n\nAdele\nTyler Joseph\n\n\nFour:\n\nJustin Bieber\nBenny Blanco\nDavid Bowie\nTom Coyne\nMike Dean\nKirk Franklin\nGreg Kurstin\nMax Martin\nLori McKenna\nMaren MorrisThree:BJ the Chicago Kid\nThe Chainsmokers\nJohn Daversa\nTom Elmhirst\nLukas Forchhammer\nJaycen Joshua\n\n\nMorten Lindberg\nRandy Merrill\nMike Will Made It\nTed Nash\nNineteen85\nAntonio Pappano\n\n\nMorten Ristorp\nNoah \"40\" Shebib\nShellback\nSia\nTwenty One Pilots\nJack WhiteTwo:Blanton Alspaugh\nThe Avett Brothers\nNeal Avron\nJohn Beasley\nWilliam Bell\nBoi-1da\nJulian Burg\nJohn Burke\nNoel \"Gadget\" Campbell\nShirley Caesar\nBrandy Clark\nJacob Collier\nDiplo\nKyle Dixon\nThe-Dream\nFat Joe\nFrank Filipetti\n\n\nFlume\nStefan Forrest\nDavid Frost\nRobbie Fulks\nChris Gehringer\nRhiannon Giddens\nGojira\nAriana Grande\nNatalie Grant\nGiancarlo Guerrero\nHalsey\nLalah Hathaway\nEmile Haynie\nFred Hersch\nHillary Scott & the Scott Family\nSarah Jarosz\nDave Kutch\n\n\nKendrick Lamar\nMiranda Lambert\nLil Wayne\nAlexander Lipay\nDmitriy Lipay\nLiam Nolan\nLukas Graham\nRemy Ma\nYo-Yo Ma & the Silk Road Ensemble\nManny Marroquin\nRichard Martin\nBrad Mehldau\nFrench Montana\nEnnio Morricone\nThomas Newman\nAnderson .Paak\nPartyNextDoor\nAlex Pasco\n\n\nPink\nPluss\nKelly Price\nRadiohead\nRoddie Romero\nScHoolboy Q\nAmy Schumer\nJohn Scofield\nRob Sevier\nKen Shipley\nSturgill Simpson\nSkrillex\nMichael Stein\n2 Chainz\nKeith Urban\nStuart White\nRobina G. YoungThe following received multiple awards:Six:\n\nTom Elmhirst\nFive:\n\nAdele\n\n\nFour:\n\nDavid Bowie\nGreg Kurstin\n\n\nThree:\n\nChance the RapperTwo:Beyoncé\nJulian Burg\nJacob Collier\nTom Coyne\nDrake\nKirk Franklin\n\n\nGiancarlo Guerrero\nLalah Hathaway\nEmile Haynie\nHillary Scott & the Scott Family\nSarah Jarosz\n\n\nMax Martin\nRandy Merrill\nTed Nash\nJohn Scofield\nShellback","title":"Multiple nominations and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Press_Release,_16_June_2016-2"},{"link_name":"International Standard Recording Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Recording_Code"}],"text":"In June 2016, the Grammy organization announced a few minor changes to the voting and awarding process.[2]As of 2017, recordings released solely through streaming services will be eligible to enter the award process. These recordings will have to be available through streaming platforms. Applicable streaming services are paid subscription, full catalog, on-demand streaming/limited download platforms that have existed as such within the United States for at least one full year as of the submission deadline. All recordings entered must have an assigned International Standard Recording Code (ISRC).","title":"Changes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Best New Artist guidelines","text":"Existing Best New Artist rules were amended to remove the album barrier given current trends in how new music and developing artists are released and promoted. Currently many new artists first release singles, tracks, or EPs rather than full albums. To become eligible in the category of Best New Artist, the artist, duo, or group:Must have released a minimum of five singles/tracks or one album, but no more than 30 singles/tracks or three albums.\nMay not have entered the category more than three times, including as a performing member of an established group.\nMust have achieved a breakthrough into the public consciousness and impacted the musical landscape during the eligibility period.","title":"Changes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Blues Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Blues_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Traditional Blues Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Traditional_Blues_Album"},{"link_name":"Best Contemporary Blues Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Contemporary_Blues_Album"},{"link_name":"loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_(music)"}],"sub_title":"Blues categories","text":"The Best Blues Album category will branch into two distinct categories:Best Traditional Blues Album (Blues recordings with traditional blues song and harmonic structures, including various subgenres such as Delta blues, Piedmont blues, jump/swing blues, Chicago blues, and classic/Southern soul).\nBest Contemporary Blues Album (Recordings which may employ non-traditional blues rhythms such as funk, hip-hop, reggae, and rock, or which feature contemporary techniques such as synthesizers or loops).It means a return to the situation prior to 2012, the year the categories were merged in a major overhaul.","title":"Changes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Best Choral Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_Choral_Performance"},{"link_name":"Best Jazz Vocal Album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_jazz_vocal_album"}],"sub_title":"Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category renamed","text":"The Best Rap/Sung Collaboration category (in the Rap field) will be renamed as Best Rap/Sung Performance, to allow solo performances, a result of \"the current state and future trajectory of rap by expanding the category beyond collaborations between rappers and vocalists to include recordings by a solo artist who blurs the lines between rapping and singing.\"Additional amendments were made to the number and type of music creators recognized in the categories of Best Choral Performance and Best Jazz Vocal Album.","title":"Changes"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"Porter, Rick (February 14, 2017). \"Final Grammy numbers, plus 'AFV' and 'Dateline' adjust down: Sunday final ratings\". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on February 14, 2017. Retrieved February 14, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170214164530/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/daily-ratings/sunday-final-ratings-feb-12-2017/","url_text":"\"Final Grammy numbers, plus 'AFV' and 'Dateline' adjust down: Sunday final ratings\""},{"url":"http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/daily-ratings/sunday-final-ratings-feb-12-2017/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Recording Academy Announces Rule Amendments and Dates for the 59th Annual Grammy Awards Process\". Grammy.org. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170203184933/https://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/press-release/the-recording-academy-announces-rule-amendments-and-dates-for-the","url_text":"\"The Recording Academy Announces Rule Amendments and Dates for the 59th Annual Grammy Awards Process\""},{"url":"https://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/press-release/the-recording-academy-announces-rule-amendments-and-dates-for-the","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"THE RECORDING ACADEMY® AND CBS EXTEND AGREEMENT TO BROADCAST THE GRAMMY AWARDS® THROUGH 2026\". Grammy.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160811162042/https://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/press-release/the-recording-academy-and-cbs-extend-agreement-to-broadcast-the","url_text":"\"THE RECORDING ACADEMY® AND CBS EXTEND AGREEMENT TO BROADCAST THE GRAMMY AWARDS® THROUGH 2026\""},{"url":"https://www.grammy.org/recording-academy/press-release/the-recording-academy-and-cbs-extend-agreement-to-broadcast-the","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Daniel, Holloway; Maureen, Ryan (November 22, 2016). \"James Corden to Host Grammy Awards (EXCLUSIVE)\". Variety. Archived from the original on November 29, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/james-corden-host-grammy-awards-1201924054/","url_text":"\"James Corden to Host Grammy Awards (EXCLUSIVE)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)","url_text":"Variety"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161129103424/http://variety.com/2016/tv/awards/james-corden-host-grammy-awards-1201924054/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"TUNE IN: MARGARET CHO TO HOST GRAMMY PREMIERE CEREMONY\". The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original on February 13, 2017. 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Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maura_Johnston","url_text":"Johnston, Maura"},{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/dec/06/grammy-awards-2017-nominations-drake-rihanna-beyonce-adele","url_text":"\"Grammy nominations 2017: Beyoncé and R&B artists shine while rock suffers\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170114090731/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/dec/06/grammy-awards-2017-nominations-drake-rihanna-beyonce-adele","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Unterberger, Andrew (6 December 2016). \"Here Is the Complete List of Nominees for the 2017 Grammys\". Billboard. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 28 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7597556/grammys-nominees-complete-list-2017","url_text":"\"Here Is the Complete List of Nominees for the 2017 Grammys\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200204104709/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7597556/grammys-nominees-complete-list-2017","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"FINAL NOMINATIONS LIST\" (PDF). The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072743/https://www.grammy.com/files/59thpresslist12072016.pdf","url_text":"\"FINAL NOMINATIONS LIST\""},{"url":"https://www.grammy.com/files/59thpresslist12072016.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"59th Annual GRAMMY Awards Winners & Nominees\". Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. 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From Adele To The Weeknd: Here's The Official Performer And Presenter List\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170213001905/https://www.grammy.com/news/whos-performing-at-the-grammys-from-adele-to-the-weeknd-heres-the-official-performer-and","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Watch: 59th GRAMMY Awards Premiere Ceremony\". Grammy.ciom. 12 February 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.grammy.com/videos/59th-grammy-awards-premiere-ceremony","url_text":"\"Watch: 59th GRAMMY Awards Premiere Ceremony\""}]},{"reference":"\"59th Annual GRAMMY Awards Winners & Nominees\". The GRAMMYs. Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. 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The Recording Academy.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.grammy.com/grammys/news/grammy-memoriam-honoring-those-we-lost-2016","url_text":"\"GRAMMY In Memoriam: honoring those we lost in 2016\""}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters_Union
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International Brotherhood of Teamsters
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["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 Organizing and growth during the Great Depression","1.3 World War II and the post-war period","1.4 Influence of organized crime","1.5 Rise, fall, and disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa","1.6 Decentralization, deregulation and drift","1.7 Internal and external challenges","1.8 Recent history","2 Internal Teamsters politics","3 Political donations","4 Organization","4.1 General Presidents","4.2 General Secretary-Treasurers","4.3 Membership","4.4 Divisions and conferences","5 Archival collections","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","8.1 Footnotes","8.2 Bibliography","9 External links"]
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North American trade union
"Teamsters" redirects here. For truck drivers in general, see Teamster.
International Brotherhood of TeamstersAbbreviationIBTFormation1903 (1903)Merger ofTeam Drivers International UnionTeamsters National UnionTypeTrade unionHeadquartersWashington, DC, USLocationCanadaUnited StatesMembership (2015) 1.3 millionPresidentSean O'BrienSecretary-treasurerFred ZuckermanAffiliationsIndustriALL Global UnionInternational Transport Workers' FederationNorth America's Building Trades UnionsWebsiteteamster.org Formerly calledInternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America
The International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) is a labor union in the United States and Canada. Formed in 1903 by the merger of the Team Drivers International Union and the Teamsters National Union, the union now represents a diverse membership of blue- and white-collar workers in both the public and private sectors, totalling about 1.3 million members in 2015. The union was formerly called the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America.
History
vteTeamster strikes
1900s–1960s
Chicago 1905
Minneapolis general 1934
NYC truckers 1938
NYC truckers 1946
Nationwide truckers 1967
Nationwide truckers 1970
1970s–2000s
Nationwide truckers 1976
Coors 1977-1978
Nationwide truckers 1979
Watsonville Cannery 1985–1987
Nationwide truckers 1994
United Parcel Service 1997
Overnite 1999
2000s–2020s
Alabama Coca-Cola 2018
Atlanta sanitation 2018
Hunts Point Produce Market 2021
St. Paul refinery 2021
Early history
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) had helped form local unions of teamsters since 1887. In November 1898, the AFL organized the Team Drivers' International Union (TDIU). In 1901, a group of teamsters in Chicago, Illinois, broke from the TDIU and formed the Teamsters National Union. Unlike the TDIU, which permitted large employers to be members, the new Teamsters National Union permitted only employees, teamster helpers, and owner-operators owning only a single team to join, and advocated higher wages and shorter hours more aggressively than the TDIU. Claiming more than 28,000 members in 47 locals, its president, Albert Young, applied for membership in the AFL. The AFL asked the TDIU to merge with Young's union to form a new, AFL-affiliated union and the two groups did so in 1903, forming the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT), and electing Cornelius Shea as the new union's first president. The election process proved tumultuous. Shea effectively controlled the convention because the Chicago locals—representing nearly half the IBT's membership—supported his candidacy en bloc. Shea was opposed by John Sheridan, president of the Ice Drivers' Union of Chicago. Sheridan and George Innes, president of the TDIU, accused Shea of embezzlement in an attempt to prevent his election. Shea won the election on August 8, 1903, by a vote of 605 to 480. The new grouping elected Edward L. Turley of Chicago as secretary-treasurer and Albert Young as general organizer.Cornelius Shea, first General President of the Teamsters, circa 1905Informal portrait of (left to right) Cornelius P. Shea, John Miller, Fred Mader, and Tim Murphy sitting in a row in a courtroom in Chicago, Illinois, during a labor trial. Murphy was a politician, union organizer, and reputed gangster, and he was murdered in 1928.
The union, like most unions within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) at the time, had a largely decentralized structure, with a number of local unions that governed themselves autonomously and tended to look only after their own interests in the geographical jurisdiction in which they operated.
The teamsters were vitally important to the labor movement, for a strike or sympathy strike by the teamsters could paralyze the movement of goods throughout a city and bring a strike into nearly every neighborhood. It also meant that teamsters leaders were able to demand bribes in order to avoid strikes, and control of a teamsters local could bring organized crime significant revenues. During Shea's presidency, the entire teamsters union was notoriously corrupt.
Several major strikes occupied the union in its first three years. In November 1903, teamsters employed by the Chicago City Railway went out on strike. Shea attempted to stop sympathy strikes by other teamster locals, but three locals walked out and eventually disaffiliated over the sympathy-strike issue. A sympathy strike in support of 18,000 striking meat cutters in Chicago in July 1904 led to riots before the extensive use of strikebreakers led Shea to force his members back to work (leading to the collapse of the meat cutters' strike). In the midst of the strife in 1904, the teamsters convention in Cincinnati, Ohio, re-elected Shea by acclamation on August 8, 1904. Under his leadership, the union had expanded to nearly 50,000 members in 821 locals in 300 cities, making the Teamsters one of the largest unions in the United States.
In 1905 10,000 teamsters struck in support of locked-out tailors at Montgomery Ward, and eventually more than 25,000 teamsters manned the picket lines.
But when local newspapers discovered that Shea was living in a local brothel, kept a 19-year-old waitress as a mistress, and had spent the strike hosting parties, public support for the strike collapsed and the strike ended on August 1, 1905. Despite the revelations, Shea won re-election on August 12, 1905, by a vote of 129 to 121.
Shea was re-elected again in 1905 and 1906, although significant challenges to his presidency occurred each time. Shea's first trial on charges stemming from the 1905 Montgomery Ward strike ended in a mistrial. However, during the 1906 re-election Shea had promised that he would resign the presidency once his trial had ended. But he did not, and most union members withdrew their support for him. Daniel J. Tobin of Boston was elected Shea's successor by a vote of 104 to 94 in August 1907.
Organizing and growth during the Great Depression
Tobin was president of the Teamsters from 1907 to 1952. Although he faced opposition in his re-election races in 1908, 1909 and 1910, he never faced opposition again until his retirement in 1952.
The Teamsters began to expand dramatically and mature organizationally under Tobin. He pushed for the development of "joint councils" to which all local unions were forced to affiliate. Varying in geographical and industrial jurisdiction, the joint councils became important incubators for up-and-coming leadership and negotiating master agreements which covered all employers in a given industry. Tobin also actively discouraged strikes in order to bring discipline to the union and encourage employers to sign contracts, and founded and edited the union magazine, the International Teamster. Under Tobin, the Teamsters also first developed the "regional conference" system (developed by Dave Beck in Seattle), which provided stability, organizing strength, and leadership to the international union.
Tobin undertook long jurisdictional battles with many unions during this period. Fierce disputes occurred between the Teamsters and the Gasoline State Operators' National Council (an AFL federal union of gas station attendants), the International Longshoremen's Association, the Retail Clerks International Union, and the Brotherhood of Railway Clerks. The most significant disagreement, however, was with the United Brewery Workers over the right to represent beer wagon drivers. While the Teamsters lost this battle in 1913, when the AFL awarded jurisdiction to the Brewers, they won when the issue came before the AFL Executive Board again in 1933, when the Brewers were still recovering from their near-elimination during Prohibition. The raids and new member organizing in the 1930s led to significant membership increases. Teamster membership stood at just 82,000 in 1932. Tobin took advantage of the wave of pro-union sentiment engendered by the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act, and by 1935 union membership had increased nearly 65 percent to 135,000. By 1941, Tobin had a dues-paying membership of 530,000—making the Teamsters the fastest-growing labor union in the United States.
One of the most significant events in union history occurred in 1934. A group of radicals in Local 574 in Minneapolis—led by Farrell Dobbs, Carl Skoglund, and the Dunne brothers (Ray, Miles and Grant), all members of the Trotskyist Communist League of America—began successfully organizing coal truck drivers in the winter of 1933. Tobin, an ardent anti-communist, opposed their efforts and refused to support their 1933 strike. Local 574 struck again in 1934, leading to several riots over a nine-day period in May. When the employers' association reneged on the agreement, Local 574 resumed the strike, although it ended again after nine days when martial law was declared by Governor Floyd B. Olson. Although Local 574 won a contract recognizing the union and which broke the back of the anti-union Citizens Alliance in Minneapolis, Tobin expelled Local 574 from the Teamsters. Member outrage was extensive, and in August 1936 he was forced to recharter the local as 544. Within a year the newly formed Local 544 had organized 250,000 truckers in the Midwest and formed the Central Conference of Teamsters.
Extensive organizing also occurred in the West. Harry Bridges, radical leader of the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU), was leading "the march inland"—an attempt to organize warehouse workers away from shipping ports. Alarmed by Bridges' radical politics and worried that the ILWU would encroach on Teamster jurisdictions, Dave Beck formed a large regional organization (the Western Conference of Teamsters) to engage in fierce organizing battles and membership raids against the ILWU which led to the establishment of many new locals and the organization of tens of thousands of new members.
But corruption became even more widespread in the Teamsters during the Tobin administration. By 1941, the union was considered the most corrupt in the United States, and the most abusive towards its own members. Tobin vigorously defended the union against such accusations, but also instituted many constitutional and organizational changes and practices which made it easier for union officials to engage in criminal offenses.
World War II and the post-war period
By the beginning of World War II, the Teamsters was one of the most powerful unions in the country, and Teamster leaders were influential in the corridors of power. Union membership had risen more than 390 percent between 1935 and 1941 to 530,000. In June 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Tobin to be the official White House liaison to organized labor, and later that year chair of the Labor Division of the Democratic National Committee. In 1942, President Roosevelt appointed Tobin special representative to the United Kingdom and charged him with investigating the state of the labor movement there. Tobin was considered three times for Secretary of Labor, and twice refused the post—in 1943 and 1947. On September 23, 1944, Roosevelt gave his famous "Fala speech" while campaigning in the 1944 presidential election. Because of Roosevelt's strong relationship with Tobin and the union's large membership, the President delivered his speech before the Teamster convention.
Nonetheless, Teamsters members were restive. Dissident members of the union accused the leadership of suppressing democracy in the union, a charge Tobin angrily denied. Over the next year, Tobin cracked down on dissidents and several large locals led by his political opponents.
During World War II, The Teamsters strongly endorsed the American labor movement's no-strike pledge. The Teamsters agreed to cease raiding other unions and not strike for the duration of the national emergency. Tobin even ordered Teamsters members to cross picket lines put up by other unions. Nevertheless, the national leadership sanctioned strikes by Midwestern truckers in August 1942, Southern truckers in October 1943, and brewery workers and milk delivery drivers in January 1945. The Teamsters did not, however, participate in the great post-war wave of labor strikes. In the two years following the cessation of hostilities, the Teamsters struck only three times: 10,000 truckers in New Jersey struck for two weeks; workers at UPS struck nationwide for three weeks; and workers at Railway Express Agency struck for almost a month.
Teamsters leaders strongly opposed enactment of the Taft–Hartley Act and repeatedly called for its repeal. Tobin, however, was one of the first labor leaders to sign the non-communist affidavit required by the law.
The great wave of organizing which the union engaged in during the Great Depression and the war significantly boosted the political power of a number of regional Teamsters leaders, and the leadership of the union engaged in a number of power struggles in the post-war period. By 1949, the union's membership had topped one million. Dave Beck (elected an international vice-president in 1940) was increasingly influential in the international union, and Tobin attempted to check his growing power but failed. In 1946, Beck successfully overcame Tobin's opposition and won approval of an amendment to the union's constitution creating the post of executive vice-president. Beck then won the 1947 election to fill the position. Beck also successfully opposed in 1947 a Tobin-backed dues increase to fund new organizing. The following year, Beck was able to demand the ouster of the editor of International Teamster magazine and install his own man in the job.
In 1948, Beck allied with his long-time rival Jimmy Hoffa and effectively seized control of the union. He announced a raid on the International Association of Machinists local at Boeing. Although Tobin publicly repudiated Beck's actions, Beck had more than enough support from Hoffa and other members of the executive board to force Tobin to back down. Five months later, Beck won approval of a plan to dissolve the union's four divisions and replace them with 16 divisions organized around each of the major job categories in the union's membership. In 1951, Tom Hickey, reformist leader of the Teamsters in New York City, won election to the Teamsters executive board. Tobin needed Beck's support to prevent Hickey's election, and Beck refused to give it.
On September 4, 1952, Tobin announced he would step down as president of the Teamsters at the end of his term. At the union's 1952 convention, Beck was elected General President and pushed through a number of changes intended to make it harder for a challenger to build the necessary majority to unseat a president or reject his policies.
Influence of organized crime
Beck was elected to the Executive Council of the AFL on August 13, 1953, but his election generated a tremendous political battle between AFL President George Meany, who supported his election, and federation vice presidents who felt Beck was corrupt and should not be elected to the post. Beck was the first Teamster president to negotiate a nationwide master contract and a national grievance arbitration plan, established organizing drives in the Deep South and the East, and built the current Teamsters headquarters (the "Marble Palace") in Washington, DC, on Louisiana Avenue NW (across a small plaza from the United States Senate). But his intervention in a construction and a milk strike (both centered in New York City), and refusal to intervene in a Northeastern trucking strike created major political problems for him. Perceiving Beck to be weak, Jimmy Hoffa began challenging Beck on various union decisions and policies in 1956 with an eye to unseating him as General President in the regularly scheduled union elections in 1957.
Infiltration by organized crime dominated the agenda of the Teamsters throughout the 1950s. The Teamsters had suffered from extensive corruption since its formation in 1903. Although the more extreme, public forms of corruption had been eliminated after General President Cornelius Shea was removed from office, the extent of corruption and control by organized crime increased during Tobin's time in office (1907 to 1952). In 1929, the Teamsters and unions in Chicago even approached gangster Roger Touhy and asked for his protection from Al Capone and his Chicago Outfit, which were seeking to control the area's unions. Evidence of widespread corruption within the Teamsters began emerging shortly after Tobin retired. In Kansas City, corrupt Teamsters locals spent years seeking bribes, embezzling money, and engaging in extensive extortion and labor rackets as well as beatings, vandalism and even bombings in an attempt to control the construction and trucking industries. The problem was so serious that the US House of Representatives held hearings on the issue.
Hoffa's attempt to challenge Beck caused a major national scandal which led to two Congressional investigations, several indictments for fraud and other crimes against Beck and Hoffa, strict new federal legislation and regulations regarding labor unions, and even helped launch the political career of Robert F. Kennedy. Believing he needed additional votes to unseat Beck, in October 1956 Hoffa met with mobster Johnny Dio in New York City and the two men conspired to create as many as 15 paper locals to boost Hoffa's delegate totals. When the paper locals applied for charters from the international union, Hoffa's political foes were outraged. A major battle broke out within the Teamsters over whether to charter the locals, and the media attention led to inquiries by the US Department of Justice and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the US Senate Committee on Government Operations. Beck and other Teamster leaders challenged the authority of the US Senate to investigate the union, which caused the Senate to establish the Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management—a new committee with broad subpoena and investigative powers. Senator John L. McClellan, chair of the select committee, hired Robert F. Kennedy as the subcommittee's chief counsel and investigator.
The Select Committee (also known as the McClellan Committee, after its chairman), exposed widespread corruption in the Teamsters union. Dave Beck fled the country for a month to avoid its subpoenas before returning. Four of the paper locals were dissolved to avoid committee scrutiny, several Teamster staffers were charged with contempt of Congress, and union records were lost or destroyed (allegedly on purpose), and wiretaps were played in public before a national television audience in which Dio and Hoffa discussed the creation of even more paper locals. Evidence was unearthed of a mob-sponsored plot in which Oregon Teamsters unions would seize control of the state legislature, state police, and state attorney general's office through bribery, extortion and blackmail. Initially, members of the union did not believe the charges, and support for Beck was strong, but after three months of continuous allegations of wrongdoing many rank-and-file Teamsters withdrew their support and openly called for Beck to resign. Beck initially refused to address the allegations, but broke his silence and denounced the committee's inquiry on March 6. But even as the committee conducted its investigation, the Teamsters chartered even more paper locals. In mid-March 1957, Jimmy Hoffa was arrested for allegedly trying to bribe a Senate aide. Hoffa denied the charges, but the arrest triggered additional investigations and more arrests and indictments over the following weeks. A week later, Beck admitted to receiving an interest-free $300,000 loan from the Teamsters which he had never repaid, and Senate investigators claimed that loans to Beck and other union officials (and their businesses) had cost the union more than $700,000. Beck appeared before the select committee for the first time on March 25, 1957, and invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination 117 times. The McClellan Committee turned its focus to Hoffa and other Teamsters officials, and presented testimony and evidence alleging widespread corruption in Hoffa-controlled Teamster units.
Several historic legal developments came out of the select committee's investigation. The scandals uncovered by the McClellan committee, which affected not only the Teamsters but several other unions, led directly to the passage of the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (also known as the Landrum-Griffin Act) in 1959. The right of union officials to exercise their Fifth Amendment rights was upheld and a significant refinement of constitutional law made when the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the right of union officials to not divulge the location of union records in Curcio v. United States, 354 U.S. 118 (1957).
Rank-and-file anger over the McClellan Committee's revelations eventually led Beck to retire from the Teamsters and allowed Jimmy Hoffa to take over. Immediately after his testimony in late March 1957, Beck won approval from the union's executive board to establish a $1 million fund to defend himself and the union from the committee's allegations. But member outrage at the expenditure was significant, and permission to establish the fund was rescinded. Member anger continued to grow throughout the spring, and Beck's majority support on the executive board vanished. Beck was called before the McClellan Committee again in early May 1957, and additional interest-free loans and other potentially illegal and unethical financial transactions exposed. Based on these revelations, Beck was indicted for tax evasion on May 2, 1957.
Beck's legal troubles led him to retire and Hoffa to win election to the union presidency. Support for Beck among the membership evaporated. Beck announced on May 25 he would not run for re-election in October. The announcement created chaos among the union leadership, and despite additional indictments Hoffa announced he would seek the presidency on July 19. Rank-and-file support for Hoffa was strong, although there were some attempts to organize an opposition candidate. Hoffa's opponents asked a federal judge to postpone the election, but the request was granted only temporarily and Hoffa was elected General President of the union on October 4, 1957. Beck offered to retire early to allow Hoffa to take control of the union in December. A federal district court barred Hoffa from taking power unless he was acquitted in his wiretapping trial. The ruling was upheld by a court of appeals, and the trial ended in a hung jury on December 19, 1957. Hoffa assumed the presidency on February 1, 1958.
Jimmy Hoffa served as President from 1957 to 1971.
The worsening corruption scandal led the AFL–CIO to eject the Teamsters. AFL–CIO President George Meany, worried that corruption scandals plaguing a number of unions at the time might lead to harsh regulation of unions or even the withdrawal of federal labor law protection, began an anti-corruption drive in April 1956. New rules were enacted by the labor federation's executive council that provided for the removal of vice presidents engaged in corruption as well as the ejection of unions considered corrupt. The McClellan Committee's investigation only worsened the dispute between the AFL–CIO and the Teamsters. In January 1957, the AFL–CIO proposed a new rule which would bar officers of the federation from continuing to hold office if they exercised their Fifth Amendment rights in a corruption investigation. Beck opposed the new rule, but the Ethical Practices Committee of AFL–CIO instituted the rule on January 31, 1957. The Teamsters were given 90 days to reform, but Beck retaliated by promising more raids on AFL–CIO member unions if the union was ousted. Beck's opposition prompted a successful move by Meany to remove Beck from the AFL–CIO executive council on the grounds of corruption. After extensive hearings and appeals which lasted from July to September 1957, the AFL–CIO voted on September 25, 1957, to eject the Teamsters if the union did not institute reforms within 30 days. Beck refused to institute any reforms, and the election of Jimmy Hoffa (whom the AFL–CIO considered as corrupt as Beck) led the labor federation to suspend the Teamsters union on October 24, 1957. Meany offered to keep the Teamsters within the AFL–CIO if Hoffa resigned as president, but Hoffa refused and the formal expulsion occurred on December 6, 1957.
The Teamsters were not the only corrupt union in the AFL–CIO by any means. Another was the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), which represented stevedores in most East Coast ports. The Teamsters had long desired to bring all shipping and transportation workers into the union, so that no product could be moved anywhere in the US without it being touched by Teamsters hands. As the ILA came under increasing attack for permitting corruption in its locals, Beck sought to bring the ILA into the Teamsters. The AFL ousted the ILA in September 1953, and formed the International Brotherhood of Longshoremen-AFL (IBL-AFL) to represent longshoremen on the Great Lakes and East Coast. The Teamsters planned to raid the expelled union, and may even have hoped to seize control of the IBL-AFL. Beck undertook a campaign to bring the ILA back into the AFL in early 1955, but the election of mob associate Anthony "Tough Tony" Anastasio as an ILA vice president forced Beck to end the effort. But even as Beck backed away from any ILA deal, Jimmy Hoffa secretly negotiated a major package of financial and staff aid to the ILA and then went public with the deal—forcing Beck to accept it as a fait accompli or risk embarrassing Hoffa. The AFL–CIO threatened to expel the Teamsters if it aided the ILA. Beck fought Hoffa over the ILA aid package and won, withdrawing the offer to the ILA in the spring of 1956.
The ILA was not the only union the Teamsters sought to merge with. The union attempted to merge with the Mine, Mill & Smelter Workers in 1955, but the effort failed. The union also sought a merger with the Brewery Workers, but the smaller union rejected the offer. When the overture failed, the Teamsters raided the Brewery Workers, leading to fierce protests by the CIO.
Raiding by the Teamsters was such a serious issue that it prompted the AFL and CIO, which had attempted to sign a no-raid agreement for years, to finally negotiate and implement such a pact in December 1953. Beck initially refused to sign the agreement, and threatened to take the Teamsters out of the AFL if forced to adhere to it. Three months after the pact was signed, the Teamsters agreed to submit to the terms of the no-raid agreement. Shortly thereafter, the AFL adopted Article 20 of its constitution, which prevented its member unions from raiding one another. The union's affection for raiding led it to initially oppose the AFL–CIO merger in January 1955, but it quickly reversed itself.
Rise, fall, and disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa
Hoffa achieved his goal of unifying all freight drivers under a single collective bargaining agreement, the National Master Freight Agreement, in 1964. Hoffa used the grievance procedures of the agreement, which authorized selective strikes against particular employers, to police the agreement or, if Hoffa thought that it served the union's interest, to drive marginal employers out of the industry. The union won substantial gains for its members, fostering a nostalgic image of the Hoffa era as the golden age for Teamster drivers. Hoffa also succeeded where Tobin had failed, concentrating power at the international level, dominating the conferences which Beck and Dobbs had helped build.
In addition, Hoffa was instrumental in using the assets of the Teamsters' pension plans, particularly the Central States plan, to support Mafia projects, such as the development of Las Vegas in the 1950s and 1960s. Pension funds were loaned to finance Las Vegas casinos such as the Stardust Resort & Casino, the Fremont Hotel & Casino, the Desert Inn, the Dunes hotel and casino (which was controlled by Hoffa's attorney, Morris Shenker), the Four Queens, the Aladdin Hotel & Casino, Circus Circus, and Caesars Palace. The pension fund also made a number of loans to associates and relatives of high-ranking Teamster officials. A close associate of Hoffa during this period was Allen Dorfman. Dorfman owned an insurance agency that provided insurance claims processing to the Teamsters' union, and which was the subject of an investigation by the McClellan Committee. Dorfman also had increasing influence over loans made by the Teamsters' pension fund, and after Hoffa went to prison in 1967, Dorfman had primary control over the fund. Dorfman was murdered in January 1983, shortly after his conviction, along with Teamsters' president Roy Lee Williams, in a bribery case.
Hoffa was moreover defiantly unwilling to reform the union or limit his own power in response to the attacks from Robert F. Kennedy, formerly chief counsel to the McClellan Committee, and later Attorney General. Kennedy's Department of Justice tried to convict Hoffa for a variety of offenses during the 1960s, finally succeeding on a witness tampering charge in 1964, with key testimony provided by Teamsters business agent Edward Grady Partin. After exhausting his appeals, Hoffa entered prison in 1967.
Hoffa installed Frank Fitzsimmons, an associate from his days in Local 299 in Detroit, to hold his place for him while he served time. Fitzsimmons, however, began to enjoy the exercise of power in Hoffa's absence; in addition, the organized crime figures around him found that he was more pliant than Hoffa had been. While President Nixon's pardon barred Hoffa from resuming any role in the Teamsters until 1980, Hoffa challenged the legality of that condition and planned to run again for presidency of the union, but disappeared in 1975 under mysterious circumstances. He is presumed dead, although his body has never been found.
Decentralization, deregulation and drift
Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders. While this helped solidify Fitzsimmons' own political position in the union, it also made it more difficult for the union to act decisively on policy issues. Fitzsimmons also slowly moved the union's political stances to the left, supporting universal health care, an immediate end to the Vietnam War, urban renewal, and community organizing. In 1968, Fitzsimmons and United Auto Workers President Walter Reuther formed the Alliance for Labor Action, a new national trade union center which competed with the AFL–CIO. The Alliance dissolved in 1972 after Reuther's death. While the Teamsters won rich national master contracts in trucking and package delivery in the 1970s, it did little to adapt to the changes occurring in the transportation industry.
A major jurisdictional battle with the United Farm Workers (UFW) broke out in 1970, and did not end until 1977. The Teamsters and UFW had both claimed jurisdiction over farm workers for many years, and in 1967 had signed an agreement settling their differences. But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons' permission and organize large numbers of field workers. His hand forced, Fitzsimmons ordered Teamsters contract negotiators to re-open the handful of contracts it had signed with California growers. The UFW sued, the AFL–CIO condemned the action, and many employers negotiated contracts with the Teamsters rather than with the UFW. The Teamsters subsequently signed contracts (which many denounced as sweetheart deals) with more than 375 California growers. Although an agreement giving UFW jurisdiction over field workers and the Teamsters jurisdiction over packing and warehouse workers was reached on September 27, 1973, Fitzsimmons reneged on the agreement within a month and moved ahead with forming a farm workers regional union in California. The organizing battles even became violent at times. By 1975, the UFW had won 24 elections and the Teamsters 14; UFW membership had plummeted to just 6,000 from nearly 70,000 while the Teamsters farmworker division counted 55,000 workers. The UFW signed an agreement with Fitzsimmons in March 1977 in which the UFW agreed to seek to organize only those workers covered by the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act, while the Teamsters retained jurisdiction over some agricultural workers, who had been covered by Teamsters Local Union contracts prior to the formation of the UFW.
In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long-running jurisdictional dispute with the United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery Workers merged with the Teamsters.
In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce Commission's power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on interstate carriers. The union tried to fight deregulation by attempting to bribe Senator Howard Cannon of Nevada. That attempt not only failed, but resulted in the conviction in 1982 of Roy Williams, the General President who had succeeded Fitzsimmons in 1981. Williams subsequently resigned in 1983 as a condition of remaining free on bail while his appeal proceeded.
Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages, work rules, and hours.
Williams' successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight "relief rider" that would cut wages by up to 35 percent and establish two-tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the 1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to 13,082.
The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to fewer than 200,000, with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.
Internal and external challenges
The decline in working conditions in the freight industry, combined with long-simmering unhappiness among members employed by the United Parcel Service, led to the development of two nationwide dissident groups within the union in the 1980s: Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), an assemblage of a number of local efforts, and the Professional Drivers Council, better known as PROD, which began as a public interest group affiliated with Ralph Nader that was concerned with worker safety. The two groups merged in 1979.
TDU was able to win some local offices within the union, although the International Union often attempted to make those victories meaningless by marginalizing the officer or the union. TDU acquired greater prominence, however, with the election reforms forced on the union by the consent decree it had entered into in 1989 on the eve of trial on a suit brought by the federal government under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).
The decree required the direct election of International officers by the membership, as TDU had been demanding for years leading up to the decree, to replace the indirect election by delegates at the union's convention. While the delegates at the union's 1991 convention balked at amending the Constitution, they ultimately capitulated under pressure from the government.
That consent decree might not have been possible, however, if it had not been for the testimony of Roy Williams, who described, in an affidavit he gave the government in return for a delay of his imprisonment, his own dealings with organized crime as the Secretary-Treasurer of a local union in Kansas City and as an officer of the International Union. The decree also gave the government the power to install an Independent Review Board with the power to expel any member of the union for "conduct unbecoming to the union", which the IRB proceeded to exercise far more aggressively than the Teamsters officials who had agreed to the decree had expected.
While the government was pursuing a civil case against the union as an entity, it was also indicting Presser, who had succeeded Williams as General President, for embezzling from two different local unions in Cleveland prior to his election as president. Presser resigned in 1988, but died before his trial was scheduled to begin. He was succeeded by William J. McCarthy, who came from the same local that Dan Tobin had led eighty years earlier.
The Independent Review Board (IRB) is a three-member panel established to investigate and take appropriate action with respect to "any allegations of corruption", "any allegations of domination or control or influence" of any part of the Union by organized crime, and any failure to cooperate fully with the IRB.
Recent history
A Teamsters gathering at the YearlyKos 2007 convention
Membership (US records; ×1000)Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.
Finances (US records; ×$1000)Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. Assets Liabilities Receipts Disbursements
In 1991, Ron Carey won a surprising victory in the first direct election for General President in the union's history, defeating two "old guard" candidates, R.V. Durham and Walter Shea. Carey's slate, supported by TDU, also won nearly all of the seats on the International Executive Board.
Carey acquired a fair amount of influence within the AFL–CIO, which had readmitted the Teamsters in 1985. Carey was close with the new leadership elected in 1995, particularly Richard Trumka of the United Mine Workers of America, who became Secretary-Treasurer of the AFL–CIO under John Sweeney. Carey had also swung the Teamsters support behind the Democratic Party, a change from past administrations that had supported the Republican Party. The new administration set out to break from the past in other ways, making energetic efforts to head off a vote to oust the union as representative of Northwest Airlines' flight attendants, negotiating a breakthrough agreement covering carhaulers, and supporting local strikes, such as the one against Diamond Walnut, to restore the union's strength.
The Carey administration did not, on the other hand, have much power in the lower reaches of the Teamster hierarchy: all of the large regional conferences were run by "old guard" officers, as were most of the locals. Disagreements between those two camps led the old guard to campaign against the Carey administration's proposed dues increase. The Carey administration retaliated by dissolving the regional conferences, calling them expensive redundancies and fiefdoms for old guard union officers, and rearranging the boundaries of some joint councils that had fought against the dues increase.
The opposition responded by uniting around a single candidate, James P. Hoffa, son of James R. Hoffa, to run against Carey in 1996. Hoffa ran a strong campaign, trading on the mystique still attached to his late father's name and promising to restore those days of glory. Carey appeared, however, to have won a close election.
Shortly afterward in 1997, the union initiated a large and successful strike against UPS. The parcel services department had by that time become the largest division in the union.
Carey was removed from the union's leadership by the IRB shortly thereafter, when evidence that individuals in his office had arranged for transfer of several thousand dollars to an outside contractor, which then arranged for another entity to make an equivalent contribution to the Carey campaign. Carey was indicted for lying to investigators about his campaign funding but was acquitted of all charges in a 2001 trial.
In the 1998 election to succeed Carey, James P. Hoffa was elected handily. He became president of the Teamsters on March 19, 1999, and took the union in a more moderate direction, tempering the union's support for Democrats and attempting to come to terms with powerful Republicans in Congress.
The union has merged in recent years with a number of unions from other industries, including the Graphic Communications International Union, a printing industry union, and the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, both from the railway industry.
On July 25, 2005, the Teamsters disaffiliated from the AFL–CIO and became a founding member of the new national trade union center, the Change to Win Federation.
In 2009, UPS, many employees of which are members of the Teamsters, lobbied to have language added to the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 (H.R. 915) to change how UPS and FedEx compete with one another. In response, FedEx launched a large, online advertising campaign aimed at UPS and the Teamsters, called 'Stop the Brown Bailout'.
Internal Teamsters politics
Prior to the 1970s, no long-lived caucuses existed within the Teamsters Union. Challengers for office ran on their personal appeal and individual power base, rather than on caucus or "party" platforms and such challenges were infrequent. The Teamster leadership was well-established and somewhat self-perpetuating, and challengers only rarely achieved victories at the local and even less frequently at the regional levels. This changed in the 1970s. A national wildcat strike challenged President Frank Fitzsimmons' control over the union, but failed. After the strike, a reform movement known as "Teamsters United Rank and File" (TURF) formed to continue to challenge against the union's national leadership. But TURF collapsed after a few years due to internal dissent. In 1975, two new caucuses formed: Teamsters for a Decent Contract (TDC) and UPSurge. Both groups pushed the national leadership for vastly improved contracts at UPS and the freight lines.
In 1976 a new formal caucus, Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), formed when TDC and UPSurge merged. The new caucus' goal was to make internal Teamster governance more transparent and democratic, which included giving rank-and-file more of a say in the terms and approval of contracts.
In the 1980s, TDU occasionally won elections for positions on local councils, but it was not until 1983—when the TDU forced President Jackie Presser to withdraw and make changes to a concession-laden National Master Freight Agreement—that TDU had a national impact. TDU publicized the very centralized and not very transparent national union decision-making process, criticized what it said was lack of member input into these decisions, and published contract, salary, membership, and other data critical of the national union leadership. These criticisms led to another success for TDU, with many TDU proposals finding their way into the 1988 court decree in which the federal government took over of the Teamsters. Although the TDU has never won the presidency of the national union as of mid-2013, it strongly supported Ron Carey for the presidency in 1991. Carey, in turn, adopted many of TDU's reform proposals as part of his platform. Carey ran with nearly a full slate (which included a candidate for secretary-treasurer and 13 vice presidencies). R.V. Durham, leader of the Teamsters in North Carolina, was considered the "establishment" candidate and front-runner in the campaign (he had the backing of a majority of the union's executive board). A second candidate in the race, Walter Shea, was a veteran union staffer from Washington, DC. Carey won with 48.5 percent of the vote to Durham's 33.2 percent and Shea's 18.3 percent. (Turnout was low, only about 32 percent of the union's total membership.) Carey's election, sociologist Charlotte Ryan says, was another success for TDU (even though Carey was not a TDU candidate).
Carey won re-election in 1996 in a corrupt election, defeating James P. Hoffa (son of the former union president). Prior to entering the race, Hoffa formed a caucus of his own, the "Hoffa Unity Slate", to counter the grassroots organizing of TDU and Carey. Carey was later ousted as union president by US government officials. A re-run election in 1998 saw Hoffa and the Unity Slate easily defeat TDU candidate Tom Leedham 54.5 percent to 39.3 percent (with 28 percent turnout).
Hoffa was re-elected over Leedham (again running on the TDU platform) in 2001, 64.8 percent to 35.2 percent. Leedham challenged Hoffa and the Hoffa Unity Slate a third time in 2006, losing 65 percent to 35 percent (with 25 percent turnout). Hoffa faced TDU candidate Sandy Pope, a local union president, in 2011. Also running, with a full slate of officer and vice presidential candidates, was former Hoffa supporter and former national vice president Fred Gegare. Hoffa again easily won re-election, earning 60 percent of the vote to Gregare's 23 percent and Pope's 17 percent. The Hoffa Unity Slate also won all five regional vice presidencies, although the slate's support declined across the board. Hoffa won reelection once more in 2016, this time against Teamsters United candidate Fred Zuckerman, but by a much narrower margin of 52 to 48 percent. The 2016 election was also the first time Hoffa-allied candidates lost regional vice presidencies to the Teamsters United reform slate.
In the 2021 election, Hoffa did not run for re-election. The Teamsters United slate, aligned with Teamsters for a Democratic Union, ran against the Teamsters Power Slate, endorsed by Hoffa. The Teamsters United slate, led by Sean O'Brien, won the election. O'Brien and his slate were sworn into office on March 22, 2022, at Teamsters headquarters in Washington, DC. On the day his administration was installed, O'Brien fired more than 80 employees at the headquarters. He did not offer any severance or extension of benefits to the terminated staff. The International Brotherhood of Teamsters currently faces charges with the National Labor Relations Board in connection to the terminations. As of November 10, 2022, the union was required to pay eligible terminated employees more than $175,000 as part of a settlement with the District of Columbia Attorney General's Office for violating D.C. Code 32-1303.
Political donations
Teamsters headquarters located beside Capitol Hill in Washington, DC
The Teamsters Union is one of the largest labor unions in the world, as well as the 11th largest campaign contributor in the United States. While they supported Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush for president in the 1980s, they have begun leaning largely toward the Democrats in recent years; they have donated 92% of their $24,418,589 in contributions since 1990 to the Democratic Party. Though the union opposed former President George W. Bush's agenda to open US highways to Mexican truckers, it did previously support Bush's platform for oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
The Teamsters Union endorsed Barack Obama for the 2008 Democratic Nomination on February 20, 2008.
The Teamsters Union also makes an annual contribution to Friends of Sinn Féin—the US fundraising arm of Irish republican party Sinn Féin.
Organization
General Presidents
1903: Cornelius Shea
1907: Daniel J. Tobin
1952: Dave Beck
1957: James R. Hoffa
1971: Frank Fitzsimmons
1981: George Mock (interim)
1981: Roy Williams
1983: Jackie Presser
1988: Weldon Mathis (interim)
1989: William J. McCarthy
1991: Ron Carey
1997: Tom Sever (interim)
1998: James P. Hoffa
2022: Sean O'Brien
General Secretary-Treasurers
1904: Edward L. Turley
1905: Thomas Hughes
1941: John M. Gillespie
1947: John F. English
1969: Thomas Flynn
1972: Murray W. Miller
1975: Raymond Schoessling
1985: Weldon Mathis
1991: Tom Sever
1999: Tom Keegel
2012: Ken Hall
2022: Fred Zuckerman
Membership
1933: 75,000 (Depression-era low)
1935: 146,000
1949: 1.0 million
1957: 1.5 million
1976: 2.0 million
1987: 1.0 million
2003: 1.7 million
2008: 1.4 million
2014: 1.2 million
2019: 1.4 million
Divisions and conferences
Brewery and Soft Drink Conference
formerly the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers
Graphic Communications Conference
Newspaper, Magazine and Electronic Media Workers Division
including some Mailers locals from the International Typographical Union
Rail Conference
Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen
Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes
Local 399 (founded 1928), represents workers in the film industry
Archival collections
International Brotherhood of Teamsters Labor History Research Center. At The George Washington University.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America records. 1950–1970. 2.83 cubic feet (4 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Samuel B. Bassett Papers. 1926–1965. 3' linear. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.
Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees Records. 1899–2004. 360 linear feet (353 storage boxes, 2 manuscript boxes, 5 oversize). At the Walter P. Reuther Library.
Jimmy Hoffa FBI Files. 1964–2002. 7 linear feet (7 storage boxes). At the Walter P. Reuther Library.
See also
Organized labour portalTransport portal
2009–10 Federal Aviation Administration Reauthorization Act dispute
1938 New York City truckers strike
Teamsters Canada
Notes
^ A "paper local" is a local union, chartered by an international union or self-chartered, established for the purposes of fraud. It may have no members; the "members" may be relatives or individuals involved in organized crime rather than workers; or the union may claim to represent workers but in fact no relationship has been established. The holder of the charter for the paper local charter often enters into a sweetheart contract with an employer, or uses it as extortion (threatening to unionize the workers unless he receives a payoff). Paper locals are denounced by the AFL-CIO Code of Ethical Practices.
References
Footnotes
^ a b US Department of Labor, Office of Labor-Management Standards. File number 000-093. Report submitted March 30, 2015.
^ "Teamster History Visual Timeline". Archived from the original on December 16, 2019. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
^ a b c d Sloane, Hoffa, 1991.
^ a b c Taft, The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers, 1957.
^ a b
Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925, 1987.
^
Sheridan and Innes alleged that Shea had billed locals in Massachusetts $9.61 for services while charging the national union $19.44 for the same services. "Drivers Bolt Meeting", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 9, 1903.
^
"Drivers Bolt Meeting", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 9, 1903.
^ "Shea Chosen," Boston Daily Globe, August 9, 1903.
^ a b
"Daniel Tobin Dies; Labor Leader, 80; Former President of A. F. L. Teamsters Union Succumbs in Indianapolis Hospital". The New York Times. November 15, 1955.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
Galenson, The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1960.
^ a b
Bernstein, The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-1933, 1972.
^ a b c d
Fitch, Solidarity for Sale, 2006.
^ a b c
Witwer, "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-Century City," Social Science History, Spring 2000.
^ a b
Tilman, "John R. Commons, the New Deal and the American Tradition of Empirical Collectivism," Journal of Economic Issues, September 2008.
^
"Teamsters Are For War", Chicago Daily Tribune, November 23, 1903; "Teamsters Split Over Contracts", Chicago Daily Tribune, November 25, 1903; "Labor's Leader Made to Dance", Chicago Daily Tribune, December 18, 1903.
^
Barrett, Work and Community in the Jungle: Chicago's Packing-House Workers, 1894-1922, 1990; Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54, 1997; "Strike Spreads", Chicago Daily Tribune, July 27, 1904; "Riots In Streets After Nightfall Involve Drivers", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 10, 1904; "Mob of 4,000 Men Charges Police", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 19, 1904; "Meet in Secret to End Strike", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 14, 1904; "Meat Supply in Drivers' Power", Chicago Daily Tribune, September 2, 1904.
^ a b
"Shea, Head of the Teamsters, Has Risen From A Tip-Cart Man," Boston Daily Globe, December 2, 1906; "Strike Spreads Among Drivers", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 9, 1904.
^ a b Cohen, The Racketeer's Progress: Chicago and the Struggle for the Modern American Economy, 1900-1940, 2004.
^
"Gigantic Strike Is In Full Swing", Chicago Daily Tribune, April 28, 1905; "Big Strike Has Small Beginning", Chicago Daily Tribune, May 20, 1905; "To Test Union Sympathy", Chicago Daily Tribune, April 6, 1905.
^ a b
"History of Great Teamsters' Strike Filled with Sensational Incidents", Chicago Daily Tribune, July 21, 1905.
^
"Women Betray Labor Leaders", Chicago Daily Tribune, June 12, 1905.
^ a b c
Witwer, Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union, 2003.
^
"Teamsters Re-Elect Shea," The New York Times, August 13, 1905.
^ "Fight to Defeat Teamster Chief", Chicago Daily Tribune, July 7, 1906; "Teamsters Re-Elect Shea," The New York Times, August 10, 1906.
^ "Jury In Deadlock In the Shea Case", Chicago Daily Tribune, January 20, 1907.
^ a b "Shea's Scepter About to Fall?", Chicago Daily Tribune, March 22, 1907.
^ "Shea Beaten By 10 Votes," Boston Daily Globe, August 10, 1907.
^ a b Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States: The Policies and Practices of the American Federation of Labor, 1900-1909, 1964.
^ a b Fink, Biographical Dictionary of American Labor, 1984.
^ a b Phelan, William Green: Biography of a Labor Leader, 1989.
^ a b c Bernstein, The Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941, 1970.
^ Taft, The A.F. of L. From the Death of Gompers to the Merger, 1959.
^ "Craft Unionists Win in Federation," The New York Times, October 11, 1933.
^ a b c d e f Korth, Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934, 1995.
^ Dubofsky and Van Tine, John L. Lewis: A Biography, 1992.
^ a b Schlesinger, The Age of Roosevelt: The Coming of the New Deal, 1933-1935, 1959.
^ Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen and Unionism in the 1930s, 1988.
^ Garnel, The Rise of Teamster Power in the West, 1972.
^ Galenson claims that Tobin's "personal honesty was never challenged..." See: Galenson, The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1960, p. 471. Other historians challenge this conclusion, but conclude any misdeeds Tobin engaged in are minor compared to those of some Teamsters leaders. See: Garnel, The Rise of Teamster Power in the West, 1972; Witwer, Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union, 2003; Phelan, William Green: Biography of a Labor Leader, 1989.
^ Stark, "White House Link to Conciliate A.F.L.," The New York Times, June 11, 1940; "Tobin, to Aid Flynn, Quits White House," The New York Times, August 27, 1940.
^ "English Labor in War Described By Tobin," The New York Times, September 27, 1942.
^ Stark, "Successor Sought for Miss Perkins," The New York Times, December 11, 1944; "Tobin Endorsed for Labor Post," The New York Times, January 18, 1945; Hulen, "Successors Named," The New York Times, May 24, 1945; "Dan Tobin Refused 2 Cabinet Offers," The New York Times, August 12, 1948.
^ Stark, "Dictatorship Issue Stirs Teamsters," The New York Times, September 14, 1940.
^ "Teamsters Order 2d Ouster in Jersey," Associated Press, March 12, 1941; "Seceding Drivers Face Union Strife," The New York Times, June 11, 1941.
^ "President Summons 'Labor War Board'," The New York Times, February 5, 1942; "President Meets Joint Labor Group," The New York Times, February 7, 1942; "WLB Demands End of Trucking Strike," The New York Times, August 25, 1942; "Tobin Demands Unions Punish Strikers," The New York Times, March 6, 1943; "Tobin Bids Public Insist Work Go On," The New York Times, June 7, 1943; "Truck Tie-Up Halts Freight in South," Associated Press, October 11, 1943; "3 Breweries Face Seizure In Strike," The New York Times, January 14, 1945; "Deliveries Halted on Certified Milk," The New York Times, January 15, 1945; "Tobin Tells Union to Ignore Pickets," Associated Press, May 31, 1945.
^ Raskin, "Union Vote Today," The New York Times, September 12, 1946; Raskin, "Situation Is Eased," The New York Times, September 13, 1946; Lissner, "Tobin Bids Union End Parcel Strike," The New York Times, September 19, 1946; Raskin, "Express Strikers Picket Airfield," The New York Times, October 10, 1947; "Union Head Scores Express Walkout," The New York Times, October 13, 1947; "Tobin Warns Union On Wage Demands," The New York Times, June 4, 1948.
^ Signing the affidavit provided the Teamsters with the protection of the NLRA, which was an important tool in the Teamsters' fight with the Brewery Workers. "Tobin Opposes Law On Labor Disputes," The New York Times, January 19, 1947; "Tobin Signs Affidavit," The New York Times, September 16, 1947; Davies, "Tobin Again Heads Teamsters' Union," The New York Times, August 16, 1947.
^ "Just a Few Polite Questions," Time, March 28, 1949". Time. March 28, 1949. Archived from the original on October 28, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
^ Davies, "Teamsters Defeat Tobin On Tax Rise," The New York Times, August 15, 1947.
^ "Union Editor Is Ousted," Associated Press, September 3, 1948.
^ The NLRB subsequently held an election to determine who should represent the workers at Boeing. The Machinists won the 1949 election by a 2-to-1 margin. See "Beck Said to Top Tobin in Teamsters," The New York Times, September 19, 1948; McCann, Blood in the Water: A History of District Lodge 751, International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, 1989; Rodden, The Fighting Machinists: A Century of Struggle, 1984; Raskin, "Union Leader-And Big Business Man," The New York Times, November 15, 1953.
^ "AFL Teamsters Begin Drastic Revamping," The New York Times, January 18, 1949.
^ "Hickey In New Union Post," Associated Press, August 28, 1951.
^ "D.J. Tobin Set to Retire," The New York Times, September 5, 1952; "Battle for Control of Union Is Revealed," The New York Times, October 7, 1952.
^ Changes to the union constitution included expanding the number of vice-presidents, expanding the number of seats on the executive board, expanding the number of delegates, and enhancing the powers and authority of the president. "Teamsters Raise Tobin's Pay $20,000," The New York Times, October 15, 1952; "Teamster Chiefs Defeat Opposition," The New York Times, October 16, 1952; "Curbs On Officers Rejected By Teamsters," The New York Times, October 17, 1952; "Teamsters Elect Beck As President," Associated Press, October 18, 1952.
^
Levey (August 14, 1953). "A. F. L. Elects Beck to Post In Council". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (August 19, 1953). "Battle for Power Expected in A.F.L.". The New York Times.
^ "Teamsters to Ask Nation-Wide Pacts," The New York Times, September 22, 1953; "Peace Plan Set Up In Truck Industry," The New York Times, August 18, 1955.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Set Up Big Union Drives," The New York Times, February 11, 1956; "Teamsters Map Southern Drive," Associated Press, April 8, 1956.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Plan Big Drive In East," The New York Times, January 10, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Union Buildings Rising in Capital," The New York Times, April 3, 1955; "A.F.L. Teamsters' Union Moves to $5,000,000 Offices," The New York Times, July 6, 1955.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (October 22, 1954). "Beck Denies Surrender". The New York Times.
^ a b Katz, "Teamsters' Union in Control Fight," The New York Times, January 10, 1956.
^ Garnel, The Rise of Teamster Power in the West, 1972; Phelan, William Green: Biography of a Labor Leader, 1989.
^ Touhy, The Stolen Years, 1959; Touhy, When Capone's Mob Murdered Roger Touhy: The Strange Case of "Jake the Barber" and the Kidnapping That Never Happened, 2001; "Touhy Accuses Cop in $40,000 Capone Payoff", Chicago Daily Tribune, May 10, 1949; "Touhy Relates How Syndicate Invaded Unions", Chicago Daily Tribune, September 20, 1952; "Cites Gilbert Link to Labor Rackets", Chicago Daily Tribune, August 10, 1954; "Gangster Says Unions Paid to Fight Capone," United Press International, September 20, 1952.
^ Grutzner, "Racket in Produce By Trucking Union Is Bared At Inquiry," The New York Times, January 27, 1953; Raskin, "A.F.L. Heads Tell Dockers to Clean Union or Get Out," The New York Times, February 4, 1953; "5 Teamster Heads Suspended By Beck," The New York Times, October 23, 1953; "Unionists Held for Trial," Associated Press, October 28, 1953; "7 Bound Over for Trial," The New York Times, October 29, 1953; Loftus, "Beck Takes Over Westchester Unit," The New York Times, December 11, 1953; "Labor Inquiries Pushed," United Press International, December 27, 1953; "Inquiry Accuses Teamster Local," United Press International, February 20, 1954; "Monopoly Is Seen In Garment Wear," The New York Times, April 19, 1955; Ranzal, "U.S. Will Investigate Teamster Rule Here," The New York Times, March 24, 1956.
^ Lee, Farmers Vs. Wage Earners: Organized Labor in Kansas, 1860-1960, 2005; Hyde, The Mafia and the Machine: The Story of the Kansas City Mob, 2008; "Witnesses Tell of Union Threats," Associated Press, June 30, 1953; "Terrorism Laid to Union," Associated Press, July 3, 1953; "Kansas City Labor Held Gang-Ruled," Associated Press, July 4, 1953.
^ "House Blasts Kansas City Tie-Up," The New York Times, September 2, 1953.
^ See: Doherty, Industrial and Labor Relations Terms: A Glossary, 1989; "The Conglomerate of Crime," Time, August 22, 1969.
^ "No Ordinary Hoodlum," The New York Times, August 30, 1956.
^ a b
Loftus, Joseph A. (August 20, 1957). "Top Beck Aide Links Hoffa to 'Phony' Teamster Locals". The New York Times.
^ Raskin, "Teamster Units Stir New Storm," The New York Times, February 4, 1956; Raskin, "Hoffa of the Teamsters Forcing Labor Showndown," The New York Times, March 4, 1956.
^ Ranzal, "7 Teamster Units Face U.S. Inquiry," The New York Times, March 30, 1956; Kihss, Peter. "Local Chartered With No Members," The New York Times, April 25, 1956; Kihss, "Teamsters' Rules Appall U.S. Judge," The New York Times, April 26, 1956; "Racketeer Is Guilty of Contempt," The New York Times, May 10, 1956; Levey, "Writ Restores Lacey As Teamster Leader," The New York Times, May 13, 1956; "Dio Indicted Here In Union Sell-Out," The New York Times, June 20, 1956; "Dio's Locals Face Charter Reviews," The New York Times, June 21, 1956; Raskin, "Senators Study Dio Union Tie-In," The New York Times, September 14, 1956; Roth, "Dio and Unionist Named Extorters," The New York Times, October 30, 1956; "Teamsters Spurn 'Dio Local' Order," The New York Times, December 5, 1956; "Lacey Will Defy Teamster Chief," The New York Times, December 6, 1956; Raskin, "Dio 'Paper' Unions Offer First Dues," The New York Times, December 13, 1956; Raskin, "O'Rourke Wins Post," The New York Times, January 9, 1957.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (January 19, 1957). "Teamsters Aide Balks at Inquiry on Union Rackets". The New York Times.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Avoid Challenge to U.S.," The New York Times, January 24, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Seek Way to Avoid a Showdown," The New York Times, January 27, 1957.
^ "New Senate Unit to Widen Inquiry In Labor Rackets," The New York Times, January 24, 1957; "Teamster Study Is 3 Months Old," The New York Times, May 26, 1957; "Senate Votes Inquiry on Labor Rackets," The New York Times, January 31, 1957.
^ "Chapter 18. Records of Senate Select Committees, 1789-1988," in Guide to the Records of the United States Senate at the National Archives, 1789-1989: Bicentennial Edition, 1989.
^ "Beck Visiting in the Bahamas," The New York Times, February 6, 1957; "Citation Is Asked for 3 Teamsters," The New York Times, February 7, 1957; "Beck On Airliner Bound for London," The New York Times, February 8, 1957; Love, "Beck Denies Aim to Dodge Inquiry," The New York Times, February 9, 1957; "Tourist Beck," The New York Times, February 10, 1957; Raskin, "Beck Slips Back to U.S. and Faces Senate Subpoena," The New York Times, March 11, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Union Dissolves Four Dio Locals," The New York Times, February 15, 1957; Loftus, "Senators Study Two Unions Here," The New York Times, February 16, 1957; "4 Teamsters' Aides Cited for Contempt In Balking Inquiry," The New York Times, February 20, 1957; "Records Destroyed, M'Clellan Charges," The New York Times, February 22, 1957; "More Data of Union Reported Missing," Associated Press, February 23, 1957; "Teamster Admits Destroying Data," The New York Times, March 14, 1957; "A Teamster Local, Under Fire, Robbed," United Press International, March 17, 1957; "Wiretaps on Dio and Hoffa Cited," The New York Times, February 23, 1957; "Labor Inquiry Gets Secret Tape Talks," The New York Times, February 24, 1957; Mooney, "M'Clellan Hunts Auditor of Union and Son of Beck," The New York Times, April 28, 1957.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (February 27, 1957). "Witnesses Link Teamsters Union to Underworld". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (February 28, 1957). "Teamsters Chiefs Tied to Vice Plot and to Gambling". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 2, 1957). "Teamsters Chiefs Charged With Plot to Rule Oregon, Sought All Law Enforcement Powers". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 7, 1957). "Oregon Gambler Tells of Pay-Off". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 8, 1957). "Portland Mayor Accused of Bribe". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 9, 1957). "Portland Called Vice-Ridden Now". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 13, 1957). "Teamsters Paid Gamblers' Bills". The New York Times.
^
"Holmes Denies Charge". The New York Times. March 14, 1957.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 16, 1957). "Brewster Denies Teamsters' Plot to Rule Rackets". The New York Times.
^
"Portland Mayor Seized In Racket, Prosecutor Held". The New York Times. March 29, 1957.
^ Davies, Lawrence (March 3, 1957). "Teamster Rally on Coast Backs Accused Leaders; 11-State Parley Urges Unity to Meet Senate Inquiry's 'Anti-Union' Attacks STAR WITNESS ASSAILED Labor Heads Assert Hearings Are Being Used in Drive to Thwart Bargaining". The New York Times.
^ "Beck Asks Members to Support Leaders". The New York Times. March 20, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Stir Against Leaders," The New York Times, March 22, 1957; "Protests Rise Among Teamsters Against Leaders Now Under Fire," The New York Times, March 23, 1957; Raskin, "Teamster Sentiment Grows to Remove Beck and Aides," The New York Times, March 28, 1957; "Beck Effigy Hanged By Union In Yakima," Associated Press, March 29, 1957; "Portland Teamsters Fight Leaders," Associated Press, March 29, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Hear From Their Chief," The New York Times, March 7, 1957.
^ Raskin, "More Dio Locals Join Teamsters," The New York Times, March 13, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Delay Vote on Dio Units," The New York Times, May 10, 1957.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 14, 1957). "F.B.I. Seizes Hoffa In A Plot To Bribe Senate Staff Aide". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 15, 1957). "Unionist Denies Bribery". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 19, 1957). "U.S. Jury Indicts 4 Teamster Aides Silent In Inquiry". The New York Times.
^
Loftus, Joseph A. (March 20, 1957). "U.S. Jury Indicts Hoffa, Attorney". The New York Times.
^ "8 Hoffa Aides in Detroit Get Subpoenas to Appear Before U.S. Rackets Jury Here," The New York Times, March 20, 1957; "Hoffa, Attorney Plead Not Guilty," The New York Times, March 30, 1957; Loftus, "Hoffa Urges Court to Quash Charges," The New York Times, April 23, 1957; Ranzal, "Jury Here Indicts Hoffa On Wiretap," The New York Times, May 15, 1957.
^ "Beck Says Union Lent Him $300,000 Without Interest," The New York Times, March 18, 1957; Drury, "Teamster Loss Put At $709,420," The New York Times, March 23, 1957; Morris, "Inquiry Tracing Funds Beck Used," The New York Times, March 24, 1957; "Million Teamster Loan To Tracks Under Study," The New York Times, March 30, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Beck Appearance Today Indicated," The New York Times, March 26, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Uses 5th Amendment to Balk Senate Questions About Teamsters' $322,000," The New York Times, March 27, 1957; Loftus, "M'Clellan Scores Beck for 'Theft' of Union's Funds," The New York Times, March 28, 1957.
^ "Inquiry to Stress History of Hoffa," Associated Press, August 11, 1957; Drury, "Two Racketeers Tied to O'Rourke," The New York Times, August 16, 1957; Mooney, "Inquiry Set to Press Hoffa on Role Here," The New York Times, August 18, 1957; Loftus, "Hoffa Says He Got $120,000 In Loans Without Security," The New York Times, August 21, 1957; Loftus, "Senators Reveal Hoffa Bid to Get Dio In Teamsters," The New York Times, August 22, 1957; Loftus, "Hoffa Is Accused of Using Dio in Bid for Control Here," The New York Times, August 23, 1957; "M'Clellan Seeks A Perjury Check On Hoffa Replies," The New York Times, August 25, 1957; Drury, "New Fund Abuses Charged to Hoffa," The New York Times, September 24, 1957; Drury, "M'Clellan Seeks Teamsters' Files," The New York Times, October 11, 1957; "Hoffa Called Ruler of Hoodlum Empire," The New York Times, March 26, 1958.
^ "Union Curbs Foreseen," The New York Times, May 13, 1957; "M'Clellan Sees Stiff Labor Law," The New York Times, May 18, 1957; Loftus, "Congress Disclosures Forecast New Labor Legislation," The New York Times, June 2, 1957; Raskin, "White House Gives Program to Curb Abuses in Unions," The New York Times, December 6, 1957; Higgins and Janus, The Developing Labor Law: The Board, the Courts, and the National Labor Relations Act, 2006; Wilson, "Conquering the Enemy Within: The Case for Reform of the Landrum-Griffin Act," Journal of Labor Research, December 2005; Lee, Eisenhower & Landrum-Griffin: A Study in Labor-Management Politics, 1990; Jacobs, Mobsters, Unions, and Feds: The Mafia and the American Labor Movement, 2006.
^ "Teamster Wins Contempt Test," The New York Times, June 11, 1957.
^ "Beck To Use Fund To Tell His Story," The New York Times, March 29, 1957; "Beck Insists Board Approve Publicity," The New York Times, March 30, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Union Said to Bar 5-Year Beck Plan," The New York Times, April 2, 1957; Loftus, "Union Curbs Beck in Publicity Plan," The New York Times, April 3, 1957; "Collusion Check Set By Senators," The New York Times, April 7, 1957.
^ "Beck Asked to Resign," The New York Times, March 30, 1957; Raskin, "Teamster Leadership Strongly Entrenched," The New York Times, March 31, 1957; Perlmutter, "Teamsters Here Bar $1 Increase in Dues, Vent Anger on Beck," The New York Times, April 1, 1957; Raskin, "Beck Is Rebuffed By Union's Board," The New York Times, April 5, 1957; "Teamsters In Protest," The New York Times, April 7, 1957; "Teamsters In Protest," The New York Times, April 15, 1957; "1,000 Teamsters Ask Inquiry," The New York Times, April 29, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Teamster Board to Meet In Texas," The New York Times, April 12, 1957; Loftus, "Teamsters Start New Fight On Foes," The New York Times, April 13, 1957; Raskin, "Beck 'Taking Rap' On Funds, He Says," The New York Times, April 16, 1957; Raskin, "Beck No Longer Sure of Teamster Control," The New York Times, April 21, 1957; Loftus, "Teamsters Map Fighting Defense," The New York Times, May 6, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Beck Called Back By Senate Inquiry," The New York Times, May 2, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Again Fails to Give Answers," The New York Times, May 9, 1957; Loftus, "Kickback to Beck On Loan Charged," The New York Times, May 10, 1957; Loftus, "Loan of $200,000 to Beck Revealed at Senate Inquiry," The New York Times, May 14, 1957; Drury, "Inquiry Is Told Shefferman Sought $71,500 in Sale of Land to Teamsters," The New York Times, May 16, 1957; Loftus, "$100,000 Repaid By Beck to Union in Last 2 Weeks," The New York Times, May 17, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Aide Pleads the 5th 71 Times," The New York Times, May 18, 1957.
^ "Beck Is Indicted," The New York Times, May 3, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Posts A Bond," The New York Times, May 4, 1957; "Becks Indicted In Sale of Cars," The New York Times, July 13, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Teamster Ouster of Beck Foreseen Before Fall Vote," The New York Times, May 12, 1957; "Oust-Beck Drive Gaining In West," The New York Times, May 19, 1957; "Beck Is Denounced In Teamster Local," The New York Times, May 21, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Here Ask Beck Ouster," The New York Times, May 23, 1957.
^ Walz, "Beck Won't Run For Re-Election," The New York Times, May 26, 1957.
^ "Teamster Chiefs Clashing Over a Successor to Beck," The New York Times, May 27, 1957; "Meany Says Beck Should Quit Now," The New York Times, June 8, 1957; "Beck Said to Make Union Short of Cash," The New York Times, June 12, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Hoffa Acquitted of Bribery Plot, Seeks Beck Post," The New York Times, July 20, 1957.
^ "Union's Support for Hoffa Grows," The New York Times, July 21, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Set to 'Draft' Hoffa," The New York Times, July 25, 1957; Johnston, "Hoffa Will Run For Beck's Post," The New York Times, July 27, 1957; Davies, "Hoffa Maps Drive For Wider Power," The New York Times, August 3, 1957.
^ Hill, "Hoffa Says Rival Failed Union Duty," The New York Times, August 27, 1957; Raskin, "6 Dio Locals Face Teamster Inquiry," The New York Times, September 5, 1957; "Hoffa Bid Facing A Snag In Chicago," Associated Press, September 13, 1957.
^ Hoffa's support was so strong that he did not need the votes of the paper locals. See: Huston, "U.S. Judge Blocks Teamsters' Vote," The New York Times, September 28, 1957; Raskin, "Hoffa's Election Now Is Held Sure," The New York Times, September 29, 1957; Huston, "Teamsters' Poll Upheld In Appeal," The New York Times, September 29, 1957; Raskin, "Hoffa Men Begin A Drive to Purge His Foes In Union," The New York Times, October 1, 1957; Raskin, "Coast Delegates Switch to Hoffa," The New York Times. October 2, 1957; Raskin, "Hoffa Is Elected Teamsters Head," The New York Times, October 5, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Beck Will Retire Early For Hoffa," The New York Times, October 4, 1957.
^ "Hoffa Foes Plan A New Road Block," The New York Times, October 14, 1957; Lewis, "Court Bars Hoffa and New Officers From Union Posts," The New York Times, October 15, 1957; "U.S. Judge Blocks Hoffa Ascent to Presidency of the Teamsters," The New York Times, October 23, 1957.
^ "Teamsters Seek to Void Hoffa Ban," United Press International, October 27, 1957; "Hoffa Ban Upheld By Court Pending Vote Legality Trial," The New York Times, November 5, 1957; "Hoffa Trial Ends in 11-1 Deadlock," The New York Times, December 20, 1957; Raskin, "Hoffa Takes the Wheel of Outcast Teamsters," The New York Times, February 2, 1958.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Facing Meany Showdown," The New York Times. April 7, 1956.
^ Loftus, "Meany Summons Council to Weigh Beck Suspension," The New York Times, April 17, 1956; Raskin, "Meany Wins Round Against Underworld," The New York Times, April 29, 1956; Loftus, "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Votes to Curb Rackets," The New York Times, August 30, 1956; Loftus, "Union Questioned On Hiding of Data," The New York Times, January 18, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Clash Disturbs Meany," The New York Times, January 22, 1957.
^ "Union Would Bar Silent Witnesses," The New York Times, January 27, 1957; Raskin, "Labor Council Tells Unions to Oust Chiefs Using Fifth," The New York Times, January 29, 1957.
^ "Free-Wheeling Teamster," The New York Times, January 29, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Anti-Crime Code Backed By Labor," The New York Times, January 30, 1957; Raskin, "Labor Votes to Curb Rackets," The New York Times, February 1, 1957.
^ Raskin, "3 Unions Ordered to Speed Reforms," The New York Times, February 6, 1957.
^ "Expansion Talks Set By Teamsters," The New York Times, February 21, 1957; "Carey Denounces Beck," The New York Times, March 5, 1957.
^ Drury, "2 Union Leaders Hint Beck Ouster," The New York Times, March 25, 1957; "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Calls Parley on Beck," The New York Times, March 27, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Suspended From 2 Key Jobs By Labor Chiefs," The New York Times, March 30, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Brand A.F.L.-C.I.O. Action On Beck Illegal," The New York Times, April 17, 1957; "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Bars Deal With Beck," The New York Times, April 18, 1957; "Beck Opens Fight On Labor Ouster," The New York Times, April 20, 1957; Loftus, "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Unit Lays Corruption to Beck's Union," The New York Times, May 7, 1957; Katz, "Teamster Ouster Hinted By Meany," The New York Times, May 8, 1957; Spiegel, "Meany Arraigns Labor 'Traitors'," The New York Times, May 11, 1957; Loftus, "Labor-Union Tradition Limits Action on Beck," The New York Times, May 12, 1957; Loftus, "Meany Will Listen to Teamsters' Woe," The New York Times, May 15, 1957; Loftus, "Beck Is Expelled By Labor Council for Fund Misuse," The New York Times, May 21, 1957.
^ Loftus, "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Doubts Teamster Reform," The New York Times, July 7, 1957; Loftus, "Labor Ethics Unit Recalls 2 Unions," The New York Times, July 19, 1957; Loftus, "Teamsters Defy A.F.L.-C.I.O. 'Court'," The New York Times, July 26, 1957; Loftus, "Top Labor Body Sets Showdown With Hoffa," The New York Times, August 11, 1957; Loftus, "Meany Silent on Hoffa Status," The New York Times, August 16, 1957; Hill, "Teamsters Draft A.F.L.-C.I.O. Reply," The New York Times, August 29, 1957; "Teamster Chiefs, At Labor Hearing, Deny Corruption," The New York Times, September 6, 1957; Raskin, "Ouster of Teamsters Now Appears Likely," The New York Times, September 8, 1957; Raskin, "Meany Demands Hoffa Rejection," The New York Times, September 10, 1957; "Meany Set to Bar Corrupt Unions," Associated Press, September 12, 1957; Raskin, "Labor Prepares Teamster Ouster," The New York Times, September 17, 1957; Raskin, "Teamster Union 'Indicted' By Ethical Practices Group," The New York Times, September 18, 1957; Raskin, "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Accuses Hoffa of Aiding Union Criminals," The New York Times, September 19, 1957; Raskin, "Teamster Board Fights A.F.L.-C.I.O.," The New York Times, September 20, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Seek A.F.L.-C.I.O. Delay," The New York Times, September 21, 1957; "Teamsters Bar Answer to Labor," Associated Press, September 22, 1957; Raskin, "Deadline Is Set For Teamsters," The New York Times, September 24, 1957; Raskin, "Teamsters Given Month to Reform By Labor Chiefs," The New York Times, September 26, 1957.
^ Loftus, "Labor Suspends Teamster Union," The New York Times, October 25, 1957.
^ "A.F.L.-C.I.O. to Go Ahead With Expulsion of Teamsters," The New York Times, December 4, 1957; Raskin, "Meany Will Drop Teamster Ouster If Hoffa Gets Out," The New York Times, December 5, 1957; "Teamsters Await Expulsion Today," The New York Times, December 6, 1957; Raskin, "A.F.L.-C.I.O. Ousts Teamsters Union By Vote of 5 to 1," The New York Times, December 7, 1957.
^ Raskin, "Dock Local Bolts to A.F.L. Teamsters in First Secession," The New York Times, September 3, 1953.
^ Raskin, "New Docker Union Free of Gang Rule Planned by A.F.L.," The New York Times, September 19, 1953; Raskin, "A.F.L. Council Votes Dock Union Ouster," The New York Times, September 21, 1953; Raskin, "Ryan's Dock Union Expelled by A.F.L.," The New York Times, September 23, 1953.
^ Raskin, "Pier Jury Seeking to Question Beck," The New York Times, October 23, 1953.
^ "Beck Urges A.F.L. Regain Pier Union," The New York Times, January 29, 1955.
^ "Anastasia Is Elected to High I.L.A. Post," The New York Times, March 19, 1955; "Teamsters Cooling Toward I.L.A. Deal," The New York Times, March 22, 1955.
^ "I.L.A. Pact Defined By Teamster Aide," The New York Times, December 1, 1955.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Union Faces Suspension," The New York Times, March 1, 1956; Raskin, "Beck Set to Fight Any Ouster Move," The New York Times, March 22, 1956.
^ Raskin, "Teamster Leaders Seeking To Restrict Hoffa's Power," The New York Times, March 23, 1956; Raskin, "Teamsters Drop Dock Union Loan," The New York Times, March 27, 1956; Nevard, "I.L.A. Drops Pacts With Teamsters," April 28, 1956.
^ "Teamsters Agree to Mine, Mill Pact," The New York Times, December 4, 1955; Raskin, "Teamsters Drop Tie With Miners," The New York Times, March 9, 1956.
^ "A. F. L. Teamsters Ask C.I.O. Union to Merge," The New York Times, June 24, 1953; "A. F. L. Merger Rejected," The New York Times, July 3, 1953.
^ "7 Brewery Locals Vote to Quit C.I.O.," The New York Times, July 7, 1953; "3 More Brewery Locals Switch to A. F. L.," The New York Times, July 9, 1953; "C.I.O. Calls Beck Threat to Unions," The New York Times, November 17, 1953.
^ Raskin, "A. F. L. Drafts Plan for Ban on Raiding," The New York Times, December 11, 1953; Loftus, "Labor Still Seeks Union Raiding Ban," The New York Times, December 15, 1953; Loftus, "A.F.L. and C.I.O. Sign No-Raiding Accord," The New York Times, December 17, 1953.
^ Raskin, "Teamsters Gird for A.F.L. Battle," The New York Times, February 14, 1954; Raskin, "Teamsters Reject No-Raid Pact," The New York Times, February 19, 1954; Raskin, "Beck Hints Move to End A.F.L. Tie," The New York Times, February 20, 1954; Raskin, "Beck Bars No-Raiding Pact," The New York Times, February 21, 1954.
^ Raskin, "Plan to Aid Peace in A.F.L. Advances," The New York Times, May 14, 1954; Raskin, "Labor Unity Pacts Sealed By Unions," The New York Times, May 15, 1954; Loftus, "Unions Will Sign Non-Raiding Pact," The New York Times, June 7, 1954; "94 Unions Accept No-Raiding Pact," The New York Times, June 10, 1954.
^ Levey, "Union Raiding Ban Drafted By A.F.L.," The New York Times, August 14, 1954.
^ Raskin, "Beck Puts Brake on Labor Merger," The New York Times, January 28, 1955; Raskin, "Beck Joins Move for Labor Unity," The New York Times, February 11, 1955.
^ The Teamsters by Steven Brill; 1978 Simon and Schuster; New York, New York ISBN 978-0-671-22771-5
^ According to the Teamsters, but disputed by UFW, these contracts had purposefully low wages and benefits so as not to make the UFW contracts look bad. See: "Teamsters End a Truce With Chavez's United Farm Workers." The New York Times. December 15, 1972.
^ Turner, Wallace. "Teamsters Sued by Chavez's Union." The New York Times. January 5, 1973; Shabecoff, Philip. "Meany Criticizes Teamsters' Drive." The New York Times. April 19, 1973; "Chavez Tackles the Teamsters." The New York Times. April 22, 1973; Shabecoff, Philip. "Chavez Union Struggling for Survival." The New York Times. June 27, 1973; "Teamsters Repudiate Contracts As Chavez Quits Grape Talks." The New York Times. August 11, 1973.
^ a b ""Rendering to Cesar." Time. September 22, 1975". Time. September 22, 1975. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
^ Bacon, David. The Children of NAFTA: Labor Wars on the U.S./Mexico Border. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-520-23778-0; Rosales, Francisco Arturo. Chicano!: The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement. Houston, Tex.: Arte Publico Press, 1997. ISBN 978-1-55885-201-3; Lifsher, Marc. "UFW Seeks New Way to Organize." Los Angeles Times. September 14, 2007.
^ a b Shabecoff, Philip. "Chavez Reaches Tentative Accord." The New York Times. September 28, 1973.
^ "Chavez Says Pact Means Teamsters Will Leave Fields." The New York Times. September 29, 1973; "Meany Hints Teamster Accord With Chavez May Be Near End." The New York Times. October 16, 1973; Shabecoff, Philip. "Teamsters Shift Stand on Coast." The New York Times. November 8, 1973; "Meany Says Teamsters Renege On a Farm Labor Peace Accord." The New York Times. November 17, 1973; "Teamsters Start Farm Union Local." The New York Times. June 7, 1974; "Teamsters Local Termed in 'Chaos'." The New York Times. November 10, 1974.
^ Caldwell, Earl. "Picket Shot, Many More Arrested in Grape Strike." The New York Times. August 3, 1973; "New Strife Nears in Grape Dispute." The New York Times. September 16, 1973.
^ Turner, Wallace. "Chavez and Teamsters Sign Accord." The New York Times. March 11, 1977.
^ "Brewery Workers Merger With Teamsters Is Backed." The New York Times. October 24, 1973.
^ "Background of the IRB". March 18, 2005. Archived from the original on March 18, 2005.
^ a b US Department of Labor, Office of Labor-Management Standards. File number 000-093. (Search)
^ Amber and Bologna, "Departure of SEIU, Teamsters Creates Split Within AFL-CIO on Convention's Opening Day," Labor Relations Week, July 28, 2005.
^ Tillman, p. 139-140.
^ a b c Jacobs, p. 111.
^ a b c Ryan, p. 418.
^ Tillman, p. 140.
^ "Chicago Tribune - Historical Newspapers". July 19, 2023.
^ Only 10 of the 13 candidates running on Carey's slate were members of TDU. The Carey slate did not contest three of the seats on the Teamsters executive board. See: Kilborn, Peter T. "Carey Takes the Wheel." The New York Times. June 21, 1992. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ McFadden, Robert D. "New Teamster Chief's Motto: Honest Work for Honest Pay." The New York Times. December 15, 1991. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ Jacobs and Cooperman, p. 146.
^ West, Jim. "Can Hoffa 'Restore the Power'?" Labor Notes. January 7, 1999. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ "Hoffa Re-Elected Teamsters President." Labor Notes. November 27, 2006. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ Greenhouse, Steven. "In the Teamsters, a Candidate Tries to Break the Mold." The New York Times. June 27, 2011. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ Moberg, David. "Hoffa Re-elected as Teamsters President, Easily Beating Two Challengers." Archived February 27, 2019, at the Wayback Machine In These Times. November 19, 2011. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
^ "Hoffa wins Teamsters election". Politico. November 21, 2016.
^ Scheiber, Noam (November 19, 2021). "A Hoffa Ally, Then a Foe, and Soon the Teamsters President". The New York Times. Retrieved November 21, 2021.
^ "O'brien-Zuckerman, General Executive Board Begin Five-Year Term".
^ "NLRB Case 05-CA-303660".
^ "IBT Settlement with the Attorney General for the District of Columbia".
^ "Donor Profiles". Opensecrets.org. Archived from the original on May 4, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
^ "Teamsters endorse Obama for president" Archived May 8, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Cnn.com ElectionCenter2008
^ "Sinn Fein war chest swells as global ties pay big dividends" Irish Independent
^ "Banker with Lehman links among SF donors" Irish Times
^ a b c d e f g "Teamsters History and Timeline". George Washington University. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ "A Gathering of Teamsters: A Look at the First Five Decades of Convention History" (PDF). International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ "THOMAS FLYNN, 64, TEAMSTER OFFICIAL". The New York Times. March 11, 1972. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ Moore, Janet (December 7, 2020). "Tom Keegel, U.S. Teamsters leader, dies at 79". Star Tribune. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ "West Virginia Labor Leader Ken Hall Retires as General Secretary-treasurer of the Teamsters". PR Newswire. March 18, 2022. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ Cypress, KC (March 22, 2022). "O'BRIEN-ZUCKERMAN, GENERAL EXECUTIVE BOARD BEGIN FIVE-YEAR TERM". International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
^ Hewitt, Zoe (April 18, 2018). "Teamsters' Seniority System May Not Work Well for Other Crafts, Guilds". Variety. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
^ "The Union | Teamsters Local 399 Hollywood". Teamsters Local 399 Hollywood. 2024. Retrieved March 18, 2024.
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"Battle for Control of Union Is Revealed." The New York Times. October 7, 1952.
"Beck Said to Top Tobin in Teamsters." The New York Times. September 19, 1948.
Bernstein, Irving. The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-1933. Paperback ed. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1972. ISBN 978-0-395-13657-7 (Originally published 1960.)
Bernstein, Irving. The Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941. Paperback edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1970. ISBN 978-0-395-11778-1 (Originally published 1969.)
"Big Strike Has Small Beginning." Chicago Daily Tribune. May 20, 1905.
Brill, Steven. The Teamsters. Paperback ed. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979. ISBN 978-0-671-82905-6
Bruno, Robert. Reforming the Chicago Teamsters: The Story of Local 705. Chicago: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-87580-596-2
Cohen, Andrew Wender. The Racketeer's Progress: Chicago and the Struggle for the Modern American Economy, 1900-1940. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-83466-7
Commons, John R. "The Teamsters of Chicago." In Trade Unionism and Labor Problems. John R. Commons, ed. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1905.
"Craft Unionists Win in Federation." The New York Times. October 11, 1933.
"Curbs On Officers Rejected By Teamsters." The New York Times. October 17, 1952.
"D.J. Tobin Set to Retire." The New York Times. September 5, 1952.
"Dan Tobin Refused 2 Cabinet Offers." The New York Times. August 12, 1948.
"Daniel Tobin Dies." The New York Times. November 15, 1955.
Davies, Lawrence E. "Teamsters Defeat Tobin On Tax Rise." The New York Times. August 15, 1947.
Davies, Lawrence E. "Tobin Again Heads Teamsters' Union." The New York Times. August 16, 1947.
"Deliveries Halted on Certified Milk." The New York Times. January 15, 1945.
Dobbs, Farrell. Teamster Bureaucracy. Paperback 1st ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-913460-53-5
Dobbs, Farrell. Teamster Politics. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1975. ISBN 978-0-87348-862-4
Dobbs, Farrell. Teamster Power. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1973. ISBN 978-0-913460-20-7
Dobbs, Farrell. Teamster Rebellion. Paperback ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-87348-845-7
"Drivers Bolt Meeting." Chicago Daily Tribune. August 9, 1903.
Dubofsky, Warren and Van Tine, Warren. John L. Lewis: A Biography. Reprint ed. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8129-0673-8
"English Labor in War Described By Tobin." The New York Times. September 27, 1942.
"Fight to Defeat Teamster Chief." Chicago Daily Tribune. July 7, 1906.
Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-313-22865-0
Fitch, Robert. Solidarity for Sale. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books Group, 2006. ISBN 978-1-891620-72-0
Foner, Philip S. History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Vol. 3: The Policies and Practices of the American Federation of Labor, 1900-1909. Paperback ed. New York: International Publishers, 1964. ISBN 978-0-7178-0389-7
Friedman, Allen and Schwarz, Ted. Power and Greed: Inside the Teamsters Empire of Corruption. New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, 1989. ISBN 978-0-531-15105-1
Friedman, Samuel. Teamster Rank and File: Power, Bureaucracy, and Rebellion at Work and in a Union. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. ISBN 978-0-231-05372-3
Galenson, Walter. The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1960. ISBN 978-0-674-13150-7
Garnel, Donald. The Rise of Teamster Power in the West. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972. ISBN 978-0-520-01733-7
"Gigantic Strike Is In Full Swing." Chicago Daily Tribune. April 28, 1905.
Halpern, Rick. Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-252-02337-8
"Hickey In New Union Post." Associated Press. August 28, 1951.
"History of Great Teamsters' Strike Filled with Sensational Incidents." Chicago Daily Tribune. July 21, 1905.
Hulen, Bertram D. "Successors Named." The New York Times. May 24, 1945.
Jacobs, James B. Mobsters, Unions, and Feds: The Mafia and the American Labor Movement. New York: NYU Press, 2006.
Jacobs, James B. and Cooperman, Kerry T. Breaking the Devil's Pact: The Battle to Free the Teamsters From the Mob. New York: NYU Press, 2011.
James, Ralph C. and James, Estelle Dinerstein. Hoffa and the Teamsters: A Study of Union Power. New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1965.
"Jury In Deadlock In the Shea Case." Chicago Daily Tribune. January 20, 1907.
"Just a Few Polite Questions." Time. March 28, 1949.
Katz, Ralph. "Teamsters' Union in Control Fight." The New York Times. January 10, 1956.
Korth, Philip. Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-87013-385-5
Kumar, Deepa; McChesney, Robert W.; and Nerone, John C., eds. Outside the Box: Corporate Media, Globalization, and the UPS Strike. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-252-03172-4
La Botz, Dan. Rank and File Rebellion: Teamsters for a Democratic Union. San Francisco: Analytical Psychology Club of San Francisco, 1990. ISBN 978-0-86091-289-7
"Labor's Leader Made to Dance." Chicago Daily Tribune. December 18, 1903.
Lissner, Will. "Tobin Bids Union End Parcel Strike." The New York Times. September 19, 1946.
McCann, John (1989). Blood in the Water: A History of District Lodge 751, International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Seattle: District Lodge 751. OCLC 20416860.
"Meat Supply in Drivers' Power." Chicago Daily Tribune. September 2, 1904.
"Meet in Secret to End Strike." Chicago Daily Tribune. August 14, 1904.
"Mob of 4,000 Men Charges Police." Chicago Daily Tribune. August 19, 1904.
Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925. New York: University of Cambridge Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-521-22579-3
Neff, James. Mobbed up: Jackie Presser's High-Wire Life in the Teamsters, the Mafia, and the FBI. New York: Grove/Atlantic, Inc., 1989. ISBN 978-0-87113-344-1
Nelson, Bruce. Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen and Unionism in the 1930s. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-252-01487-1
Phelan, Craig. William Green: Biography of a Labor Leader. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-88706-870-6
"President Meets Joint Labor Group." The New York Times. February 7, 1942.
"President Summons 'Labor War Board'." The New York Times. February 5, 1942.
Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. New York: Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 978-0-312-36181-5
Raskin, A.H. "Express Strikers Picket Airfield." The New York Times. October 10, 1947.
Raskin, A.H. "Situation Is Eased." The New York Times. September 13, 1946.
Raskin, A.H. "Union Leader-And Big Business Man." The New York Times. November 15, 1953.
Raskin, A.H. "Union Vote Today." The New York Times. September 12, 1946.
"Riots In Streets After Nightfall Involve Drivers." Chicago Daily Tribune. August 10, 1904.
Rodden, Robert G. The Fighting Machinists: A Century of Struggle. Washington, DC: Kelly Press, Inc. 1984.
Ryan, Charlotte. "It Takes A Movement to Raise an Issue: Media Lessons From the 1997 U.P.S. Strike." In Culture, Power, and History: Studies in Critical Sociology. Stephen J. Pfohl, Aimee Van Wagenen, Patricia Arend, Abigail Brooks, and Denise Leckenby, eds. Boston: Brill, 2005.
"Seceding Drivers Face Union Strife." The New York Times. June 11, 1941.
"Shea Beaten By 10 Votes." Boston Daily Globe. August 10, 1907.
"Shea Chosen." Boston Daily Globe. August 9, 1903.
"Shea, Head of the Teamsters, Has Risen From A Tip-Cart Man." Boston Daily Globe. December 2, 1906.
"Shea's Scepter About to Fall?" Chicago Daily Tribune. March 22, 1907.
Sloane, Arthur A. Hoffa. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-262-19309-2
Stark, Louis. "Dictatorship Issue Stirs Teamsters." The New York Times. September 14, 1940.
Stark, Louis. "Successor Sought for Miss Perkins." The New York Times. December 11, 1944.
Stark, Louis. "White House Link to Conciliate A.F.L." The New York Times. June 11, 1940.
"Strike Spreads." Chicago Daily Tribune. July 27, 1904.
"Strike Spreads Among Drivers." Chicago Daily Tribune. August 9, 1904.
Taft, Philip. The A.F. of L. in the Time of Gompers. Hardback reprint. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957. ISBN 978-0-374-97734-4
Taft, Philip. The A.F. of L. From the Death of Gompers to the Merger. Hardback reprint ed. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959. ISBN 978-0-374-97714-6
"Teamster Chiefs Defeat Opposition." The New York Times. October 16, 1952.
"Teamsters Are For War." Chicago Daily Tribune. November 23, 1903.
"Teamsters Elect Beck As President." Associated Press. October 18, 1952.
"Teamsters Order 2d Ouster in Jersey." Associated Press. March 12, 1941.
"Teamsters Re-Elect Shea." The New York Times. August 13, 1905.
"Teamsters Re-Elect Shea." The New York Times. August 10, 1906.
"Teamsters Split Over Contracts." Chicago Daily Tribune. November 25, 1903.
"3 Breweries Face Seizure In Strike." The New York Times. January 14, 1945.
Tilman, Rick. "John R. Commons, the New Deal and the American Tradition of Empirical Collectivism." Journal of Economic Issues. September 2008.
Tillman, Ray M. "Reform Movement in the Teamsters and United Auto Workers." In The Transformation of U.S. Unions: Voices, Visions, and Strategies from the Grassroots. Ray M. Tillman and Michael S. Cummings, eds. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999. ISBN 978-1-55587-812-2
"To Test Union Sympathy." Chicago Daily Tribune. April 6, 1905.
"Tobin Bids Public Insist Work Go On." The New York Times. June 7, 1943.
"Tobin Demands Unions Punish Strikers." The New York Times. March 6, 1943.
"Tobin Endorsed for Labor Post." The New York Times. January 18, 1945.
"Tobin Opposes Law On Labor Disputes." The New York Times. January 19, 1947.
"Tobin Signs Affidavit." The New York Times. September 16, 1947.
"Tobin Tells Union to Ignore Pickets." Associated Press. May 31, 1945.
"Tobin, to Aid Flynn, Quits White House." The New York Times. August 27, 1940.
"Truck Tie-Up Halts Freight in South." Associated Press. October 11, 1943.
"Tobin Warns Union On Wage Demands." The New York Times. June 4, 1948.
"Union Editor Is Ousted." Associated Press. September 3, 1948.
"Union Head Scores Express Walkout." The New York Times. October 13, 1947.
"WLB Demands End of Trucking Strike." The New York Times. August 25, 1942.
Witwer, David. Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-252-02825-0
Witwer, David. "Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-Century City." Social Science History. 24:1 (Spring 2000).
"Women Betray Labor Leaders." Chicago Daily Tribune. June 12, 1905.
External links
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Official site of the Independent Review Board
Teamsters' involvement in the City Front Federation strike in San Francisco in 1901
The Washington Teamster (1940-1943) Archived September 13, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, from the Labor Press Project
1934 Minneapolis Strike Reprinted from Revolutionary History, Vol.2 No.1, Spring 1989. Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved April 3, 2004.
Trotskyist Work in the Trade Unions, by Chris Knox Archived May 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
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Formed in 1903 by the merger of the Team Drivers International Union and the Teamsters National Union,[2] the union now represents a diverse membership of blue- and white-collar workers in both the public and private sectors, totalling about 1.3 million members in 2015.[1] The union was formerly called the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America.","title":"International Brotherhood of Teamsters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters,_Strikes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters,_Strikes&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters,_Strikes"},{"link_name":"Teamster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Chicago_teamsters%27_strike"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_general_strike_of_1934"},{"link_name":"NYC truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938_New_York_City_truckers_strike"},{"link_name":"NYC truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1946_New_York_City_truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nationwide truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1967_US_truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nationwide truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1970_US_truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nationwide truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1976_US_Truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Coors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coors_strike_and_boycott#Strike_action"},{"link_name":"Nationwide truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1979_US_Truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Watsonville Cannery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%E2%80%931987_Watsonville_Cannery_strike"},{"link_name":"Nationwide truckers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1994_US_truckers_strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"United Parcel Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_United_Parcel_Service_strike"},{"link_name":"Overnite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1999_Teamster_Overnite_Strike&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Alabama Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Alabama_Coca-Cola_strike"},{"link_name":"Atlanta sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Atlanta_sanitation_strike"},{"link_name":"Hunts Point Produce Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Hunts_Point_Produce_Market_strike"},{"link_name":"St. Paul refinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_St._Paul_Park_refinery_strike"}],"text":"vteTeamster strikes\n1900s–1960s\nChicago 1905\nMinneapolis general 1934\nNYC truckers 1938\nNYC truckers 1946\nNationwide truckers 1967\nNationwide truckers 1970\n1970s–2000s\nNationwide truckers 1976\nCoors 1977-1978\nNationwide truckers 1979\nWatsonville Cannery 1985–1987\nNationwide truckers 1994\nUnited Parcel Service 1997\nOvernite 1999\n2000s–2020s\nAlabama Coca-Cola 2018\nAtlanta sanitation 2018\nHunts Point Produce Market 2021\nSt. Paul refinery 2021","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Federation of Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor"},{"link_name":"teamsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamster"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sloane-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taft-4"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sloane-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sloane-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taft-4"},{"link_name":"Cornelius Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Shea"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sloane-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taft-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Montgomery-5"},{"link_name":"embezzlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelius_Shea.png"},{"link_name":"Cornelius Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Shea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cornelius_P._Shea,_John_Miller,_Fred_Mader,_and_Tim_Murphy_sitting_in_a_row_in_a_courtroom.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cornelius P. Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Shea"},{"link_name":"Fred Mader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Mader"},{"link_name":"Tim Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_D._Murphy"},{"link_name":"American Federation of Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Obit-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein1-11"},{"link_name":"strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"sympathy strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathy_strike"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Montgomery-5"},{"link_name":"organized crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized_crime"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitch-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerUnionized-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tilman-14"},{"link_name":"Chicago City Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_City_Railway"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"strikebreakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikebreaker"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitch-12"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiseSpread-17"},{"link_name":"Cincinnati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RiseSpread-17"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitch-12"},{"link_name":"10,000 teamsters struck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905_Chicago_teamsters%27_strike"},{"link_name":"locked-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockout_(industry)"},{"link_name":"Montgomery Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_Ward"},{"link_name":"picket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picketing"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cohen-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BigStrike-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cohen-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerCorruption-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"mistrial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mistrial_(law)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scepter-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scepter-26"},{"link_name":"Daniel J. Tobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_J._Tobin"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Early history","text":"The American Federation of Labor (AFL) had helped form local unions of teamsters since 1887. In November 1898, the AFL organized the Team Drivers' International Union (TDIU).[3][4] In 1901, a group of teamsters in Chicago, Illinois, broke from the TDIU and formed the Teamsters National Union.[3] Unlike the TDIU, which permitted large employers to be members, the new Teamsters National Union permitted only employees, teamster helpers, and owner-operators owning only a single team to join, and advocated higher wages and shorter hours more aggressively than the TDIU.[3] Claiming more than 28,000 members in 47 locals, its president, Albert Young, applied for membership in the AFL. The AFL asked the TDIU to merge with Young's union to form a new, AFL-affiliated union and the two groups did so in 1903, forming the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT),[4] and electing Cornelius Shea as the new union's first president.[3][4] The election process proved tumultuous. Shea effectively controlled the convention because the Chicago locals—representing nearly half the IBT's membership[5]—supported his candidacy en bloc. Shea was opposed by John Sheridan, president of the Ice Drivers' Union of Chicago. Sheridan and George Innes, president of the TDIU, accused Shea of embezzlement in an attempt to prevent his election.[6] Shea won the election on August 8, 1903, by a vote of 605 to 480. The new grouping elected Edward L. Turley of Chicago as secretary-treasurer and Albert Young as general organizer.[7][8]Cornelius Shea, first General President of the Teamsters, circa 1905Informal portrait of (left to right) Cornelius P. Shea, John Miller, Fred Mader, and Tim Murphy sitting in a row in a courtroom in Chicago, Illinois, during a labor trial. Murphy was a politician, union organizer, and reputed gangster, and he was murdered in 1928.The union, like most unions within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) at the time, had a largely decentralized structure, with a number of local unions that governed themselves autonomously and tended to look only after their own interests in the geographical jurisdiction in which they operated.[9][10][11]\nThe teamsters were vitally important to the labor movement, for a strike or sympathy strike by the teamsters could paralyze the movement of goods throughout a city and bring a strike into nearly every neighborhood.[5] It also meant that teamsters leaders were able to demand bribes in order to avoid strikes, and control of a teamsters local could bring organized crime significant revenues. During Shea's presidency, the entire teamsters union was notoriously corrupt.[12][13][14]Several major strikes occupied the union in its first three years. In November 1903, teamsters employed by the Chicago City Railway went out on strike. Shea attempted to stop sympathy strikes by other teamster locals, but three locals walked out and eventually disaffiliated over the sympathy-strike issue.[15] A sympathy strike in support of 18,000 striking meat cutters in Chicago in July 1904 led to riots before the extensive use of strikebreakers led Shea to force his members back to work (leading to the collapse of the meat cutters' strike).[12][16][17] In the midst of the strife in 1904, the teamsters convention in Cincinnati, Ohio, re-elected Shea by acclamation on August 8, 1904.[17] Under his leadership, the union had expanded to nearly 50,000 members in 821 locals in 300 cities, making the Teamsters one of the largest unions in the United States.[12]In 1905 10,000 teamsters struck in support of locked-out tailors at Montgomery Ward, and eventually more than 25,000 teamsters manned the picket lines.[18][19][20]\nBut when local newspapers discovered that Shea was living in a local brothel, kept a 19-year-old waitress as a mistress, and had spent the strike hosting parties, public support for the strike collapsed and the strike ended on August 1, 1905.[18][20][21][22] Despite the revelations, Shea won re-election on August 12, 1905, by a vote of 129 to 121.[23]Shea was re-elected again in 1905 and 1906, although significant challenges to his presidency occurred each time.[24] Shea's first trial on charges stemming from the 1905 Montgomery Ward strike ended in a mistrial.[25] However, during the 1906 re-election Shea had promised that he would resign the presidency once his trial had ended.[26] But he did not, and most union members withdrew their support for him.[26] Daniel J. Tobin of Boston was elected Shea's successor by a vote of 104 to 94 in August 1907.[27]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foner1-28"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Obit-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein1-11"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fink-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phelan-30"},{"link_name":"Dave Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Beck"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"federal union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directly_Affiliated_Local_Union"},{"link_name":"International Longshoremen's Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longshoremen%27s_Association"},{"link_name":"Retail Clerks International Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail_Clerks_International_Union"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Railway Clerks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_Communications_International_Union"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein2-31"},{"link_name":"United Brewery Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_United_Brewery,_Flour,_Cereal,_Soft_Drink_and_Distillery_Workers"},{"link_name":"Prohibition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foner1-28"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taft2-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_raid"},{"link_name":"National Industrial Recovery Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis"},{"link_name":"Farrell Dobbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrell_Dobbs"},{"link_name":"Carl Skoglund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Skoglund"},{"link_name":"Trotskyist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism"},{"link_name":"Communist League of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_League_of_America"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"martial law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_law"},{"link_name":"Governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Floyd B. Olson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd_B._Olson"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein2-31"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schlesinger-36"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein2-31"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Korth-34"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schlesinger-36"},{"link_name":"West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Harry Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Bridges"},{"link_name":"International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longshoremen%27s_and_Warehousemen%27s_Union"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_raid"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Organizing and growth during the Great Depression","text":"Tobin was president of the Teamsters from 1907 to 1952. Although he faced opposition in his re-election races in 1908, 1909 and 1910, he never faced opposition again until his retirement in 1952.[28]The Teamsters began to expand dramatically and mature organizationally under Tobin. He pushed for the development of \"joint councils\" to which all local unions were forced to affiliate. Varying in geographical and industrial jurisdiction, the joint councils became important incubators for up-and-coming leadership and negotiating master agreements which covered all employers in a given industry. Tobin also actively discouraged strikes in order to bring discipline to the union and encourage employers to sign contracts, and founded and edited the union magazine, the International Teamster.[9][10][11][29][30] Under Tobin, the Teamsters also first developed the \"regional conference\" system (developed by Dave Beck in Seattle), which provided stability, organizing strength, and leadership to the international union.[10]Tobin undertook long jurisdictional battles with many unions during this period. Fierce disputes occurred between the Teamsters and the Gasoline State Operators' National Council (an AFL federal union of gas station attendants), the International Longshoremen's Association, the Retail Clerks International Union, and the Brotherhood of Railway Clerks.[10][31] The most significant disagreement, however, was with the United Brewery Workers over the right to represent beer wagon drivers. While the Teamsters lost this battle in 1913, when the AFL awarded jurisdiction to the Brewers, they won when the issue came before the AFL Executive Board again in 1933, when the Brewers were still recovering from their near-elimination during Prohibition.[10][28][32][33] The raids and new member organizing in the 1930s led to significant membership increases. Teamster membership stood at just 82,000 in 1932. Tobin took advantage of the wave of pro-union sentiment engendered by the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act, and by 1935 union membership had increased nearly 65 percent to 135,000. By 1941, Tobin had a dues-paying membership of 530,000—making the Teamsters the fastest-growing labor union in the United States.[10]One of the most significant events in union history occurred in 1934. A group of radicals in Local 574 in Minneapolis—led by Farrell Dobbs, Carl Skoglund, and the Dunne brothers (Ray, Miles and Grant), all members of the Trotskyist Communist League of America—began successfully organizing coal truck drivers in the winter of 1933.[34] Tobin, an ardent anti-communist,[35] opposed their efforts and refused to support their 1933 strike.[34] Local 574 struck again in 1934, leading to several riots over a nine-day period in May.[34] When the employers' association reneged on the agreement, Local 574 resumed the strike, although it ended again after nine days when martial law was declared by Governor Floyd B. Olson.[34] Although Local 574 won a contract recognizing the union and which broke the back of the anti-union Citizens Alliance in Minneapolis, Tobin expelled Local 574 from the Teamsters. Member outrage was extensive, and in August 1936 he was forced to recharter the local as 544.[10][31][34][36] Within a year the newly formed Local 544 had organized 250,000 truckers in the Midwest and formed the Central Conference of Teamsters.[10][31][34][36]Extensive organizing also occurred in the West. Harry Bridges, radical leader of the International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU), was leading \"the march inland\"—an attempt to organize warehouse workers away from shipping ports.[10][37] Alarmed by Bridges' radical politics and worried that the ILWU would encroach on Teamster jurisdictions, Dave Beck formed a large regional organization (the Western Conference of Teamsters) to engage in fierce organizing battles and membership raids against the ILWU which led to the establishment of many new locals and the organization of tens of thousands of new members.[10][38]But corruption became even more widespread in the Teamsters during the Tobin administration. By 1941, the union was considered the most corrupt in the United States, and the most abusive towards its own members. Tobin vigorously defended the union against such accusations, but also instituted many constitutional and organizational changes and practices which made it easier for union officials to engage in criminal offenses.[39]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"Franklin D. Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Secretary of Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Fala speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fala_speech"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"raiding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_raid"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phelan-30"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"great post-war wave of labor strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946"},{"link_name":"UPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service"},{"link_name":"Railway Express Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_Express_Agency"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Taft–Hartley Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Dave Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Beck"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fink-29"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Hoffa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Hoffa"},{"link_name":"raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_raid"},{"link_name":"International Association of Machinists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Machinists"},{"link_name":"Boeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"World War II and the post-war period","text":"By the beginning of World War II, the Teamsters was one of the most powerful unions in the country, and Teamster leaders were influential in the corridors of power. Union membership had risen more than 390 percent between 1935 and 1941 to 530,000.[10] In June 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Tobin to be the official White House liaison to organized labor, and later that year chair of the Labor Division of the Democratic National Committee.[10][40] In 1942, President Roosevelt appointed Tobin special representative to the United Kingdom and charged him with investigating the state of the labor movement there.[41] Tobin was considered three times for Secretary of Labor, and twice refused the post—in 1943 and 1947.[42] On September 23, 1944, Roosevelt gave his famous \"Fala speech\" while campaigning in the 1944 presidential election. Because of Roosevelt's strong relationship with Tobin and the union's large membership, the President delivered his speech before the Teamster convention.[10]Nonetheless, Teamsters members were restive. Dissident members of the union accused the leadership of suppressing democracy in the union, a charge Tobin angrily denied.[43] Over the next year, Tobin cracked down on dissidents and several large locals led by his political opponents.[44]During World War II, The Teamsters strongly endorsed the American labor movement's no-strike pledge. The Teamsters agreed to cease raiding other unions and not strike for the duration of the national emergency. Tobin even ordered Teamsters members to cross picket lines put up by other unions. Nevertheless, the national leadership sanctioned strikes by Midwestern truckers in August 1942, Southern truckers in October 1943, and brewery workers and milk delivery drivers in January 1945.[30][45] The Teamsters did not, however, participate in the great post-war wave of labor strikes. In the two years following the cessation of hostilities, the Teamsters struck only three times: 10,000 truckers in New Jersey struck for two weeks; workers at UPS struck nationwide for three weeks; and workers at Railway Express Agency struck for almost a month.[46]Teamsters leaders strongly opposed enactment of the Taft–Hartley Act and repeatedly called for its repeal. Tobin, however, was one of the first labor leaders to sign the non-communist affidavit required by the law.[47]The great wave of organizing which the union engaged in during the Great Depression and the war significantly boosted the political power of a number of regional Teamsters leaders, and the leadership of the union engaged in a number of power struggles in the post-war period. By 1949, the union's membership had topped one million.[48] Dave Beck (elected an international vice-president in 1940) was increasingly influential in the international union, and Tobin attempted to check his growing power but failed.[10] In 1946, Beck successfully overcame Tobin's opposition and won approval of an amendment to the union's constitution creating the post of executive vice-president. Beck then won the 1947 election to fill the position.[29] Beck also successfully opposed in 1947 a Tobin-backed dues increase to fund new organizing.[49] The following year, Beck was able to demand the ouster of the editor of International Teamster magazine and install his own man in the job.[50]In 1948, Beck allied with his long-time rival Jimmy Hoffa and effectively seized control of the union. He announced a raid on the International Association of Machinists local at Boeing. Although Tobin publicly repudiated Beck's actions, Beck had more than enough support from Hoffa and other members of the executive board to force Tobin to back down.[51] Five months later, Beck won approval of a plan to dissolve the union's four divisions and replace them with 16 divisions organized around each of the major job categories in the union's membership.[52] In 1951, Tom Hickey, reformist leader of the Teamsters in New York City, won election to the Teamsters executive board. Tobin needed Beck's support to prevent Hickey's election, and Beck refused to give it.[53]On September 4, 1952, Tobin announced he would step down as president of the Teamsters at the end of his term.[54] At the union's 1952 convention, Beck was elected General President and pushed through a number of changes intended to make it harder for a challenger to build the necessary majority to unseat a president or reject his policies.[55]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Meany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Meany"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"master contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_contract_(labor)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Deep South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_South"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Washington, DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"United States Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KatzControl-63"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitch-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerUnionized-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tilman-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Galenson-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerUnionized-13"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerCorruption-22"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Roger Touhy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Touhy"},{"link_name":"Al Capone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capone"},{"link_name":"Chicago Outfit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Outfit"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"extortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion"},{"link_name":"rackets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket_(crime)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WitwerCorruption-22"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"US House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Robert F. 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118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_citation"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_R._Hoffa_NYWTS.jpg"},{"link_name":"AFL–CIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_raid"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"International Longshoremen's Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Longshoremen%27s_Association"},{"link_name":"stevedores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevedore"},{"link_name":"East Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Anthony \"Tough Tony\" Anastasio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Anastasio"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Mine, Mill & Smelter Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"}],"sub_title":"Influence of organized crime","text":"Beck was elected to the Executive Council of the AFL on August 13, 1953, but his election generated a tremendous political battle between AFL President George Meany, who supported his election, and federation vice presidents who felt Beck was corrupt and should not be elected to the post.[56][57] Beck was the first Teamster president to negotiate a nationwide master contract and a national grievance arbitration plan,[58] established organizing drives in the Deep South[59] and the East,[60] and built the current Teamsters headquarters (the \"Marble Palace\") in Washington, DC, on Louisiana Avenue NW (across a small plaza from the United States Senate).[61] But his intervention in a construction and a milk strike (both centered in New York City), and refusal to intervene in a Northeastern trucking strike created major political problems for him.[62] Perceiving Beck to be weak, Jimmy Hoffa began challenging Beck on various union decisions and policies in 1956 with an eye to unseating him as General President in the regularly scheduled union elections in 1957.[63]Infiltration by organized crime dominated the agenda of the Teamsters throughout the 1950s. The Teamsters had suffered from extensive corruption since its formation in 1903.[12][13][14] Although the more extreme, public forms of corruption had been eliminated after General President Cornelius Shea was removed from office, the extent of corruption and control by organized crime increased during Tobin's time in office (1907 to 1952).[10][13][22][64] In 1929, the Teamsters and unions in Chicago even approached gangster Roger Touhy and asked for his protection from Al Capone and his Chicago Outfit, which were seeking to control the area's unions.[65] Evidence of widespread corruption within the Teamsters began emerging shortly after Tobin retired.[66] In Kansas City, corrupt Teamsters locals spent years seeking bribes, embezzling money, and engaging in extensive extortion and labor rackets as well as beatings, vandalism and even bombings in an attempt to control the construction and trucking industries.[22][67] The problem was so serious that the US House of Representatives held hearings on the issue.[68]Hoffa's attempt to challenge Beck caused a major national scandal which led to two Congressional investigations, several indictments for fraud and other crimes against Beck and Hoffa, strict new federal legislation and regulations regarding labor unions, and even helped launch the political career of Robert F. Kennedy. Believing he needed additional votes to unseat Beck, in October 1956 Hoffa met with mobster Johnny Dio in New York City and the two men conspired to create as many as 15 paper locals[a] to boost Hoffa's delegate totals.[70][71] When the paper locals applied for charters from the international union, Hoffa's political foes were outraged.[63][72] A major battle broke out within the Teamsters over whether to charter the locals, and the media attention led to inquiries by the US Department of Justice and the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the US Senate Committee on Government Operations.[73] Beck and other Teamster leaders challenged the authority of the US Senate to investigate the union,[74][75] which caused the Senate to establish the Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management—a new committee with broad subpoena and investigative powers.[76] Senator John L. McClellan, chair of the select committee, hired Robert F. Kennedy as the subcommittee's chief counsel and investigator.[77]The Select Committee (also known as the McClellan Committee, after its chairman), exposed widespread corruption in the Teamsters union. Dave Beck fled the country for a month to avoid its subpoenas before returning.[78] Four of the paper locals were dissolved to avoid committee scrutiny, several Teamster staffers were charged with contempt of Congress, and union records were lost or destroyed (allegedly on purpose), and wiretaps were played in public before a national television audience in which Dio and Hoffa discussed the creation of even more paper locals.[79] Evidence was unearthed of a mob-sponsored plot in which Oregon Teamsters unions would seize control of the state legislature, state police, and state attorney general's office through bribery, extortion and blackmail.[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][excessive citations] Initially, members of the union did not believe the charges, and support for Beck was strong,[90][91] but after three months of continuous allegations of wrongdoing many rank-and-file Teamsters withdrew their support and openly called for Beck to resign.[92] Beck initially refused to address the allegations, but broke his silence and denounced the committee's inquiry on March 6.[93] But even as the committee conducted its investigation, the Teamsters chartered even more paper locals.[94] In mid-March 1957, Jimmy Hoffa was arrested for allegedly trying to bribe a Senate aide.[95] Hoffa denied the charges, but the arrest triggered additional investigations and more arrests and indictments over the following weeks.[96][97][98][99] A week later, Beck admitted to receiving an interest-free $300,000 loan from the Teamsters which he had never repaid, and Senate investigators claimed that loans to Beck and other union officials (and their businesses) had cost the union more than $700,000.[100] Beck appeared before the select committee for the first time on March 25, 1957, and invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination 117 times.[101] The McClellan Committee turned its focus to Hoffa and other Teamsters officials, and presented testimony and evidence alleging widespread corruption in Hoffa-controlled Teamster units.[71][102]Several historic legal developments came out of the select committee's investigation. The scandals uncovered by the McClellan committee, which affected not only the Teamsters but several other unions, led directly to the passage of the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (also known as the Landrum-Griffin Act) in 1959.[103] The right of union officials to exercise their Fifth Amendment rights was upheld and a significant refinement of constitutional law made when the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the right of union officials to not divulge the location of union records in Curcio v. United States, 354 U.S. 118 (1957).[104]Rank-and-file anger over the McClellan Committee's revelations eventually led Beck to retire from the Teamsters and allowed Jimmy Hoffa to take over. Immediately after his testimony in late March 1957, Beck won approval from the union's executive board to establish a $1 million fund to defend himself and the union from the committee's allegations.[105] But member outrage at the expenditure was significant, and permission to establish the fund was rescinded.[106] Member anger continued to grow throughout the spring,[107] and Beck's majority support on the executive board vanished.[108] Beck was called before the McClellan Committee again in early May 1957, and additional interest-free loans and other potentially illegal and unethical financial transactions exposed.[109] Based on these revelations, Beck was indicted for tax evasion on May 2, 1957.[110]Beck's legal troubles led him to retire and Hoffa to win election to the union presidency. Support for Beck among the membership evaporated.[111] Beck announced on May 25 he would not run for re-election in October.[112] The announcement created chaos among the union leadership,[113] and despite additional indictments Hoffa announced he would seek the presidency on July 19.[114] Rank-and-file support for Hoffa was strong,[115] although there were some attempts to organize an opposition candidate.[116] Hoffa's opponents asked a federal judge to postpone the election, but the request was granted only temporarily and Hoffa was elected General President of the union on October 4, 1957.[117] Beck offered to retire early to allow Hoffa to take control of the union in December.[118] A federal district court barred Hoffa from taking power unless he was acquitted in his wiretapping trial.[119] The ruling was upheld by a court of appeals, and the trial ended in a hung jury on December 19, 1957. Hoffa assumed the presidency on February 1, 1958.[120]Jimmy Hoffa served as President from 1957 to 1971.The worsening corruption scandal led the AFL–CIO to eject the Teamsters. AFL–CIO President George Meany, worried that corruption scandals plaguing a number of unions at the time might lead to harsh regulation of unions or even the withdrawal of federal labor law protection, began an anti-corruption drive in April 1956.[121] New rules were enacted by the labor federation's executive council that provided for the removal of vice presidents engaged in corruption as well as the ejection of unions considered corrupt.[122] The McClellan Committee's investigation only worsened the dispute between the AFL–CIO and the Teamsters.[123] In January 1957, the AFL–CIO proposed a new rule which would bar officers of the federation from continuing to hold office if they exercised their Fifth Amendment rights in a corruption investigation.[124] Beck opposed the new rule,[125] but the Ethical Practices Committee of AFL–CIO instituted the rule on January 31, 1957.[126] The Teamsters were given 90 days to reform,[127] but Beck retaliated by promising more raids on AFL–CIO member unions if the union was ousted.[128] Beck's opposition prompted a successful move by Meany to remove Beck from the AFL–CIO executive council on the grounds of corruption.[129] After extensive hearings and appeals which lasted from July to September 1957, the AFL–CIO voted on September 25, 1957, to eject the Teamsters if the union did not institute reforms within 30 days.[130] Beck refused to institute any reforms, and the election of Jimmy Hoffa (whom the AFL–CIO considered as corrupt as Beck) led the labor federation to suspend the Teamsters union on October 24, 1957.[131] Meany offered to keep the Teamsters within the AFL–CIO if Hoffa resigned as president, but Hoffa refused and the formal expulsion occurred on December 6, 1957.[132]The Teamsters were not the only corrupt union in the AFL–CIO by any means. Another was the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), which represented stevedores in most East Coast ports. The Teamsters had long desired to bring all shipping and transportation workers into the union, so that no product could be moved anywhere in the US without it being touched by Teamsters hands. As the ILA came under increasing attack for permitting corruption in its locals, Beck sought to bring the ILA into the Teamsters.[133] The AFL ousted the ILA in September 1953, and formed the International Brotherhood of Longshoremen-AFL (IBL-AFL) to represent longshoremen on the Great Lakes and East Coast.[134] The Teamsters planned to raid the expelled union, and may even have hoped to seize control of the IBL-AFL.[135] Beck undertook a campaign to bring the ILA back into the AFL in early 1955,[136] but the election of mob associate Anthony \"Tough Tony\" Anastasio as an ILA vice president forced Beck to end the effort.[137] But even as Beck backed away from any ILA deal, Jimmy Hoffa secretly negotiated a major package of financial and staff aid to the ILA and then went public with the deal—forcing Beck to accept it as a fait accompli or risk embarrassing Hoffa.[138] The AFL–CIO threatened to expel the Teamsters if it aided the ILA.[139] Beck fought Hoffa over the ILA aid package and won, withdrawing the offer to the ILA in the spring of 1956.[140]The ILA was not the only union the Teamsters sought to merge with. The union attempted to merge with the Mine, Mill & Smelter Workers in 1955, but the effort failed.[141] The union also sought a merger with the Brewery Workers, but the smaller union rejected the offer.[142] When the overture failed, the Teamsters raided the Brewery Workers, leading to fierce protests by the CIO.[143]Raiding by the Teamsters was such a serious issue that it prompted the AFL and CIO, which had attempted to sign a no-raid agreement for years, to finally negotiate and implement such a pact in December 1953.[144] Beck initially refused to sign the agreement, and threatened to take the Teamsters out of the AFL if forced to adhere to it.[145] Three months after the pact was signed, the Teamsters agreed to submit to the terms of the no-raid agreement.[146] Shortly thereafter, the AFL adopted Article 20 of its constitution, which prevented its member unions from raiding one another.[147] The union's affection for raiding led it to initially oppose the AFL–CIO merger in January 1955, but it quickly reversed itself.[148]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Master Freight Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Master_Freight_Agreement"},{"link_name":"pension plans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pension_fund"},{"link_name":"Stardust Resort & Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust_Resort_%26_Casino"},{"link_name":"Fremont Hotel & Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont_Hotel_%26_Casino"},{"link_name":"Desert Inn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_Inn"},{"link_name":"Dunes hotel and casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunes_(hotel_and_casino)"},{"link_name":"Morris Shenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Shenker"},{"link_name":"Four Queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Queens"},{"link_name":"Aladdin Hotel & Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aladdin_Hotel_%26_Casino"},{"link_name":"Circus Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circus_Circus_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Caesars Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesars_Palace"},{"link_name":"Allen Dorfman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Dorfman"},{"link_name":"Roy Lee Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Lee_Williams"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"Robert F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Attorney General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General"},{"link_name":"Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"Edward Grady Partin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Grady_Partin"},{"link_name":"Frank Fitzsimmons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Fitzsimmons"},{"link_name":"President Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon"}],"sub_title":"Rise, fall, and disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa","text":"Hoffa achieved his goal of unifying all freight drivers under a single collective bargaining agreement, the National Master Freight Agreement, in 1964. Hoffa used the grievance procedures of the agreement, which authorized selective strikes against particular employers, to police the agreement or, if Hoffa thought that it served the union's interest, to drive marginal employers out of the industry. The union won substantial gains for its members, fostering a nostalgic image of the Hoffa era as the golden age for Teamster drivers. Hoffa also succeeded where Tobin had failed, concentrating power at the international level, dominating the conferences which Beck and Dobbs had helped build.In addition, Hoffa was instrumental in using the assets of the Teamsters' pension plans, particularly the Central States plan, to support Mafia projects, such as the development of Las Vegas in the 1950s and 1960s. Pension funds were loaned to finance Las Vegas casinos such as the Stardust Resort & Casino, the Fremont Hotel & Casino, the Desert Inn, the Dunes hotel and casino (which was controlled by Hoffa's attorney, Morris Shenker), the Four Queens, the Aladdin Hotel & Casino, Circus Circus, and Caesars Palace. The pension fund also made a number of loans to associates and relatives of high-ranking Teamster officials. A close associate of Hoffa during this period was Allen Dorfman. Dorfman owned an insurance agency that provided insurance claims processing to the Teamsters' union, and which was the subject of an investigation by the McClellan Committee. Dorfman also had increasing influence over loans made by the Teamsters' pension fund, and after Hoffa went to prison in 1967, Dorfman had primary control over the fund. Dorfman was murdered in January 1983, shortly after his conviction, along with Teamsters' president Roy Lee Williams, in a bribery case.[149]Hoffa was moreover defiantly unwilling to reform the union or limit his own power in response to the attacks from Robert F. Kennedy, formerly chief counsel to the McClellan Committee, and later Attorney General. Kennedy's Department of Justice tried to convict Hoffa for a variety of offenses during the 1960s, finally succeeding on a witness tampering charge in 1964, with key testimony provided by Teamsters business agent Edward Grady Partin. After exhausting his appeals, Hoffa entered prison in 1967.Hoffa installed Frank Fitzsimmons, an associate from his days in Local 299 in Detroit, to hold his place for him while he served time. Fitzsimmons, however, began to enjoy the exercise of power in Hoffa's absence; in addition, the organized crime figures around him found that he was more pliant than Hoffa had been. While President Nixon's pardon barred Hoffa from resuming any role in the Teamsters until 1980, Hoffa challenged the legality of that condition and planned to run again for presidency of the union, but disappeared in 1975 under mysterious circumstances. He is presumed dead, although his body has never been found.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-wing_politics"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"community organizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_Unionism"},{"link_name":"United Auto Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Auto_Workers"},{"link_name":"Walter Reuther","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reuther"},{"link_name":"Alliance for Labor Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_for_Labor_Action"},{"link_name":"national trade union center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_trade_union_center"},{"link_name":"United Farm Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Farm_Workers"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"sweetheart deals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetheart_deal"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-153"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShabecoffChavezReaches-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-153"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShabecoffChavezReaches-155"},{"link_name":"California Agricultural Labor Relations Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"United Brewery Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_United_Brewery,_Flour,_Cereal,_Soft_Drink_and_Distillery_Workers"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"Interstate Commerce Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission"},{"link_name":"Howard Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Cannon"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"Roy Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Lee_Williams"},{"link_name":"Jackie Presser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Presser"},{"link_name":"Teamsters for a Democratic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters_for_a_Democratic_Union"}],"sub_title":"Decentralization, deregulation and drift","text":"Under General President Frank Fitzsimmons, authority within the Teamsters was decentralized back into the hands of regional, joint council, and local leaders. While this helped solidify Fitzsimmons' own political position in the union, it also made it more difficult for the union to act decisively on policy issues. Fitzsimmons also slowly moved the union's political stances to the left, supporting universal health care, an immediate end to the Vietnam War, urban renewal, and community organizing. In 1968, Fitzsimmons and United Auto Workers President Walter Reuther formed the Alliance for Labor Action, a new national trade union center which competed with the AFL–CIO. The Alliance dissolved in 1972 after Reuther's death. While the Teamsters won rich national master contracts in trucking and package delivery in the 1970s, it did little to adapt to the changes occurring in the transportation industry.A major jurisdictional battle with the United Farm Workers (UFW) broke out in 1970, and did not end until 1977. The Teamsters and UFW had both claimed jurisdiction over farm workers for many years, and in 1967 had signed an agreement settling their differences. But decentralization of power within the union led several Teamster leaders in California to repudiate this agreement without Fitzsimmons' permission and organize large numbers of field workers. His hand forced, Fitzsimmons ordered Teamsters contract negotiators to re-open the handful of contracts it had signed with California growers.[150] The UFW sued, the AFL–CIO condemned the action, and many employers negotiated contracts with the Teamsters rather than with the UFW.[151] The Teamsters subsequently signed contracts (which many denounced as sweetheart deals) with more than 375 California growers.[152][153] Although an agreement giving UFW jurisdiction over field workers and the Teamsters jurisdiction over packing and warehouse workers was reached on September 27, 1973, Fitzsimmons reneged on the agreement within a month and moved ahead with forming a farm workers regional union in California.[154][155] The organizing battles even became violent at times.[156] By 1975, the UFW had won 24 elections and the Teamsters 14; UFW membership had plummeted to just 6,000 from nearly 70,000 while the Teamsters farmworker division counted 55,000 workers.[152][154] The UFW signed an agreement with Fitzsimmons in March 1977 in which the UFW agreed to seek to organize only those workers covered by the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act, while the Teamsters retained jurisdiction over some agricultural workers, who had been covered by Teamsters Local Union contracts prior to the formation of the UFW.[157]In October 1973, Fitzsimmons ended the long-running jurisdictional dispute with the United Brewery Workers, and the Brewery Workers merged with the Teamsters.[158]In 1979 Congress passed legislation that deregulated the freight industry, removing the Interstate Commerce Commission's power to impose detailed regulatory tariffs on interstate carriers. The union tried to fight deregulation by attempting to bribe Senator Howard Cannon of Nevada. That attempt not only failed, but resulted in the conviction in 1982 of Roy Williams, the General President who had succeeded Fitzsimmons in 1981. Williams subsequently resigned in 1983 as a condition of remaining free on bail while his appeal proceeded.Deregulation had catastrophic effects on the Teamsters, opening up the industry to competition from non-union companies who sought to cut costs by avoiding unionization and curbing wages. Nearly 200 unionized carriers went out of business in the first few years of deregulation, leaving thirty percent of Teamsters in the freight division unemployed. The remaining unionized carriers demanded concessions in wages, work rules, and hours.Williams' successor, Jackie Presser, was prepared to grant most of these concessions in the form of a special freight \"relief rider\" that would cut wages by up to 35 percent and establish two-tier wages. Teamsters for a Democratic Union, which had grown out of efforts to reject the 1976 freight agreement, launched a successful national campaign to defeat the relief rider, which was defeated by a vote of 94,086 to 13,082.The pressure on the freight industry and the national freight agreement continued, however. By the end of the 1990s the National Master Freight Agreement, which had covered 500,000 drivers in the late 1970s, dropped to fewer than 200,000, with numerous local riders weakening it further in some areas.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Parcel Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service"},{"link_name":"Teamsters for a Democratic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters_for_a_Democratic_Union"},{"link_name":"Ralph Nader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Nader"},{"link_name":"Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racketeer_Influenced_and_Corrupt_Organizations_Act"},{"link_name":"Roy Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Lee_Williams"},{"link_name":"William J. McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._McCarthy"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"}],"sub_title":"Internal and external challenges","text":"The decline in working conditions in the freight industry, combined with long-simmering unhappiness among members employed by the United Parcel Service, led to the development of two nationwide dissident groups within the union in the 1980s: Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), an assemblage of a number of local efforts, and the Professional Drivers Council, better known as PROD, which began as a public interest group affiliated with Ralph Nader that was concerned with worker safety. The two groups merged in 1979.TDU was able to win some local offices within the union, although the International Union often attempted to make those victories meaningless by marginalizing the officer or the union. TDU acquired greater prominence, however, with the election reforms forced on the union by the consent decree it had entered into in 1989 on the eve of trial on a suit brought by the federal government under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).The decree required the direct election of International officers by the membership, as TDU had been demanding for years leading up to the decree, to replace the indirect election by delegates at the union's convention. While the delegates at the union's 1991 convention balked at amending the Constitution, they ultimately capitulated under pressure from the government.That consent decree might not have been possible, however, if it had not been for the testimony of Roy Williams, who described, in an affidavit he gave the government in return for a delay of his imprisonment, his own dealings with organized crime as the Secretary-Treasurer of a local union in Kansas City and as an officer of the International Union. The decree also gave the government the power to install an Independent Review Board with the power to expel any member of the union for \"conduct unbecoming to the union\", which the IRB proceeded to exercise far more aggressively than the Teamsters officials who had agreed to the decree had expected.While the government was pursuing a civil case against the union as an entity, it was also indicting Presser, who had succeeded Williams as General President, for embezzling from two different local unions in Cleveland prior to his election as president. Presser resigned in 1988, but died before his trial was scheduled to begin. He was succeeded by William J. McCarthy, who came from the same local that Dan Tobin had led eighty years earlier.The Independent Review Board (IRB) is a three-member panel established to investigate and take appropriate action with respect to \"any allegations of corruption\", \"any allegations of domination or control or influence\" of any part of the Union by organized crime, and any failure to cooperate fully with the IRB.[159]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teamsters_gathering.jpg"},{"link_name":"YearlyKos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YearlyKos"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OLMS-161"},{"link_name":"Phabricator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940"},{"link_name":"MediaWiki.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OLMS-161"},{"link_name":"Phabricator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940"},{"link_name":"MediaWiki.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans"},{"link_name":"Ron Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Carey_(labor_leader)"},{"link_name":"Richard Trumka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Trumka"},{"link_name":"United Mine Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America"},{"link_name":"John Sweeney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sweeney_(labor_leader)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Republican_Party"},{"link_name":"Northwest Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Airlines"},{"link_name":"Diamond Walnut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_Walnut"},{"link_name":"James P. Hoffa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_P._Hoffa"},{"link_name":"the union initiated a large and successful strike against","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service_strike_of_1997"},{"link_name":"UPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service"},{"link_name":"Graphic Communications International Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_Communications_International_Union"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Maintenance_of_Way_Employes"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Locomotive_Engineers"},{"link_name":"AFL–CIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO"},{"link_name":"national trade union center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_trade_union_center"},{"link_name":"Change to Win Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_to_Win_Federation"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"UPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service"},{"link_name":"FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 (H.R. 915)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Federal_Aviation_Administration_Reauthorization_Act_dispute"},{"link_name":"FedEx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FedEx"},{"link_name":"Brown Bailout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Bailout"}],"sub_title":"Recent history","text":"A Teamsters gathering at the YearlyKos 2007 conventionMembership (US records; ×1000)[160]Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.\n\nFinances (US records; ×$1000)[160]Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. Assets Liabilities Receipts DisbursementsIn 1991, Ron Carey won a surprising victory in the first direct election for General President in the union's history, defeating two \"old guard\" candidates, R.V. Durham and Walter Shea. Carey's slate, supported by TDU, also won nearly all of the seats on the International Executive Board.Carey acquired a fair amount of influence within the AFL–CIO, which had readmitted the Teamsters in 1985. Carey was close with the new leadership elected in 1995, particularly Richard Trumka of the United Mine Workers of America, who became Secretary-Treasurer of the AFL–CIO under John Sweeney. Carey had also swung the Teamsters support behind the Democratic Party, a change from past administrations that had supported the Republican Party. The new administration set out to break from the past in other ways, making energetic efforts to head off a vote to oust the union as representative of Northwest Airlines' flight attendants, negotiating a breakthrough agreement covering carhaulers, and supporting local strikes, such as the one against Diamond Walnut, to restore the union's strength.The Carey administration did not, on the other hand, have much power in the lower reaches of the Teamster hierarchy: all of the large regional conferences were run by \"old guard\" officers, as were most of the locals. Disagreements between those two camps led the old guard to campaign against the Carey administration's proposed dues increase. The Carey administration retaliated by dissolving the regional conferences, calling them expensive redundancies and fiefdoms for old guard union officers, and rearranging the boundaries of some joint councils that had fought against the dues increase.The opposition responded by uniting around a single candidate, James P. Hoffa, son of James R. Hoffa, to run against Carey in 1996. Hoffa ran a strong campaign, trading on the mystique still attached to his late father's name and promising to restore those days of glory. Carey appeared, however, to have won a close election.Shortly afterward in 1997, the union initiated a large and successful strike against UPS. The parcel services department had by that time become the largest division in the union.Carey was removed from the union's leadership by the IRB shortly thereafter, when evidence that individuals in his office had arranged for transfer of several thousand dollars to an outside contractor, which then arranged for another entity to make an equivalent contribution to the Carey campaign. Carey was indicted for lying to investigators about his campaign funding but was acquitted of all charges in a 2001 trial.In the 1998 election to succeed Carey, James P. Hoffa was elected handily. He became president of the Teamsters on March 19, 1999, and took the union in a more moderate direction, tempering the union's support for Democrats and attempting to come to terms with powerful Republicans in Congress.The union has merged in recent years with a number of unions from other industries, including the Graphic Communications International Union, a printing industry union, and the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, both from the railway industry.On July 25, 2005, the Teamsters disaffiliated from the AFL–CIO and became a founding member of the new national trade union center, the Change to Win Federation.[161]In 2009, UPS, many employees of which are members of the Teamsters, lobbied to have language added to the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 (H.R. 915) to change how UPS and FedEx compete with one another. In response, FedEx launched a large, online advertising campaign aimed at UPS and the Teamsters, called 'Stop the Brown Bailout'.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"wildcat strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcat_strike"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacobs111-164"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacobs111-164"},{"link_name":"Teamsters for a Democratic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters_for_a_Democratic_Union"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ryan418-165"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ryan418-165"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ryan418-165"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacobs111-164"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"2021 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Teamsters_Union_Election"},{"link_name":"Sean O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_O%27Brien_(labor_leader)"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Brien_Victory_NYT-176"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"}],"text":"Prior to the 1970s, no long-lived caucuses existed within the Teamsters Union. Challengers for office ran on their personal appeal and individual power base, rather than on caucus or \"party\" platforms and such challenges were infrequent. The Teamster leadership was well-established and somewhat self-perpetuating, and challengers only rarely achieved victories at the local and even less frequently at the regional levels.[162] This changed in the 1970s. A national wildcat strike challenged President Frank Fitzsimmons' control over the union, but failed. After the strike, a reform movement known as \"Teamsters United Rank and File\" (TURF) formed to continue to challenge against the union's national leadership. But TURF collapsed after a few years due to internal dissent.[163] In 1975, two new caucuses formed: Teamsters for a Decent Contract (TDC) and UPSurge. Both groups pushed the national leadership for vastly improved contracts at UPS and the freight lines.[163]In 1976 a new formal caucus, Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU), formed when TDC and UPSurge merged. The new caucus' goal was to make internal Teamster governance more transparent and democratic, which included giving rank-and-file more of a say in the terms and approval of contracts.[164]In the 1980s, TDU occasionally won elections for positions on local councils, but it was not until 1983—when the TDU forced President Jackie Presser to withdraw and make changes to a concession-laden National Master Freight Agreement—that TDU had a national impact.[165] TDU publicized the very centralized and not very transparent national union decision-making process, criticized what it said was lack of member input into these decisions, and published contract, salary, membership, and other data critical of the national union leadership. These criticisms led to another success for TDU, with many TDU proposals finding their way into the 1988 court decree in which the federal government took over of the Teamsters.[164][166] Although the TDU has never won the presidency of the national union as of mid-2013, it strongly supported Ron Carey for the presidency in 1991. Carey, in turn, adopted many of TDU's reform proposals as part of his platform. Carey ran with nearly a full slate (which included a candidate for secretary-treasurer and 13 vice presidencies).[167] R.V. Durham, leader of the Teamsters in North Carolina, was considered the \"establishment\" candidate and front-runner in the campaign (he had the backing of a majority of the union's executive board). A second candidate in the race, Walter Shea, was a veteran union staffer from Washington, DC. Carey won with 48.5 percent of the vote to Durham's 33.2 percent and Shea's 18.3 percent. (Turnout was low, only about 32 percent of the union's total membership.)[168] Carey's election, sociologist Charlotte Ryan says, was another success for TDU (even though Carey was not a TDU candidate).[164]Carey won re-election in 1996 in a corrupt election, defeating James P. Hoffa (son of the former union president). Prior to entering the race, Hoffa formed a caucus of his own, the \"Hoffa Unity Slate\", to counter the grassroots organizing of TDU and Carey.[169] Carey was later ousted as union president by US government officials. A re-run election in 1998 saw Hoffa and the Unity Slate easily defeat TDU candidate Tom Leedham 54.5 percent to 39.3 percent (with 28 percent turnout).[170]Hoffa was re-elected over Leedham (again running on the TDU platform) in 2001, 64.8 percent to 35.2 percent.[163] Leedham challenged Hoffa and the Hoffa Unity Slate a third time in 2006, losing 65 percent to 35 percent (with 25 percent turnout).[171] Hoffa faced TDU candidate Sandy Pope, a local union president, in 2011.[172] Also running, with a full slate of officer and vice presidential candidates, was former Hoffa supporter and former national vice president Fred Gegare. Hoffa again easily won re-election, earning 60 percent of the vote to Gregare's 23 percent and Pope's 17 percent. The Hoffa Unity Slate also won all five regional vice presidencies, although the slate's support declined across the board.[173] Hoffa won reelection once more in 2016, this time against Teamsters United candidate Fred Zuckerman, but by a much narrower margin of 52 to 48 percent. The 2016 election was also the first time Hoffa-allied candidates lost regional vice presidencies to the Teamsters United reform slate.[174]In the 2021 election, Hoffa did not run for re-election. The Teamsters United slate, aligned with Teamsters for a Democratic Union, ran against the Teamsters Power Slate, endorsed by Hoffa. The Teamsters United slate, led by Sean O'Brien, won the election.[175] O'Brien and his slate were sworn into office on March 22, 2022, at Teamsters headquarters in Washington, DC.[176] On the day his administration was installed, O'Brien fired more than 80 employees at the headquarters. He did not offer any severance or extension of benefits to the terminated staff. The International Brotherhood of Teamsters currently faces charges with the National Labor Relations Board in connection to the terminations.[177] As of November 10, 2022, the union was required to pay eligible terminated employees more than $175,000 as part of a settlement with the District of Columbia Attorney General's Office for violating D.C. Code 32-1303.[178]","title":"Internal Teamsters politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teamsters_HQ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Capitol Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol_Hill,_Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Washington, DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"George H. W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"Arctic National Wildlife Refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"Friends of Sinn Féin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_Sinn_F%C3%A9in"},{"link_name":"Irish republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_republican"},{"link_name":"Sinn Féin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"}],"text":"Teamsters headquarters located beside Capitol Hill in Washington, DCThe Teamsters Union is one of the largest labor unions in the world, as well as the 11th largest campaign contributor in the United States. While they supported Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush for president in the 1980s, they have begun leaning largely toward the Democrats in recent years; they have donated 92% of their $24,418,589 in contributions since 1990 to the Democratic Party. Though the union opposed former President George W. Bush's agenda to open US highways to Mexican truckers, it did previously support Bush's platform for oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.[179]The Teamsters Union endorsed Barack Obama for the 2008 Democratic Nomination on February 20, 2008.[180]The Teamsters Union also makes an annual contribution to Friends of Sinn Féin—the US fundraising arm of Irish republican party Sinn Féin.[181][182]","title":"Political donations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cornelius Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Shea"},{"link_name":"Daniel J. Tobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_J._Tobin"},{"link_name":"Dave Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Beck"},{"link_name":"James R. Hoffa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Hoffa"},{"link_name":"Frank Fitzsimmons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Fitzsimmons"},{"link_name":"George Mock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mock"},{"link_name":"Roy Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Lee_Williams"},{"link_name":"Jackie Presser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Presser"},{"link_name":"Weldon Mathis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldon_Mathis"},{"link_name":"William J. McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._McCarthy"},{"link_name":"Ron Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Carey_(labor_leader)"},{"link_name":"James P. Hoffa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_P._Hoffa"},{"link_name":"Sean O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_O%27Brien_(labor_leader)"}],"sub_title":"General Presidents","text":"1903: Cornelius Shea\n1907: Daniel J. Tobin\n1952: Dave Beck\n1957: James R. Hoffa\n1971: Frank Fitzsimmons\n1981: George Mock (interim)\n1981: Roy Williams\n1983: Jackie Presser\n1988: Weldon Mathis (interim)\n1989: William J. McCarthy\n1991: Ron Carey\n1997: Tom Sever (interim)\n1998: James P. Hoffa\n2022: Sean O'Brien","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gathering-185"},{"link_name":"John F. English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._English"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"Weldon Mathis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldon_Mathis"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gwu-184"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"}],"sub_title":"General Secretary-Treasurers","text":"1904: Edward L. Turley[183]\n1905: Thomas Hughes[183]\n1941: John M. Gillespie[184]\n1947: John F. English[183]\n1969: Thomas Flynn[185]\n1972: Murray W. Miller[183]\n1975: Raymond Schoessling[183]\n1985: Weldon Mathis[183]\n1991: Tom Sever[183]\n1999: Tom Keegel[186]\n2012: Ken Hall[187]\n2022: Fred Zuckerman[188]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Membership","text":"1933: 75,000 (Depression-era low)\n1935: 146,000\n1949: 1.0 million\n1957: 1.5 million\n1976: 2.0 million\n1987: 1.0 million\n2003: 1.7 million\n2008: 1.4 million\n2014: 1.2 million\n2019: 1.4 million","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_of_United_Brewery,_Flour,_Cereal,_Soft_Drink_and_Distillery_Workers"},{"link_name":"Graphic Communications Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_Communications_Conference"},{"link_name":"International Typographical Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Typographical_Union"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Locomotive_Engineers_and_Trainmen"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Maintenance_of_Way_Employes"},{"link_name":"film industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_industry"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"}],"sub_title":"Divisions and conferences","text":"Brewery and Soft Drink Conference\nformerly the International Union of United Brewery, Flour, Cereal, Soft Drink and Distillery Workers\nGraphic Communications Conference\nNewspaper, Magazine and Electronic Media Workers Division\nincluding some Mailers locals from the International Typographical Union\nRail Conference\nBrotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen\nBrotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes\nLocal 399 (founded 1928), represents workers in the film industry[189][190]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Brotherhood of Teamsters Labor History Research Center.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//teamstersarchives.gwu.edu/"},{"link_name":"International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America records.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv30999"},{"link_name":"Samuel B. Bassett Papers.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv63375"},{"link_name":"Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees Records.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//reuther.wayne.edu/node/2336"},{"link_name":"Walter P. Reuther Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_P._Reuther_Library"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Hoffa FBI Files.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//reuther.wayne.edu/node/10803"},{"link_name":"Walter P. Reuther Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_P._Reuther_Library"}],"text":"International Brotherhood of Teamsters Labor History Research Center. At The George Washington University.\nInternational Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America records. 1950–1970. 2.83 cubic feet (4 boxes). At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.\nSamuel B. Bassett Papers. 1926–1965. 3' linear. At the Labor Archives of Washington, University of Washington Libraries Special Collections.\nBrotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees Records. 1899–2004. 360 linear feet (353 storage boxes, 2 manuscript boxes, 5 oversize). At the Walter P. Reuther Library.\nJimmy Hoffa FBI Files. 1964–2002. 7 linear feet (7 storage boxes). At the Walter P. Reuther Library.","title":"Archival collections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-70"},{"link_name":"sweetheart contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweetheart_deal"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"text":"^ A \"paper local\" is a local union, chartered by an international union or self-chartered, established for the purposes of fraud. It may have no members; the \"members\" may be relatives or individuals involved in organized crime rather than workers; or the union may claim to represent workers but in fact no relationship has been established. The holder of the charter for the paper local charter often enters into a sweetheart contract with an employer, or uses it as extortion (threatening to unionize the workers unless he receives a payoff). Paper locals are denounced by the AFL-CIO Code of Ethical Practices.[69]","title":"Notes"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Cornelius Shea, first General President of the Teamsters, circa 1905","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Cornelius_Shea.png/220px-Cornelius_Shea.png"},{"image_text":"Informal portrait of (left to right) Cornelius P. Shea, John Miller, Fred Mader, and Tim Murphy sitting in a row in a courtroom in Chicago, Illinois, during a labor trial. Murphy was a politician, union organizer, and reputed gangster, and he was murdered in 1928.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Cornelius_P._Shea%2C_John_Miller%2C_Fred_Mader%2C_and_Tim_Murphy_sitting_in_a_row_in_a_courtroom.jpg/220px-Cornelius_P._Shea%2C_John_Miller%2C_Fred_Mader%2C_and_Tim_Murphy_sitting_in_a_row_in_a_courtroom.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jimmy Hoffa served as President from 1957 to 1971.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/James_R._Hoffa_NYWTS.jpg/220px-James_R._Hoffa_NYWTS.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Teamsters gathering at the YearlyKos 2007 convention","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Teamsters_gathering.jpg/220px-Teamsters_gathering.jpg"},{"image_text":"Teamsters headquarters located beside Capitol Hill in Washington, DC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Teamsters_HQ.jpg/220px-Teamsters_HQ.jpg"}]
|
[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syndicalism.svg"},{"title":"Organized labour portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg"},{"title":"Transport portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Transport"},{"title":"2009–10 Federal Aviation Administration Reauthorization Act dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Federal_Aviation_Administration_Reauthorization_Act_dispute"},{"title":"1938 New York City truckers strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938_New_York_City_truckers_strike"},{"title":"Teamsters Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamsters_Canada"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Teamster History Visual Timeline\". Archived from the original on December 16, 2019. Retrieved December 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191216102922/https://teamster.org/content/teamster-history-visual-timeline","url_text":"\"Teamster History Visual Timeline\""},{"url":"https://teamster.org/content/teamster-history-visual-timeline","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Daniel Tobin Dies; Labor Leader, 80; Former President of A. F. L. Teamsters Union Succumbs in Indianapolis Hospital\". The New York Times. November 15, 1955.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1955/11/15/archives/danetobindies-labor-leader-80-former-president-of-a-f-l-teamsters.html","url_text":"\"Daniel Tobin Dies; Labor Leader, 80; Former President of A. F. L. Teamsters Union Succumbs in Indianapolis Hospital\""}]},{"reference":"\"Just a Few Polite Questions,\" Time, March 28, 1949\". Time. March 28, 1949. Archived from the original on October 28, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081028124648/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799906,00.html","url_text":"\"Just a Few Polite Questions,\" Time, March 28, 1949\""},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799906,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Levey (August 14, 1953). \"A. F. L. Elects Beck to Post In Council\". The New York Times.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (August 19, 1953). \"Battle for Power Expected in A.F.L.\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (October 22, 1954). \"Beck Denies Surrender\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (August 20, 1957). \"Top Beck Aide Links Hoffa to 'Phony' Teamster Locals\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (January 19, 1957). \"Teamsters Aide Balks at Inquiry on Union Rackets\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (February 27, 1957). \"Witnesses Link Teamsters Union to Underworld\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (February 28, 1957). \"Teamsters Chiefs Tied to Vice Plot and to Gambling\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 2, 1957). \"Teamsters Chiefs Charged With Plot to Rule Oregon, Sought All Law Enforcement Powers\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 7, 1957). \"Oregon Gambler Tells of Pay-Off\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 8, 1957). \"Portland Mayor Accused of Bribe\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 9, 1957). \"Portland Called Vice-Ridden Now\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 13, 1957). \"Teamsters Paid Gamblers' Bills\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"\"Holmes Denies Charge\". The New York Times. March 14, 1957.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 16, 1957). \"Brewster Denies Teamsters' Plot to Rule Rackets\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"\"Portland Mayor Seized In Racket, Prosecutor Held\". The New York Times. March 29, 1957.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Davies, Lawrence (March 3, 1957). \"Teamster Rally on Coast Backs Accused Leaders; 11-State Parley Urges Unity to Meet Senate Inquiry's 'Anti-Union' Attacks STAR WITNESS ASSAILED Labor Heads Assert Hearings Are Being Used in Drive to Thwart Bargaining\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0814F63A5A137A93C1A91788D85F438585F9","url_text":"\"Teamster Rally on Coast Backs Accused Leaders; 11-State Parley Urges Unity to Meet Senate Inquiry's 'Anti-Union' Attacks STAR WITNESS ASSAILED Labor Heads Assert Hearings Are Being Used in Drive to Thwart Bargaining\""}]},{"reference":"\"Beck Asks Members to Support Leaders\". The New York Times. March 20, 1957.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1957/03/20/archives/beck-asks-members-to-support-leaders.html","url_text":"\"Beck Asks Members to Support Leaders\""}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 14, 1957). \"F.B.I. Seizes Hoffa In A Plot To Bribe Senate Staff Aide\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 15, 1957). \"Unionist Denies Bribery\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 19, 1957). \"U.S. Jury Indicts 4 Teamster Aides Silent In Inquiry\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"Loftus, Joseph A. (March 20, 1957). \"U.S. Jury Indicts Hoffa, Attorney\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_A._Loftus","url_text":"Loftus, Joseph A."}]},{"reference":"\"\"Rendering to Cesar.\" Time. September 22, 1975\". Time. September 22, 1975. Archived from the original on October 26, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121026141619/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917865,00.html?promoid=googlep","url_text":"\"\"Rendering to Cesar.\" Time. September 22, 1975\""},{"url":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917865,00.html?promoid=googlep","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Background of the IRB\". March 18, 2005. Archived from the original on March 18, 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050318160122/http://www.teamster.org/about/keegel/irbbg.htm","url_text":"\"Background of the IRB\""},{"url":"http://www.teamster.org/about/keegel/irbbg.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Chicago Tribune - Historical Newspapers\". July 19, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1988/06/29/page/1/article/u-s-sues-to-oust-top-teamsters","url_text":"\"Chicago Tribune - Historical Newspapers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hoffa wins Teamsters election\". Politico. November 21, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politico.com/tipsheets/morning-shift/2016/11/hoffa-wins-teamsters-election-217503","url_text":"\"Hoffa wins Teamsters election\""}]},{"reference":"Scheiber, Noam (November 19, 2021). \"A Hoffa Ally, Then a Foe, and Soon the Teamsters President\". The New York Times. 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Retrieved February 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://teamster.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Conv21ConventionHistoryBooklet.pdf","url_text":"\"A Gathering of Teamsters: A Look at the First Five Decades of Convention History\""}]},{"reference":"\"THOMAS FLYNN, 64, TEAMSTER OFFICIAL\". The New York Times. March 11, 1972. Retrieved February 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1972/03/11/archives/thomas-flynn-64-teamster-officia.html","url_text":"\"THOMAS FLYNN, 64, TEAMSTER OFFICIAL\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Moore, Janet (December 7, 2020). \"Tom Keegel, U.S. Teamsters leader, dies at 79\". Star Tribune. Retrieved February 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.startribune.com/tom-keegel-u-s-teamsters-leader-dies-at-79/573324641/","url_text":"\"Tom Keegel, U.S. Teamsters leader, dies at 79\""}]},{"reference":"\"West Virginia Labor Leader Ken Hall Retires as General Secretary-treasurer of the Teamsters\". PR Newswire. March 18, 2022. Retrieved February 6, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/west-virginia-labor-leader-ken-hall-retires-as-general-secretary-treasurer-of-the-teamsters-301505845.html","url_text":"\"West Virginia Labor Leader Ken Hall Retires as General Secretary-treasurer of the Teamsters\""}]},{"reference":"Cypress, KC (March 22, 2022). \"O'BRIEN-ZUCKERMAN, GENERAL EXECUTIVE BOARD BEGIN FIVE-YEAR TERM\". International Brotherhood of Teamsters. 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Blood in the Water: A History of District Lodge 751, International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Seattle: District Lodge 751. OCLC 20416860.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20416860","url_text":"20416860"}]}]
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Bassett Papers."},{"Link":"http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/2336","external_links_name":"Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees Records."},{"Link":"http://reuther.wayne.edu/node/10803","external_links_name":"Jimmy Hoffa FBI Files."},{"Link":"https://olmsapps.dol.gov/query/orgReport.do?rptId=585784&rptForm=LM2Form","external_links_name":"Report"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191216102922/https://teamster.org/content/teamster-history-visual-timeline","external_links_name":"\"Teamster History Visual Timeline\""},{"Link":"https://teamster.org/content/teamster-history-visual-timeline","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1955/11/15/archives/danetobindies-labor-leader-80-former-president-of-a-f-l-teamsters.html","external_links_name":"\"Daniel Tobin Dies; Labor Leader, 80; Former President of A. F. L. Teamsters Union Succumbs in Indianapolis Hospital\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081028124648/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799906,00.html","external_links_name":"\"Just a Few Polite Questions,\" Time, March 28, 1949\""},{"Link":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799906,00.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0814F63A5A137A93C1A91788D85F438585F9","external_links_name":"\"Teamster Rally on Coast Backs Accused Leaders; 11-State Parley Urges Unity to Meet Senate Inquiry's 'Anti-Union' Attacks STAR WITNESS ASSAILED Labor Heads Assert Hearings Are Being Used in Drive to Thwart Bargaining\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1957/03/20/archives/beck-asks-members-to-support-leaders.html","external_links_name":"\"Beck Asks Members to Support Leaders\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121026141619/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917865,00.html?promoid=googlep","external_links_name":"\"\"Rendering to Cesar.\" Time. September 22, 1975\""},{"Link":"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917865,00.html?promoid=googlep","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://articles.latimes.com/2007/sep/14/business/fi-farmworker14","external_links_name":"\"UFW Seeks New Way to Organize.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050318160122/http://www.teamster.org/about/keegel/irbbg.htm","external_links_name":"\"Background of the IRB\""},{"Link":"http://www.teamster.org/about/keegel/irbbg.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.dol.gov/agencies/olms/public-disclosure-room","external_links_name":"Search"},{"Link":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1988/06/29/page/1/article/u-s-sues-to-oust-top-teamsters","external_links_name":"\"Chicago Tribune - Historical Newspapers\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/21/magazine/carey-takes-the-wheel.html","external_links_name":"\"Carey Takes the Wheel.\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/15/nyregion/new-teamster-chief-s-motto-honest-work-for-honest-pay.html","external_links_name":"\"New Teamster Chief's Motto: Honest Work for Honest Pay.\""},{"Link":"http://www.labornotes.org/1999/01/can-hoffa-restore-power#sthash.Z83ypfSR.dpuf","external_links_name":"\"Can Hoffa 'Restore the Power'?\""},{"Link":"http://www.labornotes.org/2006/11/hoffa-re-elected-teamsters-president","external_links_name":"\"Hoffa Re-Elected Teamsters President.\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/28/business/28teamsters.html","external_links_name":"\"In the Teamsters, a Candidate Tries to Break the Mold.\""},{"Link":"http://inthesetimes.com/working/entry/12321/hoffa_re-elected_as_teamsters_president_easily_beating_two_challengers/","external_links_name":"\"Hoffa Re-elected as Teamsters President, Easily Beating Two Challengers.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190227185109/http://inthesetimes.com/working/entry/12321/hoffa_re-elected_as_teamsters_president_easily_beating_two_challengers/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.politico.com/tipsheets/morning-shift/2016/11/hoffa-wins-teamsters-election-217503","external_links_name":"\"Hoffa wins Teamsters election\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/19/business/economy/teamsters-sean-obrien-hoffa.html","external_links_name":"\"A Hoffa Ally, Then a Foe, and Soon the Teamsters President\""},{"Link":"https://finance.yahoo.com/news/obrien-zuckerman-general-executive-board-140000760.html","external_links_name":"\"O'brien-Zuckerman, General Executive Board Begin Five-Year Term\""},{"Link":"https://www.nlrb.gov/case/05-CA-303660","external_links_name":"\"NLRB Case 05-CA-303660\""},{"Link":"https://www.mediafire.com/file/k6dzrgq8bpiw2rg/11.10.22+IBT+Settlement+Agreement+-+Fully+Executed.pdf/file","external_links_name":"\"IBT Settlement with the Attorney General for the District of Columbia\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080504105726/http://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/summary.asp?ID=D000000066&Name=Teamsters+Union","external_links_name":"\"Donor Profiles\""},{"Link":"http://www.opensecrets.org/orgs/summary.asp?ID=D000000066&Name=Teamsters+Union","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/05/05/obama-denies-pledge-to-teamsters-to-end-federal-oversight/","external_links_name":"\"Teamsters endorse Obama for president\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080508182909/http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/05/05/obama-denies-pledge-to-teamsters-to-end-federal-oversight/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.independent.ie/opinion/analysis/jerome-reilly-sinn-fein-war-chest-swells-as-global-ties-pay-big-dividends-26828222.html/","external_links_name":"\"Sinn Fein war chest swells as global ties pay big dividends\""},{"Link":"https://www.irishtimes.com/news/banker-with-lehman-links-among-sf-donors-1.8505/","external_links_name":"\"Banker with Lehman links among SF donors\""},{"Link":"https://library.gwu.edu/teamsters-history-and-timeline","external_links_name":"\"Teamsters History and Timeline\""},{"Link":"https://teamster.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Conv21ConventionHistoryBooklet.pdf","external_links_name":"\"A Gathering of Teamsters: A Look at the First Five Decades of Convention History\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1972/03/11/archives/thomas-flynn-64-teamster-officia.html","external_links_name":"\"THOMAS FLYNN, 64, TEAMSTER OFFICIAL\""},{"Link":"https://www.startribune.com/tom-keegel-u-s-teamsters-leader-dies-at-79/573324641/","external_links_name":"\"Tom Keegel, U.S. Teamsters leader, dies at 79\""},{"Link":"https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/west-virginia-labor-leader-ken-hall-retires-as-general-secretary-treasurer-of-the-teamsters-301505845.html","external_links_name":"\"West Virginia Labor Leader Ken Hall Retires as General Secretary-treasurer of the Teamsters\""},{"Link":"https://teamster.org/2022/03/obrien-zuckerman-general-executive-board-begin-five-year-term/","external_links_name":"\"O'BRIEN-ZUCKERMAN, GENERAL EXECUTIVE BOARD BEGIN FIVE-YEAR TERM\""},{"Link":"https://variety.com/2018/artisans/production/teamsters-seniority-system-1202756284/","external_links_name":"\"Teamsters' Seniority System May Not Work Well for Other Crafts, Guilds\""},{"Link":"https://www.ht399.org/the-union/","external_links_name":"\"The Union | Teamsters Local 399 Hollywood\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20416860","external_links_name":"20416860"},{"Link":"https://teamster.org/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19981212033306/http://www.teamster.net/","external_links_name":"TeamsterNet - 10 Years of Teamsters Forums"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070216021532/http://roaddrivers.org/","external_links_name":"Roaddrivers.org"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060109054933/http://development04.teamster.org/resources/members/teamstercenturya.htm","external_links_name":"Official history of the IBT"},{"Link":"http://www.bmwe.org/","external_links_name":"Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes"},{"Link":"http://www.ble.org/","external_links_name":"Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061102125922/http://www.ble.org/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.irbcases.org/","external_links_name":"Official site of the Independent Review Board"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050919192007/http://sanfrancisco.about.com/library/weekly/aa070101a.htm","external_links_name":"Teamsters' involvement in the City Front Federation strike in San Francisco in 1901"},{"Link":"http://depts.washington.edu/labhist/laborpress/Washington_Teamster.shtml","external_links_name":"The Washington Teamster (1940-1943)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120913125344/http://depts.washington.edu/labhist/laborpress/Washington_Teamster.shtml","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/document/usa/mpls01.htm","external_links_name":"1934 Minneapolis Strike"},{"Link":"http://struggle.net/ALC/TWITTU.htm","external_links_name":"Trotskyist Work in the Trade Unions, by Chris Knox"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070516225629/http://struggle.net/ALC/TWITTU.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100412084714/http://americanmafia.com/Crime_And_Labor.html","external_links_name":"Report on organized crime influence in the Teamsters and other unions"},{"Link":"http://www.tdu.org/view/history","external_links_name":"TDU history"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000094501017","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/139064556","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007446393905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n87890214","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10666222","external_links_name":"NARA"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6g48dh8","external_links_name":"SNAC"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_set
|
Budget set
|
["1 References"]
|
All bundles a consumer can afford based on various conditions
In economics, a budget set, or the opportunity set facing a consumer, is the set of all possible consumption bundles that the consumer can afford taking as given the prices of commodities available to the consumer and the consumer's income. Let the number of commodities available to the consumer in an economy be finite and equal to
k
{\displaystyle k}
. Thus, for commodity amounts
x
=
[
x
1
,
x
2
,
…
,
x
k
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =\left}
, also known as consumption plans which should not exceed the income, with associated prices
p
=
[
p
1
,
p
2
,
…
,
p
k
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\left}
and consumer income
m
{\displaystyle m}
, the budget set is defined as
B
p
,
m
=
{
x
∈
X
:
p
x
≤
m
}
{\displaystyle B_{\mathbf {p} ,m}=\left\{\mathbf {x} \in X:\mathbf {p} \mathbf {x} \leq m\right\}}
,
where the consumption set is taken to be
X
=
R
+
k
{\displaystyle X=\mathbb {R} _{+}^{k}}
. It is typically assumed that
p
≫
0
{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} \gg 0}
and
m
∈
R
+
{\displaystyle m\in \mathbb {R} _{+}}
, in which case
B
{\displaystyle B}
is also known as the Walrasian, or competitive, budget set.
The budget set is bounded above by a
k
{\displaystyle k}
-dimensional budget hyperplane characterized by the equation
p
x
=
m
{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} \mathbf {x} =m}
, which in the two-good case corresponds to the budget line. Graphically, the budget set is the subset of
R
+
k
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} _{+}^{k}}
that contains all the consumption bundles that lie on or below the budget hyperplane.
Given the framework described above, Walrasian budget sets are convex and compact.
Other sources of wealth, including stocks, savings, pensions, profit shares, etc., are not included in the income described above. The income described above are also known as initial wealth.
The demand set
ϕ
(
p
,
m
)
{\displaystyle \phi (p,m)}
is the set that the consumer chooses to go with based on the preferences from the budget set.
References
^ a b c Böhm, Volker; Haller, Hans (2017), "Demand Theory", The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_539-2, ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5, retrieved 2021-12-09
Mas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; Green, Jerry R. (1995). Microeconomic Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 0-19-507340-1.
vteMicroeconomicsMajor topics
Aggregation
Budget set
Consumer choice
Convexity and non-convexity
Cost
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Income–consumption curve
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Pricing
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See also
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This article related to microeconomics is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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|
[]
| null |
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|
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hugh_Clough
|
Arthur Hugh Clough
|
["1 Life","2 Writings","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"]
|
English poet (1819–1861)
Arthur H. CloughBorn(1819-01-01)1 January 1819Liverpool, England, United KingdomDied13 November 1861(1861-11-13) (aged 42)Florence, Kingdom of ItalyLanguageEnglishNationalityBritishAlma materBalliol College, OxfordGenrePoetrySpouseBlanche Mary Shore Smith
Arthur Hugh Clough (/klʌf/ KLUF; 1 January 1819 – 13 November 1861) was an English poet, an educationalist, and the devoted assistant to Florence Nightingale. He was the brother of suffragist Anne Clough and father of Blanche Athena Clough, who both became principals of Newnham College, Cambridge.
Life
Arthur Clough was born in Liverpool to James Butler Clough, a cotton merchant of Welsh descent, and Anne Perfect, from Pontefract in Yorkshire. James Butler Clough was a younger son of a landed gentry family that had been living at Plas Clough in Denbighshire since 1567. In 1822 the family moved to the United States, and Clough's early childhood was spent mainly in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828 Clough and his older brother Charles Butler Clough (later head of the Clough family of Llwyn Offa, Flintshire and Boughton House, Chester, a magistrate and Deputy Lieutenant) returned to England to attend school in Chester. Holidays were often spent at Beaumaris. In 1829 Clough began attending Rugby School, then under Thomas Arnold, whose belief in rigorous education and lifestyles he accepted. (See Muscular Christianity.) Cut off to a large degree from his family, he passed a somewhat solitary boyhood, devoted to the school and to early literary efforts in the Rugby Magazine. In 1836 his parents returned to Liverpool, and in 1837 he won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin Jowett, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, John Campbell Shairp, William George Ward and Frederick Temple. Matthew Arnold, four years his junior, arrived the term after Clough had graduated. Clough and Arnold enjoyed an intense friendship in Oxford.
Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church movement led by John Henry Newman. Clough was for a time influenced by this movement, but eventually rejected it. He surprised everyone by graduating from Oxford with only Second Class Honours, but won a fellowship with a tutorship at Oriel College. He became unwilling to teach the doctrines of the Church of England, as his tutorship required of him, and in 1848 he resigned the position and travelled to Paris, where he witnessed the revolution of 1848. Ralph Waldo Emerson was also in Paris at that time, and Clough saw him daily in May and June, and months later after his return to England. As Edward Everett Hale tells the story:
Clough accompanied to Liverpool to see him off on his return to the United States, saying sadly, "What shall we do without you? Think where we are. Carlyle has led us all out into the desert and he has left us there" – a remark which was exactly true. Emerson said in reply that very many of the fine young men in England had said this to him as he went up and down in his journeyings there. "And I put my hand upon his head as we walked, and I said, 'Clough, I consecrate you Bishop of All England. It shall be your part to go up and down through the desert to find out these wanderers and to lead them into the promised land'."
In the summer of 1848, Clough wrote his long poem The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, a farewell to the academic life, following it up with poems from his time as student and tutor, in the shared publication Ambarvalia. In 1849, he witnessed another revolution, the siege of the Roman Republic, which inspired another long poem, Amours de Voyage (reprinted by Persephone Books in 2009). Easter Day, written in Naples, was a passionate denial of the Resurrection and the forerunner of the unfinished poem Dipsychus.
Since 1846, Clough had been financially responsible for his mother and sister (following the death of his father and younger brother and the marriage of his elder brother). In the autumn of 1849, to provide for them, he became principal of University Hall, a hostel for Unitarian students at University College, London, but found its ideology as oppressive as that which he had left behind in Oxford. He soon found that he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle.
A prospect of a post in Sydney led him to engage himself to Blanche Mary Shore Smith, daughter of Samuel Smith, of Combe Hurst, Surrey and Mary Shore (sister to William Nightingale) but when that failed to materialize, he travelled in 1852 to Cambridge, Massachusetts, encouraged by Ralph Waldo Emerson. There he remained for several months, lecturing and editing Plutarch for the booksellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the Education Office brought him to London once more. He married Miss Shore Smith and pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appointment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study foreign military education. He devoted enormous energy to working as an unpaid secretarial assistant to his wife's cousin Florence Nightingale. He wrote virtually no poetry for six years.
In 1860, his health began to fail. He visited first Great Malvern and Freshwater, Isle of Wight. From April 1861, he travelled strenuously in Greece, Turkey and France, where he met up with the Tennyson family. Despite his fragile health, this Continental tour renewed a state of euphoria like that of 1848–49, and he quickly wrote the elements of his last long poem, Mari Magno. His wife joined him on a voyage from Switzerland to Italy, where he contracted malaria.
He died in Florence on 13 November 1861. He is buried in the English Cemetery there, in a tomb that his wife and sister had Susan Horner design from Jean-François Champollion's book on Egyptian hieroglyphs. Matthew Arnold wrote the elegy of Thyrsis to his memory.
Clough and his wife had three children: Arthur, Florence, and Blanche Athena. The youngest child, Blanche Athena Clough (1861–1960), devoted her life to Newnham College, Cambridge, where her aunt (his sister Anne) was principal.
Writings
Shortly before he left Oxford, during the Great Famine of Ireland of 1845–1849, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the undergraduates, with the title, A Consideration of Objections against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford (1847). His Homeric pastoral The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, afterwards renamed Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), and written in hexameter is full of socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. Ambarvalia (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from circa 1840 onwards.
Amours de Voyage, a novel in verse, was written at Rome in 1849; Dipsychus, a rather amorphous satire, at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up Mari Magno, or Tales on Board, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later in date than the Ambarvalia, complete Clough's poetic output. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision of a 17th-century translation of Plutarch (called the "Dryden Translation," but actually the product of translators other than Dryden) which occupied him from 1852, and was published as Plutarch's Lives (1859).
Clough's output is small and much of it appeared posthumously. Anthony Kenny notes that the editions prepared by Clough's widow, Blanche, have "been criticized ... for omitting, in the interests of propriety, significant passages in Dipsychus and other poems." But editing Clough's literary remains has proven a challenging task even for later editors. Kenny goes on to state that "it was no mean feat to have placed almost all of Clough's poetry in the public domain within a decade, and to have secured for it general critical and popular acclaim."
His long poems have a certain narrative and psychological penetration, and some of his lyrics have a strength of melody to match their depth of thought. He has been regarded as one of the most forward-looking English poets of the 19th century, in part due to a sexual frankness that shocked his contemporaries. He often went against the popular religious and social ideals of his day, and his verse is said to have the melancholy and the perplexity of an age of transition, although Through a Glass Darkly suggests that he did not lack certain Christian beliefs of his own, and in particular a belief in the afterlife where the struggle for virtue will be rewarded. His work is interesting to students of meter, owing to the experiments which he made, in the Bothie and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other types of verse formed upon classical models.
Clough wrote the short poem "Say Not the Struggle Naught Availeth", a rousing call invoking military metaphors to keep up the good fight; which fight is unspecified, but it was written in the wake of the defeat of Chartism in 1848. Other short poems include "Through a Glass Darkly", an exploration of Christian faith and doubt, and "The Latest Decalogue", a satirical take on the Ten Commandments.
"The Latest Decalogue's" couplet on murder, "Thou shalt not kill; but needst not strive officiously to keep alive:" is often quoted – usually out of context – in debates on medical ethics in the sense that it is not right to struggle to keep terminally ill people alive, especially if they are suffering. Further, this couplet influenced Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics (in particular, the First Law's "or through inaction" clause). Broadcaster Geoffrey Robertson QC used the phrase in an episode of his television series, Geoffrey Robertson's Hypotheticals ("Affairs of the Heart," ABC, 1989), illustrating this point of view; it is unclear whether Robertson was aware Clough's version of the Fifth Commandment had nothing to do with the alleviation of suffering but was instead referring to those who do not afford—in any circumstances—due respect to the sanctity of human life. Clough himself gives no indication that the couplet on murder might refer to the medical profession in general or to the treatment of the terminally ill in particular; indeed, the entire text of "The Latest Decalogue" satirizes the hypocrisy, materialism, the selective ethics and self-interest common to all of mankind.
This bitter judgement of humanity should be balanced against the more compassionate view he displays in other poems such as "Through A Glass Darkly": "Ah yet when all is thought and said, the heart still overrules the head; still what we hope we must believe, and what is given us receive".
In the novel The French Lieutenant's Woman by John Fowles, several chapters have epigraphs from poems by Clough: "Duty" (1841), The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich (1848) and "Poems" (1841–1852).
Notes
^ Clough, A.H. (1874) Poems, London, Macmillan, p.vii.
^ A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251, 'Clough of Plas Clough'
^ Some Poets, Artists & 'A Reference for Mellors', Anthony Powell, 2005, Timewell Press, p. 85
^ A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251, 'Clough of Llwyn Offa'
^ a b c d e Stephen 1887.
^ a b c Chambers 1911.
^ Kenny, Anthony. "Clough, Arthur Hugh (1819–1861)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5711
^ Recounted in "James Russell Lowell and His Friends", by Edward Everett Hale, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1898, pages 136-137.
^ Anthony Kenny, 2005, pg. 181, 218.
^ J. R. Howard Roberts and Walter H. Godfrey (editors) (1949). "University Hall (Dr. Williams' Library), Gordon Square". Survey of London: volume 21: The parish of St Pancras part 3: Tottenham Court Road & neighbourhood. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 18 June 2012. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
^ a b A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251
^ Newnham College biography
^ Anthony, Kenny, 2005, pg. 286.
^ a b Glenn Everett. "Arthur Hugh Clough – A Brief Biography". Victorian Web.
^ Asimov, Isaac (1979). In Memory Yet Green. Doubleday. Chapters 21 through 26 ISBN 0-380-75432-0.
Attribution:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, E. K. (1911). "Clough, Arthur Hugh". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 561.
References
Stephen, Leslie (1887). "Clough, Arthur Hugh" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 11. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 127–128.
Kenny, Anthony. "Clough, Arthur Hugh (1819–1861)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5711. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Clough's Poems (1862) edited, with a short memoir, by F. T. Palgrave,
Letters and Remains, with a longer memoir, privately printed in 1865. *Both volumes published together in 1869, and reprinted
Robindra Biswas, Arthur Hugh Clough: Towards a Reconsideration(1972)
Samuel Waddington, Arthur Hugh Clough: A Monograph (1883)
Anthony Kenny, Arthur Hugh Clough, a Poet's Life (2005)
Howard F. Lowry and Ralph Leslie Rusk (editors), Emerson–Clough Letters, Hamden: Archon Books, 1968.
Stefano Paolucci, Emerson Writes to Clough: A Lost Letter Found in Italy, in Emerson Society Papers, vol. 19, n. 1, Spring 2008.
Selections from the poems were made by Mrs Clough for the Golden Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in 1896.
"The French Lieutenant's Woman" (1969), by John Fowles.
Rupert Christiansen, The Voice of Victorian Sex : Arthur H. Clough, 1819-1861, London: Short Books, 2001 (Short Lives)
External links
Wikisource has original works by or about:Arthur Hugh Clough
Wikiquote has quotations related to Arthur Hugh Clough.
Wikisource has the text of the Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.) article Arthur Hugh Clough.
Works by Arthur Hugh Clough at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Arthur Hugh Clough at Internet Archive
Works by Arthur Hugh Clough at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
The Poetry of Arthur Hugh Clough
Arthur Hugh Clough Index Entry at Poets' Corner
Arthur Hugh Clough's poetry at Minstrels
Poem Hunter
Collection of short poems by Arthur Hugh Clough
"Archival material relating to Arthur Hugh Clough". UK National Archives.
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He was the brother of suffragist Anne Clough and father of Blanche Athena Clough, who both became principals of Newnham College, Cambridge.","title":"Arthur Hugh Clough"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool"},{"link_name":"cotton merchant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton#Industrial_Revolution_in_Britain"},{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"Pontefract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontefract"},{"link_name":"Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Plas Clough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plas_Clough"},{"link_name":"Denbighshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denbighshire"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Charleston, South 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hieroglyphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs"},{"link_name":"Thyrsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyrsis_(poem)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1911-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ireland_1871,_p._251-11"},{"link_name":"Blanche Athena Clough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanche_Athena_Clough"},{"link_name":"Newnham College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newnham_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Anne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Clough"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Arthur Clough was born in Liverpool to James Butler Clough, a cotton merchant of Welsh descent, and Anne Perfect, from Pontefract in Yorkshire.[1] James Butler Clough was a younger son of a landed gentry family that had been living at Plas Clough in Denbighshire since 1567.[2][3] In 1822 the family moved to the United States, and Clough's early childhood was spent mainly in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1828 Clough and his older brother Charles Butler Clough (later head of the Clough family of Llwyn Offa, Flintshire and Boughton House, Chester, a magistrate and Deputy Lieutenant)[4] returned to England to attend school in Chester. Holidays were often spent at Beaumaris. In 1829 Clough began attending Rugby School, then under Thomas Arnold, whose belief in rigorous education and lifestyles he accepted. (See Muscular Christianity.) Cut off to a large degree from his family, he passed a somewhat solitary boyhood, devoted to the school and to early literary efforts in the Rugby Magazine. In 1836 his parents returned to Liverpool, and in 1837 he won a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin Jowett, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, John Campbell Shairp, William George Ward and Frederick Temple. Matthew Arnold, four years his junior, arrived the term after Clough had graduated. Clough and Arnold enjoyed an intense friendship in Oxford.[5]Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church movement led by John Henry Newman. Clough was for a time influenced by this movement, but eventually rejected it. He surprised everyone by graduating from Oxford with only Second Class Honours, but won a fellowship with a tutorship at Oriel College.[6] He became unwilling to teach the doctrines of the Church of England, as his tutorship required of him, and in 1848 he resigned the position and travelled to Paris, where he witnessed the revolution of 1848.[5] Ralph Waldo Emerson was also in Paris at that time, and Clough saw him daily in May and June,[7] and months later after his return to England. As Edward Everett Hale tells the story:[8]Clough accompanied [Emerson] to Liverpool to see him off on his return to the United States, saying sadly, \"What shall we do without you? Think where we are. Carlyle has led us all out into the desert and he has left us there\" – a remark which was exactly true. Emerson said in reply that very many of the fine young men in England had said this to him as he went up and down in his journeyings there. \"And I put my hand upon his head as we walked, and I said, 'Clough, I consecrate you Bishop of All England. It shall be your part to go up and down through the desert to find out these wanderers and to lead them into the promised land'.\"In the summer of 1848, Clough wrote his long poem The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, a farewell to the academic life, following it up with poems from his time as student and tutor, in the shared publication Ambarvalia. In 1849, he witnessed another revolution, the siege of the Roman Republic, which inspired another long poem, Amours de Voyage (reprinted by Persephone Books in 2009). Easter Day, written in Naples, was a passionate denial of the Resurrection and the forerunner of the unfinished poem Dipsychus.[9]Since 1846, Clough had been financially responsible for his mother and sister (following the death of his father and younger brother and the marriage of his elder brother). In the autumn of 1849, to provide for them, he became principal of University Hall,[10] a hostel for Unitarian students at University College, London, but found its ideology as oppressive as that which he had left behind in Oxford. He soon found that he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane Welsh Carlyle.[5]A prospect of a post in Sydney led him to engage himself to Blanche Mary Shore Smith, daughter of Samuel Smith, of Combe Hurst, Surrey[11] and Mary Shore (sister to William Nightingale) but when that failed to materialize, he travelled in 1852 to Cambridge, Massachusetts, encouraged by Ralph Waldo Emerson. There he remained for several months, lecturing and editing Plutarch for the booksellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the Education Office brought him to London once more.[5] He married Miss Shore Smith and pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appointment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study foreign military education. He devoted enormous energy to working as an unpaid secretarial assistant to his wife's cousin Florence Nightingale.[5] He wrote virtually no poetry for six years.In 1860, his health began to fail. He visited first Great Malvern and Freshwater, Isle of Wight. From April 1861, he travelled strenuously in Greece, Turkey and France, where he met up with the Tennyson family. Despite his fragile health, this Continental tour renewed a state of euphoria like that of 1848–49, and he quickly wrote the elements of his last long poem, Mari Magno. His wife joined him on a voyage from Switzerland to Italy, where he contracted malaria.He died in Florence on 13 November 1861.[6] He is buried in the English Cemetery there, in a tomb that his wife and sister had Susan Horner design from Jean-François Champollion's book on Egyptian hieroglyphs. Matthew Arnold wrote the elegy of Thyrsis to his memory.[6]Clough and his wife had three children: Arthur, Florence, and Blanche Athena.[11] The youngest child, Blanche Athena Clough (1861–1960), devoted her life to Newnham College, Cambridge, where her aunt (his sister Anne) was principal.[12]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Great Famine of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Homeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"hexameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameter"},{"link_name":"socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"Thomas Burbidge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Burbidge&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Dryden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dryden"},{"link_name":"Anthony Kenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Kenny"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-victweb-14"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-victweb-14"},{"link_name":"meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)"},{"link_name":"hexameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexameter"},{"link_name":"Say Not the Struggle Naught Availeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Say_Not_the_Struggle_Naught_Availeth"},{"link_name":"Chartism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartism"},{"link_name":"Isaac Asimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimov"},{"link_name":"Three Laws of Robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Laws_of_Robotics"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"The French Lieutenant's Woman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_French_Lieutenant%27s_Woman"},{"link_name":"John Fowles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fowles"},{"link_name":"The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bothie_of_Toper-na-fuosich"}],"text":"Shortly before he left Oxford, during the Great Famine of Ireland of 1845–1849, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the undergraduates, with the title, A Consideration of Objections against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford (1847). His Homeric pastoral The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, afterwards renamed Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), and written in hexameter is full of socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. Ambarvalia (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from circa 1840 onwards.Amours de Voyage, a novel in verse, was written at Rome in 1849; Dipsychus, a rather amorphous satire, at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up Mari Magno, or Tales on Board, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later in date than the Ambarvalia, complete Clough's poetic output. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision of a 17th-century translation of Plutarch (called the \"Dryden Translation,\" but actually the product of translators other than Dryden) which occupied him from 1852, and was published as Plutarch's Lives (1859).Clough's output is small and much of it appeared posthumously. Anthony Kenny notes that the editions prepared by Clough's widow, Blanche, have \"been criticized ... for omitting, in the interests of propriety, significant passages in Dipsychus and other poems.\" But editing Clough's literary remains has proven a challenging task even for later editors. Kenny goes on to state that \"it was no mean feat to have placed almost all of Clough's poetry in the public domain within a decade, and to have secured for it general critical and popular acclaim.\"[13]His long poems have a certain narrative and psychological penetration, and some of his lyrics have a strength of melody to match their depth of thought. He has been regarded as one of the most forward-looking English poets of the 19th century, in part due to a sexual frankness that shocked his contemporaries.[14] He often went against the popular religious and social ideals of his day, and his verse is said to have the melancholy and the perplexity of an age of transition, although Through a Glass Darkly suggests that he did not lack certain Christian beliefs of his own, and in particular a belief in the afterlife where the struggle for virtue will be rewarded.[14] His work is interesting to students of meter, owing to the experiments which he made, in the Bothie and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other types of verse formed upon classical models.Clough wrote the short poem \"Say Not the Struggle Naught Availeth\", a rousing call invoking military metaphors to keep up the good fight; which fight is unspecified, but it was written in the wake of the defeat of Chartism in 1848. Other short poems include \"Through a Glass Darkly\", an exploration of Christian faith and doubt, and \"The Latest Decalogue\", a satirical take on the Ten Commandments.\"The Latest Decalogue's\" couplet on murder, \"Thou shalt not kill; but needst not strive officiously to keep alive:\" is often quoted – usually out of context – in debates on medical ethics in the sense that it is not right to struggle to keep terminally ill people alive, especially if they are suffering. Further, this couplet influenced Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics (in particular, the First Law's \"or through inaction\" clause).[15] Broadcaster Geoffrey Robertson QC used the phrase in an episode of his television series, Geoffrey Robertson's Hypotheticals (\"Affairs of the Heart,\" ABC, 1989), illustrating this point of view; it is unclear whether Robertson was aware Clough's version of the Fifth Commandment had nothing to do with the alleviation of suffering but was instead referring to those who do not afford—in any circumstances—due respect to the sanctity of human life. Clough himself gives no indication that the couplet on murder might refer to the medical profession in general or to the treatment of the terminally ill in particular; indeed, the entire text of \"The Latest Decalogue\" satirizes the hypocrisy, materialism, the selective ethics and self-interest common to all of mankind.This bitter judgement of humanity should be balanced against the more compassionate view he displays in other poems such as \"Through A Glass Darkly\": \"Ah yet when all is thought and said, the heart still overrules the head; still what we hope we must believe, and what is given us receive\".In the novel The French Lieutenant's Woman by John Fowles, several chapters have epigraphs from poems by Clough: \"Duty\" (1841), The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich (1848) and \"Poems\" (1841–1852).","title":"Writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephen1887_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephen1887_5-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephen1887_5-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephen1887_5-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephen1887_5-4"},{"link_name":"Stephen 1887","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStephen1887"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1911_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1911_6-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1911_6-2"},{"link_name":"Chambers 1911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFChambers1911"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"University Hall (Dr. Williams' Library), Gordon Square\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=65182"},{"link_name":"cite web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ireland_1871,_p._251_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Ireland_1871,_p._251_11-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Newnham College biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newn.cam.ac.uk/about-newnham/college-history/biographies/content/blanche-athena-clough"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-victweb_14-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-victweb_14-1"},{"link_name":"\"Arthur Hugh Clough – A Brief Biography\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.victorianweb.org/authors/clough/bio.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-380-75432-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-380-75432-0"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chambers, E. K.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._K._Chambers"},{"link_name":"Clough, Arthur Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Clough,_Arthur_Hugh"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"}],"text":"^ Clough, A.H. (1874) Poems, London, Macmillan, p.vii.\n\n^ A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251, 'Clough of Plas Clough'\n\n^ Some Poets, Artists & 'A Reference for Mellors', Anthony Powell, 2005, Timewell Press, p. 85\n\n^ A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251, 'Clough of Llwyn Offa'\n\n^ a b c d e Stephen 1887.\n\n^ a b c Chambers 1911.\n\n^ Kenny, Anthony. \"Clough, Arthur Hugh (1819–1861)\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5711\n\n^ Recounted in \"James Russell Lowell and His Friends\", by Edward Everett Hale, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1898, pages 136-137.\n\n^ Anthony Kenny, 2005, pg. 181, 218.\n\n^ J. R. Howard Roberts and Walter H. Godfrey (editors) (1949). \"University Hall (Dr. Williams' Library), Gordon Square\". Survey of London: volume 21: The parish of St Pancras part 3: Tottenham Court Road & neighbourhood. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 18 June 2012. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)\n\n^ a b A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland, fifth edition, vol. I, Sir Bernard Burke, 1871, p. 251\n\n^ Newnham College biography\n\n^ Anthony, Kenny, 2005, pg. 286.\n\n^ a b Glenn Everett. \"Arthur Hugh Clough – A Brief Biography\". Victorian Web.\n\n^ Asimov, Isaac (1979). In Memory Yet Green. Doubleday. Chapters 21 through 26 ISBN 0-380-75432-0.Attribution:This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, E. K. (1911). \"Clough, Arthur Hugh\". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 561.","title":"Notes"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colaba_Observatory
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Colaba Observatory
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["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]
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Coordinates: 18°38′44″N 72°52′11″E / 18.645513°N 72.869611°E / 18.645513; 72.869611Observatory in Mumbai, India
18°38′44″N 72°52′11″E / 18.645513°N 72.869611°E / 18.645513; 72.869611
Colaba Observatory, also known as the Bombay Observatory, was an astronomical, timekeeping, geomagnetic and meteorological observatory located on the Island of Colaba, Mumbai (Bombay), India.
History
The Colaba Observatory was built in 1826 by the East India Company for astronomical observations and time-keeping, with the purpose to provide support to British and other shipping which used the port of the then-named Bombay. The 165-year-old building served as office space for the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism. The recording of geomagnetism and meteorological observations was started at the observatory in 1841 by Arthur Bedford Orlebar, who was then Professor of Astronomy at Bombay’s Elphinstone College. Magnetic measurements between the years of 1841 and 1845 were intermittent; following 1845 they became bi-hourly, then hourly.
Sophisticated equipment invented by Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, was supplied to Colaba in ensuing years. In 1846 the East India Company ordered his full atmospheric electricity collecting and measuring apparatus for the observatory. Subsequent superintendents Charles Montriou and Edward Francis Fergusson maintained contact with Ronalds and visited him at Kew for hands-on instruction. It was arranged in 1867 for Kew's photo-recording machines to be supplied so that continuous observation of atmospheric pressure, temperature and geomagnetic intensity could be performed automatically. Charles Chambers (later to become a Fellow of the Royal Society) held the Directorship when the new machines were established. Colaba Observatory became more well known through his examination of geomagnetic measurements at Colaba, and his interpretation of the physics behind the phenomena. After his untimely death in Feb. 1896, the mantle of Directorship fell on the shoulders of Nanabhoy Ardeshir Framji Moos, the first Indian to hold this position.
With an Engineering degree from Poona, and a higher degree in Science from Edinburgh in Scotland, Moos saw to the efficient functioning of Colaba Observatory, regular analysis and interpretation of the measurements, and the starting of seismological observations. In 1900 Bombay decided to convert its fleet of horse-drawn trams to electric power for public transport. The electric trams would have vitiated the data from the Colaba magnetic observatory by generating electromagnetic noise.
Moos selected an alternative site at Alibag, located about 30 km (19 mi) directly south-east of Bombay. Alibag was located "far enough from Bombay to be free from the threatened electromagnetic noise, and yet near enough to retain the same geomagnetic characteristics". These aspects were checked out carefully over a 2-year period from 1904–1906, and then only was recording at Colaba discontinued, and the electric tram service started in Bombay. The entire building was made of hand-picked, non-magnetic, Porbandar sandstone, and magnetic recording is carried on in a room built with such good insulation that the variation in temperature within is just 10 °C over an entire day.
Of the entire Colaba-Alibag data, the French geomagnetician Pierre Noel Mayaud, had the following to say in 1973:
Finally, the (magnetic) records of Colaba and Alibag were found to form a beautiful series, beginning in 1871, and making up perhaps, the most complete collection of records in the world. Their quality and especially their regularity were particularly impressive, even in comparison with the Kew and Melbourne records.
Moos retired in 1919 after leading the Colaba-Alibag Observatories to worldwide renown. In 1910 he summarised the main findings from 50 years of geomagnetic measurement at the Colaba-Alibag Observatory over 1846–1905, in two volumes titled "Magnetic observations made at the Government Observatory, Bombay for the period 1846–1905. Parts I. and II." Of these volumes and of Colaba-Alibag's performance as a Geomagnetic Observatory, J.A. Fleming, a pioneer in Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, had the following to say in 1954:
The Golden Jubilee of the foundation of the Magnetic Observatory at Alibag (Mumbai), is a historic one in the field of Geomagnetism, and marks the long established application of India in an unparalleled series of magnetic recording of the phenomena, and publication of interpretative discussions of the accumulated data, as prepared under the direction of India’s foremost investigator (N.A.F. Moos) in the two large volumes.
Despite over 1500 selected references in the field of geomagnetic research, Volume 3 of the Physics-of-the-Earth Series of the United States National Research Council, there is none which exhibits so wide and varied and intensive coverage of all the geomagnetic problems in the early 20th century.
Prof. K. R. Ramanathan, who assumed the Director position after Moos, and would later head the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, said of his predecessor: “He was an ideal head of the observatory, always taking a deep interest in the welfare of his staff, and being held by them in great affection and esteem”. Over the year 1919–1971, 17 Directors steered the Colaba-Alibag Observatories through avenues of meticulous and uninterrupted geomagnetic recordings, regular publishing of the data, and discussion of observations in scientific research journals.
In 1971 the Colaba-Alibag Observatories were converted into an autonomous research organisation called the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism. Until that point the Colaba-Alibag Observatories were part of the Indian Meteorological Department. Its headquarters continued to be in Mumbai, in the building constructed by John Curin in 1826, who was an astronomer for the East India Company. The first Director of the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism over 1971–1979 was B. N. Bhargava. The proceeding Director was R. G. Rastogi over 1980–1989.
During the IGY-IGC years of 1957–1959, K. R. Ramanathan (a past Director of Colaba-Alibag), strongly advocated the setting up of magnetic observatories to examine the equatorial electrojet. The Trivandrum and Annamalainagar observatories were set up in November 1957, and were tended first under the Directorship of S. L. Malurkar, and then under P. R. Pisharoty.
Eighteen years elapsed before there was a need for further observatories along 75°E longitude meridian. The USSR sponsored "Project Geomagnetic Meridian" to serve their needs. Ujjain and Jaipur were consequently set up in July 1975, as wall as Shillong at 92°E longitude. In May 1977, Gulmarg, located very near the focus of the Sq. current system was started. In May 1991, the ninth observatory was started at Nagpur and then the observatories Vishakhapatnam, Pondicherry and Tirunelveli followed. Apart from these, a temporary station was run in the Andaman Islands in 1974 as support for the ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Commission of India) in petroleum prospecting. Since 1979, an array of Gough-Reitzel magnetometers has operated at various sites in India for studies of the Earth's internal structure by examining electromagnetic induction within the earth. The Indian Institute of Geomagnetism currently operates Ten magnetic observatories.
See also
Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory
List of astronomical observatories
References
^ "Colaba (Bombay) Observatory Yearbooks". BGS Geomagnetism. Retrieved 13 January 2021.
^ Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Archived 17 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^ History of the Institute Archived 11 July 2012 at archive.today
^ Charles Chambers (of Colaba observ.) (1878). The meteorology of the Bombay presidency. Diagrams and maps. Dangerfield.
^ Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
^ Bryden, D.J. (2006). "Quality Control in the Making of Scientific Instruments". Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society.
Further reading
Lakhina, G. S.; Alex, S.; Tsurutani, B. T.; Gonzalez, W. D. (2004), "Research on Historical Records of Geomagnetic Storms", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 2004: 3–15, doi:10.1017/S1743921305000074
External links
Magnetic Observations at the Colaba Observatory
Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Lakhina, G. S., and Alex, S. ( 2003), The extreme magnetic storm of 1–2 September 1859, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 1268, doi:10.1029/2002JA009504, A7.
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VIAF
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"18°38′44″N 72°52′11″E / 18.645513°N 72.869611°E / 18.645513; 72.869611","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Colaba_Observatory¶ms=18.645513_N_72.869611_E_"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"astronomical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"timekeeping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timekeeping"},{"link_name":"geomagnetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetic"},{"link_name":"meteorological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorological"},{"link_name":"observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory"},{"link_name":"Colaba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colaba"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Observatory in Mumbai, India18°38′44″N 72°52′11″E / 18.645513°N 72.869611°E / 18.645513; 72.869611\nColaba Observatory, also known as the Bombay Observatory,[1] was an astronomical, timekeeping, geomagnetic and meteorological observatory located on the Island of Colaba, Mumbai (Bombay), India.[2][3]","title":"Colaba Observatory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Bombay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Indian Institute of Geomagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Geomagnetism"},{"link_name":"geomagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetism"},{"link_name":"meteorological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorological"},{"link_name":"Elphinstone College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elphinstone_College"},{"link_name":"Francis Ronalds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ronalds"},{"link_name":"Kew Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Observatory"},{"link_name":"atmospheric electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_electricity"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"photo-recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography#Science_and_forensics"},{"link_name":"atmospheric pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure"},{"link_name":"geomagnetic intensity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Nanabhoy Ardeshir Framji Moos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanabhoy_Ardeshir_Framji_Moos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Poona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Poona"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"vitiated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vitiate"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alibag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alibag"},{"link_name":"Porbandar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porbandar"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Colaba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colaba"},{"link_name":"Alibag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alibag"},{"link_name":"Kew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne_Observatory"},{"link_name":"J.A. Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.agu.org/inside/awards/fleming2.html"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alibag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alibag"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Geomagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetism"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"United States National Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"Prof. K. R. Ramanathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._R._Ramanathan"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Indian Meteorological Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Meteorological_Department"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"equatorial electrojet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_electrojet"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"75°E longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/75th_meridian_east"},{"link_name":"USSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USSR"},{"link_name":"Jaipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaipur"},{"link_name":"92°E longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/92nd_meridian_east"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Pondicherry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pondicherry"},{"link_name":"Andaman Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_Islands"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The Colaba Observatory was built in 1826 by the East India Company for astronomical observations and time-keeping, with the purpose to provide support to British and other shipping which used the port of the then-named Bombay.[4] The 165-year-old building served as office space for the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism. The recording of geomagnetism and meteorological observations was started at the observatory in 1841 by Arthur Bedford Orlebar, who was then Professor of Astronomy at Bombay’s Elphinstone College. Magnetic measurements between the years of 1841 and 1845 were intermittent; following 1845 they became bi-hourly, then hourly.Sophisticated equipment invented by Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, was supplied to Colaba in ensuing years. In 1846 the East India Company ordered his full atmospheric electricity collecting and measuring apparatus for the observatory.[5] Subsequent superintendents Charles Montriou and Edward Francis Fergusson maintained contact with Ronalds and visited him at Kew for hands-on instruction. It was arranged in 1867 for Kew's photo-recording machines to be supplied so that continuous observation of atmospheric pressure, temperature and geomagnetic intensity could be performed automatically.[6] Charles Chambers (later to become a Fellow of the Royal Society) held the Directorship when the new machines were established. Colaba Observatory became more well known through his examination of geomagnetic measurements at Colaba, and his interpretation of the physics behind the phenomena.[citation needed] After his untimely death in Feb. 1896, the mantle of Directorship fell on the shoulders of Nanabhoy Ardeshir Framji Moos, the first Indian to hold this position.With an Engineering degree from Poona, and a higher degree in Science from Edinburgh in Scotland, Moos saw to the efficient functioning of Colaba Observatory, regular analysis and interpretation of the measurements, and the starting of seismological observations. In 1900 Bombay decided to convert its fleet of horse-drawn trams to electric power for public transport. The electric trams would have vitiated the data from the Colaba magnetic observatory by generating electromagnetic noise.[citation needed]Moos selected an alternative site at Alibag, located about 30 km (19 mi) directly south-east of Bombay. Alibag was located \"far enough from Bombay to be free from the threatened electromagnetic noise, and yet near enough to retain the same geomagnetic characteristics\". These aspects were checked out carefully over a 2-year period from 1904–1906, and then only was recording at Colaba discontinued, and the electric tram service started in Bombay. The entire building was made of hand-picked, non-magnetic, Porbandar sandstone, and magnetic recording is carried on in a room built with such good insulation that the variation in temperature within is just 10 °C over an entire day.[citation needed]Of the entire Colaba-Alibag data, the French geomagnetician Pierre Noel Mayaud, had the following to say in 1973:[citation needed]Finally, the (magnetic) records of Colaba and Alibag were found to form a beautiful series, beginning in 1871, and making up perhaps, the most complete collection of records in the world. Their quality and especially their regularity were particularly impressive, even in comparison with the Kew and Melbourne records.Moos retired in 1919 after leading the Colaba-Alibag Observatories to worldwide renown. In 1910 he summarised the main findings from 50 years of geomagnetic measurement at the Colaba-Alibag Observatory over 1846–1905, in two volumes titled \"Magnetic observations made at the Government Observatory, Bombay for the period 1846–1905. Parts I. and II.\" Of these volumes and of Colaba-Alibag's performance as a Geomagnetic Observatory, J.A. Fleming, a pioneer in Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, had the following to say in 1954:[citation needed]The Golden Jubilee of the foundation of the Magnetic Observatory at Alibag (Mumbai), is a historic one in the field of Geomagnetism, and marks the long established application of India in an unparalleled series of magnetic recording of the phenomena, and publication of interpretative discussions of the accumulated data, as prepared under the direction of India’s foremost investigator (N.A.F. Moos) in the two large volumes.\nDespite over 1500 selected references in the field of geomagnetic research, Volume 3 of the Physics-of-the-Earth Series of the United States National Research Council, there is none which exhibits so wide and varied and intensive coverage of all the geomagnetic problems in the early 20th century.Prof. K. R. Ramanathan, who assumed the Director position after Moos, and would later head the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, said of his predecessor: “He was an ideal head of the observatory, always taking a deep interest in the welfare of his staff, and being held by them in great affection and esteem”. Over the year 1919–1971, 17 Directors steered the Colaba-Alibag Observatories through avenues of meticulous and uninterrupted geomagnetic recordings, regular publishing of the data, and discussion of observations in scientific research journals.[citation needed]In 1971 the Colaba-Alibag Observatories were converted into an autonomous research organisation called the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism. Until that point the Colaba-Alibag Observatories were part of the Indian Meteorological Department. Its headquarters continued to be in Mumbai, in the building constructed by John Curin in 1826, who was an astronomer for the East India Company. The first Director of the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism over 1971–1979 was B. N. Bhargava. The proceeding Director was R. G. Rastogi over 1980–1989.[citation needed]During the IGY-IGC years of 1957–1959,[clarification needed] K. R. Ramanathan (a past Director of Colaba-Alibag), strongly advocated the setting up of magnetic observatories to examine the equatorial electrojet. The Trivandrum and Annamalainagar observatories were set up in November 1957, and were tended first under the Directorship of S. L. Malurkar, and then under P. R. Pisharoty.[citation needed]Eighteen years elapsed before there was a need for further observatories along 75°E longitude meridian. The USSR sponsored \"Project Geomagnetic Meridian\" to serve their needs. Ujjain and Jaipur were consequently set up in July 1975, as wall as Shillong at 92°E longitude. In May 1977, Gulmarg, located very near the focus of the Sq. current system was started.[clarification needed] In May 1991, the ninth observatory was started at Nagpur and then the observatories Vishakhapatnam, Pondicherry and Tirunelveli followed. Apart from these, a temporary station was run in the Andaman Islands in 1974 as support for the ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Commission of India) in petroleum prospecting. Since 1979, an array of Gough-Reitzel magnetometers has operated at various sites in India for studies of the Earth's internal structure by examining electromagnetic induction within the earth. The Indian Institute of Geomagnetism currently operates Ten magnetic observatories.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S1743921305000074","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921305000074"}],"text":"Lakhina, G. S.; Alex, S.; Tsurutani, B. T.; Gonzalez, W. D. (2004), \"Research on Historical Records of Geomagnetic Storms\", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 2004: 3–15, doi:10.1017/S1743921305000074","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Equatorial Geophysical Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_Geophysical_Research_Laboratory"},{"title":"List of astronomical observatories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Colaba (Bombay) Observatory Yearbooks\". BGS Geomagnetism. Retrieved 13 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk/data_service/data/yearbooks/cla.html","url_text":"\"Colaba (Bombay) Observatory Yearbooks\""}]},{"reference":"Charles Chambers (of Colaba observ.) (1878). The meteorology of the Bombay presidency. [With] Diagrams and maps. Dangerfield.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-A4EAAAAQAAJ","url_text":"The meteorology of the Bombay presidency. [With] Diagrams and maps"}]},{"reference":"Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_Press","url_text":"Imperial College Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4","url_text":"978-1-78326-917-4"}]},{"reference":"Bryden, D.J. (2006). \"Quality Control in the Making of Scientific Instruments\". Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lakhina, G. S.; Alex, S.; Tsurutani, B. T.; Gonzalez, W. D. (2004), \"Research on Historical Records of Geomagnetic Storms\", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, 2004: 3–15, doi:10.1017/S1743921305000074","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921305000074","url_text":"10.1017/S1743921305000074"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_Council_International
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Battery Council International
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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Battery Council InternationalFormation1924; 100 years ago (1924)TypeTrade AssociationLegal status501(c)(6) nonprofit organizationHeadquartersWashington, D.C.LocationUnited StatesMembership 130+ companiesWebsitewww.batterycouncil.org
Battery Council International (BCI) is a trade association of manufacturers, recyclers, distributors, and retailers of original-equipment and after-market automobile batteries and other batteries. Founded in 1924, BCI has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., USA.
BCI focuses its efforts on batteries used for the following applications:
SLI and low-voltage applications in vehicles, marine, and power sports equipment
Motive power in non-road-going vehicles and industrial and material handling equipment
Stationary storage, local backup power, and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications
Renewable energy support, EV fast charge support, and grid regulation services
It promotes the recycling of lead batteries, and claims that 99% of all lead batteries are eventually recycled. In 1989, BCI created a model law to require the proper disposal and recycling of lead batteries, and promoted its adoption nationwide. According to BCI, more than 40 U.S. states have adopted the elements of the model law, and the rest have implemented it in practice.
The trade association provides industry standards for testing, dimensions, and sizes of lead batteries worth over $14 billion in the North American market each year (as of 2021). BCI provides market trend data and maintains the industry's definitive index of automotive battery replacement fitment data for 85+ years of vehicles.
It also organizes regular conferences and meetings, including the BCI Convention + Power Mart, North America's longest running battery-industry trade show.
In August 2017, Battery Council International launched Essential Energy Everyday to increase awareness about the importance of lead batteries as a key resource for sustainable, essential, reliable, and safe energy sources and storage.
References
^ "New Study Confirms U.S.' Most Recycled Consumer Product - Lead Batteries - Maintains Remarkable Milestone: 99% Recycling Rate". Battery Council International. 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
^ "State Recycling Laws". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
^ "Economic Contribution of the U.S. Lead Battery Industry". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
^ "Statistics Program". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
^ "Vehicle Battery Replacement Data". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
^ "Events Archive". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
^ "Home". BCI Convention. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
External links
Official Website
Essential Energy Everyday
This article about an organization in the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trade association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_association"},{"link_name":"automobile batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_battery"},{"link_name":"batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_battery"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Essential Energy Everyday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//essentialenergyeveryday.com"}],"text":"Battery Council International (BCI) is a trade association of manufacturers, recyclers, distributors, and retailers of original-equipment and after-market automobile batteries and other batteries. Founded in 1924, BCI has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., USA.BCI focuses its efforts on batteries used for the following applications:SLI and low-voltage applications in vehicles, marine, and power sports equipment\nMotive power in non-road-going vehicles and industrial and material handling equipment\nStationary storage, local backup power, and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications\nRenewable energy support, EV fast charge support, and grid regulation servicesIt promotes the recycling of lead batteries, and claims that 99% of all lead batteries are eventually recycled.[1] In 1989, BCI created a model law to require the proper disposal and recycling of lead batteries, and promoted its adoption nationwide.[2] According to BCI, more than 40 U.S. states have adopted the elements of the model law, and the rest have implemented it in practice.The trade association provides industry standards for testing, dimensions, and sizes of lead batteries worth over $14 billion in the North American market each year (as of 2021).[3] BCI provides market trend data[4] and maintains the industry's definitive index of automotive battery replacement fitment data for 85+ years of vehicles.[5]It also organizes regular conferences and meetings,[6] including the BCI Convention + Power Mart, North America's longest running battery-industry trade show.[7]In August 2017, Battery Council International launched Essential Energy Everyday to increase awareness about the importance of lead batteries as a key resource for sustainable, essential, reliable, and safe energy sources and storage.","title":"Battery Council International"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"\"New Study Confirms U.S.' Most Recycled Consumer Product - Lead Batteries - Maintains Remarkable Milestone: 99% Recycling Rate\". Battery Council International. 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2023-10-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/new-study-confirms-lead-batteries-maintain-remarkable-99-recycling-rate/","url_text":"\"New Study Confirms U.S.' Most Recycled Consumer Product - Lead Batteries - Maintains Remarkable Milestone: 99% Recycling Rate\""}]},{"reference":"\"State Recycling Laws\". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/recycling-sustainability/state-recycling-laws/","url_text":"\"State Recycling Laws\""}]},{"reference":"\"Economic Contribution of the U.S. Lead Battery Industry\". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-10-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/resource/economic-contribution-of-the-u-s-lead-battery-industry/","url_text":"\"Economic Contribution of the U.S. Lead Battery Industry\""}]},{"reference":"\"Statistics Program\". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/battery-facts-benefits/industry-stats/statistics-program/","url_text":"\"Statistics Program\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vehicle Battery Replacement Data\". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/battery-facts-benefits/industry-stats/vehicle-battery-replacement-data/","url_text":"\"Vehicle Battery Replacement Data\""}]},{"reference":"\"Events Archive\". Battery Council International. Retrieved 2023-10-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://batterycouncil.org/event/","url_text":"\"Events Archive\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". BCI Convention. Retrieved 2023-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://convention.batterycouncil.org/","url_text":"\"Home\""}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.batterycouncil.org/","external_links_name":"www.batterycouncil.org"},{"Link":"https://essentialenergyeveryday.com/","external_links_name":"Essential Energy Everyday"},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/new-study-confirms-lead-batteries-maintain-remarkable-99-recycling-rate/","external_links_name":"\"New Study Confirms U.S.' Most Recycled Consumer Product - Lead Batteries - Maintains Remarkable Milestone: 99% Recycling Rate\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/recycling-sustainability/state-recycling-laws/","external_links_name":"\"State Recycling Laws\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/resource/economic-contribution-of-the-u-s-lead-battery-industry/","external_links_name":"\"Economic Contribution of the U.S. Lead Battery Industry\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/battery-facts-benefits/industry-stats/statistics-program/","external_links_name":"\"Statistics Program\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/battery-facts-benefits/industry-stats/vehicle-battery-replacement-data/","external_links_name":"\"Vehicle Battery Replacement Data\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org/event/","external_links_name":"\"Events Archive\""},{"Link":"https://convention.batterycouncil.org/","external_links_name":"\"Home\""},{"Link":"https://batterycouncil.org//","external_links_name":"Official Website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180426075923/https://essentialenergyeveryday.com/","external_links_name":"Essential Energy Everyday"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battery_Council_International&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salix_aurita
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Salix aurita
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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Species of shrub
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Salix aurita" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Salix aurita
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Clade:
Eudicots
Clade:
Rosids
Order:
Malpighiales
Family:
Salicaceae
Genus:
Salix
Species:
S. aurita
Binomial name
Salix auritaL.
Salix aurita, the eared willow, is a species of willow distributed over much of Europe, and occasionally cultivated. It is a shrub to 2.5 m in height, distinguished from the similar but slightly larger Salix cinerea by its reddish petioles and young twigs. It was named for its persistent kidney-shaped stipules along the shoots.
References
^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Salix aurita". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
External links
Media related to Salix aurita at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Salix aurita at Wikispecies
"Salix aurita". Plants for a Future.
Taxon identifiersSalix aurita
Wikidata: Q157519
Wikispecies: Salix aurita
BioLib: 38923
BOLD: 254531
CoL: 6XCLQ
EoL: 590722
EPPO: SAXAU
FNA: 200005758
GBIF: 5372876
GRIN: 32681
iNaturalist: 85085
IPNI: 777119-1
IRMNG: 11190107
ITIS: 507503
NBN: NBNSYS0000003874
NCBI: 470270
Observation.org: 7390
Open Tree of Life: 717154
PfaF: Salix aurita
PFI: 210
Plant List: kew-5001338
PLANTS: SAAU9
POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:777119-1
RHS: 16231
Tropicos: 28300251
WFO: wfo-0000928969
This Salicaceae article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hole
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White hole
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["1 Overview","2 Origin","3 Properties","4 Physical relevance","5 Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole","5.1 Various hypotheses","6 In popular culture","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
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Hypothetical region of spacetime
For other uses, see White hole (disambiguation).
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In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed.
Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.
Overview
Like black holes, white holes have properties such as mass, charge, and angular momentum. They attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually reach the white hole's event horizon (though in the case of the maximally extended Schwarzschild solution, discussed below, the white hole event horizon in the past becomes a black hole event horizon in the future, so any object falling towards it will eventually reach the black hole horizon).
Imagine a gravitational field, without a surface. Acceleration due to gravity is the greatest on the surface of any body. But since black holes lack a surface, acceleration due to gravity increases exponentially, but never reaches a final value as there is no considered surface in a singularity.
In quantum mechanics, the black hole emits Hawking radiation and so it can come to thermal equilibrium with a gas of radiation (not compulsory). Because a thermal-equilibrium state is time-reversal-invariant, Stephen Hawking argued that the time reversal of a black hole in thermal equilibrium results in a white hole in thermal equilibrium (each absorbing and emitting energy to equivalent degrees). Consequently, this may imply that black holes and white holes are reciprocal in structure, wherein the Hawking radiation from an ordinary black hole is identified with a white hole's emission of energy and matter. Hawking's semi-classical argument is reproduced in a quantum mechanical AdS/CFT treatment, where a black hole in anti-de Sitter space is described by a thermal gas in a gauge theory, whose time reversal is the same as itself.
Origin
A diagram of the structure of the maximally extended black hole spacetime. The horizontal direction is space and the vertical direction is time.
The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Soviet cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964, developed by Nikolai Kardashev. White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" implies that spacetime should not have any "edges". For any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles that pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward, which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time.
Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).
In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein-Rosen bridge" or Schwarzschild wormhole. Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity.
Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region. But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of "realistic" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and that emits matter until it finally "explodes" and disappears. Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang. Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly "unstable" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.
Properties
Depending on the type of black hole solution considered, there are several types of white holes. In the case of the Schwarzschild black hole mentioned above, a geodesic coming out of a white hole comes from the "gravitational singularity" it contains. In the case of a black hole possessing an electric charge ψ ** Ώ ** ώ (Reissner-Nordström black hole) or an angular momentum, then the white hole happens to be the "exit door" of a black hole existing in another universe. Such a black hole - white hole configuration is called a wormhole. In both cases, however, it is not possible to reach the region "in" the white hole, so the behavior of it - and, in particular, what may come out of it - is completely impossible to predict. In this sense, a white hole is a configuration according to which the evolution of the universe cannot be predicted, because it is not deterministic. A "bare singularity" is another example of a non-deterministic configuration, but does not have the status of a white hole, however, because there is no region inaccessible from a given region. In its basic conception, the Big Bang can be seen as a naked singularity in outer space, but does not correspond to a white hole.
Physical relevance
In its mode of formation, a black hole comes from a residue of a massive star whose core contracts until it turns into a black hole. Such a configuration is not static: we start from a massive and extended body which contracts to give a black hole. The black hole therefore does not exist for all eternity, and there is no corresponding white hole.
To be able to exist, a white hole must either arise from a physical process leading to its formation, or be present from the creation of the universe. None of these solutions appears satisfactory: there is no known astrophysical process that can lead to the formation of such a configuration, and imposing it from the creation of the universe amounts to assuming a very specific set of initial conditions which has no concrete motivation. Also the existence of white holes seems difficult to consider.
In view of the enormous quantities radiated by quasars, whose luminosity makes it possible to observe them from several billion light-years away, it had been assumed that they were the seat of exotic physical phenomena such as a white hole, or a phenomenon of continuous creation of matter (see the article on the steady state theory). These ideas are now abandoned, the observed properties of quasars being very well explained by those of an accretion disk in the center of which is a supermassive black hole.
Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole
Main article: Big Bang
See also: Lee Smolin § Cosmological natural selection, and Shockwave cosmology
A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core/singularity, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe.
The Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of matter. According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan theory, however, the minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction that is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation of a gravitational singularity. Instead, the collapsing matter on the other side of the event horizon reaches an enormous but finite density and rebounds, forming a regular Einstein–Rosen bridge. The other side of the bridge becomes a new, growing baby universe. For observers in the baby universe, the parent universe appears as the only white hole. Accordingly, the observable universe is the Einstein–Rosen interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many inside a larger universe. The Big Bang was a nonsingular Big Bounce at which the observable universe had a finite, minimum scale factor.
Shockwave cosmology, proposed by Joel Smoller and Blake Temple in 2003, has the “big bang” as an explosion inside a black hole, producing the expanding volume of space and matter that includes the observable universe. This black hole eventually becomes a white hole as the matter density reduces with the expansion. A related theory gives an alternative to dark energy.
A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole. It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a "Small Bang", is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effects can be detected only around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.
Various hypotheses
Unlike black holes for which there is a well-studied physical process, gravitational collapse (which gives rise to black holes when a star somewhat more massive than the sun exhausts its nuclear "fuel"), there is no clear analogous process that leads reliably to the production of white holes. Although some hypotheses have been put forward:
White holes as a kind of "exit" from black holes, both types of singularities would probably be connected by a wormhole (note that, like white holes, wormholes have not yet been found); when quasars were discovered it was assumed that these were the sought-after white holes but this assumption has now been discarded.
Another widespread idea is that white holes would be very unstable, would last a very short time and even after forming could collapse and become black holes.
Israeli astronomers Alon Retter and Shlomo Heller suggest that the GRB 060614 anomalous gamma-ray burst that occurred in 2006 was a "white hole".
In 2014, the idea of the Big Bang being produced by a supermassive white hole explosion was explored in the framework of a five-dimensional vacuum by Madriz Aguilar, Moreno and Bellini.
Finally, it has been postulated that white holes could be the temporal inverse of a black hole.
At present, very few scientists believe in the existence of white holes and it is considered only a mathematical exercise with no real-world counterpart.
In popular culture
A white hole appears in the Red Dwarf episode of the same name, wherein the protagonists must find a way to deal with its temporal effects.
A white hole serves as a major source of conflict in the Yu-Gi-Oh! GX anime, as the radiance it exudes is both sentient and evil, known as the Light of Destruction.
A white hole serves as a very important location in the video game Outer Wilds. In this game, falling into the black hole in the center of the planet Brittle Hollow leads to this white hole.
A white hole appears in the animated television series Voltron: Legendary Defender.
See also
Arrow of time
White hole cosmology
Big Bounce
Gravitational singularity
Black hole
Black hole cosmology
Conformal cyclic cosmology
Dark matter
Dark energy
Exotic matter
Naked singularity
Antiparticle
Antimatter
Negative mass
Negative energy
Planck star
Quantum mechanics
Spacetime
Star
Wormhole
Quasar
Q star
Solar System
Multiverse
Many-worlds interpretation
References
^ Carroll, Sean M. (2004). Spacetime and Geometry (5.7 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8732-3.
^ Hawking and Penrose, The Nature of Space and Time (Princeton, 1996)
^ "Is the Big Bang a black hole?". math.ucr.edu.
^ Hawking, S. W. (1976). "Black Holes and Thermodynamics". Physical Review D. 13 (2): 191–197. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..13..191H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.191.
^ Klebanov, Igor R. (19 May 2006). "TASI lectures: Introduction to the AdS/CFT correspondence". Strings, Branes and Gravity. pp. 615–650. arXiv:hep-th/0009139. Bibcode:2001sbg..conf..615K. doi:10.1142/9789812799630_0007. ISBN 978-981-02-4774-4. S2CID 14783311. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^ Старобинский, А. А. (1988). "БЁЛАЯ ДЫРА" . In ПРОХОРОВ, А.М. (ed.). ФИЗИЧЕСКАЯ ЭНЦИКЛОПЕДИЯ (in Russian). Vol. 1. Москва: Советская энциклопедия. p. 184.
^ Вселенная, жизнь, разум (in Russian). Наука. 1976. p. 310.
^ a b Andrew Hamilton. "White Holes and Wormholes". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
^ Andrew Hamilton. "Collapse to a black hole". Retrieved 12 October 2011.
^ a b Wheeler, J. Craig (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes: Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 197–198. ISBN 978-0-521-85714-7.
^ Frolov, Valeri P.; Igor D. Novikov (1998). Black Hole Physics: Basic Concepts and New Developments. Springer. pp. 580–581. ISBN 978-0-7923-5145-0.
^ a b "Trou blanc : définition et explications". Techno-Science.net.
^ E. Fahri & A. H. Guth (1987). "An Obstacle to Creating a Universe in the Laboratory" (PDF). Physics Letters B. 183 (2): 149–155. Bibcode:1987PhLB..183..149F. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(87)90429-1.
^ Nikodem J. Popławski (2010). "Radial motion into an Einstein–Rosen bridge". Physics Letters B. 687 (2–3): 110–113. arXiv:0902.1994. Bibcode:2010PhLB..687..110P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.03.029. S2CID 5947253.
^ "Every Black Hole Contains Another Universe?". National Geographic News. 12 April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 August 2019.
^ N. J. Popławski (2010). "Cosmology with torsion: An alternative to cosmic inflation". Physics Letters B. 694 (3): 181–185. arXiv:1007.0587. Bibcode:2010PhLB..694..181P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.09.056.
^ N. Popławski (2012). "Nonsingular, big-bounce cosmology from spinor-torsion coupling". Physical Review D. 85 (10): 107502. arXiv:1111.4595. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..85j7502P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.85.107502. S2CID 118434253.
^ "Did cosmos begin as a black hole?". NBC News. 17 September 2003. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^ Clara Moskowitz (17 August 2009). "'Big Wave' Theory Offers Alternative to Dark Energy". Space.com. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^ A. Retter & S. Heller (2012). "The revival of white holes as Small Bangs". New Astronomy. 17 (2): 73–75. arXiv:1105.2776. Bibcode:2012NewA...17...73R. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2011.07.003. S2CID 118505127.
^ Sitio oficial de la Nasa en donde se explica la cuestión: los cuásares fueron supuestos como agujeros blancos pero la hipótesis quedó descartada
^ Alon Retter; Shlomo Heller (17 July 2011). "The Revival of White Holes as Small Bangs". New Astronomy. 17 (2) (New Astronomy ed.): 73–75. arXiv:1105.2776. Bibcode:2012NewA...17...73R. doi:10.1016/j.newast.2011.07.003. S2CID 118505127.
^ Леонид Попов (27 May 2011). "Израильтяне нашли белую дыру". Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
^ J. E. Madriz Aguilar, C. Moreno, M. Bellini. "The primordial explosion of a false white hole from a 5D vacuum". Physics Letters. B728, 244 (2014)..
^ Descubren nuevas evidencias de la transición al blanco de los agujeros negros, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
^ Carlos Barceló, Raúl Carballo Rubio y Luis J. Garay. “Exponential fading to white of black holes in quantum gravity”. Classical and Quantum Gravity. Volume 34. Number 10.2017. DOI: 10.1088/1361-6382/aa6962.
^ "¿Hemos detectado ya agujeros blancos y no los hemos reconocido?". abc (in Spanish). 17 December 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to White holes.
Embedding of the inverted Schwarzschild Solution 2d plot White hole in Google
Schwarzschild Wormholes Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Schwarzschild Wormhole animation Archived 21 April 1999 at the Wayback Machine
Shockwave cosmology inside a Black Hole
Michio Kaku: Mr Parallel Universe
End of Black Hole Is Starting of Big Bang – Discussed in Newsgroup in 1999
Forward to the Future 1:Trapped in Time! Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Forward to the Future 2:Back to the Past, with Interest... Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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SDSS J0849+1114
TON 618
MS 0735.6+7421
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3C 273
Q0906+6930
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ULAS J1342+0928
PSO J030947.49+271757.31
P172+18
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"White hole (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hole_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"eternal black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole#Schwarzschild_wormholes"},{"link_name":"Einstein field equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"gravitational collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_collapse"},{"link_name":"Supermassive black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole"},{"link_name":"galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Stephen Hawking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"spawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For other uses, see White hole (disambiguation).In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past.[1] This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed.Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking[2] and others have proposed that these supermassive black holes spawn a supermassive white hole.[3]","title":"White hole"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"maximally extended Schwarzschild solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Szekeres_coordinates#The_maximally_extended_Schwarzschild_solution"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Hawking radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation"},{"link_name":"thermal equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"Stephen Hawking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space"},{"link_name":"gauge theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory"}],"text":"Like black holes, white holes have properties such as mass, charge, and angular momentum. They attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually reach the white hole's event horizon (though in the case of the maximally extended Schwarzschild solution, discussed below, the white hole event horizon in the past becomes a black hole event horizon in the future, so any object falling towards it will eventually reach the black hole horizon).\nImagine a gravitational field, without a surface. Acceleration due to gravity is the greatest on the surface of any body. But since black holes lack a surface, acceleration due to gravity increases exponentially, but never reaches a final value as there is no considered surface in a singularity.In quantum mechanics, the black hole emits Hawking radiation and so it can come to thermal equilibrium with a gas of radiation (not compulsory). Because a thermal-equilibrium state is time-reversal-invariant, Stephen Hawking argued that the time reversal of a black hole in thermal equilibrium results in a white hole in thermal equilibrium (each absorbing and emitting energy to equivalent degrees).[4][further explanation needed] Consequently, this may imply that black holes and white holes are reciprocal in structure, wherein the Hawking radiation from an ordinary black hole is identified with a white hole's emission of energy and matter. Hawking's semi-classical argument is reproduced in a quantum mechanical AdS/CFT treatment,[5] where a black hole in anti-de Sitter space is described by a thermal gas in a gauge theory, whose time reversal is the same as itself.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Krukdiagram.svg"},{"link_name":"maximally extended black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Szekeres_coordinates#The_maximally_extended_Schwarzschild_solution"},{"link_name":"Igor Novikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Dmitriyevich_Novikov"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Nikolai Kardashev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Kardashev"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Einstein field equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations"},{"link_name":"maximally extended","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Szekeres_coordinates#The_maximally_extended_Schwarzschild_solution"},{"link_name":"Schwarzschild metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"geodesic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic_(general_relativity)"},{"link_name":"gravitational singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"Schwarzschild coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_coordinates"},{"link_name":"proper time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time"},{"link_name":"Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Szekeres_coordinates"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton-8"},{"link_name":"hypersurface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersurface"},{"link_name":"space-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime#Space-like_interval"},{"link_name":"Schwarzschild wormhole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole#Schwarzschild_wormholes"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton2-9"},{"link_name":"Time reversal symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_reversal_symmetry"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cosmiccatastrophes-10"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cosmiccatastrophes-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"A diagram of the structure of the maximally extended black hole spacetime. The horizontal direction is space and the vertical direction is time.The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Soviet cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964,[6] developed by Nikolai Kardashev.[7] White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric[clarification needed] describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, \"maximally extended\" implies that spacetime should not have any \"edges\". For any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles that pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears \"eternal\" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward, which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time.Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different \"universes\", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).[8]In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an \"embedding diagram\" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an \"Einstein-Rosen bridge\" or Schwarzschild wormhole.[8] Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity.Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region.[9] But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of \"realistic\" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and that emits matter until it finally \"explodes\" and disappears.[10] Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang.[10] Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly \"unstable\" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.[11]","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"Reissner-Nordström black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"wormhole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Techno-Science.net-12"}],"text":"Depending on the type of black hole solution considered, there are several types of white holes. In the case of the Schwarzschild black hole mentioned above, a geodesic coming out of a white hole comes from the \"gravitational singularity\" it contains. In the case of a black hole possessing an electric charge ψ ** Ώ ** ώ (Reissner-Nordström black hole) or an angular momentum, then the white hole happens to be the \"exit door\" of a black hole existing in another universe. Such a black hole - white hole configuration is called a wormhole. In both cases, however, it is not possible to reach the region \"in\" the white hole, so the behavior of it - and, in particular, what may come out of it - is completely impossible to predict. In this sense, a white hole is a configuration according to which the evolution of the universe cannot be predicted, because it is not deterministic. A \"bare singularity\" is another example of a non-deterministic configuration, but does not have the status of a white hole, however, because there is no region inaccessible from a given region. In its basic conception, the Big Bang can be seen as a naked singularity in outer space, but does not correspond to a white hole.[12]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"astrophysical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics"},{"link_name":"quasars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar"},{"link_name":"light-years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-year"},{"link_name":"steady state theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady-state_model"},{"link_name":"accretion disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_disk"},{"link_name":"supermassive black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Techno-Science.net-12"}],"text":"In its mode of formation, a black hole comes from a residue of a massive star whose core contracts until it turns into a black hole. Such a configuration is not static: we start from a massive and extended body which contracts to give a black hole. The black hole therefore does not exist for all eternity, and there is no corresponding white hole.To be able to exist, a white hole must either arise from a physical process leading to its formation, or be present from the creation of the universe. None of these solutions appears satisfactory: there is no known astrophysical process that can lead to the formation of such a configuration, and imposing it from the creation of the universe amounts to assuming a very specific set of initial conditions which has no concrete motivation. Also the existence of white holes seems difficult to consider.In view of the enormous quantities radiated by quasars, whose luminosity makes it possible to observe them from several billion light-years away, it had been assumed that they were the seat of exotic physical phenomena such as a white hole, or a phenomenon of continuous creation of matter (see the article on the steady state theory). These ideas are now abandoned, the observed properties of quasars being very well explained by those of an accretion disk in the center of which is a supermassive black hole.[12]","title":"Physical relevance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lee Smolin § Cosmological natural selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Smolin#Cosmological_natural_selection"},{"link_name":"Shockwave cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockwave_cosmology"},{"link_name":"singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"link_name":"expands outside of the parent universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Cartan_theory"},{"link_name":"torsion tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_tensor"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Dirac spinors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_spinor"},{"link_name":"fermionic matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"observable universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe"},{"link_name":"Big Bounce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bounce"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Shockwave cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockwave_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"gamma-ray bursts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst"}],"text":"See also: Lee Smolin § Cosmological natural selection, and Shockwave cosmologyA view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core/singularity, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe.[13][14][15]The Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of matter. According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan theory, however, the minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction that is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation of a gravitational singularity. Instead, the collapsing matter on the other side of the event horizon reaches an enormous but finite density and rebounds, forming a regular Einstein–Rosen bridge.[16] The other side of the bridge becomes a new, growing baby universe. For observers in the baby universe, the parent universe appears as the only white hole. Accordingly, the observable universe is the Einstein–Rosen interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many inside a larger universe. The Big Bang was a nonsingular Big Bounce at which the observable universe had a finite, minimum scale factor.[17]Shockwave cosmology, proposed by Joel Smoller and Blake Temple in 2003, has the “big bang” as an explosion inside a black hole, producing the expanding volume of space and matter that includes the observable universe.[18] This black hole eventually becomes a white hole as the matter density reduces with the expansion. A related theory gives an alternative to dark energy.[19]A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole.[20] It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a \"Small Bang\", is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effects can be detected only around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.","title":"Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravitational collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_collapse"},{"link_name":"wormhole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole"},{"link_name":"quasars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"GRB 060614","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRB_060614"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Various hypotheses","text":"Unlike black holes for which there is a well-studied physical process, gravitational collapse (which gives rise to black holes when a star somewhat more massive than the sun exhausts its nuclear \"fuel\"), there is no clear analogous process that leads reliably to the production of white holes. Although some hypotheses have been put forward:White holes as a kind of \"exit\" from black holes, both types of singularities would probably be connected by a wormhole (note that, like white holes, wormholes have not yet been found); when quasars were discovered it was assumed that these were the sought-after white holes but this assumption has now been discarded.[21]\nAnother widespread idea is that white holes would be very unstable, would last a very short time and even after forming could collapse and become black holes.\nIsraeli astronomers Alon Retter and Shlomo Heller suggest that the GRB 060614 anomalous gamma-ray burst that occurred in 2006 was a \"white hole\".[22][23]\nIn 2014, the idea of the Big Bang being produced by a supermassive white hole explosion was explored in the framework of a five-dimensional vacuum by Madriz Aguilar, Moreno and Bellini.[24]\nFinally, it has been postulated that white holes could be the temporal inverse of a black hole.[25][26]At present, very few scientists believe in the existence of white holes and it is considered only a mathematical exercise with no real-world counterpart.[27]","title":"Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Red Dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Dwarf_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Hole_(Red_Dwarf)"},{"link_name":"Yu-Gi-Oh! GX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu-Gi-Oh!_GX"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Outer Wilds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_Wilds"},{"link_name":"Voltron: Legendary Defender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltron:_Legendary_Defender"}],"text":"A white hole appears in the Red Dwarf episode of the same name, wherein the protagonists must find a way to deal with its temporal effects.\nA white hole serves as a major source of conflict in the Yu-Gi-Oh! GX anime, as the radiance it exudes is both sentient and evil, known as the Light of Destruction.\nA white hole serves as a very important location in the video game Outer Wilds. In this game, falling into the black hole in the center of the planet Brittle Hollow leads to this white hole.\nA white hole appears in the animated television series Voltron: Legendary Defender.","title":"In popular culture"}]
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[{"image_text":"A diagram of the structure of the maximally extended black hole spacetime. The horizontal direction is space and the vertical direction is time.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Krukdiagram.svg/220px-Krukdiagram.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Arrow of time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"},{"title":"White hole cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_science#Creationist_cosmologies"},{"title":"Big Bounce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bounce"},{"title":"Gravitational singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularity"},{"title":"Black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"title":"Black hole cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_cosmology"},{"title":"Conformal cyclic cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_cyclic_cosmology"},{"title":"Dark matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter"},{"title":"Dark energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy"},{"title":"Exotic matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_matter"},{"title":"Naked singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naked_singularity"},{"title":"Antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"title":"Antimatter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter"},{"title":"Negative mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_mass"},{"title":"Negative energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_energy"},{"title":"Planck star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_star"},{"title":"Quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"title":"Spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"title":"Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"title":"Wormhole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole"},{"title":"Quasar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar"},{"title":"Q star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_star"},{"title":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System"},{"title":"Multiverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse"},{"title":"Many-worlds interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation"}]
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[{"reference":"Carroll, Sean M. (2004). Spacetime and Geometry (5.7 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8732-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley","url_text":"Addison-Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-8732-3","url_text":"0-8053-8732-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Is the Big Bang a black hole?\". math.ucr.edu.","urls":[{"url":"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/BlackHoles/universe.html","url_text":"\"Is the Big Bang a black hole?\""}]},{"reference":"Hawking, S. W. (1976). \"Black Holes and Thermodynamics\". Physical Review D. 13 (2): 191–197. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..13..191H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.191.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_D","url_text":"Physical Review D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976PhRvD..13..191H","url_text":"1976PhRvD..13..191H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.13.191","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.13.191"}]},{"reference":"Klebanov, Igor R. (19 May 2006). \"TASI lectures: Introduction to the AdS/CFT correspondence\". Strings, Branes and Gravity. pp. 615–650. arXiv:hep-th/0009139. Bibcode:2001sbg..conf..615K. doi:10.1142/9789812799630_0007. ISBN 978-981-02-4774-4. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Macy
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Joanna Macy
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["1 Biography","1.1 Early life and education","1.2 Career","2 Key influences","3 Work","4 Writings","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
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American poet (born 1929)
Joanna Rogers MacyBorn (1929-05-02) 2 May 1929 (age 95)OccupationAuthor, Buddhist scholar, environmental activistNationalityAmericanSpouseFran Macy (died 2009)
Joanna Rogers Macy (born May 2, 1929) is an environmental activist, author, and scholar of Buddhism, general systems theory, and deep ecology. She is the author of twelve books.
She was married to the late Francis Underhill Macy, the activist and Russian scholar who founded the Center for Safe Energy.
Biography
Early life and education
Macy credits poet and activist Muriel Rukeyser with starting her on the path to becoming a poet and writer herself. When she was a high school student in New York City, she cut school and took the train from Long Island to Manhattan in order to attend a poetry reading by Rukeyser; the hall was already full to capacity when Joanna arrived, but Rukeyser invited her to come onto the stage and sit at her feet during the reading.
Macy graduated from Wellesley College in 1950 and received her Ph.D in Religious Studies in 1978 from Syracuse University, Syracuse. Her doctoral work, under the mentorship of Ervin László, focused on convergences between causation in systems thinking and the Buddhist central doctrine of mutual causality or interdependent co-arising.
Career
Macy is an international spokesperson for anti-nuclear causes, peace, justice, and environmentalism, most renowned for her book Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World and the Great Turning initiative, which deals with the transformation from, as she terms it, an industrial growth society to what she considers to be a more sustainable civilization. She has created a theoretical framework for personal and social change, and a workshop methodology for its application. Her work addresses psychological and spiritual issues, Buddhist thought, and contemporary science.
Key influences
Macy first encountered Buddhism in 1965 while working with Tibetan refugees in northern India, particularly the Ven. 8th Khamtrul Rinpoche, Sister Karma Khechog Palmo, Ven. Dugu Choegyal Rinpoche, and Tokden Antrim of the Tashi Jong community. Her spiritual practice is drawn from the Theravada tradition of Nyanaponika Thera and Rev. Sivali of Sri Lanka, Munindraji of West Bengal, and Dhiravamsa of Thailand.
Key formative influences to her teaching in the field of the connection to living systems theory have been Ervin Laszlo who introduced her to systems theory through his writings (especially Introduction to Systems Philosophy and Systems, Structure and Experience), and who worked with her as advisor on her doctoral dissertation (later adapted as Mutual Causality) and on a project for the Club of Rome. Gregory Bateson, through his Steps to an Ecology of Mind and in a summer seminar, also shaped her thought, as did the writings of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Arthur Koestler, and Hazel Henderson. She was influenced in the studies of biological systems by Tyrone Cashman, and economic systems by Kenneth Boulding. Donella Meadows provided insights on the planetary consequences of runaway systems, and Elisabet Sahtouris provided further information about self-organizing systems in evolutionary perspective.
Work
Macy travels giving lectures, workshops, and trainings internationally. Her work, originally called "Despair and Empowerment Work" was acknowledged as being part of the deep ecology tradition after she encountered the work of Arne Naess and John Seed, but as a result of disillusion with academic disputes in the field, she now calls it "the Work that Reconnects". Widowed by the death of her husband, Francis Underhill Macy, in January 2009, she lives in Berkeley, California, near her children and grandchildren. She served as adjunct professor to three graduate schools in the San Francisco Bay Area: the Starr King School for the Ministry, the University of Creation Spirituality, and California Institute of Integral Studies. where she is still on the faculty.
Writings
Library resources about Joanna Macy
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
By Joanna Macy
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Macy, Joanna (1983). Despair and Personal Power in the Nuclear Age. New Society Pub. ISBN 0-86571-031-7.
Macy, Joanna (1985). Dharma and Development: Religion as resource in the Sarvodaya self help movement. Kumarian Press revised ed. ISBN 0-931816-53-X.
Macy, Joanna; Seed, John; Fleming, Pat; Naess, Arne; Pugh, Dailan (1988). Thinking Like a Mountain: Toward a Council of All Beings. New Society Publishers. ISBN 0-86571-133-X.
Macy, Joanna (1991). Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural System (Buddhist Studies Series). State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0637-7.
Macy, Joanna (1991). World as Lover, World as Self. Parallax Press. ISBN 0-938077-27-9.
Macy, Joanna; Barrows, Anita (1996). Rilke's Book of Hours: Love Poems to God: poems by Rainer Maria Rilke. Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-59448-156-3.
Macy, Joanna; Young Brown, Molly (1998). Coming Back to Life : Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World. New Society Publishers. ISBN 0-86571-391-X.
Macy, Joanna (2001). Widening Circles : a memoir. New Catalyst Books. ISBN 978-1897408018.
Macy, Joanna (2010). Pass It On: Five Stories That Can Change the World. Parallax Press. ISBN 9781888375831.
Macy, Joanna; Johnstone, Chris (2012). Active Hope : how to face the mess we're in without going crazy. New World Library. ISBN 978-1-57731-972-6.
Macy, Joanna; Brown, Molly (2014). Coming back to Life : the updated guide to the work that reconnects. New Society Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86571-775-6.
Macy, Joanna (2020). A Wild Love for the World : Joanna Macy and the Work of Our Time. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-1-61180-795-0.
See also
David Korten, a collaborator with Macy on the Great Turning Initiative
References
^ a b George Prentice (January 18, 2012). "Anti-nuclear activist is 'just a sucker for courage'". Boise Weekly. Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2012.
^ "Obituary: Fran Macy". the Guardian. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2021-07-04.
^ "John Seed is founder and director of the Rainforest Information Centre in Australia".
^ "Joanna Macy | Starr King for the Ministry". Retrieved 2021-06-01.
^ "Matthew Fox's Christmas Letter, 2013". Welcome from Matthew Fox. 17 December 2013. Retrieved 2021-06-01.
^ "CIIS Council of Sages". www.ciis.edu. Retrieved 2021-06-01.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Joanna Macy.
Joanna Macy's website on the work of Experiential Deep Ecology
Gaia Foundation of Western Australia — an Australian organisation based on the principles of Deep Ecology.
California Institute of Integral Studies
Interview with Joanna Macy by John Malkin — published in ascent magazine, summer 2008
The Healing on Mother Earth Project — a Sebastopol, California organisation based on the principles of deep ecology.
A Wild Love for the World, an interview with Joanna Macy, by Krista Tippet on the American Radio Show "On Being." This page provides links to the original program that first aired in 2010, along with the unedited version of the program. Macy also recites many Rilke poems during the show, but some of these poems are edited out so you can listen to them recited individually.
"Allegiance to Life: Staying steady through the mess we're in", An interview with Joanna Macy from Tricycle: The Buddhist Review
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"general systems theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory"},{"link_name":"deep ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_ecology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-biose-1"},{"link_name":"Francis Underhill Macy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Underhill_Macy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Center for Safe Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Safe_Energy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Joanna Rogers Macy (born May 2, 1929) is an environmental activist, author, and scholar of Buddhism, general systems theory, and deep ecology. She is the author of twelve books.[1]She was married to the late Francis Underhill Macy, the activist and Russian scholar who founded the Center for Safe Energy.[2]","title":"Joanna Macy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Muriel Rukeyser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_Rukeyser"},{"link_name":"Long Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Island"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"poetry reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry_reading"},{"link_name":"Wellesley College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellesley_College"},{"link_name":"Syracuse University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse_University"},{"link_name":"Syracuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Ervin László","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ervin_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3"},{"link_name":"systems thinking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_thinking"},{"link_name":"Buddhist central doctrine of mutual causality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da"}],"sub_title":"Early life and education","text":"Macy credits poet and activist Muriel Rukeyser with starting her on the path to becoming a poet and writer herself. When she was a high school student in New York City, she cut school and took the train from Long Island to Manhattan in order to attend a poetry reading by Rukeyser; the hall was already full to capacity when Joanna arrived, but Rukeyser invited her to come onto the stage and sit at her feet during the reading.Macy graduated from Wellesley College in 1950 and received her Ph.D in Religious Studies in 1978 from Syracuse University, Syracuse. Her doctoral work, under the mentorship of Ervin László, focused on convergences between causation in systems thinking and the Buddhist central doctrine of mutual causality or interdependent co-arising.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anti-nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear"},{"link_name":"environmentalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-biose-1"},{"link_name":"Great Turning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Turning"}],"sub_title":"Career","text":"Macy is an international spokesperson for anti-nuclear causes, peace, justice, and environmentalism,[1] most renowned for her book Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World and the Great Turning initiative, which deals with the transformation from, as she terms it, an industrial growth society to what she considers to be a more sustainable civilization. She has created a theoretical framework for personal and social change, and a workshop methodology for its application. Her work addresses psychological and spiritual issues, Buddhist thought, and contemporary science.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Khamtrul Rinpoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khamtrul_Rinpoche"},{"link_name":"Sister Karma Khechog Palmo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freda_Bedi"},{"link_name":"Theravada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada"},{"link_name":"Nyanaponika Thera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyanaponika_Thera"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka"},{"link_name":"West Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Ervin Laszlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ervin_Laszlo"},{"link_name":"Club of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"Gregory Bateson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Bateson"},{"link_name":"Steps to an Ecology of Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steps_to_an_Ecology_of_Mind"},{"link_name":"Ludwig von Bertalanffy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy"},{"link_name":"Arthur Koestler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Koestler"},{"link_name":"Hazel Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazel_Henderson"},{"link_name":"Tyrone Cashman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyrone_Cashman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Boulding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Boulding"},{"link_name":"Donella Meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donella_Meadows"},{"link_name":"Elisabet Sahtouris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabet_Sahtouris"}],"text":"Macy first encountered Buddhism in 1965 while working with Tibetan refugees in northern India, particularly the Ven. 8th Khamtrul Rinpoche, Sister Karma Khechog Palmo, Ven. Dugu Choegyal Rinpoche, and Tokden Antrim of the Tashi Jong community. Her spiritual practice is drawn from the Theravada tradition of Nyanaponika Thera and Rev. Sivali of Sri Lanka, Munindraji of West Bengal, and Dhiravamsa of Thailand.Key formative influences to her teaching in the field of the connection to living systems theory have been Ervin Laszlo who introduced her to systems theory through his writings (especially Introduction to Systems Philosophy and Systems, Structure and Experience), and who worked with her as advisor on her doctoral dissertation (later adapted as Mutual Causality) and on a project for the Club of Rome. Gregory Bateson, through his Steps to an Ecology of Mind and in a summer seminar, also shaped her thought, as did the writings of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Arthur Koestler, and Hazel Henderson. She was influenced in the studies of biological systems by Tyrone Cashman, and economic systems by Kenneth Boulding. Donella Meadows provided insights on the planetary consequences of runaway systems, and Elisabet Sahtouris provided further information about self-organizing systems in evolutionary perspective.","title":"Key influences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deep ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_ecology"},{"link_name":"Arne Naess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne_N%C3%A6ss"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Francis Underhill Macy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Underhill_Macy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Berkeley, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"Starr King School for the Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starr_King_School_for_the_Ministry"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"University of Creation Spirituality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Fox_(priest)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"California Institute of Integral Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_Integral_Studies"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Macy travels giving lectures, workshops, and trainings internationally. Her work, originally called \"Despair and Empowerment Work\" was acknowledged as being part of the deep ecology tradition after she encountered the work of Arne Naess and John Seed,[3] but as a result of disillusion with academic disputes in the field, she now calls it \"the Work that Reconnects\". Widowed by the death of her husband, Francis Underhill Macy, in January 2009, she lives in Berkeley, California, near her children and grandchildren. She served as adjunct professor to three graduate schools in the San Francisco Bay Area: the Starr King School for the Ministry,[4] the University of Creation Spirituality,[5] and California Institute of Integral Studies.[6] where she is still on the faculty.","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Library resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=103624451"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=103624451&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"Resources in your library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=103624451"},{"link_name":"Resources in other libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=103624451&library=0CHOOSE0"},{"link_name":"Despair and Personal Power in the Nuclear Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/despairpersonalp00macyrich"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86571-031-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86571-031-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-931816-53-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-931816-53-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86571-133-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86571-133-X"},{"link_name":"Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural System (Buddhist Studies Series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mutualcausalityi0000macy"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7914-0637-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-0637-7"},{"link_name":"World as Lover, World as Self","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/worldasloverworl00macy"},{"link_name":"Parallax Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-938077-27-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-938077-27-9"},{"link_name":"Rainer Maria Rilke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke"},{"link_name":"Riverhead Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhead_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-59448-156-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59448-156-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86571-391-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86571-391-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1897408018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1897408018"},{"link_name":"Parallax Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781888375831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781888375831"},{"link_name":"New World Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_Library"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-57731-972-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-972-6"},{"link_name":"New Society Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Society_Publishers"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-86571-775-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86571-775-6"},{"link_name":"Shambhala Publications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shambhala_Publications"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-61180-795-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61180-795-0"}],"text":"Library resources about Joanna Macy \n\nResources in your library\nResources in other libraries\n\nBy Joanna Macy\n\nResources in your library\nResources in other librariesMacy, Joanna (1983). Despair and Personal Power in the Nuclear Age. New Society Pub. ISBN 0-86571-031-7.\nMacy, Joanna (1985). Dharma and Development: Religion as resource in the Sarvodaya self help movement. Kumarian Press revised ed. ISBN 0-931816-53-X.\nMacy, Joanna; Seed, John; Fleming, Pat; Naess, Arne; Pugh, Dailan (1988). Thinking Like a Mountain: Toward a Council of All Beings. New Society Publishers. ISBN 0-86571-133-X.\nMacy, Joanna (1991). Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural System (Buddhist Studies Series). State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0637-7.\nMacy, Joanna (1991). World as Lover, World as Self. Parallax Press. ISBN 0-938077-27-9.\nMacy, Joanna; Barrows, Anita (1996). Rilke's Book of Hours: Love Poems to God: poems by Rainer Maria Rilke. Riverhead Books. ISBN 1-59448-156-3.\nMacy, Joanna; Young Brown, Molly (1998). Coming Back to Life : Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World. New Society Publishers. ISBN 0-86571-391-X.\nMacy, Joanna (2001). Widening Circles : a memoir. New Catalyst Books. ISBN 978-1897408018.\n\nMacy, Joanna (2010). Pass It On: Five Stories That Can Change the World. Parallax Press. ISBN 9781888375831.\nMacy, Joanna; Johnstone, Chris (2012). Active Hope : how to face the mess we're in without going crazy. New World Library. ISBN 978-1-57731-972-6.\nMacy, Joanna; Brown, Molly (2014). Coming back to Life : the updated guide to the work that reconnects. New Society Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86571-775-6.\nMacy, Joanna (2020). A Wild Love for the World : Joanna Macy and the Work of Our Time. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-1-61180-795-0.","title":"Writings"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"David Korten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Korten"}]
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ISBN 9781888375831.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_Press","url_text":"Parallax Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781888375831","url_text":"9781888375831"}]},{"reference":"Macy, Joanna; Johnstone, Chris (2012). Active Hope : how to face the mess we're in without going crazy. New World Library. ISBN 978-1-57731-972-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_Library","url_text":"New World Library"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57731-972-6","url_text":"978-1-57731-972-6"}]},{"reference":"Macy, Joanna; Brown, Molly (2014). Coming back to Life : the updated guide to the work that reconnects. New Society Publishers. ISBN 978-0-86571-775-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Society_Publishers","url_text":"New Society Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86571-775-6","url_text":"978-0-86571-775-6"}]},{"reference":"Macy, Joanna (2020). A Wild Love for the World : Joanna Macy and the Work of Our Time. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-1-61180-795-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shambhala_Publications","url_text":"Shambhala Publications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61180-795-0","url_text":"978-1-61180-795-0"}]},{"reference":"George Prentice (January 18, 2012). \"Anti-nuclear activist is 'just a sucker for courage'\". Boise Weekly. Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180815200958/https://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773","url_text":"\"Anti-nuclear activist is 'just a sucker for courage'\""},{"url":"http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Obituary: Fran Macy\". the Guardian. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2021-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/20/fran-macy-obituary","url_text":"\"Obituary: Fran Macy\""}]},{"reference":"\"John Seed is founder and director of the Rainforest Information Centre in Australia\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/deep-eco/jsbio.htm","url_text":"\"John Seed is founder and director of the Rainforest Information Centre in Australia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Joanna Macy | Starr King for the Ministry\". Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sksm.edu/people/joanna-macy/","url_text":"\"Joanna Macy | Starr King for the Ministry\""}]},{"reference":"\"Matthew Fox's Christmas Letter, 2013\". Welcome from Matthew Fox. 17 December 2013. Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.matthewfox.org/blog/matthew-foxs-christmas-letter-2013","url_text":"\"Matthew Fox's Christmas Letter, 2013\""}]},{"reference":"\"CIIS Council of Sages\". www.ciis.edu. Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ciis.edu/council-of-sages","url_text":"\"CIIS Council of Sages\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=103624451","external_links_name":"Resources in your library"},{"Link":"https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=viaf&su=103624451&library=0CHOOSE0","external_links_name":"Resources in other libraries"},{"Link":"https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=103624451","external_links_name":"Resources in your library"},{"Link":"https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=viaf&au=103624451&library=0CHOOSE0","external_links_name":"Resources in other libraries"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/despairpersonalp00macyrich","external_links_name":"Despair and Personal Power in the Nuclear Age"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/mutualcausalityi0000macy","external_links_name":"Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural System (Buddhist Studies Series)"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/worldasloverworl00macy","external_links_name":"World as Lover, World as Self"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180815200958/https://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773","external_links_name":"\"Anti-nuclear activist is 'just a sucker for courage'\""},{"Link":"http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/joanna-macy/Content?oid=2585773","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/20/fran-macy-obituary","external_links_name":"\"Obituary: Fran Macy\""},{"Link":"http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/deep-eco/jsbio.htm","external_links_name":"\"John Seed is founder and director of the Rainforest Information Centre in Australia\""},{"Link":"https://www.sksm.edu/people/joanna-macy/","external_links_name":"\"Joanna Macy | Starr King for the Ministry\""},{"Link":"https://www.matthewfox.org/blog/matthew-foxs-christmas-letter-2013","external_links_name":"\"Matthew Fox's Christmas Letter, 2013\""},{"Link":"http://www.ciis.edu/council-of-sages","external_links_name":"\"CIIS Council of Sages\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150209214036/http://www.joannamacy.net/","external_links_name":"Joanna Macy's website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080220163413/http://gaia.iinet.net.au/","external_links_name":"Gaia Foundation of Western Australia"},{"Link":"http://www.ciis.edu/","external_links_name":"California Institute of Integral Studies"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110707174231/http://ascentmagazine.com/articles.aspx?articleID=283&page=read&subpage=current&issueID=38%2F","external_links_name":"Interview with Joanna Macy by John Malkin"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061017001244/http://people.tribe.net/the_catalyst","external_links_name":"The Healing on Mother Earth Project"},{"Link":"https://onbeing.org/programs/joanna-macy-a-wild-love-for-the-world/","external_links_name":"A Wild Love for the World"},{"Link":"https://tricycle.org/magazine/joanna-macy-interview/","external_links_name":"\"Allegiance to Life: Staying steady through the mess we're in\""},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/103144/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/000000008404852X","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/103624451","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJB8rjWr94XfWgFT9DfTHC","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/4076474","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123516377","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb123516377","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1119087473","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007344966105171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/21200788","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82162552","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00448466","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0109349&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200404339","external_links_name":"Korea"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071095284","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/079837212","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_39gs
|
HP 39/40 series
|
["1 HP 39g","2 HP 40g","3 HP 39g+","4 HP 39gs","5 HP 40gs","6 HP 39gII","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
|
Series of graphing calculator by Hewlett-Packard
HP 39/40 series are graphing calculators from Hewlett-Packard, the successors of HP 38G. The series consists of six calculators, which all have algebraic entry modes, and can perform numeric analysis together with varying degrees of symbolic calculation. All calculators in this series are aimed at high school level students and are characterized by their ability to download (via cable or infrared) APLETs or E-lessons. These are programs of varying complexity which are generally intended to be used in the classroom to enhance the learning of mathematics by the graphical and/or numerical exploration of concepts.
HP 39g
The HP 39g (F1906A) was released in 2000.
Basic characteristics:
CPU: 4 MHz Yorke (Saturn core)
Communication: Proprietary infrared, serial RS-232 (serial port).
Memory: 256 KB RAM
Screen resolution: 131 × 64 pixels
Includes a hard cover
Limited symbolic equation functionality.
HP 40g
HP 40g (F1907A) was released in 2000 in parallel with the HP 39g. The HP 40g's operating system is identical to the HP 39g. Differences detected in hardware during start-up trigger the differences in software functionality.
The hardware is identical to the HP 49G/39G series (complete with rubber keyboard). In contrast to the 39g, it integrates the same computer algebra system (CAS) also found in the HP 49G, HP CAS. Unlike its "bigger brothers", the HP 40g has no flags to set/mis-set resulting in a "better behaved" calculator for straightforward math analysis. Additionally the HP 40g does not have infrared connectivity, and is limited to 27 variables. A list-based solver, and other handicaps make this simple-to-use calculator less adapted to higher end use. The HP 40g is not allowed for use in many standardized tests including the ACT. It is allowed on the SAT as of 2019, however.
Basic characteristics:
Identical to HP 39g except:
Communication: No infrared communication, serial RS-232 (serial port).
Software: Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS.
HP 39g+
HP 39g+
The HP 39g+ (F2224A) was released in September 2003.
Basic characteristics:
CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410X (ARM920T core)
Memory: 256 KB RAM, 1 MB flash
Communication: USB Mini-B port (using the Kermit or XModem protocols), IrDA (infrared).
Power: 3 × AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup
Screen resolution: 131×64 pixels
Does not come with a hard cover
Limited symbolic equation functionality.
Note: Although an ARM processor is used in this model, the operating system is substantially the same as that of the 39G, with the Saturn chip being emulated on the ARM at a higher speed than was possible for the 39G. The CAS component of the HP 40G's operating system appears to have been totally removed, rather than simply being hidden at start-up.
HP 39gs
HP 39gs
The HP 39gs (F2223A) was released in June 2006.
Basic characteristics:
CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A (ARM920T core)
Memory: 256 KB RAM, 1 MB flash
Communication: USB Mini-B port (using the Kermit or XModem protocols), IrDA (infrared), 4-pin asynchronous 3.3 V TTL serial port (RS-232 via active converter).
Power: 4×AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup
Screen resolution: 131×64 pixels
Includes a hard cover
Limited symbolic equation functionality.
Flash memory to allow potential future upgrades/bug fixes.
Note: Although an ARM processor is used in this model the operating system is substantially the same as that of the 39G, with the Saturn chip being emulated on the ARM at a higher speed than was possible for the 39G.
HP 40gs
HP 40gs
The HP 40gs (F2225A) was released in mid-2006.
Basic characteristics:
CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A (ARM920T core)
Identical to HP 39gs except:
Memory: 256 KB RAM, 2 MB flash. Flash memory is larger to accommodate the CAS software.
Communication: No infrared communication.
Software: Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS.
HP 39gII
HP 39gII
The HP 39gII (NW249AA) was released in October 2011. It is built around an 80 MHz Freescale (formerly SigmaTel) STMP3770 processor with ARM926EJ-S core and features 256 KB RAM and 128 MB flash memory (of which ca. 240 KB RAM and 80–105 MB flash are available to users). The high-resolution monochrome gray-scale LCD provides 256×128 pixels. Connectivity is provided through a USB-OTG Micro-AB connector. The BCD math libraries internally used by the calculator were rewritten in platform-independent C code run natively rather than System RPL code executed in an emulator. The Pascal-like programming language supported by the calculator is a predecessor of the HP Prime's HP PPL. The calculator is the first to support a 128-level stack and Unicode (UTF-16). Two variants with slightly different labeling of the a b/c key exist.
Development of a "HP 39gII+", an improved variant of the calculator powerful enough to include a CAS, was almost finished when the underlying processor was abandoned by Freescale, causing the project to be abandoned as well. Instead, the calculator concept was revised again and the specs further improved (e.g. color touchscreen, even more powerful processor), which eventually led to the release of the HP Prime in 2013.
See also
Comparison of HP graphing calculators
HP calculators
RPL character set
newRPL (for HP 39g+, 39gs, 40gs)
References
^ "Calculator Policy". SAT Calculator Policy. Collegeboard. Retrieved 2019-07-22.
^ Wessman, Timothy "Tim" James; de Brébisson, Cyrille (2016-06-22) . "What to do with stack overflow OBJ->/LIST->?". MoHPC - The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2023-09-24. Retrieved 2023-09-24. The HP 39GII had a very limited memory, and, a recurring problem of the HP39G+/HP40G was customer complaining of out of memory condition caused by the fact that they had thousands of objects on the stack. So, when the 39GII was created, we simply pre-allocated 128 stack levels for input/outputs. It made sense there. When Prime came along and we added RPN, the same 128 stack structure was kept (made thing easier/faster)... At the time, we designed RPN as an entry system, not a programming one, therefore thinking that 128 stack levels ought to be enough for everyone...
^ http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9634.html
^ http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-2767-post-24126.html#pid24126
^ http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9667-post-85594.html#pid85594
External links
Mastering the hp 39g+
Mastering the HP 39gs & HP 40gs
HP 39G Customer Care Page
HP 40G Customer Care Page
hp 39g+ Customer Care Page
HP 39gs Customer Care Page
HP 40gs Customer Care Page
HP Virtual Calculator emulators for Windows
The HP HOME view
hpcalc.org
vteHewlett-Packard (HP) calculatorsGraphing
9g
28C
28S
38G
39G
39g+
39gs
39gII
40G
40gs
48S
48SX
48G
48G+
48GX
48gII
49G
49g+
50g
Prime
Xpander
Scientific programmable
10C
11C
15C
LE
CE
16C
19C
20S
21S
25
25C
29C
32S
32SII
33C
33E
33s
34C
35s
41C
41CV
41CX
42S
55
65
67
71B
95C
97
97S
9100A
9100B
9805
Scientific non-programmable
6s
6s Solar
8s
9s
10s
10s+
10sII
21
22S
27
27S
30s
31E
32E
35
45
46
91
300s
300s+
Financial and business
10B
10bII
10bII+
12C
Platinum
Prestige
14B
17B
17BII
17bII+
18C
19B
19BII
20b
22
27
30b
37E
38C
38E
70
80
81
92
Other
01
10
CalcPad
100
200
QuickCalc
EasyCalc
OfficeCalc
PrintCalc
Related topics
RPN
RPL
PPL
FOCAL
ALG
CAS
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
|
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These are programs of varying complexity which are generally intended to be used in the classroom to enhance the learning of mathematics by the graphical and/or numerical exploration of concepts.","title":"HP 39/40 series"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"Yorke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Yorke"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Saturn"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"}],"text":"The HP 39g (F1906A) was released in 2000.Basic characteristics:CPU: 4 MHz Yorke (Saturn core)\nCommunication: Proprietary infrared, serial RS-232 (serial port).\nMemory: 256 KB RAM\nScreen resolution: 131 × 64 pixels\nIncludes a hard cover\nLimited symbolic equation functionality.","title":"HP 39g"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HP 49G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_49G"},{"link_name":"39G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_39G"},{"link_name":"computer algebra system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"HP 49G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_49G"},{"link_name":"HP CAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erable"},{"link_name":"variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(programming)"},{"link_name":"ACT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT_(test)"},{"link_name":"SAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAT"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"advanced CAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erable"}],"text":"HP 40g (F1907A) was released in 2000 in parallel with the HP 39g. The HP 40g's operating system is identical to the HP 39g. Differences detected in hardware during start-up trigger the differences in software functionality.The hardware is identical to the HP 49G/39G series (complete with rubber keyboard). In contrast to the 39g, it integrates the same computer algebra system (CAS) also found in the HP 49G, HP CAS. Unlike its \"bigger brothers\", the HP 40g has no flags to set/mis-set resulting in a \"better behaved\" calculator for straightforward math analysis. Additionally the HP 40g does not have infrared connectivity, and is limited to 27 variables. A list-based solver, and other handicaps make this simple-to-use calculator less adapted to higher end use. The HP 40g is not allowed for use in many standardized tests including the ACT. It is allowed on the SAT as of 2019, however.[1]Basic characteristics:Identical to HP 39g except:\nCommunication: No infrared communication, serial RS-232 (serial port).\nSoftware: Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS.","title":"HP 40g"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP39g%2B.jpg"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"S3C2410X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_S3C2410X"},{"link_name":"ARM920T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM920T"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"Mini-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_Mini-B"},{"link_name":"Kermit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermit_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"XModem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XModem"},{"link_name":"IrDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IrDA"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"}],"text":"HP 39g+The HP 39g+ (F2224A) was released in September 2003.Basic characteristics:CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410X (ARM920T core)\nMemory: 256 KB RAM, 1 MB flash\nCommunication: USB Mini-B port (using the Kermit or XModem protocols), IrDA (infrared).\nPower: 3 × AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup\nScreen resolution: 131×64 pixels\nDoes not come with a hard cover\nLimited symbolic equation functionality.Note: Although an ARM processor is used in this model, the operating system is substantially the same as that of the 39G, with the Saturn chip being emulated on the ARM at a higher speed than was possible for the 39G. The CAS component of the HP 40G's operating system appears to have been totally removed, rather than simply being hidden at start-up.","title":"HP 39g+"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP39GS.jpg"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"S3C2410A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_S3C2410A"},{"link_name":"ARM920T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM920T"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"Mini-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_Mini-B"},{"link_name":"Kermit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermit_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"XModem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XModem"},{"link_name":"IrDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IrDA"},{"link_name":"infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared"},{"link_name":"TTL serial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TTL_serial"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"}],"text":"HP 39gsThe HP 39gs (F2223A) was released in June 2006.Basic characteristics:CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A (ARM920T core)\nMemory: 256 KB RAM, 1 MB flash\nCommunication: USB Mini-B port (using the Kermit or XModem protocols), IrDA (infrared), 4-pin asynchronous 3.3 V TTL serial port (RS-232 via active converter).\nPower: 4×AAA as main power, CR2032 for memory backup\nScreen resolution: 131×64 pixels\nIncludes a hard cover\nLimited symbolic equation functionality.\nFlash memory to allow potential future upgrades/bug fixes.Note: Although an ARM processor is used in this model the operating system is substantially the same as that of the 39G, with the Saturn chip being emulated on the ARM at a higher speed than was possible for the 39G.","title":"HP 39gs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP40GS.jpg"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"S3C2410A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_S3C2410A"},{"link_name":"ARM920T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM920T"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"advanced CAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP40_CAS"}],"text":"HP 40gsThe HP 40gs (F2225A) was released in mid-2006.Basic characteristics:CPU: 75 MHz Samsung S3C2410A (ARM920T core)\nIdentical to HP 39gs except:\nMemory: 256 KB RAM, 2 MB flash. Flash memory is larger to accommodate the CAS software.\nCommunication: No infrared communication.\nSoftware: Includes an equation writer and advanced CAS.","title":"HP 40gs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP39Gii_Graphing_Calculator.jpg"},{"link_name":"Freescale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freescale"},{"link_name":"SigmaTel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SigmaTel"},{"link_name":"STMP3770","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STMP3770"},{"link_name":"ARM926EJ-S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM926EJ-S"},{"link_name":"USB-OTG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-OTG"},{"link_name":"Micro-AB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_Micro-AB"},{"link_name":"System RPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_RPL"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"HP Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Prime"},{"link_name":"HP PPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_PPL"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wessman-Br%C3%A9bisson_2016-2"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"UTF-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-16"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP39gII_abc-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP39gII_1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP39gII_2-5"},{"link_name":"HP Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Prime"}],"text":"HP 39gIIThe HP 39gII (NW249AA) was released in October 2011. It is built around an 80 MHz Freescale (formerly SigmaTel) STMP3770 processor with ARM926EJ-S core and features 256 KB RAM and 128 MB flash memory (of which ca. 240 KB RAM and 80–105 MB flash are available to users). The high-resolution monochrome gray-scale LCD provides 256×128 pixels. Connectivity is provided through a USB-OTG Micro-AB connector. The BCD math libraries internally used by the calculator were rewritten in platform-independent C code run natively rather than System RPL code executed in an emulator. The Pascal-like programming language supported by the calculator is a predecessor of the HP Prime's HP PPL. The calculator is the first to support a 128-level stack[2] and Unicode (UTF-16). Two variants with slightly different labeling of the a b/c key exist.[3]Development of a \"HP 39gII+\", an improved variant of the calculator powerful enough to include a CAS, was almost finished when the underlying processor was abandoned by Freescale, causing the project to be abandoned as well.[4][5] Instead, the calculator concept was revised again and the specs further improved (e.g. color touchscreen, even more powerful processor), which eventually led to the release of the HP Prime in 2013.","title":"HP 39gII"}]
|
[{"image_text":"HP 39g+","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/HP39g%2B.jpg/150px-HP39g%2B.jpg"},{"image_text":"HP 39gs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/HP39GS.jpg/150px-HP39GS.jpg"},{"image_text":"HP 40gs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/HP40GS.jpg/150px-HP40GS.jpg"},{"image_text":"HP 39gII","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/HP39Gii_Graphing_Calculator.jpg/150px-HP39Gii_Graphing_Calculator.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Comparison of HP graphing calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_HP_graphing_calculators"},{"title":"HP calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_calculators"},{"title":"RPL character set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPL_character_set"},{"title":"newRPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NewRPL"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"Calculator Policy\". SAT Calculator Policy. Collegeboard. Retrieved 2019-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/taking-the-test/calculator-policy","url_text":"\"Calculator Policy\""}]},{"reference":"Wessman, Timothy \"Tim\" James; de Brébisson, Cyrille (2016-06-22) [2016-06-20]. \"What to do with stack overflow OBJ->/LIST->?\". MoHPC - The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2023-09-24. Retrieved 2023-09-24. The HP 39GII had a very limited memory, and, a recurring problem of the HP39G+/HP40G was customer complaining of out of memory condition caused by the fact that they had thousands of objects on the stack. So, when the 39GII was created, we simply pre-allocated 128 stack levels for input/outputs. It made sense there. When Prime came along and we added RPN, the same 128 stack structure was kept (made thing easier/faster)... At the time, we designed RPN as an entry system, not a programming one, therefore thinking that 128 stack levels ought to be enough for everyone...","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/printthread.php?tid=6436","url_text":"\"What to do with stack overflow OBJ->/LIST->?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230924101041/https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/printthread.php?tid=6436","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://collegereadiness.collegeboard.org/sat/taking-the-test/calculator-policy","external_links_name":"\"Calculator Policy\""},{"Link":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/printthread.php?tid=6436","external_links_name":"\"What to do with stack overflow OBJ->/LIST->?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230924101041/https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/printthread.php?tid=6436","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9634.html","external_links_name":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9634.html"},{"Link":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-2767-post-24126.html#pid24126","external_links_name":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-2767-post-24126.html#pid24126"},{"Link":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9667-post-85594.html#pid85594","external_links_name":"http://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-9667-post-85594.html#pid85594"},{"Link":"http://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/c00524206.pdf","external_links_name":"Mastering the hp 39g+"},{"Link":"http://www.hp.com/ctg/Manual/c00829737.pdf","external_links_name":"Mastering the HP 39gs & HP 40gs"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110517015710/http://h10025.www1.hp.com/ewfrf/wc/product?product=57675&lc=en&cc=us&dlc=en&lang=en","external_links_name":"HP 39G Customer Care Page"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20141208212134/http://h10025.www1.hp.com/ewfrf/wc/product?cc=us&destPage=product&dlc=en&lc=en&product=59970","external_links_name":"HP 40G Customer Care Page"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110517015734/http://h10025.www1.hp.com/ewfrf/wc/product?lc=en&cc=us&dlc=en&product=370769&lang=en&","external_links_name":"hp 39g+ Customer Care Page"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110517015702/http://h10025.www1.hp.com/ewfrf/wc/product?lc=en&cc=us&dlc=en&product=1812522&query=hp39gs&dest_page=product&","external_links_name":"HP 39gs Customer Care Page"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20141208211839/http://h10025.www1.hp.com/ewfrf/wc/product?cc=us&destPage=product&dlc=en&lc=en&product=1812531","external_links_name":"HP 40gs Customer Care Page"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170917223308/http://www.calculatrices-hp.com/index.php?page=emulateurs","external_links_name":"HP Virtual Calculator emulators for Windows"},{"Link":"http://www.hphomeview.com/","external_links_name":"The HP HOME view"},{"Link":"http://www.hpcalc.org/","external_links_name":"hpcalc.org"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566530305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2007004634","external_links_name":"United States"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excelsior_AC_Roubaix
|
Excelsior AC (France)
|
["1 History","2 Names of the club","3 Honours","4 Notable players","5 Managerial history","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
|
Defunct football club based in Roubaix, France
Not to be confused with Excelsior AC (Haiti).
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Football clubExcelsior ACFull nameExcelsior Athlétic ClubFounded1928; 96 years ago (1928)Dissolved1978; 46 years ago (1978) (merged with SCO Roubaix)GroundStade Amédée ProuvostRoubaixFranceCapacity?
Home colours
Away colours
Excelsior Athlétic Club was a French association football team playing in the city of Roubaix, Nord.
History
The team was founded in 1928 in a merger between Football Club de Roubaix and Excelsior Club de Tourcoing. In 1932, the team turned professional and played the first professional football season in 1932/1933 and won the same year its first major trophy, the Coupe de France. Till the World War II, the team managed to stay in Division 1. After the war, the club merged with RC Roubaix and US Tourcoing in CO Roubaix-Tourcoing (1945–1970). After 1970, the team struggled at an amateur level till its demise in 1995. In 1977, the team merged with Sporting Club de Roubaix to create Roubaix Football, which also merged in 1990 with Stade Roubaix (i.e. former RC Roubaix) but never managed to come back to Division 1, only playing the 1983/84 season in Division 2. The team ended due to financial problems.
Names of the club
1928–1944. Excelsior Athlétic Club de Roubaix.
1944–1970. in CO Roubaix-Tourcoing.
1970–1977. Excelsior Athlétic Club de Roubaix.
1977–1990. Roubaix Football
1990–1995. Stade Club Olympique de Roubaix (SCOR).
Honours
Coupe de France : 1933
Notable players
French international players
Célestin Delmer (5, 1933–1934)
Marcel Desrousseaux (2, 1935–1937)
Jean Gautheroux (1, 1936)
Henri Hiltl (1, 1944) (he played for Austria as Heinrich Hiltl, then for France as Henri Hiltl)
Marcel Langiller
Lucien Leduc
Noël Liétaer (7, 1933–1934)
Jean Sécember (4, 1935)
Managerial history
Charles Griffiths: 1932–1933
René Dedieu: 1933–1937
Davidovitch: 1937–1939
Marcel Desrousseaux: 1970–1972
Pierre Cnude: 1972–1973
J. Schmidt: 1973–1975
Albert Dubreucq: 1975–1977
Sarrazyn: 1977–1980
Tony Giaquinto: 1980 – April 1987
Thierry Deneulin: April 1987–?
Boumedienne Belhadji: 1992–1994
Pierre Michelin: 1994–1995
Boumedienne Belhadji: 1995 – December 1995
See also
CO Roubaix-Tourcoing
RC Roubaix
References
^ "French Federation profile". Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2014.
^ "Excelsior Roubaix coaches on RSSSF". Retrieved 11 June 2007.
External links
History
vteOriginal French Division 1 clubs, 1932–33
Alès
Antibes
Cannes
Club Français
Excelsior
Fives
Hyères
Marseille
Metz
Montpellier
Mulhouse
Nice
Nîmes
Olympique Lillois
CA Paris
Racing Club de France
Red Star
Rennes
Sète
Sochaux
This article about a French association football club is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
|
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In 1932, the team turned professional and played the first professional football season in 1932/1933 and won the same year its first major trophy, the Coupe de France. Till the World War II, the team managed to stay in Division 1. After the war, the club merged with RC Roubaix and US Tourcoing in CO Roubaix-Tourcoing (1945–1970). After 1970, the team struggled at an amateur level till its demise in 1995. In 1977, the team merged with Sporting Club de Roubaix to create Roubaix Football, which also merged in 1990 with Stade Roubaix (i.e. former RC Roubaix) but never managed to come back to Division 1, only playing the 1983/84 season in Division 2. The team ended due to financial problems.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CO Roubaix-Tourcoing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO_Roubaix-Tourcoing"}],"text":"1928–1944. Excelsior Athlétic Club de Roubaix.\n1944–1970. in CO Roubaix-Tourcoing.\n1970–1977. Excelsior Athlétic Club de Roubaix.\n1977–1990. Roubaix Football\n1990–1995. Stade Club Olympique de Roubaix (SCOR).","title":"Names of the club"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coupe de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupe_de_France"}],"text":"Coupe de France : 1933","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Célestin Delmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9lestin_Delmer"},{"link_name":"Marcel Desrousseaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcel_Desrousseaux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jean Gautheroux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Gautheroux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Henri Hiltl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hiltl"},{"link_name":"Marcel Langiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Langiller"},{"link_name":"Lucien Leduc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucien_Leduc"},{"link_name":"Noël Liétaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Li%C3%A9taer"},{"link_name":"Jean Sécember","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_S%C3%A9cember"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"French international players\nCélestin Delmer (5, 1933–1934)\nMarcel Desrousseaux (2, 1935–1937)\nJean Gautheroux (1, 1936)\nHenri Hiltl (1, 1944) (he played for Austria as Heinrich Hiltl, then for France as Henri Hiltl)\nMarcel Langiller\nLucien Leduc\nNoël Liétaer (7, 1933–1934)\nJean Sécember (4, 1935)[1]","title":"Notable players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Griffiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Griffiths_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"René Dedieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ren%C3%A9_Dedieu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Marcel Desrousseaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcel_Desrousseaux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pierre Cnude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Cnude&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Albert Dubreucq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_Dubreucq&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tony Giaquinto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tony_Giaquinto&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Thierry Deneulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thierry_Deneulin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Boumedienne Belhadji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boumedienne_Belhadji&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pierre Michelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Michelin_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Boumedienne Belhadji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boumedienne_Belhadji&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Charles Griffiths: 1932–1933\nRené Dedieu: 1933–1937\nDavidovitch: 1937–1939\nMarcel Desrousseaux: 1970–1972\nPierre Cnude: 1972–1973\nJ. Schmidt: 1973–1975\nAlbert Dubreucq: 1975–1977\nSarrazyn: 1977–1980\nTony Giaquinto: 1980 – April 1987\nThierry Deneulin: April 1987–?\nBoumedienne Belhadji: 1992–1994\nPierre Michelin: 1994–1995\nBoumedienne Belhadji: 1995 – December 1995[2]","title":"Managerial history"}]
|
[]
|
[{"title":"CO Roubaix-Tourcoing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO_Roubaix-Tourcoing"},{"title":"RC Roubaix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC_Roubaix"}]
|
[{"reference":"\"French Federation profile\". Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170506015048/https://www.fff.fr/equipes-de-france/tous-les-joueurs/fiche-joueur/825-jean-secember","url_text":"\"French Federation profile\""},{"url":"http://www.fff.fr/equipes-de-france/tous-les-joueurs/fiche-joueur/825-jean-secember","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Excelsior Roubaix coaches on RSSSF\". Retrieved 11 June 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rsssf.org/players/trainers-fran-clubs.html","url_text":"\"Excelsior Roubaix coaches on RSSSF\""}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/translate?&u=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRoubaix&sl=fr&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en","external_links_name":"View"},{"Link":"https://deepl.com/","external_links_name":"DeepL"},{"Link":"https://translate.google.com/","external_links_name":"Google Translate"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170506015048/https://www.fff.fr/equipes-de-france/tous-les-joueurs/fiche-joueur/825-jean-secember","external_links_name":"\"French Federation profile\""},{"Link":"http://www.fff.fr/equipes-de-france/tous-les-joueurs/fiche-joueur/825-jean-secember","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.rsssf.org/players/trainers-fran-clubs.html","external_links_name":"\"Excelsior Roubaix coaches on RSSSF\""},{"Link":"http://www.pari-et-gagne.com/excelsior.html","external_links_name":"History"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Excelsior_AC_(France)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyline
|
Polygonal chain
|
["1 Variations","1.1 Simple","1.2 Closed","1.3 Monotone","2 Parametrization","3 From point sets","4 Applications","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]
|
Connected series of line segments
A simple polygonal chain
A self-intersecting polygonal chain
A closed polygonal chain
In geometry, a polygonal chain is a connected series of line segments. More formally, a polygonal chain
P
{\displaystyle P}
is a curve specified by a sequence of points
(
A
1
,
A
2
,
…
,
A
n
)
{\displaystyle (A_{1},A_{2},\dots ,A_{n})}
called its vertices. The curve itself consists of the line segments connecting the consecutive vertices.
Variations
Simple
A simple polygonal chain is one in which only consecutive segments intersect and only at their endpoints.
Closed
A closed polygonal chain is one in which the first vertex coincides with the last one, or, alternatively, the first and the last vertices are also connected by a line segment.
A simple closed polygonal chain in the plane is the boundary of a simple polygon. Often the term "polygon" is used in the meaning of "closed polygonal chain", but in some cases it is important to draw a distinction between a polygonal area and a polygonal chain.
Monotone
A set of n=17 points has a polygonal path with 4 same-sign slopes
A polygonal chain is called monotone if there is a straight line L such that every line perpendicular to L intersects the chain at most once. Every nontrivial monotone polygonal chain is open. In comparison, a monotone polygon is a polygon (a closed chain) that can be partitioned into exactly two monotone chains. The graphs of piecewise linear functions form monotone chains with respect to a horizontal line.
Parametrization
Each segment of a polygonal chain is typically parametrized linearly, using linear interpolation between successive vertices. For the whole chain, two parametrizations are common in practical applications: Each segment of the chain can be assigned a unit interval of the parameter corresponding to the index of the first vertex; alternately, each segment of the chain can be assigned an interval of the parameter corresponding to the length of the segment, so that the parameter corresponds uniformly to arclength along the whole chain.
From point sets
Every set of at least
n
{\displaystyle n}
points contains a polygonal path of at least
⌊
n
−
1
⌋
{\displaystyle \lfloor {\sqrt {n-1}}\rfloor }
edges in which all slopes have the same sign. This is a corollary of the Erdős–Szekeres theorem.
Applications
Polygonal chains can often be used to approximate more complex curves. In this context, the Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm can be used to find a polygonal chain with few segments that serves as an accurate approximation.
In graph drawing, polygonal chains are often used to represent the edges of graphs, in drawing styles where drawing the edges as straight line segments would cause crossings, edge-vertex collisions, or other undesired features. In this context, it is often desired to draw edges with as few segments and bends as possible, to reduce the visual clutter in the drawing; the problem of minimizing the number of bends is called bend minimization.
A red Bézier curve is defined by the control points P0, ..., P4. The gray polygonal chain connecting the control points is called the control polygon.
In computer-aided geometric design, smooth curves are often defined by a list of control points, e.g. in defining Bézier curve segments. When connected together, the control points form a polygonal chain called a control polygon.
Polygonal chains are also a fundamental data type in computational geometry. For instance, a point location algorithm of Lee and Preparata operates by decomposing arbitrary planar subdivisions into an ordered sequence of monotone chains, in which a point location query problem may be solved by binary search; this method was later refined to give optimal time bounds for the point location problem.
With geographic information system, linestrings may represent any linear geometry, and can be described using the well-known text markup as a LineString or MultiLineString. Linear rings (or LinearRing) are closed and simple polygonal chains used to build polygon geometries.
See also
Chain (algebraic topology), a formal combination of simplices that in the 1-dimensional case includes polygonal chains
Composite Bézier curve, a generalization that replaces each straight line of a polygonal chain with a smooth curve.
Link distance, the number of segments of the shortest chain that links two points within a polygon
Piecewise regression
Path (graph theory), an analogous concept in abstract graphs
Polyhedral terrain, a 3D generalization of a monotone polygonal chain
Spirangle, a spiral polygonal chain
Stick number, a knot invariant based on representing a knot as a closed polygonal chain
Traverse, application in surveying
Notes
^ A polygonal chain may also be called a polygonal curve, polygonal path, polyline, piecewise linear curve, broken line or, in geographic information systems, a linestring or linear ring.
References
^ Mehlhorn, Kurt; Näher, Stefan (1999), LEDA: A Platform for Combinatorial and Geometric Computing, Cambridge University Press, p. 758, ISBN 9780521563291.
^ O'Rourke, Joseph (1998), Computational Geometry in C, Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, Cambridge University Press, p. 45, ISBN 9780521649766.
^ Ramer, Urs (1972), "An iterative procedure for the polygonal approximation of plane curves", Computer Graphics and Image Processing, 1 (3): 244–256, doi:10.1016/S0146-664X(72)80017-0.
^ Douglas, David; Peucker, Thomas (1973), "Algorithms for the reduction of the number of points required to represent a digitized line or its caricature", The Canadian Cartographer, 10 (2): 112–122, doi:10.3138/FM57-6770-U75U-7727.
^ Tamassia, Roberto (1987), "On embedding a graph in the grid with the minimum number of bends", SIAM Journal on Computing, 16 (3): 421–444, doi:10.1137/0216030.
^ Edelsbrunner, Herbert; Guibas, Leonidas J.; Stolfi, Jorge (1986), "Optimal point location in a monotone subdivision", SIAM Journal on Computing, 15 (2): 317–340, doi:10.1137/0215023.
^ a b Open Geospatial Consortium (2011-05-28), Herring, John R. (ed.), OpenGIS® Implementation Standard for Geographic information - Simple feature access - Part 1: Common architecture, 1.2.1, Open Geospatial Consortium, retrieved 2016-01-15
^ Gomes, Jonas; Velho, Luiz; Costa Sousa, Mario (2012), Computer Graphics: Theory and Practice, CRC Press, p. 186, ISBN 9781568815800.
^ Cheney, Ward (2001), Analysis for Applied Mathematics, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 208, Springer, p. 13, ISBN 9780387952796.
^ a b Boissonnat, Jean-Daniel; Teillaud, Monique (2006), Effective Computational Geometry for Curves and Surfaces, Springer, p. 34, ISBN 9783540332596.
^ Muggeo, Vito M. R. (May 2008), "segmented: An R package to fit regression models with broken-line relationships" (PDF), R News, 8 (1): 20–25
Authority control databases: National
Germany
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chainline.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Self_crossed_polygonal_chain.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Closed_polygonal_line.svg"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Names-1"},{"link_name":"line segments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_segment"},{"link_name":"curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve"},{"link_name":"sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(geometry)"}],"text":"A simple polygonal chainA self-intersecting polygonal chainA closed polygonal chainIn geometry, a polygonal chain[a] is a connected series of line segments. More formally, a polygonal chain \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n is a curve specified by a sequence of points \n \n \n \n (\n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n A\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (A_{1},A_{2},\\dots ,A_{n})}\n \n called its vertices. The curve itself consists of the line segments connecting the consecutive vertices.","title":"Polygonal chain"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Simple","text":"A simple polygonal chain is one in which only consecutive segments intersect and only at their endpoints.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"the plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"simple polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_polygon"},{"link_name":"polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygon"},{"link_name":"polygonal area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygonal_area"}],"sub_title":"Closed","text":"A closed polygonal chain is one in which the first vertex coincides with the last one, or, alternatively, the first and the last vertices are also connected by a line segment.[1] \nA simple closed polygonal chain in the plane is the boundary of a simple polygon. Often the term \"polygon\" is used in the meaning of \"closed polygonal chain\", but in some cases it is important to draw a distinction between a polygonal area and a polygonal chain.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monotone-subseq-17-5.svg"},{"link_name":"straight line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_line"},{"link_name":"monotone polygon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotone_polygon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"piecewise linear functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piecewise_linear_function"}],"sub_title":"Monotone","text":"A set of n=17 points has a polygonal path with 4 same-sign slopesA polygonal chain is called monotone if there is a straight line L such that every line perpendicular to L intersects the chain at most once. Every nontrivial monotone polygonal chain is open. In comparison, a monotone polygon is a polygon (a closed chain) that can be partitioned into exactly two monotone chains.[2] The graphs of piecewise linear functions form monotone chains with respect to a horizontal line.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parametrized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_curve"},{"link_name":"linear interpolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_interpolation"},{"link_name":"interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)"}],"text":"Each segment of a polygonal chain is typically parametrized linearly, using linear interpolation between successive vertices. For the whole chain, two parametrizations are common in practical applications: Each segment of the chain can be assigned a unit interval of the parameter corresponding to the index of the first vertex; alternately, each segment of the chain can be assigned an interval of the parameter corresponding to the length of the segment, so that the parameter corresponds uniformly to arclength along the whole chain.","title":"Parametrization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Erdős–Szekeres theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C5%91s%E2%80%93Szekeres_theorem"}],"text":"Every set of at least \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n points contains a polygonal path of at least \n \n \n \n ⌊\n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor {\\sqrt {n-1}}\\rfloor }\n \n edges in which all slopes have the same sign. This is a corollary of the Erdős–Szekeres theorem.","title":"From point sets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramer%E2%80%93Douglas%E2%80%93Peucker_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"graph drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_drawing"},{"link_name":"bend minimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bend_minimization"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%A9zier_4_big.svg"},{"link_name":"computer-aided geometric design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_geometric_design"},{"link_name":"control points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_point_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Bézier curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9zier_curve"},{"link_name":"computational geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry"},{"link_name":"point location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_location"},{"link_name":"Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der-Tsai_Lee"},{"link_name":"Preparata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_P._Preparata"},{"link_name":"planar subdivisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_subdivision"},{"link_name":"binary search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_search"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"geographic information system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system"},{"link_name":"well-known text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-known_text_representation_of_geometry"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OGC-8"}],"text":"Polygonal chains can often be used to approximate more complex curves. In this context, the Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm can be used to find a polygonal chain with few segments that serves as an accurate approximation.[3][4]In graph drawing, polygonal chains are often used to represent the edges of graphs, in drawing styles where drawing the edges as straight line segments would cause crossings, edge-vertex collisions, or other undesired features. In this context, it is often desired to draw edges with as few segments and bends as possible, to reduce the visual clutter in the drawing; the problem of minimizing the number of bends is called bend minimization.[5]A red Bézier curve is defined by the control points P0, ..., P4. The gray polygonal chain connecting the control points is called the control polygon.In computer-aided geometric design, smooth curves are often defined by a list of control points, e.g. in defining Bézier curve segments. When connected together, the control points form a polygonal chain called a control polygon.Polygonal chains are also a fundamental data type in computational geometry. For instance, a point location algorithm of Lee and Preparata operates by decomposing arbitrary planar subdivisions into an ordered sequence of monotone chains, in which a point location query problem may be solved by binary search; this method was later refined to give optimal time bounds for the point location problem.[6]With geographic information system, linestrings may represent any linear geometry, and can be described using the well-known text markup as a LineString or MultiLineString.[7] Linear rings (or LinearRing) are closed and simple polygonal chains used to build polygon geometries.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Names_1-0"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ref1-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ref2-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecg-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecg-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ref4-12"},{"link_name":"geographic information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OGC-8"}],"text":"^ A polygonal chain may also be called a polygonal curve,[8] polygonal path,[9] polyline,[10] piecewise linear curve,[10] broken line[11] or, in geographic information systems, a linestring or linear ring.[7]","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"image_text":"A simple polygonal chain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Chainline.svg/220px-Chainline.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A self-intersecting polygonal chain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Self_crossed_polygonal_chain.svg/220px-Self_crossed_polygonal_chain.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A closed polygonal chain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Closed_polygonal_line.svg/220px-Closed_polygonal_line.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A set of n=17 points has a polygonal path with 4 same-sign slopes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Monotone-subseq-17-5.svg/160px-Monotone-subseq-17-5.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A red Bézier curve is defined by the control points P0, ..., P4. The gray polygonal chain connecting the control points is called the control polygon.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/B%C3%A9zier_4_big.svg/220px-B%C3%A9zier_4_big.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Chain (algebraic topology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_(algebraic_topology)"},{"title":"Composite Bézier curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_B%C3%A9zier_curve"},{"title":"Link distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_distance"},{"title":"Piecewise regression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piecewise_regression"},{"title":"Path (graph theory)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)"},{"title":"Polyhedral terrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedral_terrain"},{"title":"Spirangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirangle"},{"title":"Stick number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stick_number"},{"title":"Traverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traverse_(surveying)"},{"title":"surveying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying"}]
|
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(ed.), OpenGIS® Implementation Standard for Geographic information - Simple feature access - Part 1: Common architecture, 1.2.1, Open Geospatial Consortium, retrieved 2016-01-15","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Geospatial_Consortium","url_text":"Open Geospatial Consortium"},{"url":"http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards/sfa","url_text":"OpenGIS® Implementation Standard for Geographic information - Simple feature access - Part 1: Common architecture"}]},{"reference":"Gomes, Jonas; Velho, Luiz; Costa Sousa, Mario (2012), Computer Graphics: Theory and Practice, CRC Press, p. 186, ISBN 9781568815800","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ID1tP9DfKgEC&pg=PA186","url_text":"Computer Graphics: Theory and Practice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781568815800","url_text":"9781568815800"}]},{"reference":"Cheney, Ward (2001), Analysis for Applied Mathematics, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 208, Springer, p. 13, ISBN 9780387952796","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EHjTHmupFgMC&pg=PA13","url_text":"Analysis for Applied Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387952796","url_text":"9780387952796"}]},{"reference":"Boissonnat, Jean-Daniel; Teillaud, Monique (2006), Effective Computational Geometry for Curves and Surfaces, Springer, p. 34, ISBN 9783540332596","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monique_Teillaud","url_text":"Teillaud, Monique"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=XQpEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA34","url_text":"Effective Computational Geometry for Curves and Surfaces"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540332596","url_text":"9783540332596"}]},{"reference":"Muggeo, Vito M. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_conversion_coefficient
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Internal conversion coefficient
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["1 References","2 External links"]
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Ratio of electron to gamma ray emissions
In nuclear physics, the internal conversion coefficient describes the rate of internal conversion.
The internal conversion coefficient may be empirically determined by the following formula:
α
=
number of de-excitations via electron emission
number of de-excitations via gamma-ray emission
{\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {\text{number of de-excitations via electron emission}}{\text{number of de-excitations via gamma-ray emission}}}}
There is no valid formulation for an equivalent concept for E0 (electric monopole) nuclear transitions.
There are theoretical calculations that can be used to derive internal conversion coefficients. Their accuracy is not generally under dispute, but since the quantum mechanical models they depend on only take into account electromagnetic interactions between the nucleus and electrons, there may be unforeseen effects.
Internal conversion coefficients can be looked up from tables, but this is time-consuming. Computer programs have been developed (see the BrIcc Program) which present internal conversion coefficients quickly and easily.
Theoretical calculations of interest are the Rösel, Hager-Seltzer, and the Band, superseded by the Band-Raman calculation called BrIcc.
The Hager-Seltzer calculations omit the M and higher-energy shells on the grounds (usually valid) that those orbitals have little electron density at the nucleus and can be neglected. To first approximation this assumption is valid, upon comparing several internal conversion coefficients for different isotopes for transitions of about 100 keV.
The Band and Band-Raman calculations assume that the M shell may contribute to internal conversion to a non-negligible extent, and incorporates a general term (called "N+") which takes into account the small effect of any higher shells there may be, while the Rösel calculation works like the Band, but does not assume that all shells contribute and so generally terminates at the N shell.
Additionally, the Band-Raman calculation can now consider ("frozen orbitals") or neglect ("no hole") the effect of the electron vacancy; the frozen-orbitals approximation is considered generally superior.
References
^ F. Rösel, H.M. Fries, K. Alder, H.C. Pauli: At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 21 (1978) 91.
^ R.S. Hager and E.C. Seltzer, Nucl. Data Tables A4 (1968) 1.
^ I.M. Band, M.B. Trzhaskovskaya: Tables of the gamma–ray internal conversion coefficients for the K, L, M shells, 10<Z<104 (Leningrad: Nuclear Physics Institute, 1978).
^ T. Kibédi, T.W. Burrows, M.B. Trzhaskovskaya, P.M. Davidson, C.W. Nestor, Jr. Evaluation of theoretical conversion coefficients using BrIcc, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A 589 (2008) 202-229.
^ http://www-nds.iaea.org/nsdd/presentations%202011/Wednesday/BrIcc_NSDD2011.pdf or see http://bricc.anu.edu.au/bricc-datatables.php
External links
Nuclear Structure and Decay Data - IAEA with query on Conversion Coefficients
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wismar
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Wismar
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["1 History","1.1 Under Swedish rule","1.2 20th century","2 Mayors and Lord Mayors","3 Sights and architecture","4 Education","5 Economy","6 Notable people","6.1 Sport","7 Wismar in art and literature","8 Twin towns – sister cities","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"]
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Coordinates: 53°54′N 11°28′E / 53.900°N 11.467°E / 53.900; 11.467City in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Town in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, GermanyWismar TownClockwise from top: St Nicholas' Church, St George's Church, Market Square with waterworks, Old Harbour, Gewölbe, colorful houses in the old town
FlagCoat of armsLocation of Wismar within Nordwestmecklenburg district
Wismar Show map of GermanyWismar Show map of Mecklenburg-VorpommernCoordinates: 53°54′N 11°28′E / 53.900°N 11.467°E / 53.900; 11.467CountryGermanyStateMecklenburg-VorpommernDistrictNordwestmecklenburg Government • Mayor (2018–25) Thomas Beyer (SPD)Area • Total41.36 km2 (15.97 sq mi)Elevation15 m (49 ft)Population (2022-12-31) • Total43,878 • Density1,100/km2 (2,700/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)Postal codes23952, 23966, 23968, 23970Dialling codes03841Vehicle registrationHWIWebsitewww.wismar.de
Wismar (German pronunciation: ; Low German: Wismer), officially the Hanseatic City of Wismar (Hansestadt Wismar) is, with around 43,000 inhabitants, the sixth-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and the fourth-largest city of Mecklenburg after Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg. The city was the third-largest port city in former East Germany after Rostock and Stralsund.
Wismar is located on the Bay of Wismar of the Baltic Sea, directly opposite the island of Poel, that separates the Bay of Wismar from the larger Bay of Mecklenburg. The city lies in the middle between the two larger port cities of Lübeck in the west, and Rostock in the east, and the state capital of Schwerin is located south of the city on Lake Schwerin. Wismar lies in the northeastern corner of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region, and is the capital of the district of Northwestern Mecklenburg. The city's natural harbour is protected by a promontory. The uninhabited island of Walfisch, lying between Wismar and the island of Poel, administratively belongs to the borough of Wismar-Wendorf.
It is estimated that Wismar was founded in 1226 under Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg from the House of Mecklenburg, a German dynasty of Slavic origin also known as the Obotrites or Niklotides. In 1259, the city became part of the Hanseatic League. Throughout its history, the city has been under control of various German states as well as the Swedish Empire. It was part of Sweden from 1648 until 1803 (de jure until 1903, when Sweden officially renounced its claims to the city), and this Swedish chapter of the city is celebrated annually with a large "Sweden Celebration". From 1815 until 1918, Wismar lay in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and later in the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Wismar is a typical representative of the Hanseatic League with its city-wide Brick Gothic structures and iconic gabled patrician houses and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List alongside the historical old town of Stralsund in 2002. Wismar is the seat of Hochschule Wismar, a university of applied sciences, one of nine institutions of higher education in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. With MV Werften Wismar, the city is one of three cruise ship-producing locations of MV Werften (along with Rostock and Stralsund), and the shipyard with its tall white-blue hall is one of the city's largest employers. St. George's, St. Nicholas' and St. Mary's, of which only the tower is left standing, are the three iconic sacred buildings dominating the skyline of Wismar.
History
Wismar in the 16th century
The name of the settlement was first recorded in the 12th century as Visemer, Wismar (1147, 1167), Wyssemaria (1229) and is probably of Slavic origin although finally disputed. Wismar could have the same os. origin like the german city Weimar Wismar was part of the Western Slavic Obotrites' territory.
The exact date of the city's foundation is not clear. In the oldest existing document of Wismar of 1229 its civic rights are already established. In 1301 Wismar came under the rule of the House of Mecklenburg. In 1259 Wismar joined a defensive agreement with Lübeck and Rostock, in order to effectively counter the numerous Baltic pirates. Subsequently more cities of the northern Holy Roman Empire would agree to cooperate as commerce and trade was increasingly coordinated and regulated. These policies would provide the basis for the development of the Hanseatic League. By the 13th and 14th centuries Wismar had grown into a flourishing Hanseatic trading hub and an important center of wool processing. Although around 2,000 of its inhabitants perished during the plague of 1376, the town remained reasonably prosperous until the 16th century.
Under Swedish rule
Main article: Swedish Wismar
Siege of Wismar of 1675
WismarUNESCO World Heritage SiteAlter Schwede, c. 1380Part ofHistoric Centres of Stralsund and WismarCriteriaCultural: ii, ivReference1067-002Inscription2002 (26th Session)Area88 haBuffer zone108 ha
With the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 Wismar came under the territorial control of Sweden. Through the acquisition of Wismar and other dominions in the Holy Roman Empire, the Kings of Sweden in their role as imperial princes were entitled to a seat in the Imperial Diet. Wismar became administrative center of Wismar town and the districts of Pod and Neukloster, and after 1653 the Fürstenhof (prince's court) served as the seat of the supreme court for all Swedish dominions in the Holy Roman Empire. Wismar's fortifications were extended into an effective all-round defence system under the supervision of Field Marshal Erik Dahlbergh. Remains of these fortifications have been preserved, among other places, in the ‘Lindengarten' to the east of the wall of the old city. During the Scanian War, the town was besieged and captured by Danish forces in 1675.
In 1803, Sweden ceded both the town and lordship to the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin for 1,258,000 Riksdalers, but reserved the right of redemption after 100 years. In view of this contingent right of Sweden, Wismar was not represented at the diet of Mecklenburg-Schwerin until 1897. In 1903, Sweden finally renounced its claims to the town. Wismar still retains a few relics of its old privileges, including the right to fly its own flag.
20th century
By the end of the 19th century Wismar's most important manufacturing branches were the production of iron and steel, roofing-felt, asphalt, paper and machine industry. International sea trade took place at the local harbour, which was deep enough to admit vessels of up to five metres (16 ft) draught at its quays. Exports included grains, oil-seeds and butter as coal, timber and iron were imported. Wismar was production site for several railroad rolling stock manufacturers and since 1933 home to Norddeutsche Dornier-Werke of aircraft manufacturer Dornier. On 14 May 1881 Rudolph Karstadt opened his first shop (Tuch-, Manufaktur- und Konfektionsgeschäft) of the now well established department store chain Karstadt in Wismar.
During World War II, it was the location of a forced labour subcamp of the Nazi prison in Bützow-Dreibergen. Wismar was heavily bombed and destroyed by Allied air raids. As the line of contact between Soviet and other Allied armies formed in Europe at the end of the war, Wismar was captured by the British 6th Airborne Division's 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on 2 May 1945, James Hill commanding, in accordance with Operation Eclipse. On 7 May 1945 British Field Marshal Montgomery and Soviet Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky met in Wismar. In accord with the Occupation Zone Agreements of the Yalta Conference Wismar became a part of the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany on 1 July 1945, as British troops retreated and Soviet troops took control over the area.
During the 1949 to 1990 era of the German Democratic Republic, Wismar became East Germany's second-largest port, after Rostock and developed a shipbuilding industry. Although the GDR government had pledged to restore the local churches and historic sites that had been heavily bombed during the war, this commitment was for the most part not fulfilled.
After German reunification in 1990, churches and all historic buildings in the city's town center were restored, and the old towns of Wismar and Stralsund (c. 110 km or 70 mi to the east), were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2011, Wismar became the capital of the district of Nordwestmecklenburg.
View over the city
Mayors and Lord Mayors
1919–1929: Lawyer Hans Rasp (1877–1957, SPD)
1929–1933: Heinrich Brechling (1897–1959, SPD)
1933–1945: Alfred Pleuger (NSDAP)
May 1945 – June 1945: Heinrich von Biel (independent)
June 1945 – August 1945: Heinz Adolf Janert (1897–1973) (independent)
August 1945 – 1945: Karl Keuscher (KPD)
September 1945 – 1945: August Wilke (KPD)
December 1945 – December 1950: Herbert Säverin (1906–1987) (SPD/SED)
January 1951 – June 1952 Erhard Holweger (1911–1976) (SED)
August 1953 – June 1957: Herbert Kolm (SED)
July 1957 – April 1969: Herbert Fiegert (SED)
April 1969 – November 1989: Günter Lunow (born 1926) (SED)
November 1989 – May 1990: Wolfram Flemming (SED), temporary
1990–2010: Rosemarie Wilcken (born 1947) (SPD)
Since July 2010: Thomas Beyer (born 1960) (SPD)
Sights and architecture
Reconstruction of the Medieval Gothic Georgenkirche (St. George's Church) was completed in 2010.
The historical old town, centered on the huge marketplace (one of the largest in northern Germany at 10,000 m2 or 110,000 sq ft), is characterized by town houses, manufacture and trading structures of the Hanseatic League, built in Brick Gothic style during the 13th to 15th centuries, 19th-century Romanesque Revival architecture and Art Nouveau houses. Distinctive buildings and military works, built during the period of Swedish control during the 17th and the 18th centuries provide another layer of cultural influence.
The market square's focal point is the Wasserkunst, an elaborate wrought-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in Neoclassical style from 1817 to 1819. Another notable building on the square is a Brick Gothic patrician's home (Bürgerhaus) called Alter Schwede (Old Swede), erected around 1380.
St. George's Church, the third so-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war it was badly damaged by "Blockbuster bombs" dropped by the British Royal Air Force. Reconstruction after German reunification, costing some 40 million Euros, was completed in 2010.
The 80-metre-high (260 ft) tower church of St. Mary's Church (Marienkirche) is the only remainder of the original Brick Gothic edifice, built during the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 during the East German era.
St. Mary's Church and the church of St. Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) with its very lofty vaulting, built from 1381 to 1460, serve as prime examples of Lübeck's St. Mary's Churches architectural influence on the entire region.
The Fürstenhof, a richly decorated specimen of early Italian Renaissance style was once a ducal residence and served later as the seat of the municipal authorities. Built from 1552 to 1565, it was restored from 1877 to 1879. The Old School, dating from about 1300, has not been restored yet. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, houses a gallery of paintings. The Fine Arts Municipal Gallery Baumhaus is located in the old harbour area.
Education
Hochschule Wismar – University of Technology, Business and Design
Economy
Nordic Yards Wismar is a shipbuilder located in Wismar and shipbuilding has existed since 1946 at the site.
Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann
Gottlob Frege around 1879
Simone Oldenburg, 2017
Marita Koch, 1978
Notable people
Klaus Störtebeker (c. 1360–1401), privateer
Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (1557–1631), queen of Denmark and Norway
Daniel Georg Morhof (1639–1691), writer, scholar and historian.
Johan Henrik Scheffel (1690–1781), Swedish painter
Johan Carl Wilcke (1732–1796), physicist
Henricus Christophorus Christianus Wegener (1757–1799), lawyer
Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785–1860), historian, statesman.
Heinrich Keil (1822 in Gressow – 1894), philologist
Theodor Martens (1822–1884), architectural and landscape painter
Friedrich Bernhard Christian Maassen (1823–1900), law professor.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925), mathematician, logician and philosopher
Hermann Ritter (1849–1926), viola player, composer and music historian.
Guglielmo Plüschow (1852–1930), a German photographer of male nudes in Italy
Marie Musaeus Higgins (1855–1926), founder of Musaeus College, Colombo
Franz Ziehl (1857–1926), bacteriologist
Elisabeth Krämer-Bannow (1874–1945), ethnologist, explored the islands of the South Pacific.
Gustav Neckel (1878–1940), Germanist and Scandinavist
Anton von Hohberg und Buchwald (1885–1934), Reichswehr and SS officer
Helmuth Wohlthat (1893–1982), civil servant and diplomat
Harald Weinrich (born 1927), classical scholar; scholar of Romance philology and philosopher
Uwe Holmer (1929-2023), pastor, author and theologian; housed Erich Honecker and his wife
Gunter Pleuger (born 1941), diplomat and politician
Klaus Grünberg (born 1941), actor
Simone Oldenburg (born 1969), politician, local Deputy Minister-President since 2021.
Thomas Wiegand (born 1970), electrical engineer; substantially contributed to video coding formats.
Sport
Heino Kleiminger (1939–2015), footballer
Peter Sykora (born 1946), footballer, played over 270 pro games
Joachim Streich (1951-2022), football player and coach, played 378 games and 98 for East Germany
Marita Koch (born 1957), track and field athlete of the GDR and 1980 Summer Olympics champion
Roswitha Eberl (born 1958), canoeist
Kerstin Brandt (born 1961), high jumper
Andreas Zachhuber (born 1962), football player and coach
Kathrin Haacker (born 1967), 1988 Summer Olympics champion in rowing
Fiete Sykora (born 1982), footballer, played over 430 pro games
Robert Tesche (born 1987), footballer, played over 400 pro games
Wismar in art and literature
Wismar (renamed "Wisborg") was the setting of the 1922 silent film Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror). This German Expressionist horror film, directed by F. W. Murnau and starring Max Schreck as the vampire Count Orlok, was partly shot in Wismar. Filming began in July 1921, with exterior shots in Wismar. A take from the Marienkirche's (Saint Mary's Church) tower over Wismar marketplace with the Wasserkunst Wismar (waterworks fountain) served as the establishing shot for the Wisborg scene. Other locations included the Wassertor (Water Gate), the southside of St. Nicholas, the Heilig-Geist-Kirche (Holy-Spirit-Church) and the harbour area.
Wismar was also the setting of Werner Herzog's 1979 remake Nosferatu, Phantom der Nacht. However, Herzog unable to film in Wismar, relocated his production to the cities of Delft and Schiedam in the Netherlands. The 2000 metafiction horror film Shadow of the Vampire, directed by E. Elias Merhige which depicts the filming of the 1922 silent movie also takes place in Wismar.
Twin towns – sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany
Wismar is twinned with:
Kemi, Finland (1959)
Aalborg, Denmark (1963)
Calais, France (1971)
Lübeck, Germany (1987)
Kalmar, Sweden (2002)
Pogradec, Albania (2019)
In addition, since 1991 there is a friendship with Halden in Norway.
See also
State Museum of Technology outside of Wismar.
References
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Wismar" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
^ Kommunalwahlen in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Ergebnisse der Bürgermeisterwahlen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Landesamt für innere Verwaltung, accessed 2 August 2021.
^ "Bevölkerungsstand der Kreise, Ämter und Gemeinden 2022" (XLS) (in German). Statistisches Amt Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. 2023.
^ a b <"Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
^ Mecklenburgisches Urkundenbuch.
^ Niemeyer, Manfred (2012). Deutsches Ortsnamensbuch. Berlin: De Gruyter.
^ Friedrich Crull (1875). Die Rathslinie der Stadt Wismar- p. XVII ff. Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.
^ a b c d e One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Wismar". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 754.
^ Franz Schildt (1871). Geschichte der Stadt Wismar bis zum ende des 13. jahrhunderts. E. Kuhn. pp. 83–.
^ Dumrath 1911, p. 203.
^ "Swedish era - Zwei Städte - Ein Erbe". Wismar-stralsund.de. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
^ Philip Tober (2007). Wismar im Dreißigjährigen Krieg 1627 - 1648: Untersuchungen zur Wirtschafts-, Bau- und Sozialgeschichte. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-3-8258-0101-4.
^ Gerd Giese (2001). Wismar: Portrait einer Stadt. Sutton Verlag GmbH. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-3-89702-370-3.
^ "Flugzeugbau in Wismar - Die Norddeutschen Dornierwerke". Wismar De. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
^ "14. Mai 2006 - Vor 125 Jahren: Rudolph Karstadt eröffnet sein erstes Geschäft". Westdeutscher Rundfunk (in German). Retrieved 6 January 2021.
^ "Außenkommando der Strafanstalten Dreibergen-Bützow in Wismar bei den Norddeutschen Dornier-Werken". Bundesarchiv.de (in German). Retrieved 30 October 2021.
^ "HyperWar: The Last Offensive Chapter XIX Goetterdaemmerung". Ibiblio. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
^ Sven Abrokat (1997). Politischer Umbruch und Neubeginn in Wismar von 1989 bis 1990. Krämer. ISBN 978-3-89622-016-5.
^ "Website des Förderkreises St. Georgen zu Wismar e.V." georgenkirche.de. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^ "Morhof, Daniel Georg" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 836.
^ Luckwaldt, Friedrich (1911). "Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). pp. 732–733.
^ Schlager, Patricius (1910). "Friedrich Bernard Christian Maassen" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9.
^ "Städtepartnerschaften". wismar.de (in German). Wismar. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
^ "Wismars Freunde in Europa: Stadt will aktiver werden". ostsee-zeitung.de (in German). Ostsee Zeitung. 29 June 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Dumrath, Oskar Henrik (1911). "Sweden". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–221.
External links
Wismar at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityTravel information from Wikivoyage
Centres of Stralsund and Wismar: UNESCO Official Website
Official site
Wismar City Panoramas – Panoramic Views and Virtual Tours
Hochschule Wismar, University of Technology, Business and Design
UNESCO World Heritage Site Wismar
Evangelische Kirchengemeinden in Wismar Archived 15 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Website mit historischen Bildern von Wismar
17th-century account on the City
vteTowns and municipalities in Nordwestmecklenburg
Alt Meteln
Bad Kleinen
Barnekow
Benz
Bernstorf
Bibow
Blowatz
Bobitz
Boiensdorf
Boltenhagen
Brüsewitz
Carlow
Cramonshagen
Dalberg-Wendelstorf
Damshagen
Dassow
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Dragun
Gadebusch
Gägelow
Glasin
Gottesgabe
Grambow
Grevesmühlen
Grieben
Groß Molzahn
Groß Stieten
Hohen Viecheln
Hohenkirchen
Holdorf
Hornstorf
Insel Poel
Jesendorf
Kalkhorst
Klein Trebbow
Klütz
Kneese
Königsfeld
Krembz
Krusenhagen
Lübberstorf
Lübow
Lübstorf
Lüdersdorf
Lützow
Menzendorf
Metelsdorf
Mühlen Eichsen
Neuburg
Neukloster
Passee
Perlin
Pingelshagen
Pokrent
Rehna
Rieps
Roduchelstorf
Roggendorf
Roggenstorf
Rögnitz
Rüting
Schildetal
Schlagsdorf
Schönberg
Seehof
Selmsdorf
Siemz-Niendorf
Stepenitztal
Testorf-Steinfort
Thandorf
Upahl
Utecht
Veelböken
Ventschow
Warin
Warnow
Wedendorfersee
Wismar
Zickhusen
Zierow
Zurow
Züsow
Coat of arms
vte Urban and rural districts in the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany Urban districts
Rostock
Schwerin
Rural districts
Ludwigslust-Parchim
Mecklenburgische Seenplatte
Nordwestmecklenburg
Rostock
Vorpommern-Greifswald
Vorpommern-Rügen
Pre-2011 districts
Bad Doberan
Demmin
Güstrow
Ludwigslust
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Müritz
Nordvorpommern
Ostvorpommern
Parchim
Rügen
Uecker-Randow
Districts of German states (Full list)
Baden-Württemberg
Bavaria
Brandenburg
Bremen
Hesse
Lower Saxony
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
North Rhine-Westphalia
Rhineland-Palatinate
Saarland
Saxony
Saxony-Anhalt
Schleswig-Holstein
Thuringia
vteWorld Heritage Sites in GermanyFor official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in Germany.Northern
ADGB Trade Union School
Berlin Modernism Housing Estates
Bremen Town Hall and Roland on the Marketplace
Fagus Factory in Alfeld
Hedeby and the Danevirke Archaeological Border Complex
St. Mary's Cathedral and St. Michael's Church at Hildesheim
Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin
Hanseatic City of Lübeck
Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin
Mines of Rammelsberg, Historic Town of Goslar and Upper Harz Water Management System
Speicherstadt and Kontorhaus District with Chilehaus in Hamburg
Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar
Central
Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau
Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm
Dresden Elbe Valley (delisted in 2009)
Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region1
Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg
Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski2
Naumburg Cathedral
Collegiate Church, Castle, and Old Town of Quedlinburg
Wartburg Castle
Classical Weimar
Western
Aachen Cathedral
Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust at Brühl
Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe
Cologne Cathedral
Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey
Upper Middle Rhine Valley
Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St. Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier
Speyer Cathedral
ShUM cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz
Great Spa Towns of Europe8
Völklingen Ironworks
Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex in Essen
Southern
Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch
The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier
Augsburg Water Management System
Town of Bamberg
Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura
Mathildenhöhe Darmstadt
Frontiers of the Roman Empire in Bavaria7
Frontiers of the Roman Empire:3 Upper Germanic & Rhaetian Limes
Maulbronn Monastery Complex
Margravial Opera House
Monastic Island of Reichenau
Old Town of Regensburg with Stadtamhof
Pilgrimage Church of Wies
Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps4
Würzburg Residence with the Court Gardens and Residence Square
Natural
Messel Pit Fossil Site
Ancient Beech Forests5
Wadden Sea6
1 Shared with the Czech Republic
2 Shared with Poland
3 Shared with the United Kingdom
4 Shared with Austria, France, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland
5 Shared with Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Italy, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine
6 Shared with the Netherlands and Denmark
7 Shared with Austria and Slovakia
8 Shared with France, Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Italy, UK
vteMembers of the Hanseatic League by quarter, and trading posts of the Hanseatic LeagueChief cities shown in smallcaps.Free Imperial Cities of the Holy Roman Empire shown in italics.WendishLübeck
Anklam
Demmin
Greifswald
Hamburg
Kolberg (Kołobrzeg)
Lüneburg
Rostock
Rügenwalde (Darłowo)
Stettin (Szczecin)
Stolp (Słupsk)
Stargard
Stockholm
Stralsund
Visby
Wismar
SaxonBrunswickMagdeburg
Berlin
Bremen
Erfurt
Frankfurt an der Oder
Goslar
Mühlhausen
Nordhausen
BalticDanzig(Gdańsk)
Breslau (Wrocław)
Dorpat (Tartu)
Elbing (Elbląg)
Königsberg (Kaliningrad)
Cracow (Kraków)
Reval (Tallinn)
Riga (Rīga)
Thorn (Toruń)
WestphalianCologne 1Dortmund 1
Deventer
Groningen
Kampen
Münster
Osnabrück
Soest
Zutphen
Zwolle
Kontore
Bryggen (Bergen)
Kontor of Bruges
Bruges
Antwerp2
Steelyard (London)
Peterhof (Novgorod)
Vitten
Falsterbo
Malmö
Factories
Bishop's Lynn
Bristol
Boston
Ipswich
Kaunas
Leith
Herford
Hull
Newcastle
Polotsk
Pskov
Yarmouth
York
1 Cologne and Dortmund were both chief city of the Westphalian Quarter at different times.2 The kontor was moved to Antwerp once Bruges became inaccessible due to the silting of the Zwin channel.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
2
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Geographic
MusicBrainz area
Other
IdRef
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ˈvɪsmaʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"link_name":"Low German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_German"},{"link_name":"Mecklenburg-Vorpommern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburg-Vorpommern"},{"link_name":"Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburg"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Neubrandenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neubrandenburg"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"Stralsund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stralsund"},{"link_name":"Bay of Wismar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Wismar"},{"link_name":"Baltic Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea"},{"link_name":"Poel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poel"},{"link_name":"Bay of Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Mecklenburg"},{"link_name":"Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Lake Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Hamburg Metropolitan Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg_Metropolitan_Region"},{"link_name":"Northwestern Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordwestmecklenburg"},{"link_name":"promontory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promontory"},{"link_name":"Walfisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walfisch"},{"link_name":"Poel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poel"},{"link_name":"Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Borwin_I,_Lord_of_Mecklenburg"},{"link_name":"House of Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Mecklenburg"},{"link_name":"Obotrites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obotrites"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"Swedish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_State_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"Brick Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"World Heritage List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_List"},{"link_name":"Stralsund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stralsund"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-3"},{"link_name":"Hochschule Wismar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochschule_Wismar"},{"link_name":"MV Werften Wismar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Werften_Wismar"},{"link_name":"MV Werften","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Werften"},{"link_name":"Stralsund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswerft"},{"link_name":"St. Nicholas'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Nicholas%27_Church,_Wismar"}],"text":"City in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, GermanyTown in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, GermanyWismar (German pronunciation: [ˈvɪsmaʁ]; Low German: Wismer), officially the Hanseatic City of Wismar (Hansestadt Wismar) is, with around 43,000 inhabitants, the sixth-largest city of the northeastern German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, and the fourth-largest city of Mecklenburg after Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg. The city was the third-largest port city in former East Germany after Rostock and Stralsund.Wismar is located on the Bay of Wismar of the Baltic Sea, directly opposite the island of Poel, that separates the Bay of Wismar from the larger Bay of Mecklenburg. The city lies in the middle between the two larger port cities of Lübeck in the west, and Rostock in the east, and the state capital of Schwerin is located south of the city on Lake Schwerin. Wismar lies in the northeastern corner of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region, and is the capital of the district of Northwestern Mecklenburg. The city's natural harbour is protected by a promontory. The uninhabited island of Walfisch, lying between Wismar and the island of Poel, administratively belongs to the borough of Wismar-Wendorf.It is estimated that Wismar was founded in 1226 under Henry Borwin I, Lord of Mecklenburg from the House of Mecklenburg, a German dynasty of Slavic origin also known as the Obotrites or Niklotides. In 1259, the city became part of the Hanseatic League. Throughout its history, the city has been under control of various German states as well as the Swedish Empire. It was part of Sweden from 1648 until 1803 (de jure until 1903, when Sweden officially renounced its claims to the city), and this Swedish chapter of the city is celebrated annually with a large \"Sweden Celebration\". From 1815 until 1918, Wismar lay in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and later in the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.Wismar is a typical representative of the Hanseatic League with its city-wide Brick Gothic structures and iconic gabled patrician houses and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List alongside the historical old town of Stralsund in 2002.[3] Wismar is the seat of Hochschule Wismar, a university of applied sciences, one of nine institutions of higher education in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. With MV Werften Wismar, the city is one of three cruise ship-producing locations of MV Werften (along with Rostock and Stralsund), and the shipyard with its tall white-blue hall is one of the city's largest employers. St. George's, St. Nicholas' and St. Mary's, of which only the tower is left standing, are the three iconic sacred buildings dominating the skyline of Wismar.","title":"Wismar"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wismar_(Martin_Weigel,_2._H%C3%A4lfte_16._Jh.).jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburgisches_Urkundenbuch"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"os","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Obotrites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obotrites"},{"link_name":"House of Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Mecklenburg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crull1875-6"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schildt1871-8"}],"text":"Wismar in the 16th centuryThe name of the settlement was first recorded in the 12th century as Visemer, Wismar (1147, 1167), Wyssemaria (1229)[1][4] and is probably of Slavic origin although finally disputed. Wismar could have the same os. origin like the german city Weimar[5] Wismar was part of the Western Slavic Obotrites' territory.The exact date of the city's foundation is not clear. In the oldest existing document of Wismar of 1229 its civic rights are already established. In 1301 Wismar came under the rule of the House of Mecklenburg.[6] In 1259 Wismar joined a defensive agreement with Lübeck and Rostock, in order to effectively counter the numerous Baltic pirates. Subsequently more cities of the northern Holy Roman Empire would agree to cooperate as commerce and trade was increasingly coordinated and regulated. These policies would provide the basis for the development of the Hanseatic League. By the 13th and 14th centuries Wismar had grown into a flourishing Hanseatic trading hub and an important center of wool processing. Although around 2,000 of its inhabitants perished during the plague of 1376, the town remained reasonably prosperous until the 16th century.[7][8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_065-De_Belegeringh_van_Wismar.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Peace of Westphalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Empire"},{"link_name":"dominions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominions_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kings of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"imperial princes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princes_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Imperial Diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(Holy_Roman_Empire)"},{"link_name":"Neukloster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neukloster"},{"link_name":"Erik Dahlbergh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Dahlbergh"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumrath1911203-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wismar-stralsund1-10"},{"link_name":"Scanian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanian_War"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin"},{"link_name":"Riksdalers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riksdaler"},{"link_name":"diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(assembly)"},{"link_name":"Mecklenburg-Schwerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecklenburg-Schwerin"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tober2007-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Giese2001-12"}],"sub_title":"Under Swedish rule","text":"Siege of Wismar of 1675With the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 Wismar came under the territorial control of Sweden. Through the acquisition of Wismar and other dominions in the Holy Roman Empire, the Kings of Sweden in their role as imperial princes were entitled to a seat in the Imperial Diet. Wismar became administrative center of Wismar town and the districts of Pod and Neukloster, and after 1653 the Fürstenhof (prince's court) served as the seat of the supreme court for all Swedish dominions in the Holy Roman Empire. Wismar's fortifications were extended into an effective all-round defence system under the supervision of Field Marshal Erik Dahlbergh. Remains of these fortifications have been preserved, among other places, in the ‘Lindengarten' to the east of the wall of the old city.[9][10] During the Scanian War, the town was besieged and captured by Danish forces in 1675.In 1803, Sweden ceded both the town and lordship to the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin for 1,258,000 Riksdalers, but reserved the right of redemption after 100 years. In view of this contingent right of Sweden, Wismar was not represented at the diet of Mecklenburg-Schwerin until 1897. In 1903, Sweden finally renounced its claims to the town. Wismar still retains a few relics of its old privileges, including the right to fly its own flag.[7][11][12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"Dornier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dornier_Flugzeugwerke"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Rudolph Karstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolph_Karstadt"},{"link_name":"Karstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karstadt"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wdr-14"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"forced labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Bützow-Dreibergen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCtzow"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Allied air raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"line of contact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_contact"},{"link_name":"6th Airborne Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Airborne_Division_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"1st Canadian Parachute Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Canadian_Parachute_Battalion"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"James Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hill_(British_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"Montgomery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein"},{"link_name":"Konstantin Rokossovsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Rokossovsky"},{"link_name":"Yalta Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalta_Conference"},{"link_name":"Soviet Occupation Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Occupation_Zone"},{"link_name":"German Democratic Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Democratic_Republic"},{"link_name":"Rostock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock"},{"link_name":"Stralsund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stralsund"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites"},{"link_name":"district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Nordwestmecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordwestmecklenburg"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Abrokat1997-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:19-07-27-Hafen-Wismar-DJI_0059-Panorama.jpg"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"By the end of the 19th century Wismar's most important manufacturing branches were the production of iron and steel, roofing-felt, asphalt, paper and machine industry. International sea trade took place at the local harbour, which was deep enough to admit vessels of up to five metres (16 ft) draught at its quays. Exports included grains, oil-seeds and butter as coal, timber and iron were imported.[7] Wismar was production site for several railroad rolling stock manufacturers and since 1933 home to Norddeutsche Dornier-Werke of aircraft manufacturer Dornier.[13] On 14 May 1881 Rudolph Karstadt opened his first shop (Tuch-, Manufaktur- und Konfektionsgeschäft) of the now well established department store chain Karstadt in Wismar.[14]During World War II, it was the location of a forced labour subcamp of the Nazi prison in Bützow-Dreibergen.[15] Wismar was heavily bombed and destroyed by Allied air raids. As the line of contact between Soviet and other Allied armies formed in Europe at the end of the war, Wismar was captured by the British 6th Airborne Division's 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion on 2 May 1945,[16] James Hill commanding, in accordance with Operation Eclipse. On 7 May 1945 British Field Marshal Montgomery and Soviet Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky met in Wismar. In accord with the Occupation Zone Agreements of the Yalta Conference Wismar became a part of the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany on 1 July 1945, as British troops retreated and Soviet troops took control over the area.During the 1949 to 1990 era of the German Democratic Republic, Wismar became East Germany's second-largest port, after Rostock and developed a shipbuilding industry. Although the GDR government had pledged to restore the local churches and historic sites that had been heavily bombed during the war, this commitment was for the most part not fulfilled.After German reunification in 1990, churches and all historic buildings in the city's town center were restored, and the old towns of Wismar and Stralsund (c. 110 km or 70 mi to the east), were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. In 2011, Wismar became the capital of the district of Nordwestmecklenburg.[17]View over the city","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"1919–1929: Lawyer Hans Rasp (1877–1957, SPD)\n1929–1933: Heinrich Brechling (1897–1959, SPD)\n1933–1945: Alfred Pleuger (NSDAP)\nMay 1945 – June 1945: Heinrich von Biel (independent)\nJune 1945 – August 1945: Heinz Adolf Janert (1897–1973) (independent)\nAugust 1945 – 1945: Karl Keuscher (KPD)\nSeptember 1945 – 1945: August Wilke (KPD)\nDecember 1945 – December 1950: Herbert Säverin (1906–1987) (SPD/SED)\nJanuary 1951 – June 1952 Erhard Holweger (1911–1976) (SED)\nAugust 1953 – June 1957: Herbert Kolm (SED)\nJuly 1957 – April 1969: Herbert Fiegert (SED)\nApril 1969 – November 1989: Günter Lunow (born 1926) (SED)\nNovember 1989 – May 1990: Wolfram Flemming (SED), temporary\n1990–2010: Rosemarie Wilcken (born 1947) (SPD)\nSince July 2010: Thomas Beyer (born 1960) (SPD)","title":"Mayors and Lord Mayors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:11_Wismar_St_Georgen_003.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Brick Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic"},{"link_name":"Romanesque Revival architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture"},{"link_name":"Art Nouveau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unesco-3"},{"link_name":"Neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture"},{"link_name":"Brick Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic"},{"link_name":"Blockbuster bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbuster_bomb"},{"link_name":"Brick Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick_Gothic"},{"link_name":"East German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"St. Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Nicholas_Church,_Wismar"},{"link_name":"Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck"},{"link_name":"St. Mary's Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church,_L%C3%BCbeck"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"ducal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke"},{"link_name":"municipal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"}],"text":"Reconstruction of the Medieval Gothic Georgenkirche (St. George's Church) was completed in 2010.[18]The historical old town, centered on the huge marketplace (one of the largest in northern Germany at 10,000 m2 or 110,000 sq ft), is characterized by town houses, manufacture and trading structures of the Hanseatic League, built in Brick Gothic style during the 13th to 15th centuries, 19th-century Romanesque Revival architecture and Art Nouveau houses. Distinctive buildings and military works, built during the period of Swedish control during the 17th and the 18th centuries provide another layer of cultural influence.[3]The market square's focal point is the Wasserkunst, an elaborate wrought-iron fountain imported from Holland in 1602. The northern side of the square is occupied by the Town Hall, built in Neoclassical style from 1817 to 1819. Another notable building on the square is a Brick Gothic patrician's home (Bürgerhaus) called Alter Schwede (Old Swede), erected around 1380.St. George's Church, the third so-named edifice on the site, dates from 1404. It had escaped major damage during most of World War II, but on 14 April 1945, three weeks before the end of the war it was badly damaged by \"Blockbuster bombs\" dropped by the British Royal Air Force. Reconstruction after German reunification, costing some 40 million Euros, was completed in 2010.The 80-metre-high (260 ft) tower church of St. Mary's Church (Marienkirche) is the only remainder of the original Brick Gothic edifice, built during the first half of the 13th century. It suffered heavy damage in World War II, and was partially razed in 1960 during the East German era.St. Mary's Church and the church of St. Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) with its very lofty vaulting, built from 1381 to 1460, serve as prime examples of Lübeck's St. Mary's Churches architectural influence on the entire region.[7]The Fürstenhof, a richly decorated specimen of early Italian Renaissance style was once a ducal residence and served later as the seat of the municipal authorities. Built from 1552 to 1565, it was restored from 1877 to 1879. The Old School, dating from about 1300, has not been restored yet. The town hall, rebuilt in 1829, houses a gallery of paintings.[7] The Fine Arts Municipal Gallery Baumhaus is located in the old harbour area.","title":"Sights and architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hochschule Wismar – University of Technology, Business and Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochschule_Wismar"}],"text":"Hochschule Wismar – University of Technology, Business and Design","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nordic Yards Wismar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Yards_Wismar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Friedrich_christoph_dahlmann.jpg"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Dahlmann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_frege.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gottlob Frege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:18-05-2017-Simone_Oldenburg-JonasR.jpg"},{"link_name":"Simone Oldenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Oldenburg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marita_Koch_(1978).jpg"},{"link_name":"Marita Koch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marita_Koch"}],"text":"Nordic Yards Wismar is a shipbuilder located in Wismar and shipbuilding has existed since 1946 at the site.Friedrich Christoph DahlmannGottlob Frege around 1879Simone Oldenburg, 2017Marita Koch, 1978","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Klaus Störtebeker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_St%C3%B6rtebeker"},{"link_name":"Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie_of_Mecklenburg-G%C3%BCstrow"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Danish_royal_consorts"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_royal_consorts"},{"link_name":"Daniel Georg Morhof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Georg_Morhof"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Johan Henrik Scheffel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Henrik_Scheffel"},{"link_name":"Johan Carl Wilcke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Carl_Wilcke"},{"link_name":"Henricus Christophorus Christianus Wegener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henricus_Christophorus_Christianus_Wegener"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Christoph_Dahlmann"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Keil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Keil"},{"link_name":"Theodor Martens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Martens"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Bernhard Christian Maassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Bernhard_Christian_Maassen"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Gottlob Frege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege"},{"link_name":"Hermann Ritter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ritter"},{"link_name":"Guglielmo Plüschow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Pl%C3%BCschow"},{"link_name":"Marie Musaeus Higgins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Musaeus_Higgins"},{"link_name":"Musaeus College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musaeus_College"},{"link_name":"Colombo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombo"},{"link_name":"Franz Ziehl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Ziehl"},{"link_name":"Elisabeth Krämer-Bannow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Kr%C3%A4mer-Bannow"},{"link_name":"islands of the South Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia"},{"link_name":"Gustav Neckel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Neckel"},{"link_name":"Anton von Hohberg und Buchwald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_von_Hohberg_und_Buchwald"},{"link_name":"Helmuth Wohlthat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmuth_Wohlthat"},{"link_name":"Harald Weinrich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Weinrich"},{"link_name":"Uwe Holmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwe_Holmer"},{"link_name":"Erich Honecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Honecker"},{"link_name":"wife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margot_Honecker"},{"link_name":"Gunter Pleuger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunter_Pleuger"},{"link_name":"Klaus Grünberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Gr%C3%BCnberg"},{"link_name":"Simone Oldenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Oldenburg"},{"link_name":"Thomas Wiegand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wiegand"},{"link_name":"video coding formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_coding_format"}],"text":"Klaus Störtebeker (c. 1360–1401), privateer\nSophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (1557–1631), queen of Denmark and Norway\nDaniel Georg Morhof (1639–1691), writer, scholar and historian.[19]\nJohan Henrik Scheffel (1690–1781), Swedish painter\nJohan Carl Wilcke (1732–1796), physicist\nHenricus Christophorus Christianus Wegener (1757–1799), lawyer\nFriedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785–1860), historian, statesman.[20]\nHeinrich Keil (1822 in Gressow – 1894), philologist\nTheodor Martens (1822–1884), architectural and landscape painter\nFriedrich Bernhard Christian Maassen (1823–1900), law professor.[21]\nGottlob Frege (1848–1925), mathematician, logician and philosopher\nHermann Ritter (1849–1926), viola player, composer and music historian.\nGuglielmo Plüschow (1852–1930), a German photographer of male nudes in Italy\nMarie Musaeus Higgins (1855–1926), founder of Musaeus College, Colombo\nFranz Ziehl (1857–1926), bacteriologist\nElisabeth Krämer-Bannow (1874–1945), ethnologist, explored the islands of the South Pacific.\nGustav Neckel (1878–1940), Germanist and Scandinavist\nAnton von Hohberg und Buchwald (1885–1934), Reichswehr and SS officer\nHelmuth Wohlthat (1893–1982), civil servant and diplomat\nHarald Weinrich (born 1927), classical scholar; scholar of Romance philology and philosopher\nUwe Holmer (1929-2023), pastor, author and theologian; housed Erich Honecker and his wife\nGunter Pleuger (born 1941), diplomat and politician\nKlaus Grünberg (born 1941), actor\nSimone Oldenburg (born 1969), politician, local Deputy Minister-President since 2021.\nThomas Wiegand (born 1970), electrical engineer; substantially contributed to video coding formats.","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heino Kleiminger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heino_Kleiminger"},{"link_name":"Peter Sykora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sykora_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Joachim Streich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Streich"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Marita Koch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marita_Koch"},{"link_name":"1980 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Roswitha Eberl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roswitha_Eberl"},{"link_name":"Kerstin Brandt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerstin_Brandt"},{"link_name":"Andreas Zachhuber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Zachhuber"},{"link_name":"Kathrin Haacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathrin_Haacker"},{"link_name":"1988 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Fiete Sykora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiete_Sykora"},{"link_name":"Robert Tesche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Tesche"}],"sub_title":"Sport","text":"Heino Kleiminger (1939–2015), footballer\nPeter Sykora (born 1946), footballer, played over 270 pro games\nJoachim Streich (1951-2022), football player and coach, played 378 games and 98 for East Germany\nMarita Koch (born 1957), track and field athlete of the GDR and 1980 Summer Olympics champion\nRoswitha Eberl (born 1958), canoeist\nKerstin Brandt (born 1961), high jumper\nAndreas Zachhuber (born 1962), football player and coach\nKathrin Haacker (born 1967), 1988 Summer Olympics champion in rowing\nFiete Sykora (born 1982), footballer, played over 430 pro games\nRobert Tesche (born 1987), footballer, played over 400 pro games","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosferatu"},{"link_name":"German Expressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Expressionism"},{"link_name":"horror film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horror_film"},{"link_name":"F. W. Murnau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._Murnau"},{"link_name":"Max Schreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Schreck"},{"link_name":"vampire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire"},{"link_name":"Count Orlok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Orlok"},{"link_name":"shots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_(filmmaking)"},{"link_name":"take","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take"},{"link_name":"establishing shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establishing_shot"},{"link_name":"St. Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Nicholas_Church,_Wismar"},{"link_name":"Werner Herzog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Herzog"},{"link_name":"Nosferatu, Phantom der Nacht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosferatu_the_Vampyre"},{"link_name":"metafiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metafiction"},{"link_name":"Shadow of the Vampire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_of_the_Vampire"}],"text":"Wismar (renamed \"Wisborg\") was the setting of the 1922 silent film Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens (Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror). This German Expressionist horror film, directed by F. W. Murnau and starring Max Schreck as the vampire Count Orlok, was partly shot in Wismar. Filming began in July 1921, with exterior shots in Wismar. A take from the Marienkirche's (Saint Mary's Church) tower over Wismar marketplace with the Wasserkunst Wismar (waterworks fountain) served as the establishing shot for the Wisborg scene. Other locations included the Wassertor (Water Gate), the southside of St. Nicholas, the Heilig-Geist-Kirche (Holy-Spirit-Church) and the harbour area.\nWismar was also the setting of Werner Herzog's 1979 remake Nosferatu, Phantom der Nacht. However, Herzog unable to film in Wismar, relocated his production to the cities of Delft and Schiedam in the Netherlands. The 2000 metafiction horror film Shadow of the Vampire, directed by E. Elias Merhige which depicts the filming of the 1922 silent movie also takes place in Wismar.","title":"Wismar in art and literature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Germany"},{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_city"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Kemi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Aalborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalborg_Municipality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calais"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Kalmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmar_Municipality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania"},{"link_name":"Pogradec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogradec"},{"link_name":"Halden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halden"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in GermanyWismar is twinned with:[22]Kemi, Finland (1959)\n Aalborg, Denmark (1963)\n Calais, France (1971)\n Lübeck, Germany (1987)\n Kalmar, Sweden (2002)\n Pogradec, Albania (2019)In addition, since 1991 there is a friendship with Halden in Norway.[23]","title":"Twin towns – sister cities"}]
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[{"image_text":"Wismar in the 16th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wismar_%28Martin_Weigel%2C_2._H%C3%A4lfte_16._Jh.%29.jpg/525px-Wismar_%28Martin_Weigel%2C_2._H%C3%A4lfte_16._Jh.%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siege of Wismar of 1675","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_065-De_Belegeringh_van_Wismar.jpeg/220px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B10_065-De_Belegeringh_van_Wismar.jpeg"},{"image_text":"View over the city","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/19-07-27-Hafen-Wismar-DJI_0059-Panorama.jpg/700px-19-07-27-Hafen-Wismar-DJI_0059-Panorama.jpg"},{"image_text":"Reconstruction of the Medieval Gothic Georgenkirche (St. George's Church) was completed in 2010.[18]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/11_Wismar_St_Georgen_003.jpg/190px-11_Wismar_St_Georgen_003.jpg"},{"image_text":"Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Friedrich_christoph_dahlmann.jpg/125px-Friedrich_christoph_dahlmann.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gottlob Frege around 1879","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Young_frege.jpg/125px-Young_frege.jpg"},{"image_text":"Simone Oldenburg, 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/18-05-2017-Simone_Oldenburg-JonasR.jpg/125px-18-05-2017-Simone_Oldenburg-JonasR.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marita Koch, 1978","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Marita_Koch_%281978%29.jpg/125px-Marita_Koch_%281978%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/DEU_Nordwestmecklenburg_COA.svg/30px-DEU_Nordwestmecklenburg_COA.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"State Museum of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Museum_of_Technology"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Bevölkerungsstand der Kreise, Ämter und Gemeinden 2022\" (XLS) (in German). Statistisches Amt Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.laiv-mv.de/static/LAIV/Statistik/Dateien/Publikationen/A%20I%20Bev%C3%B6lkerungsstand/A123/2022/A123%202022%2022.xlsx","url_text":"\"Bevölkerungsstand der Kreise, Ämter und Gemeinden 2022\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistisches_Amt_Mecklenburg-Vorpommern","url_text":"Statistisches Amt Mecklenburg-Vorpommern"}]},{"reference":"\"Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar\". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 27 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1067","url_text":"\"Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar\""}]},{"reference":"Mecklenburgisches Urkundenbuch.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Niemeyer, Manfred (2012). Deutsches Ortsnamensbuch. Berlin: De Gruyter.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Friedrich Crull (1875). Die Rathslinie der Stadt Wismar- p. XVII ff. Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6fMradR_LyUC","url_text":"Die Rathslinie der Stadt Wismar- p. XVII ff"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Wismar\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 754.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Wismar","url_text":"Wismar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Franz Schildt (1871). Geschichte der Stadt Wismar bis zum ende des 13. jahrhunderts. E. Kuhn. pp. 83–.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=kWYyAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA83","url_text":"Geschichte der Stadt Wismar bis zum ende des 13. jahrhunderts"}]},{"reference":"\"Swedish era - Zwei Städte - Ein Erbe\". Wismar-stralsund.de. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140202123043/http://www.wismar-stralsund.de/en/the_cities/history/swedish_era","url_text":"\"Swedish era - Zwei Städte - Ein Erbe\""},{"url":"http://www.wismar-stralsund.de/en/the_cities/history/swedish_era","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Philip Tober (2007). Wismar im Dreißigjährigen Krieg 1627 - 1648: Untersuchungen zur Wirtschafts-, Bau- und Sozialgeschichte. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-3-8258-0101-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Voz3IvsI0ewC&pg=PA53","url_text":"Wismar im Dreißigjährigen Krieg 1627 - 1648: Untersuchungen zur Wirtschafts-, Bau- und Sozialgeschichte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-0101-4","url_text":"978-3-8258-0101-4"}]},{"reference":"Gerd Giese (2001). Wismar: Portrait einer Stadt. Sutton Verlag GmbH. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-3-89702-370-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zbbRirM4F4YC&pg=PA67","url_text":"Wismar: Portrait einer Stadt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89702-370-3","url_text":"978-3-89702-370-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Flugzeugbau in Wismar - Die Norddeutschen Dornierwerke\". Wismar De. Retrieved 4 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wismar.de/index.php?ModID=7&FID=2634.6700.1&object=tx%7C2634.6700.1","url_text":"\"Flugzeugbau in Wismar - Die Norddeutschen Dornierwerke\""}]},{"reference":"\"14. Mai 2006 - Vor 125 Jahren: Rudolph Karstadt eröffnet sein erstes Geschäft\". Westdeutscher Rundfunk (in German). Retrieved 6 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www1.wdr.de/themen/archiv/stichtag/stichtag1712.html","url_text":"\"14. Mai 2006 - Vor 125 Jahren: Rudolph Karstadt eröffnet sein erstes Geschäft\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westdeutscher_Rundfunk","url_text":"Westdeutscher Rundfunk"}]},{"reference":"\"Außenkommando der Strafanstalten Dreibergen-Bützow in Wismar bei den Norddeutschen Dornier-Werken\". Bundesarchiv.de (in German). Retrieved 30 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bundesarchiv.de/zwangsarbeit/haftstaetten/index.php?action=2.2&tab=7&id=100000166","url_text":"\"Außenkommando der Strafanstalten Dreibergen-Bützow in Wismar bei den Norddeutschen Dornier-Werken\""}]},{"reference":"\"HyperWar: The Last Offensive Chapter XIX Goetterdaemmerung\". Ibiblio. Retrieved 4 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-E-Last/USA-E-Last-19.html","url_text":"\"HyperWar: The Last Offensive Chapter XIX Goetterdaemmerung\""}]},{"reference":"Sven Abrokat (1997). Politischer Umbruch und Neubeginn in Wismar von 1989 bis 1990. Krämer. ISBN 978-3-89622-016-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uyu3AAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Politischer Umbruch und Neubeginn in Wismar von 1989 bis 1990"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89622-016-5","url_text":"978-3-89622-016-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Website des Förderkreises St. Georgen zu Wismar e.V.\" georgenkirche.de. Retrieved 22 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.georgenkirche.de/geschichte.html","url_text":"\"Website des Förderkreises St. Georgen zu Wismar e.V.\""}]},{"reference":"\"Morhof, Daniel Georg\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 836.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Morhof,_Daniel_Georg","url_text":"\"Morhof, Daniel Georg\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Luckwaldt, Friedrich (1911). \"Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). pp. 732–733.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Dahlmann,_Friedrich_Christoph","url_text":"\"Dahlmann, Friedrich Christoph\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Schlager, Patricius (1910). \"Friedrich Bernard Christian Maassen\" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Friedrich_Bernard_Christian_Maassen","url_text":"\"Friedrich Bernard Christian Maassen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia","url_text":"Catholic Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"\"Städtepartnerschaften\". wismar.de (in German). Wismar. Retrieved 17 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wismar.de/Tourismus-Welterbe/Wismar-wissenswert/St%C3%A4dtepartnerschaften","url_text":"\"Städtepartnerschaften\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wismars Freunde in Europa: Stadt will aktiver werden\". ostsee-zeitung.de (in German). Ostsee Zeitung. 29 June 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ostsee-zeitung.de/Mecklenburg/Wismar/Wismars-Freunde-in-Europa-Stadt-will-aktiver-werden","url_text":"\"Wismars Freunde in Europa: Stadt will aktiver werden\""}]},{"reference":"Dumrath, Oskar Henrik (1911). \"Sweden\". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 188–221.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Sweden","url_text":"Sweden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Ennius
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Lucius Ennius
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["1 References","2 Sources"]
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1st century AD Roman eques (knight)
Lucius Ennius was a Roman Eques who lived in the second half of the 1st century BC and first half of the 1st century.
Little is known about the origins of Ennius, however he may have been originally from the Roman province of Creta et Cyrenaica. Ennius was a member of the gens Ennia, hence he was a relative of the poet Ennius and Manius Ennius, a Roman soldier who served with Germanicus in 14 AD on the Rhine River frontier.
In 22, Ennius was accused of treason by the Roman Senate, for having converted a statue of the Roman emperor Tiberius to the common use of silver plate. However Tiberius forbade Ennius for this matter to be put on trial and saved him from prosecution, although the Roman Senate did not approve of the actions of the emperor. After this event, no more is known of Ennius.
At an unknown date sometime in the early 1st century, Ennius married a Roman noblewoman from Alexandria in the Roman Province of Egypt who was of Greek, Armenian and Median descent named Claudia Thrasylla. She was the daughter of Thrasyllus of Mendes and Aka II of Commagene. Thrasyllus was an Egyptian Greek grammarian and literary commentator who served as the astrologer and became the personal friend of the Emperor Tiberius, while Aka was a princess from the Kingdom of Commagene. His brother-in-law was Tiberius Claudius Balbilus.
Ennius had a daughter named Ennia Thrasylla who married the Praetorian prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Naevius Sutorius Macro. Ennius may also have had a son called Lucius Ennius who was the father of Lucius Ennius Ferox, a Roman soldier who served during the reign of the Roman emperor Vespasian from 69 until 79.
References
^ a b c Levick, Tiberius: The Politician, pp. 137, 230
^ a b c d Tacitus, Annales, iii.70
^ Levick, Tiberius: The Politician, p. 230
^ Holden, A History of Horoscopic Astrology, p. 26
^ Beck, Beck on Mithraism: Collected Works With New Essays, pp.42-3
^ Coleman-Norton, Ancient Roman Statutes, pp.151-2
Sources
Tacitus, Annales
P. Robinson Coleman-Norton & F. Card Bourne, Ancient Roman Statutes, The Lawbook Exchange Limited, 1961
B. Levick, Tiberius: The Politician, Routledge, 1999
R. Beck, Beck on Mithraism: Collected Works With New Essays, Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004
J.H. Holden, A History of Horoscopic Astrology, American Federation of Astrology, 2006
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Ennius was a member of the gens Ennia, hence he was a relative of the poet Ennius and Manius Ennius, a Roman soldier who served with Germanicus in 14 AD on the Rhine River frontier.In 22, Ennius was accused of treason by the Roman Senate, for having converted a statue of the Roman emperor Tiberius to the common use of silver plate.[2] However Tiberius forbade Ennius for this matter to be put on trial[2] and saved him from prosecution,[3] although the Roman Senate did not approve of the actions of the emperor.[2] After this event, no more is known of Ennius.At an unknown date sometime in the early 1st century, Ennius married a Roman noblewoman from Alexandria in the Roman Province of Egypt who was of Greek, Armenian and Median descent named Claudia Thrasylla. She was the daughter of Thrasyllus of Mendes and Aka II of Commagene.[1] Thrasyllus was an Egyptian Greek grammarian and literary commentator who served as the astrologer and became the personal friend of the Emperor Tiberius,[4] while Aka was a princess from the Kingdom of Commagene.[5] His brother-in-law was Tiberius Claudius Balbilus.Ennius had a daughter named Ennia Thrasylla who married the Praetorian prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Naevius Sutorius Macro.[1] Ennius may also have had a son called Lucius Ennius who was the father of Lucius Ennius Ferox, a Roman soldier who served during the reign of the Roman emperor Vespasian from 69 until 79.[6]","title":"Lucius Ennius"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tacitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus"},{"link_name":"Annales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annales_(Tacitus)"}],"text":"Tacitus, Annales\nP. Robinson Coleman-Norton & F. Card Bourne, Ancient Roman Statutes, The Lawbook Exchange Limited, 1961\nB. Levick, Tiberius: The Politician, Routledge, 1999\nR. Beck, Beck on Mithraism: Collected Works With New Essays, Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004\nJ.H. Holden, A History of Horoscopic Astrology, American Federation of Astrology, 2006","title":"Sources"}]
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[]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Henry_Bessemer
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Henry Bessemer
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["1 Father: Anthony Bessemer","2 Early inventions","3 Bessemer process","3.1 Implementation","4 Other inventions","4.1 Continuous casting","5 Death","6 Honours and legacy","7 Notes","8 References","9 Sources","10 External links"]
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English inventor (1813–1898)
Henry BessemerBessemer c. 1890sBornHenry Bessemer(1813-01-19)19 January 1813Charlton, Hertfordshire, EnglandDied15 March 1898(1898-03-15) (aged 85)London, EnglandNationalityEnglishCitizenshipBritishOccupation(s)Engineer and inventorKnown forDevelopment of the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steelAwardsAlbert Medal (1872)Signature
Sir Henry Bessemer FRS (19 January 1813 – 15 March 1898) was an English inventor, whose steel-making process would become the most important technique for making steel in the nineteenth century for almost one hundred years. He also played a significant role in establishing the town of Sheffield, nicknamed ‘Steel City’, as a major industrial centre.
Bessemer had been trying to reduce the cost of steel-making for military ordnance, and developed his system for blowing air through molten pig iron to remove the impurities. This made steel easier, quicker and cheaper to manufacture, and revolutionised structural engineering. One of the most significant inventors of the Second Industrial Revolution, Bessemer also made over 100 other inventions in the fields of iron, steel and glass. Unlike many inventors, he managed to bring his own projects to fruition and profited financially from their success. He was knighted for his contribution to science in 1879, and in the same year was made a fellow of the Royal Society.
Father: Anthony Bessemer
Bessemer's father, Anthony, was born in London into a Huguenot family, but moved to Paris when he was about 21 years old. He was an inventor who, while engaged by the Paris Mint, made a machine for making medallions that could produce steel dies from a larger model. He became a member of the French Academy of Science, for his improvements to the optical microscope when he was 26. He was forced to leave Paris by the French Revolution, and returned to Britain. There he invented a process for making gold chains, which was successful, and enabled him to buy a small estate in the village of Charlton, near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, where Henry was born. According to Bessemer he was given his name by his godfather Henry Caslon, who employed his father as a punchcutter.
Early inventions
The invention from which Bessemer made his first fortune was a series of six steam-powered machines for making bronze powder, used in the manufacture of gold paint. As he relates in his autobiography, he examined the bronze powder made in Nuremberg which was the only place where it was made at the time. He then copied and improved the product and made it capable of being made on a simple production line. It was an early example of reverse engineering where a product is analysed, and then reproduced.
The process was kept secret, with only members of his immediate family having access to the factory. The Nuremberg powder, which was made by hand, retailed in London for £5 12s per pound and he eventually reduced the price to half a crown £ – 2 / 6, or about 1/40th.
The profits from sale of the paint allowed him to pursue his other inventions.
Bessemer patented a method for making a continuous ribbon of plate glass in 1848, but it was not commercially successful (see his autobiography, chapter 8). He gained experience in designing furnaces, which was to be of great use for his new steel-making process.
Bessemer process
Main article: Bessemer process
Bessemer converter
Henry Bessemer worked on the problem of manufacturing cheap steel for ordnance production from 1850 to 1855 when he patented his method. However, William Kelly, an American inventor in Kentucky, received a priority patent in 1857, effectively nullifying Bessemer's 1855 US patent.
On 24 August 1856 Bessemer first described the process to a meeting of the British Association in Cheltenham which he titled "The Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel without Fuel." It was published in full in The Times. The Bessemer process involved using oxygen in air blown through molten pig iron to burn off the impurities and thus create steel. James Nasmyth had been working on a similar idea for some time prior to this. A reluctant patentor, and in this instance still working through some problems in his method, Nasmyth abandoned the project after hearing Bessemer at the meeting. Bessemer acknowledged the efforts of Nasmyth by offering him a one-third share of the value of his patent. Nasmyth turned it down as he was about to retire.
Bessemer converter, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England in 2010
Many industries were constrained by the lack of steel, being reliant on cast iron and wrought iron alone. Examples include railway structures such as bridges and tracks, where the treacherous nature of cast iron was keenly felt by many engineers and designers. There had been many accidents when cast iron beams collapsed suddenly, such as the Dee Bridge disaster of May 1847, the Wootton bridge collapse and the Bull bridge accident of 1860. The problem recurred at the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879, and failures continued until all cast iron under-bridges were replaced by steel structures. Wrought iron structures were much more reliable with very few failures.
Though this process is no longer commercially used, at the time of its invention it was of enormous industrial importance because it lowered the cost of production steel, leading to steel being widely substituted for cast iron and wrought iron. Bessemer's attention was drawn to the problem of steel manufacture in the course of an attempt to improve the construction of guns.
Implementation
Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to five ironmasters, but from the outset, the companies had great difficulty producing good-quality steel. Mr Göran Fredrik Göransson, a Swedish ironmaster, using the purer charcoal pig iron of that country, was the first to make good steel by the process, but only after many attempts. His results prompted Bessemer to try a purer iron obtained from Cumberland hematite, but even with this he had only limited success because the quantity of carbon was difficult to control. Robert Forester Mushet had carried out thousands of experiments at Darkhill Ironworks, in the Forest of Dean, and had shown that the quantity of carbon could be controlled by removing almost all of it from the iron and then adding an exact amount of carbon and manganese, in the form of spiegeleisen. This improved the quality of the finished product and increased its malleability.
When Bessemer tried to induce makers to take up his improved system, he met with general rebuffs and was eventually driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself. He erected steelworks in Sheffield in a business partnership with others, such as W & J Galloway & Sons, and began to manufacture steel. At first the output was insignificant, but gradually the magnitude of the operations was enlarged until the competition became effective, and steel traders generally became aware that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was underselling them to the extent of UK£10–£15 a ton. This argument to the pocket quickly had its effect, and licences were applied for in such numbers that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received a sum in all considerably exceeding a million pounds sterling.
However Mushet received nothing and by 1866 was destitute and in ill health. In that year his 16-year-old daughter, Mary, travelled to London alone, to confront Bessemer at his offices, arguing that his success was based on the results of her father's work. Bessemer decided to pay Mushet an annual pension of £300, a very considerable sum, which he paid for over 20 years, possibly with a view to keeping the Mushets from legal action. Bessemer also had works in Greenwich, London, adjacent to the River Thames, from about 1865.
W. M. Lord has said with regard to this success that "Sir Henry Bessemer was somewhat exceptional. He had developed his process from an idea to a practical reality in his own lifetime and he was sufficiently of a businessman to have profited by it. In so many cases, inventions were not developed quickly and the plums went to other persons than the inventors."
Other inventions
Captioned "Steel", caricature of Bessemer by Leslie Ward in Vanity Fair, 6 November 1880
Bessemer was a prolific inventor and held at least 129 patents, spanning from 1838 to 1883. These included military ordnance, movable dies for embossed postage stamps, a screw extruder to extract sugar from sugar cane, and others in the fields of iron, steel and glass. These are described in some detail in his autobiography.
After suffering from seasickness in 1868, he designed the SS Bessemer (also called the "Bessemer Saloon"), a passenger steamship with a cabin on gimbals designed to stay level, however rough the sea, to save her passengers from seasickness. The mechanism – hydraulics controlled by a steersman watching a spirit level – worked in model form and in a trial version built in his garden in Denmark Hill, London. However, it never received a proper seagoing test as, when the ship demolished part of the Calais pier on her maiden voyage, investor confidence was lost and the ship was scrapped.
Continuous casting
Bessemer also obtained a patent in 1857 for the casting of metal between contrarotating rollers – a forerunner of today's continuous casting processes and remarkably, Bessemer's original idea has been implemented in the direct continuous casting of steel strip.
Death
Headstone of Sir Henry Bessemer, West Norwood cemetery
Bessemer died in March 1898 at Denmark Hill, London. He is buried in West Norwood cemetery,
London SE27. Other influential Victorians such as Sir Henry Tate, Sir Henry Doulton and Baron de Reuters are buried in the same cemetery.
Honours and legacy
Bessemer was knighted by Queen Victoria for his contribution to science on 26 June 1879, and in the same year was made a fellow of the Royal Society. An honorary membership was conferred on Bessemer by the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1891. He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1894. In 1895, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Sheffield's Kelham Island Industrial Heritage Museum maintains an early example of a Bessemer converter for public viewing.
A school was named after him in the town of Hitchin, and when the school was demolished in the 1980s the new road built in its place was named Bessemer Close in 1995. Bessemer Way in Rotherham is also named in his honour. In 2009, the public house "The Fountain" in Sheffield city centre was renamed "The Bessemer" in homage to Henry Bessemer, who had a huge impact on the Steel City's development. In Workington, Cumbria, the local Wetherspoons pub is now named after him.
In 2002 the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3) was established from mergers encompassing historical organisations including the Iron and Steel Institute, of which Bessemer was president from 1871 to 1873; the latter organisation instituted the Bessemer Gold Medal under his tenure. IOM3 still recognises Bessemer's legacy with an annual award of the medal for outstanding services to the steel industry; recent recipients include Indira Samarasekera.
That a man who did so much for industrial development did not receive higher recognition from his own government was a source of deep regret for English engineers, who alluded to the fact that in the United States, where the Bessemer process found much use, eight cities or towns bore his name.
Notes
^ Coincidentally, on the same page of the London Gazette there is the knighting of Thomas Bouch who the following December became infamous worldwide as the designer and railway engineer of the Tay Bridge.
References
^ Sir Henry Bessemer Inventor & Engineer Archived 19 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Lucidcafe.com (24 November 2014). Retrieved on 1 July 2015.
^ Misa 1995.
^ Newton, David E. Chemistry of New Materials. New York: Facts on File, 2007. Print.
^ "Sheffield". Encyclopaedia Britnannica. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
^ "Made in Great Britain, Series 1, Steel". BBC. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
^ "A. Bessemer's Specimen of Printing Types, 1830". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 5. 1969.
^ Jeans 1884, pp. 12–13.
^ "Charlton House in England, Hitchin". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013.
^ The Chartered Mechanical Engineer: The Journal of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 12. 1954. p. 519. Retrieved 8 October 2018.
^ Bessemer 1905, p. 6.
^ "Sir Henry Bessemer's Connection with Printing". The Printing Times and Lithographer: 226–7. 1880. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
^ a b c Bessemer 1905.
^ "Famous Inventors – Sir Henry Bessemer". The Meccano Magazine. April 1942. p. 130.
^ Boylston 1936, p. 218.
^ "Kelly Pneumatic Iron Process". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
^ Boylston 1936, pp. 218–219.
^ a b Lord 1945.
^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bessemer, Sir Henry". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 823.
^ Bessemer 1905, p. 172.
^ "Mushet, Robert Forester" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
^ Coleford, Towns in the Forest Of Dean ForestWeb (fweb) – Virtual guide to the Royal Forest Of Dean Archived 22 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine. fweb. Retrieved on 1 July 2015.
^ Anstis 1997.
^ Mills, Mary (8 August 2009). "Bessemer in Greenwich". Greenwich Industrial History. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
^ The Bessemer Saloon Steam-Ship Archived 27 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Chapter XX, Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S. An Autobiography, online at University of Rochester Archived 3 October 2005 at the Wayback Machine
^ "No. 24739". The London Gazette. 1 July 1879. p. 2406.
^ IESIS Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Iesis.org. Retrieved on 1 July 2015.
^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Bessemer, Henry" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
Sources
Anstis, Ralph (1997). Man of Iron, Man of Steel: Lives of David and Robert Mushet. Albion House. p. 140. ISBN 978-0951137147.
Bessemer, Henry (1905). Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: an autobiography; with a concluding chapter. London: Engineering.
Boylston, Herbert Melville (1936). An introduction to the metallurgy of iron and steel. Wiley.
Jeans, William T. (1884). The creators of the age of steel. Chapman and Hall.
Lord, W. M. (1945). "The Development of the Bessemer Process in Lancashire, 1856–1900". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 25: 163–180. doi:10.1179/tns.1945.017.
Misa, Thomas J. (1995). A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America: 1865-1925. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 978-0801849671.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sir Henry Bessemer.
Works by Henry Bessemer at Open Library
Works by or about Henry Bessemer at Internet Archive
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"steel-making process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisa1995-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Second Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"knighted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"}],"text":"Sir Henry Bessemer FRS (19 January 1813 – 15 March 1898) was an English inventor, whose steel-making process would become the most important technique for making steel in the nineteenth century for almost one hundred years.[2][3] He also played a significant role in establishing the town of Sheffield, nicknamed ‘Steel City’, as a major industrial centre.[4][5]Bessemer had been trying to reduce the cost of steel-making for military ordnance, and developed his system for blowing air through molten pig iron to remove the impurities. This made steel easier, quicker and cheaper to manufacture, and revolutionised structural engineering. One of the most significant inventors of the Second Industrial Revolution, Bessemer also made over 100 other inventions in the fields of iron, steel and glass. Unlike many inventors, he managed to bring his own projects to fruition and profited financially from their success. He was knighted for his contribution to science in 1879, and in the same year was made a fellow of the Royal Society.","title":"Henry Bessemer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Bessemer"},{"link_name":"Huguenot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JPHS-6"},{"link_name":"French Academy of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Academy_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeans188412%E2%80%9313-7"},{"link_name":"French Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Charlton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton,_Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"Hitchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchin"},{"link_name":"Hertfordshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertfordshire"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Henry Caslon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caslon_Type_Foundry"},{"link_name":"punchcutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punchcutting"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessemer19056-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1880_Printing_Times_and_Lithographer-11"}],"text":"Bessemer's father, Anthony, was born in London into a Huguenot family, but moved to Paris when he was about 21 years old.[6] He was an inventor who, while engaged by the Paris Mint, made a machine for making medallions that could produce steel dies from a larger model. He became a member of the French Academy of Science,[7] for his improvements to the optical microscope when he was 26. He was forced to leave Paris by the French Revolution, and returned to Britain. There he invented a process for making gold chains, which was successful, and enabled him to buy a small estate in the village of Charlton, near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, where Henry was born.[8][9] According to Bessemer he was given his name by his godfather Henry Caslon, who employed his father as a punchcutter.[10][11]","title":"Father: Anthony Bessemer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bronze powder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_powder"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessemer1905-12"},{"link_name":"Nuremberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg"},{"link_name":"reverse engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C2%A3sd"},{"link_name":"half a crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half_crown_(British_coin)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"plate glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_glass"}],"text":"The invention from which Bessemer made his first fortune was a series of six steam-powered machines for making bronze powder, used in the manufacture of gold paint. As he relates in his autobiography,[12] he examined the bronze powder made in Nuremberg which was the only place where it was made at the time. He then copied and improved the product and made it capable of being made on a simple production line. It was an early example of reverse engineering where a product is analysed, and then reproduced.The process was kept secret, with only members of his immediate family having access to the factory. The Nuremberg powder, which was made by hand, retailed in London for £5 12s per pound and he eventually reduced the price to half a crown £ – 2 / 6, or about 1/40th.[13]\nThe profits from sale of the paint allowed him to pursue his other inventions.Bessemer patented a method for making a continuous ribbon of plate glass in 1848, but it was not commercially successful (see his autobiography, chapter 8). He gained experience in designing furnaces, which was to be of great use for his new steel-making process.","title":"Early inventions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ConverterB.jpg"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoylston1936218-14"},{"link_name":"William Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kelly_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"priority patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_right"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"British Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Association"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"Bessemer process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoylston1936218%E2%80%93219-16"},{"link_name":"James Nasmyth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Nasmyth"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord1945-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bessemer_5180.JPG"},{"link_name":"Kelham Island Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelham_Island_Museum"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"wrought iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron"},{"link_name":"Dee Bridge disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dee_Bridge_disaster"},{"link_name":"Wootton bridge collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wootton_bridge_collapse"},{"link_name":"Bull bridge accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_bridge_accident"},{"link_name":"Tay Bridge disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tay_Bridge_disaster"},{"link_name":"steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel"},{"link_name":"cast iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_iron"},{"link_name":"wrought iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-18"}],"text":"Bessemer converterHenry Bessemer worked on the problem of manufacturing cheap steel for ordnance production from 1850 to 1855 when he patented his method.[14] However, William Kelly, an American inventor in Kentucky, received a priority patent in 1857, effectively nullifying Bessemer's 1855 US patent.[15]On 24 August 1856 Bessemer first described the process to a meeting of the British Association in Cheltenham which he titled \"The Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel without Fuel.\" It was published in full in The Times. The Bessemer process involved using oxygen in air blown through molten pig iron to burn off the impurities and thus create steel.[16] James Nasmyth had been working on a similar idea for some time prior to this. A reluctant patentor, and in this instance still working through some problems in his method, Nasmyth abandoned the project after hearing Bessemer at the meeting. Bessemer acknowledged the efforts of Nasmyth by offering him a one-third share of the value of his patent. Nasmyth turned it down as he was about to retire.[17]Bessemer converter, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England in 2010Many industries were constrained by the lack of steel, being reliant on cast iron and wrought iron alone. Examples include railway structures such as bridges and tracks, where the treacherous nature of cast iron was keenly felt by many engineers and designers. There had been many accidents when cast iron beams collapsed suddenly, such as the Dee Bridge disaster of May 1847, the Wootton bridge collapse and the Bull bridge accident of 1860. The problem recurred at the Tay Bridge disaster of 1879, and failures continued until all cast iron under-bridges were replaced by steel structures. Wrought iron structures were much more reliable with very few failures.Though this process is no longer commercially used, at the time of its invention it was of enormous industrial importance because it lowered the cost of production steel, leading to steel being widely substituted for cast iron and wrought iron. Bessemer's attention was drawn to the problem of steel manufacture in the course of an attempt to improve the construction of guns.[18]","title":"Bessemer process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ironmasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironmaster"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessemer1905172-19"},{"link_name":"Göran Fredrik Göransson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Fredrik_G%C3%B6ransson"},{"link_name":"pig iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron"},{"link_name":"Cumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland"},{"link_name":"hematite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematite"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-18"},{"link_name":"Robert Forester Mushet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Forester_Mushet"},{"link_name":"Darkhill Ironworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkhill_Ironworks"},{"link_name":"Forest of Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_of_Dean"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"},{"link_name":"spiegeleisen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegeleisen"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fweb.org.uk-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnstis1997-22"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield"},{"link_name":"W & J Galloway & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_%26_J_Galloway_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-18"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessemer1905-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBessemer1905-12"},{"link_name":"Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mills-Aug2009-23"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELord1945-17"}],"sub_title":"Implementation","text":"Bessemer licensed the patent for his process to five ironmasters, but from the outset, the companies had great difficulty producing good-quality steel.[19] Mr Göran Fredrik Göransson, a Swedish ironmaster, using the purer charcoal pig iron of that country, was the first to make good steel by the process, but only after many attempts. His results prompted Bessemer to try a purer iron obtained from Cumberland hematite, but even with this he had only limited success[18] because the quantity of carbon was difficult to control. Robert Forester Mushet had carried out thousands of experiments at Darkhill Ironworks, in the Forest of Dean, and had shown that the quantity of carbon could be controlled by removing almost all of it from the iron and then adding an exact amount of carbon and manganese, in the form of spiegeleisen. This improved the quality of the finished product and increased its malleability.[20][21][22]When Bessemer tried to induce makers to take up his improved system, he met with general rebuffs and was eventually driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself. He erected steelworks in Sheffield in a business partnership with others, such as W & J Galloway & Sons, and began to manufacture steel. At first the output was insignificant, but gradually the magnitude of the operations was enlarged until the competition became effective, and steel traders generally became aware that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was underselling them to the extent of UK£10–£15 a ton. This argument to the pocket quickly had its effect, and licences were applied for in such numbers that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received a sum in all considerably exceeding a million pounds sterling.[18]However Mushet received nothing and by 1866 was destitute and in ill health. In that year his 16-year-old daughter, Mary, travelled to London alone, to confront Bessemer at his offices, arguing that his success was based on the results of her father's work.[12] Bessemer decided to pay Mushet an annual pension of £300, a very considerable sum, which he paid for over 20 years, possibly with a view to keeping the Mushets from legal action.[12] Bessemer also had works in Greenwich, London, adjacent to the River Thames, from about 1865.[23]W. M. Lord has said with regard to this success that \"Sir Henry Bessemer was somewhat exceptional. He had developed his process from an idea to a practical reality in his own lifetime and he was sufficiently of a businessman to have profited by it. In so many cases, inventions were not developed quickly and the plums went to other persons than the inventors.\"[17]","title":"Bessemer process"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_%27Steel%27_(4671260).jpg"},{"link_name":"Leslie Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Ward"},{"link_name":"Vanity Fair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanity_Fair_(British_magazine)"},{"link_name":"SS Bessemer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Bessemer"},{"link_name":"gimbals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbal"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Captioned \"Steel\", caricature of Bessemer by Leslie Ward in Vanity Fair, 6 November 1880Bessemer was a prolific inventor and held at least 129 patents, spanning from 1838 to 1883. These included military ordnance, movable dies for embossed postage stamps, a screw extruder to extract sugar from sugar cane, and others in the fields of iron, steel and glass. These are described in some detail in his autobiography.After suffering from seasickness in 1868, he designed the SS Bessemer (also called the \"Bessemer Saloon\"), a passenger steamship with a cabin on gimbals designed to stay level, however rough the sea, to save her passengers from seasickness. The mechanism – hydraulics controlled by a steersman watching a spirit level – worked in model form and in a trial version built in his garden in Denmark Hill, London. However, it never received a proper seagoing test as, when the ship demolished part of the Calais pier on her maiden voyage, investor confidence was lost and the ship was scrapped.[24]","title":"Other inventions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"continuous casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_casting"}],"sub_title":"Continuous casting","text":"Bessemer also obtained a patent in 1857 for the casting of metal between contrarotating rollers – a forerunner of today's continuous casting processes and remarkably, Bessemer's original idea has been implemented in the direct continuous casting of steel strip.","title":"Other inventions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grave_of_Henry_Bessemer_at_West_Norwood_Cemetery_(02).jpg"},{"link_name":"Denmark Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Hill"},{"link_name":"West Norwood cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Norwood_Cemetery"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry Tate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Tate"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry Doulton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Doulton"},{"link_name":"Baron de Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reuter"}],"text":"Headstone of Sir Henry Bessemer, West Norwood cemeteryBessemer died in March 1898 at Denmark Hill, London. He is buried in West Norwood cemetery,\nLondon SE27. Other influential Victorians such as Sir Henry Tate, Sir Henry Doulton and Baron de Reuters are buried in the same cemetery.","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"knighted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"Queen Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineers_and_Shipbuilders_in_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAAS-29"},{"link_name":"Hitchin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchin"},{"link_name":"Rotherham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotherham"},{"link_name":"Steel City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_City"},{"link_name":"Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Materials,_Minerals_and_Mining"},{"link_name":"Iron and Steel Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_and_Steel_Institute"},{"link_name":"Bessemer Gold Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Materials,_Minerals_and_Mining#Awards"},{"link_name":"Indira Samarasekera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indira_Samarasekera"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"Bessemer was knighted by Queen Victoria for his contribution to science on 26 June 1879, and in the same year was made a fellow of the Royal Society.[25] An honorary membership was conferred on Bessemer by the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1891.[26] He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1894.[27] In 1895, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[28] Sheffield's Kelham Island Industrial Heritage Museum maintains an early example of a Bessemer converter for public viewing.A school was named after him in the town of Hitchin, and when the school was demolished in the 1980s the new road built in its place was named Bessemer Close in 1995. Bessemer Way in Rotherham is also named in his honour. In 2009, the public house \"The Fountain\" in Sheffield city centre was renamed \"The Bessemer\" in homage to Henry Bessemer, who had a huge impact on the Steel City's development. In Workington, Cumbria, the local Wetherspoons pub is now named after him.In 2002 the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3) was established from mergers encompassing historical organisations including the Iron and Steel Institute, of which Bessemer was president from 1871 to 1873; the latter organisation instituted the Bessemer Gold Medal under his tenure. IOM3 still recognises Bessemer's legacy with an annual award of the medal for outstanding services to the steel industry; recent recipients include Indira Samarasekera.That a man who did so much for industrial development did not receive higher recognition from his own government was a source of deep regret for English engineers, who alluded to the fact that in the United States, where the Bessemer process found much use, eight cities or towns bore his name.[29]","title":"Honours and legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bouch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bouch"}],"text":"^ Coincidentally, on the same page of the London Gazette there is the knighting of Thomas Bouch who the following December became infamous worldwide as the designer and railway engineer of the Tay Bridge.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0951137147","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0951137147"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: an autobiography; with a concluding chapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sirhenrybessemer00bessuoft"},{"link_name":"Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Jeans, William T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tulloch_Jeans"},{"link_name":"The creators of the age of steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/creatorsagestee00tgoog/page/n22"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1179/tns.1945.017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1179%2Ftns.1945.017"},{"link_name":"A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America: 1865-1925","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/nationofsteelmak00misa"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0801849671","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801849671"}],"text":"Anstis, Ralph (1997). Man of Iron, Man of Steel: Lives of David and Robert Mushet. Albion House. p. 140. ISBN 978-0951137147.\nBessemer, Henry (1905). Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: an autobiography; with a concluding chapter. London: Engineering.\nBoylston, Herbert Melville (1936). An introduction to the metallurgy of iron and steel. Wiley.\nJeans, William T. (1884). The creators of the age of steel. Chapman and Hall.\nLord, W. M. (1945). \"The Development of the Bessemer Process in Lancashire, 1856–1900\". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 25: 163–180. doi:10.1179/tns.1945.017.\nMisa, Thomas J. (1995). A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America: 1865-1925. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 978-0801849671.","title":"Sources"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Bessemer converter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/ConverterB.jpg/300px-ConverterB.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bessemer converter, Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield, England in 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bessemer_5180.JPG/220px-Bessemer_5180.JPG"},{"image_text":"Captioned \"Steel\", caricature of Bessemer by Leslie Ward in Vanity Fair, 6 November 1880","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Portrait_of_%27Steel%27_%284671260%29.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_%27Steel%27_%284671260%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Headstone of Sir Henry Bessemer, West Norwood cemetery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Grave_of_Henry_Bessemer_at_West_Norwood_Cemetery_%2802%29.jpg/220px-Grave_of_Henry_Bessemer_at_West_Norwood_Cemetery_%2802%29.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"Sheffield\". Encyclopaedia Britnannica. Retrieved 25 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Sheffield-England","url_text":"\"Sheffield\""}]},{"reference":"\"Made in Great Britain, Series 1, Steel\". BBC. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0bpz4ks","url_text":"\"Made in Great Britain, Series 1, Steel\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190328125550/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0bpz4ks","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"A. Bessemer's Specimen of Printing Types, 1830\". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 5. 1969.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Charlton House in England, Hitchin\". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130130065456/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/periodproperty/9821880/Homes-for-sale-with-blue-plaques.html?frame=2460183","url_text":"\"Charlton House in England, Hitchin\""},{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/periodproperty/9821880/Homes-for-sale-with-blue-plaques.html?frame=2460183","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"The Chartered Mechanical Engineer: The Journal of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 12. 1954. p. 519. Retrieved 8 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tVhVAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"The Chartered Mechanical Engineer: The Journal of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 12"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Henry Bessemer's Connection with Printing\". The Printing Times and Lithographer: 226–7. 1880. Retrieved 11 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=h3ZQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA226","url_text":"\"Sir Henry Bessemer's Connection with Printing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Famous Inventors – Sir Henry Bessemer\". The Meccano Magazine. April 1942. p. 130.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Kelly Pneumatic Iron Process\". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 20 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/kelly-iron.html","url_text":"\"Kelly Pneumatic Iron Process\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Bessemer, Sir Henry\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 823.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Bessemer,_Sir_Henry","url_text":"Bessemer, Sir Henry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Mushet, Robert Forester\" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Mushet,_Robert_Forester","url_text":"\"Mushet, Robert Forester\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Mills, Mary (8 August 2009). \"Bessemer in Greenwich\". Greenwich Industrial History. Retrieved 19 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://greenwichindustrialhistory.blogspot.com/2009/08/bessemer-in-greenwich.html","url_text":"\"Bessemer in Greenwich\""}]},{"reference":"\"No. 24739\". The London Gazette. 1 July 1879. p. 2406.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/24739/page/2406","url_text":"\"No. 24739\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"APS Member History\". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 28 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Henry+Bessemer&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced","url_text":"\"APS Member History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B\" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf","url_text":"\"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060618085806/http://amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). \"Bessemer, Henry\" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Coit_Gilman","url_text":"Gilman, D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Bessemer,_Henry","url_text":"\"Bessemer, Henry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia","url_text":"New International Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"Anstis, Ralph (1997). Man of Iron, Man of Steel: Lives of David and Robert Mushet. Albion House. p. 140. ISBN 978-0951137147.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0951137147","url_text":"978-0951137147"}]},{"reference":"Bessemer, Henry (1905). Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: an autobiography; with a concluding chapter. London: Engineering.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sirhenrybessemer00bessuoft","url_text":"Sir Henry Bessemer, F.R.S.: an autobiography; with a concluding chapter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_(magazine)","url_text":"Engineering"}]},{"reference":"Boylston, Herbert Melville (1936). An introduction to the metallurgy of iron and steel. Wiley.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jeans, William T. (1884). The creators of the age of steel. Chapman and Hall.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tulloch_Jeans","url_text":"Jeans, William T."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/creatorsagestee00tgoog/page/n22","url_text":"The creators of the age of steel"}]},{"reference":"Lord, W. M. (1945). \"The Development of the Bessemer Process in Lancashire, 1856–1900\". Transactions of the Newcomen Society. 25: 163–180. doi:10.1179/tns.1945.017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1179%2Ftns.1945.017","url_text":"10.1179/tns.1945.017"}]},{"reference":"Misa, Thomas J. (1995). A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America: 1865-1925. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins UP. ISBN 978-0801849671.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/nationofsteelmak00misa","url_text":"A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America: 1865-1925"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801849671","url_text":"978-0801849671"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seheqenre_Sankhptahi
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Seheqenre Sankhptahi
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["1 Family","2 Attestions","2.1 Non-contemporary attestations","2.2 Uncertain attestations","3 Further reading","4 References"]
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Seheqenre SankhptahiSehekaenre Seankhptah, Se'anchptah Detail of the stele of Nebsumenu depicting pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi offering ms.t oil to the god Ptah, National Archaeological Museum of Spain.PharaohReignunknown durationPredecessorunknown Successorunknown Royal titulary
Prenomen (Praenomen)
SeheqenreS.ḥḳ-n-RˁHe whom Ra causes to rule
Nomen
SankhptahiS-ˁnḫ-ptḥ-iHe whom Ptah causes to live Turin canonqenreḳ-n-RˁHe whom Ra causes to rule
Fatheruncertain, possibly Se...kare Dynasty13th dynasty
Seheqenre Sankhptahi was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the fifty-fourth or fifty-fifth king of this dynasty. He most likely reigned for a short period over the Memphite region during the mid-17th century BC, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC.
Family
A stele of unknown provenance, although probably Memphite in origin, and dated on stylistic grounds to the Second Intermediate Period presents a list of members of a royal family and gives the king's son name as -ptḥ-i. If this prince is the future pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi as Ryholt proposes, then pharaoh Sekare is his father and Minemsaes and Sit are his sisters. The stele is housed in the Egyptian Museum (CG20600).
Attestions
Of Unknown Provenance, a round-topped stela dated to Year 1 of Sehekaenre Sankhiptah.
Pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi is named and represented on the stele of royal sealer and overseer of sealers Nebsumenu. Kim Ryholt notes that it depicts Sankhptahi offering oil to the god Ptah (defaced) "He who is south of his wall" (rsy-snb=f) and to Anubis (defaced) "Lord of bandagers" (nb wtyw), both of which are epithets from the Memphite region. Ryholt concludes that Seheqenre Sankhptahi probably reigned over Memphis and thus belongs to the 13th dynasty, which had control over the region at the time. Furthermore, Ryholt suggests that Sankhptahi may himself have been born in Memphis, as indicated by his theophorous name based on Ptah, the god of the city.
Stele of Nebsumenu representing Seheqenre Sankhptahi making offerings to Ptah and Anubis.
Non-contemporary attestations
The Turin canon 8:25 contains the damaged prenomen ḳ-n-Rˁ. Ryholt remarks that Seheqenre is the only king of the period whose name matches these signs and reads ḳ-n-Rˁ
Uncertain attestations
Ryholt points to a blue-green steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance and bearing the golden horus name Sekhaenptah, S.ḫˁ-n-ptḥ, He whom Ptah causes to appear, as maybe belonging to Seheqenre Sankhptahi. Percy Newberry simply dates the seal to "about the end of the Middle Kingdom" without further identification of its owner. The seal is probably lost: originally in the Timmins collection housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it is now reportedly missing from the museum.
Further reading
Meeks, Dimitri, "Une stèle de donation de la Deuxième Période intermédiaire" ENIM 2, 2009, pp. 129–154.
References
^ a b c d e f g Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300 - 1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, p. 349
^ a b c d e f g h i K.S.B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800-1550 BC, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997
^ Madrid, Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 1999/99/4, acquired from a private collector
^ Griffith 8ste350
vtePharaohsProtodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC)PeriodDynasty
Pharaohs
male
female♀
uncertain
Protodynastic(pre-3150 BC)Lower
Hedju Hor
Ny-Hor
Ni-Neith
Hat-Hor
Pu
Hsekiu
Khayu
Tiu
Thesh
Neheb
Wazner
Mekh
A
Double Falcon
Wash
Upper
A
Finger Snail
Fish
Pen-Abu
Stork
Bull
Scorpion I
Shendjw
Iry-Hor
Ka
Scorpion II
Narmer / Menes
Early Dynastic(3150–2686 BC)I
Narmer / Menes
Hor-Aha
Djer
Djet
Den
Anedjib
Semerkhet
Qa'a
Sneferka
Horus Bird
II
Hotepsekhemwy
Nebra
Nynetjer
Ba
Nubnefer
Horus Sa
Weneg-Nebty
Wadjenes
Senedj
Seth-Peribsen
Sekhemib-Perenmaat
Neferkara I
Neferkasokar
Hudjefa I
Khasekhemwy
Old Kingdom(2686–2181 BC)III
Djoser
Sekhemkhet
Sanakht
Nebka
Khaba
Sedjes
Qahedjet
Huni
IV
Snefru
Khufu
Djedefre
Khafre
Bikheris
Menkaure
Shepseskaf
Thamphthis
V
Userkaf
Sahure
Neferirkare Kakai
Neferefre
Shepseskare
Nyuserre Ini
Menkauhor Kaiu
Djedkare Isesi
Unas
VI
Teti
Userkare
Pepi I
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
Pepi II
Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
Netjerkare Siptah
Neferka
Nefer
1st Intermediate(2181–2040 BC)VII/VIII
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare III Neby
Djedkare Shemai
Neferkare IV Khendu
Merenhor
Neferkamin
Nikare
Neferkare V Tereru
Neferkahor
Neferkare VI Pepiseneb
Neferkamin Anu
Qakare Iby
Neferkaure
Neferkauhor
Neferirkare
Wadjkare
Khuiqer
Khui
Iytjenu
IX
Meryibre Khety
Neferkare VII
Nebkaure Khety
Setut
Imhotep
X
Meryhathor
Neferkare VIII
Wahkare Khety
Merykare
Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC)PeriodDynasty
Pharaohs
male
female♀
uncertain
Middle Kingdom(2040–1802 BC)XI
Mentuhotep I
Intef I
Intef II
Intef III
Mentuhotep II
Mentuhotep III
Mentuhotep IV
Nubia
Segerseni
Qakare Ini
Iyibkhentre
XII
Amenemhat I
Senusret I
Amenemhat II
Senusret II
Senusret III
Amenemhat III
Amenemhat IV
Sobekneferu♀
Seankhibtawy Seankhibra
2nd Intermediate(1802–1550 BC)XIII
Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep
Sonbef
Nerikare
Sekhemkare Amenemhat V
Ameny Qemau
Hotepibre
Iufni
Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI
Semenkare Nebnuni
Sehetepibre
Sewadjkare
Nedjemibre
Khaankhre Sobekhotep
Renseneb
Hor
Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
Djedkheperew
Sebkay
Sedjefakare
Wegaf
Khendjer
Imyremeshaw
Sehetepkare Intef
Seth Meribre
Sobekhotep III
Neferhotep I
Sihathor
Sobekhotep IV
Merhotepre Sobekhotep
Khahotepre Sobekhotep
Wahibre Ibiau
Merneferre Ay
Merhotepre Ini
Sankhenre Sewadjtu
Mersekhemre Ined
Sewadjkare Hori
Merkawre Sobekhotep
Mershepsesre Ini II
Sewahenre Senebmiu
Merkheperre
Merkare
Sewadjare Mentuhotep
Seheqenre Sankhptahi
XIV
Yakbim Sekhaenre
Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
Qareh Khawoserre
'Ammu Ahotepre
Maaibre Sheshi
Nehesy
Khakherewre
Nebefawre
Sehebre
Merdjefare
Sewadjkare III
Nebdjefare
Nebsenre
Sekheperenre
Bebnum
'Apepi
Nuya
Wazad
Sheneh
Shenshek
Khamure
Yakareb
Yaqub-Har
XV
Sharek
Semqen
'Aper-'Anati
Salitis
Sakir-Har
Khyan
Yanassi
Apepi
Khamudi
XVI
Djehuti
Sobekhotep VIII
Neferhotep III
Mentuhotepi
Nebiryraw I
Nebiriau II
Semenre
Bebiankh
Sekhemre Shedwast
Dedumose I
Dedumose II
Montuemsaf
Merankhre Mentuhotep
Senusret IV
Pepi III
Abydos
Senebkay
Wepwawetemsaf
Pantjeny
Snaaib
XVII
Rahotep
Nebmaatre
Sobekemsaf I
Sobekemsaf II
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
Nubkheperre Intef
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef
Senakhtenre Ahmose
Seqenenre Tao
Kamose
New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC)PeriodDynastyPharaohs (malefemale♀)uncertainNew Kingdom(1550–1070 BC)XVIII
Ahmose I
Amenhotep I
Thutmose I
Thutmose II
Hatshepsut♀
Thutmose III
Amenhotep II
Thutmose IV
Amenhotep III
Akhenaten
Smenkhkare
Neferneferuaten♀
Tutankhamun
Ay
Horemheb
XIX
Ramesses I
Seti I
Ramesses II
Merneptah
Amenmesses
Seti II
Siptah
Twosret♀
XX
Setnakhte
Ramesses III
Ramesses IV
Ramesses V
Ramesses VI
Ramesses VII
Ramesses VIII
Ramesses IX
Ramesses X
Ramesses XI
3rd Intermediate(1069–664 BC)XXI
Smendes
Amenemnisu
Psusennes I
Amenemope
Osorkon the Elder
Siamun
Psusennes II
High Priests of Amun
Herihor
Piankh
Pinedjem I
Masaharta
Djedkhonsuefankh
Menkheperre
Smendes II
Pinedjem II
Psusennes III
XXII
Shoshenq I
Osorkon I
Shoshenq II
Tutkheperre Shoshenq
Takelot I
Osorkon II
Shoshenq III
Shoshenq IV
Pami
Shoshenq V
Pedubast II
Osorkon IV
XXIII
Harsiese A
Takelot II
Pedubast I
Iuput I
Shoshenq VI
Osorkon III
Takelot III
Rudamun
Shoshenq VII
Menkheperre Ini
XXIV
Tefnakht
Bakenranef
XXV
Piye
Shebitku
Shabaka
Taharqa
Tanutamun
Late Period and Hellenistic Period (664–30 BC)PeriodDynasty
Pharaohs
male
female♀
uncertain
Late(664–332 BC)XXVI
Ammeris
Tefnakht II
Nekauba
Necho I
Psamtik I
Necho II
Psamtik II
Wahibre
Ahmose II
Psamtik III
XXVII
Cambyses II
Petubastis III
Darius I
Psammetichus IV
Xerxes
Artaxerxes I
Darius II
XXVIII
Amyrtaeus
XXIX
Nepherites I
Hakor
Psammuthes
Nepherites II
Muthis
XXX
Nectanebo I
Teos
Nectanebo II
XXXI
Artaxerxes III
Khabash
Arses
Darius III
Hellenistic(332–30 BC)Argead
Alexander the Great
Philip III Arrhidaeus
Alexander IV
Ptolemaic
Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Arsinoe II♀
Ptolemy III Euergetes
Berenice II Euergetes♀
Ptolemy IV Philopator
Arsinoe III Philopator♀
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
Cleopatra I Syra♀
Ptolemy VI Philometor
Cleopatra II♀
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
Cleopatra III♀
Ptolemy IX Soter
Cleopatra IV♀
Ptolemy X Alexander I
Berenice III♀
Ptolemy XI Alexander II
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
Cleopatra V♀
Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀
Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀
Cleopatra VII Philopator♀
Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
Arsinoe IV♀
Ptolemy XIV Philopator
Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Roman Period (30 BC–313 AD)PeriodDynasty
Pharaohs
male
female♀
uncertain
Roman(30 BC–313 AD)XXXIV
Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula
Claudius
Nero
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus Pius
Lucius Verus
Marcus Aurelius
Commodus
Pertinax
Pescennius Niger
Septimius Severus
Geta
Caracalla
Macrinus
Diadumenian
Elagabalus
Severus Alexander
Maximinus Thrax
Gordian I
Gordian II
Pupienus
Balbinus
Gordian III
Philip
Decius
Trebonianus Gallus
Aemilianus
Valerian
Macrianus Minor
Quietus
Lucius Mussius Aemilianus
Gallienus
Claudius Gothicus
Quintillus
Aurelian
Tacitus
Probus
Carus
Carinus
Numerian
Diocletian
Maximian
Galerius
Maximinus Daza
Dynastic genealogies
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
11th
12th
18th
19th
20th
21st to 23rd
24th
25th
26th
27th
30th
31st
Argead
Ptolemaic
List of pharaohs
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pharaoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh"},{"link_name":"13th Dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyclo-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"},{"link_name":"Memphite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"}],"text":"Seheqenre Sankhptahi was a pharaoh of the late 13th Dynasty, possibly the fifty-fourth[1] or fifty-fifth[2] king of this dynasty. He most likely reigned for a short period over the Memphite region during the mid-17th century BC, some time between 1663 BC and 1649 BC.[2]","title":"Seheqenre Sankhptahi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyclo-1"},{"link_name":"Second Intermediate Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"},{"link_name":"Egyptian Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Museum"}],"text":"A stele of unknown provenance, although probably Memphite in origin,[1] and dated on stylistic grounds to the Second Intermediate Period presents a list of members of a royal family and gives the king's son name as [?]-ptḥ-i. If this prince is the future pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi as Ryholt proposes, then pharaoh Se[...]kare is his father and Minemsaes and Sit[...] are his sisters.[2] The stele is housed in the Egyptian Museum (CG20600).","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Kim Ryholt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Ryholt"},{"link_name":"Anubis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anubis"},{"link_name":"epithets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithet"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"},{"link_name":"Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt"},{"link_name":"13th dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"theophorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophoric_name"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Museo_Arqueol%C3%B3gico_Nacional_-_1999-99-4_-_Estela_de_Nebsumenu_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anubis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anubis"}],"text":"Of Unknown Provenance, a round-topped stela dated to Year 1 of Sehekaenre Sankhiptah.[3][4]Pharaoh Seheqenre Sankhptahi is named and represented on the stele of royal sealer and overseer of sealers Nebsumenu. Kim Ryholt notes that it depicts Sankhptahi offering oil to the god Ptah (defaced) \"He who is south of his wall\" (rsy-snb=f) and to Anubis (defaced) \"Lord of bandagers\" (nb wtyw), both of which are epithets from the Memphite region.[2] Ryholt concludes that Seheqenre Sankhptahi probably reigned over Memphis and thus belongs to the 13th dynasty, which had control over the region at the time. Furthermore, Ryholt suggests that Sankhptahi may himself have been born in Memphis, as indicated by his theophorous name based on Ptah, the god of the city.[2]Stele of Nebsumenu representing Seheqenre Sankhptahi making offerings to Ptah and Anubis.","title":"Attestions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turin canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin_King_List"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyclo-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryholt-2"}],"sub_title":"Non-contemporary attestations","text":"The Turin canon 8:25 contains the damaged prenomen [?]ḳ-n-Rˁ. Ryholt remarks that Seheqenre is the only king of the period whose name matches these signs and reads [S.ḥ]ḳ-n-Rˁ[1][2]","title":"Attestions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"steatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapstone"},{"link_name":"Percy Newberry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Newberry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyclo-1"}],"sub_title":"Uncertain attestations","text":"Ryholt points to a blue-green steatite cylinder seal of unknown provenance and bearing the golden horus name Sekhaenptah, S.ḫˁ-n-ptḥ, He whom Ptah causes to appear, as maybe belonging to Seheqenre Sankhptahi. Percy Newberry simply dates the seal to \"about the end of the Middle Kingdom\" without further identification of its owner. The seal is probably lost: originally in the Timmins collection housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, it is now reportedly missing from the museum.[1]","title":"Attestions"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Meeks, Dimitri, \"Une stèle de donation de la Deuxième Période intermédiaire\" ENIM 2, 2009, pp. 129–154.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"image_text":"Stele of Nebsumenu representing Seheqenre Sankhptahi making offerings to Ptah and Anubis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Museo_Arqueol%C3%B3gico_Nacional_-_1999-99-4_-_Estela_de_Nebsumenu_01.jpg/200px-Museo_Arqueol%C3%B3gico_Nacional_-_1999-99-4_-_Estela_de_Nebsumenu_01.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen
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Münster-Geschinen
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["1 History","2 Geography","3 Demographics","3.1 Münster demographics","3.2 Geschinen demographics","4 Historic Population","5 Heritage sites of national significance","6 Politics","7 Economy","7.1 Münster economy","7.2 Geschinen economy","8 Religion","9 Education","10 References","11 External links"]
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Coordinates: 46°29′N 8°15′E / 46.483°N 8.250°E / 46.483; 8.250Former municipality in Valais, SwitzerlandMünster-GeschinenFormer municipality
Coat of armsLocation of Münster-Geschinen
Münster-GeschinenShow map of SwitzerlandMünster-GeschinenShow map of Canton of ValaisCoordinates: 46°29′N 8°15′E / 46.483°N 8.250°E / 46.483; 8.250CountrySwitzerlandCantonValaisDistrictGomsGovernment • MayorWerner LaggerArea • Total48.7 km2 (18.8 sq mi)Elevation1,370 m (4,490 ft)Population (December 2002) • Total489 • Density10/km2 (26/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (Central European Time) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (Central European Summer Time)Postal code(s)3985SFOS number6074ISO 3166 codeCH-VSSurrounded byFieschertal, Guttannen (BE), Reckingen-Gluringen, UlrichenWebsitewww.gemeinde-goms.ch SFSO statistics
Münster-Geschinen is a former municipality in the district of Goms in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It was formed in 2004, from the union of the municipalities of Münster and Geschinen. On 1 January 2017, the former municipalities of Münster-Geschinen, Blitzingen, Grafschaft, Niederwald and Reckingen-Gluringen merged into the new municipality of Goms.
History
Münster is first mentioned in 1221 as Musterium. Geschinen is first mentioned in 1327 as Gessinon.
Geography
Münster-Geschinen
Aerial view (1955)
Münster-Geschinen had an area, as of 2011, of 48.6 square kilometers (18.8 sq mi). Of this area, 32.8% is used for agricultural purposes, while 19.0% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.0% is settled (buildings or roads) and 47.2% is unproductive land.
Trützisee is located at an elevation of 2,579 m (8,461 ft), below Löffelhorn (3,095 m (10,154 ft)).
Demographics
Münster village during winter
House in Münster village
Flowery balconies in Münster
Münster-Geschinen had a population (as of 2015) of 489. As of 2008, 12.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -9.2%. It has changed at a rate of -11.3% due to migration and at a rate of -5.5% due to births and deaths.
As of 2008, the gender distribution of the population was 54.8% male and 45.2% female. The population was made up of 22 Swiss men (52.4% of the population) and 1 (2.4%) non-Swiss men. There were 17 Swiss women (40.5%) and 2 (4.8%) non-Swiss women.
The age distribution of the population (as of 2000) is children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 22.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 53.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 24%.
As of 2009, the construction rate of new housing units was 27 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2010, was 3.95%.
Münster demographics
In Münster most of the population (as of 2000) speaks German (407 or 89.5%) as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common (17 or 3.7%) and Albanian is the third (12 or 2.6%). There are 5 people who speak French.
Of the population in the municipality 229 or about 50.3% were born in Münster and lived there in 2000. There were 101 or 22.2% who were born in the same canton, while 51 or 11.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 59 or 13.0% were born outside of Switzerland. As of 2000, there were 168 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 243 married individuals, 36 widows or widowers and 8 individuals who are divorced.
There were 79 households that consist of only one person and 14 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 214 households that answered this question, 36.9% were households made up of just one person and there were 2 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 61 married couples without children, 44 married couples with children There were 15 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people and 11 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.
In 2000 there were 79 single family homes (or 42.9% of the total) out of a total of 184 inhabited buildings. There were 68 multi-family buildings (37.0%), along with 21 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (11.4%) and 16 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (8.7%).
In 2000, a total of 192 apartments (54.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 153 apartments (43.1%) were seasonally occupied and 10 apartments (2.8%) were empty.
Geschinen demographics
In Geschinen, all of the population, 65 people as of 2000, speaks German.
Of the population in the municipality 33 or about 50.8% were born in Geschinen and lived there in 2000. There were 19 or 29.2% who were born in the same canton, while 10 or 15.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 3 or 4.6% were born outside of Switzerland. As of 2000, there were 24 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 35 married individuals, 2 widows or widowers and 4 individuals who are divorced.
There were 9 households that consist of only one person and 1 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 31 households that answered this question, 29.0% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 12 married couples without children, 6 married couples with children There were 2 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people.
In 2000 there were 33 single family homes (or 51.6% of the total) out of a total of 64 inhabited buildings. There were 17 multi-family buildings (26.6%), along with 9 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (14.1%) and 5 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (7.8%).
In 2000, a total of 28 apartments (30.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 54 apartments (58.1%) were seasonally occupied and 11 apartments (11.8%) were empty.
Historic Population
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Heritage sites of national significance
Church of St. Maria
The Church of St. Maria with Cemetery Chapel is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire villages of Münster and Geschinen are both part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
Politics
In the 2007, federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 68.41% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (17.22%), the SP (8.61%) and the Green Party (2.32%). In the federal election, a total of 231 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 57.8%.
In the 2009, Conseil d'État/Staatsrat election a total of 173 votes were cast, of which 17 or about 9.8% were invalid. The voter participation was 46.1%, which is much less than the cantonal average of 54.67%. In the 2007, Swiss Council of States election a total of 235 votes were cast, of which 4 or about 1.7% were invalid. The voter participation was 61.2%, which is similar to the cantonal average of 59.88%.
Economy
As of 2010, Münster-Geschinen had an unemployment rate of 1.6%. As of 2008, there were 34 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 17 businesses involved in this sector. 57 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 7 businesses in this sector. 164 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 34 businesses in this sector.
In 2008 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 209. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 20, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 54 of which 1 was in manufacturing and 51 (94.4%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 135. In the tertiary sector; 50 or 37.0% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 5 or 3.7% were in the movement and storage of goods, 54 or 40.0% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1 was the insurance or financial industry, 4 or 3.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 2 or 1.5% were in education and 7 or 5.2% were in health care.
Of the working population, 5.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 34.4% used a private car.
Münster economy
There were 217 residents of Münster who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 40.6% of the workforce. In 2000, there were 71 workers who commuted into the municipality and 67 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.1 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.
Geschinen economy
There were 27 residents of Geschinen who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 33.3% of the workforce. In 2000, there were 14 workers who commuted into the municipality and 13 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.1 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.
Religion
Interior of the Margaret chapel
From the 2000 census in Münster, 354 or 77.8% were Roman Catholic, while 24 or 5.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 12 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.64% of the population). There were 29 (or about 6.37% of the population) who were Islamic. 5 (or about 1.10% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 31 individuals (or about 6.81% of the population) did not answer the question.
From the 2000 census in Geschinen, 56 or 86.2% were Roman Catholic, while 6 or 9.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. 3 (or about 4.62% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist.
Education
In Münster about 164 or (36.0%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 33 or (7.3%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 33 who completed tertiary schooling, 72.7% were Swiss men, 18.2% were Swiss women.
As of 2000, there were 131 students in Münster who came from another municipality, while 17 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
Münster is home to the Regionalbibliothek Obergoms library. The library has (as of 2008) 6,384 books or other media, and loaned out 11,748 items in the same year. It was open a total of 156 days with average of 6 hours per week during that year.
In Geschinen about 21 or (32.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 5 or (7.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 5 who completed tertiary schooling, 80.0% were Swiss men, 0.0% were Swiss women. As of 2000, there were 8 students from Geschinen who attended schools outside the municipality.
References
^ a b "Arealstatistik Standard - Gemeinden nach 4 Hauptbereichen". Federal Statistical Office. Retrieved 13 January 2019.
^ Amtliches Gemeindeverzeichnis der Schweiz published by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office (in German) accessed 19 July 2011
^ a b Münster in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
^ a b Geschinen in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
^ a b c d e f g Swiss Federal Statistical Office accessed 07-September-2011
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Superweb database - Gemeinde Statistics 1981-2008 (in German) accessed 19 June 2010
^ Ständige Wohnbevolkerung nach Geschlecht und Heimat am 31.12.2009.xls (in German and French) accessed 24 August 2011
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l STAT-TAB Datenwürfel für Thema 40.3 - 2000 Archived 2013-08-09 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 2 February 2011
^ a b c d Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB - Datenwürfel für Thema 09.2 - Gebäude und Wohnungen Archived 2014-09-07 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 28 January 2011
^ Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Bevölkerungsentwicklung nach Region, 1850-2000 Archived 2012-03-17 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 29 January 2011
^ "Kantonsliste A-Objekte". KGS Inventar (in German). Federal Office of Civil Protection. 2009. Archived from the original on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Nationalratswahlen 2007: Stärke der Parteien und Wahlbeteiligung, nach Gemeinden/Bezirk/Canton (in German) accessed 28 May 2010
^ Staatsratswahlen vom 1. März 2009 (in German) accessed 24 August 2011
^ Ständeratswahl 2007 (in German) accessed 24 August 2011
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office STAT-TAB Betriebszählung: Arbeitsstätten nach Gemeinde und NOGA 2008 (Abschnitte), Sektoren 1-3 Archived 2014-12-25 at the Wayback Machine (in German) accessed 28 January 2011
^ a b c d Swiss Federal Statistical Office - Statweb Archived 2012-08-04 at archive.today (in German) accessed 24 June 2010
^ Swiss Federal Statistical Office, list of libraries (in German) accessed 14 May 2010
External links
Media related to Münster-Geschinen at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (in German)
Geschinen in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
Münster-Geschinen in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
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It was formed in 2004, from the union of the municipalities of Münster and Geschinen.[2] On 1 January 2017, the former municipalities of Münster-Geschinen, Blitzingen, Grafschaft, Niederwald and Reckingen-Gluringen merged into the new municipality of Goms.","title":"Münster-Geschinen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_Munster-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_Geschinen-4"}],"text":"Münster is first mentioned in 1221 as Musterium.[3] Geschinen is first mentioned in 1327 as Gessinon.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ETH-BIB-M%C3%BCnster,_Goms-LBS_H1-018969.tif"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"},{"link_name":"Trützisee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%BCtzisee"},{"link_name":"Löffelhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6ffelhorn"}],"text":"Münster-GeschinenAerial view (1955)Münster-Geschinen had an area, as of 2011[update], of 48.6 square kilometers (18.8 sq mi). Of this area, 32.8% is used for agricultural purposes, while 19.0% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.0% is settled (buildings or roads) and 47.2% is unproductive land.[5]Trützisee is located at an elevation of 2,579 m (8,461 ft), below Löffelhorn (3,095 m (10,154 ft)).","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_village_in_the_Alps.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goms_Haus.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Balcon_Fleuri_M%C3%BCnster.JPG"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_superweb-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VS_Pop-7"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"}],"text":"Münster village during winterHouse in Münster villageFlowery balconies in MünsterMünster-Geschinen had a population (as of 2015[update]) of 489. As of 2008[update], 12.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals.[6] Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -9.2%. It has changed at a rate of -11.3% due to migration and at a rate of -5.5% due to births and deaths.[5]As of 2008[update], the gender distribution of the population was 54.8% male and 45.2% female. The population was made up of 22 Swiss men (52.4% of the population) and 1 (2.4%) non-Swiss men. There were 17 Swiss women (40.5%) and 2 (4.8%) non-Swiss women.[7]The age distribution of the population (as of 2000[update]) is children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 22.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 53.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 24%.[5]As of 2009[update], the construction rate of new housing units was 27 new units per 1000 residents.[5] The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2010[update], was 3.95%.[5]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Serbo-Croatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbo-Croatian"},{"link_name":"Albanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Housing-9"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Housing-9"}],"sub_title":"Münster demographics","text":"In Münster most of the population (as of 2000[update]) speaks German (407 or 89.5%) as their first language, Serbo-Croatian is the second most common (17 or 3.7%) and Albanian is the third (12 or 2.6%). There are 5 people who speak French.[8]Of the population in the municipality 229 or about 50.3% were born in Münster and lived there in 2000. There were 101 or 22.2% who were born in the same canton, while 51 or 11.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 59 or 13.0% were born outside of Switzerland.[8] As of 2000[update], there were 168 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 243 married individuals, 36 widows or widowers and 8 individuals who are divorced.[8]There were 79 households that consist of only one person and 14 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 214 households that answered this question, 36.9% were households made up of just one person and there were 2 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 61 married couples without children, 44 married couples with children There were 15 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people and 11 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.[8]In 2000[update] there were 79 single family homes (or 42.9% of the total) out of a total of 184 inhabited buildings. There were 68 multi-family buildings (37.0%), along with 21 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (11.4%) and 16 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (8.7%).[9]In 2000[update], a total of 192 apartments (54.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 153 apartments (43.1%) were seasonally occupied and 10 apartments (2.8%) were empty.[9]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Housing-9"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Housing-9"}],"sub_title":"Geschinen demographics","text":"In Geschinen, all of the population, 65 people as of 2000[update], speaks German.[8]Of the population in the municipality 33 or about 50.8% were born in Geschinen and lived there in 2000. There were 19 or 29.2% who were born in the same canton, while 10 or 15.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 3 or 4.6% were born outside of Switzerland.[8] As of 2000[update], there were 24 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 35 married individuals, 2 widows or widowers and 4 individuals who are divorced.[8]There were 9 households that consist of only one person and 1 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 31 households that answered this question, 29.0% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 12 married couples without children, 6 married couples with children There were 2 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people.[8]In 2000[update] there were 33 single family homes (or 51.6% of the total) out of a total of 64 inhabited buildings. There were 17 multi-family buildings (26.6%), along with 9 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (14.1%) and 5 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (7.8%).[9]In 2000[update], a total of 28 apartments (30.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 54 apartments (58.1%) were seasonally occupied and 11 apartments (11.8%) were empty.[9]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_Munster-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HDS_Geschinen-4"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The historical population is given in the following chart:[3][4][10]","title":"Historic Population"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Munster_-_%C3%89glise_Sainte-Marie.jpg"},{"link_name":"heritage site of national significance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_inventory_of_cultural_property_of_national_and_regional_significance"},{"link_name":"Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventory_of_Swiss_Heritage_Sites"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Church of St. MariaThe Church of St. Maria with Cemetery Chapel is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire villages of Münster and Geschinen are both part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.[11]","title":"Heritage sites of national significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2007, federal election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Swiss_federal_election"},{"link_name":"CVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_People%27s_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"SVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_People%27s_Party"},{"link_name":"SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"voter turnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voter_turnout"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Conseil d'État/Staatsrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conseil_d%27%C3%89tat_(Switzerland)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Swiss Council of States election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Council_of_States_election,_2007"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In the 2007, federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 68.41% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (17.22%), the SP (8.61%) and the Green Party (2.32%). In the federal election, a total of 231 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 57.8%.[12]In the 2009, Conseil d'État/Staatsrat election a total of 173 votes were cast, of which 17 or about 9.8% were invalid. The voter participation was 46.1%, which is much less than the cantonal average of 54.67%.[13] In the 2007, Swiss Council of States election a total of 235 votes were cast, of which 4 or about 1.7% were invalid. The voter participation was 61.2%, which is similar to the cantonal average of 59.88%.[14]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"primary economic sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_sector_of_the_economy"},{"link_name":"secondary sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_sector_of_the_economy"},{"link_name":"tertiary sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"full-time equivalent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full-time_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFSO-5"}],"text":"As of 2010[update], Münster-Geschinen had an unemployment rate of 1.6%. As of 2008[update], there were 34 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 17 businesses involved in this sector. 57 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 7 businesses in this sector. 164 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 34 businesses in this sector.[5]In 2008[update] the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 209. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 20, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 54 of which 1 was in manufacturing and 51 (94.4%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 135. In the tertiary sector; 50 or 37.0% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 5 or 3.7% were in the movement and storage of goods, 54 or 40.0% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1 was the insurance or financial industry, 4 or 3.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 2 or 1.5% were in education and 7 or 5.2% were in health care.[15]Of the working population, 5.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 34.4% used a private car.[5]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-commuter-16"}],"sub_title":"Münster economy","text":"There were 217 residents of Münster who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 40.6% of the workforce. In 2000[update], there were 71 workers who commuted into the municipality and 67 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.1 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.[16]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-commuter-16"}],"sub_title":"Geschinen economy","text":"There were 27 residents of Geschinen who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 33.3% of the workforce. In 2000[update], there were 14 workers who commuted into the municipality and 13 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.1 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.[16]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margaretenkapelle2_M%C3%BCnster_VS.jpg"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"Swiss Reformed Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Reformed_Church"},{"link_name":"members of an Orthodox church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodoxy#Christianity"},{"link_name":"Islamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"agnostic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism"},{"link_name":"atheist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"}],"text":"Interior of the Margaret chapelFrom the 2000 census[update] in Münster, 354 or 77.8% were Roman Catholic, while 24 or 5.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 12 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.64% of the population). There were 29 (or about 6.37% of the population) who were Islamic. 5 (or about 1.10% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 31 individuals (or about 6.81% of the population) did not answer the question.[8]From the 2000 census[update] in Geschinen, 56 or 86.2% were Roman Catholic, while 6 or 9.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. 3 (or about 4.62% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist.[8]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"upper secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Switzerland#Secondary"},{"link_name":"university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Fachhochschule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fachhochschule"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-commuter-16"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STAT2000-8"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-commuter-16"}],"text":"In Münster about 164 or (36.0%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 33 or (7.3%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 33 who completed tertiary schooling, 72.7% were Swiss men, 18.2% were Swiss women.[8]As of 2000[update], there were 131 students in Münster who came from another municipality, while 17 residents attended schools outside the municipality.[16]Münster is home to the Regionalbibliothek Obergoms library. The library has (as of 2008[update]) 6,384 books or other media, and loaned out 11,748 items in the same year. It was open a total of 156 days with average of 6 hours per week during that year.[17]In Geschinen about 21 or (32.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 5 or (7.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 5 who completed tertiary schooling, 80.0% were Swiss men, 0.0% were Swiss women.[8] As of 2000[update], there were 8 students from Geschinen who attended schools outside the municipality.[16]","title":"Education"}]
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[{"image_text":"Münster-Geschinen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen.jpg/220px-M%C3%BCnster-Geschinen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aerial view (1955)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ETH-BIB-M%C3%BCnster%2C_Goms-LBS_H1-018969.tif/lossy-page1-220px-ETH-BIB-M%C3%BCnster%2C_Goms-LBS_H1-018969.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Münster village during winter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/A_village_in_the_Alps.jpg/220px-A_village_in_the_Alps.jpg"},{"image_text":"House in Münster village","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Goms_Haus.jpg/220px-Goms_Haus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Flowery balconies in Münster","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Balcon_Fleuri_M%C3%BCnster.JPG/220px-Balcon_Fleuri_M%C3%BCnster.JPG"},{"image_text":"Church of St. Maria","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Munster_-_%C3%89glise_Sainte-Marie.jpg/220px-Munster_-_%C3%89glise_Sainte-Marie.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior of the Margaret chapel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Margaretenkapelle2_M%C3%BCnster_VS.jpg/170px-Margaretenkapelle2_M%C3%BCnster_VS.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Arealstatistik Standard - Gemeinden nach 4 Hauptbereichen\". Federal Statistical Office. Retrieved 13 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/raum-umwelt/bodennutzung-bedeckung/gesamtspektrum-regionalen-stufen/gemeinden.html","url_text":"\"Arealstatistik Standard - Gemeinden nach 4 Hauptbereichen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kantonsliste A-Objekte\". KGS Inventar (in German). Federal Office of Civil Protection. 2009. Archived from the original on 28 June 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100628110559/http://www.bevoelkerungsschutz.admin.ch/internet/bs/de/home/themen/kgs/kgs_inventar/a-objekte.html","url_text":"\"Kantonsliste A-Objekte\""},{"url":"http://www.bevoelkerungsschutz.admin.ch/internet/bs/de/home/themen/kgs/kgs_inventar/a-objekte.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Zoo
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Edinburgh Zoo
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["1 History","2 Animals and exhibits","2.1 Budongo Trail","2.2 Living Links","2.3 Monkey House","2.4 Penguins Rock","2.5 Giant pandas","2.6 Magic Forest","2.7 Sloths and Armadillos","2.8 Giraffe House","2.9 Wee Beasties","2.10 Koala Territory and Wallaby Outback","2.11 Animal Antics","2.12 Other mammals","2.13 Other birds","2.14 Military animals","3 Future developments","4 Research and conservation","5 Zoo gardens","6 Controversies","6.1 Animal escapes","7 References","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 55°56′35″N 3°16′5″W / 55.94306°N 3.26806°W / 55.94306; -3.26806Zoo in Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
Edinburgh Zoo55°56′35″N 3°16′5″W / 55.94306°N 3.26806°W / 55.94306; -3.26806Date opened22 July 1913LocationEdinburgh, Scotland, UKLand area82 acres (33 ha)No. of animals3218 (2022)No. of species171Annual visitors601,285 (2022)MembershipsBIAZA, EAZA, WAZAMajor exhibitsGiant pandas, penguins, koalas, chimpanzees, sun bears, giraffesWebsitewww.edinburghzoo.org.uk
Edinburgh Zoo (Scottish Gaelic: Sù Dhùn Èideann), formerly the Scottish National Zoological Park, is an 82-acre (33 ha) non-profit zoological park in the Corstorphine area of Edinburgh, Scotland.
The zoo is positioned on the south-facing slopes of Corstorphine Hill, giving extensive views of the city. Established in 1913, and owned by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, it receives over 600,000 visitors a year, which makes it one of Scotland's most popular paid-for tourist attractions. As well as catering for tourists and locals, the zoo is involved in many scientific pursuits, such as captive breeding of endangered animals, researching into animal behaviour, and active participation in various conservation programmes around the world.
Edinburgh Zoo was the first zoo in the world to house and breed penguins. It is the only zoo in Britain to house Queensland koalas and, until December 2023, giant pandas. The zoo is a member of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA), the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), and the Association of Scottish Visitor Attractions. It has also been granted four stars by the Scottish Tourism Board. The zoo gardens boast one of the most diverse tree collections in the Lothians.
History
Main article: History of Edinburgh Zoo
The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) was founded as a registered charity in 1909 by an Edinburgh lawyer, Thomas Hailing Gillespie. The Corstorphine Hill site was purchased by the Society with help from the Edinburgh Town Council in early 1913. Gillespie's vision of what a zoological park should be was modelled after the 'open design' of Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, a zoo which promoted a more spacious and natural environment for the animals, and stood in stark contrast to the steel cages typical of the menageries built during the Victorian era. The design and layout were largely the product of Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law Frank Mears but Sir Robert Lorimer was involved in some of the more architectural elements including the remodelling of Corstorphine House at its centre.
The Scottish National Zoological Park was opened to the public in 1913 and was incorporated by Royal Charter later that year. In 1948, following a visit by His Majesty King George VI, the Society was granted the privilege of adding the prefix 'Royal' to its name. It remains the only zoo with a Royal Charter in the United Kingdom.
Edinburgh Zoo's long association with penguins began in January 1914, with the arrival of three king penguins from the Christian Salvesen whaling expedition which docked in Leith. The subsequent successful hatching of a king penguin chick in 1919 was the first penguin to be hatched in captivity. These were the first penguins to be seen outside of the South Atlantic anywhere in the world. The now famous daily penguin parade started by accident in 1950 with the escape of several birds. This proved so popular with visitors and the penguins that it is a daily feature of the zoo today.
After Tom Gillespie retired, Gilbert D. Fisher was appointed director-secretary of the zoo in 1956. He held the post till he retired in 1971.
In 1986, the Society acquired the Highland Wildlife Park at Kingussie, 30 miles (48 km) south of Inverness. The zoo and the park work together in providing the most appropriate captive habitat possible in Scotland. Public visitation trips between both sites are organised frequently by the RZSS.
The zoo still retains the original charter, which drives its active breeding programme, and biodiversity, conservation and sustainability initiatives. The RZSS provides multiple ways for the public to help support its mission, including a membership club, animal adoption, donations, legacies and volunteering.
Starting in September 2020, BBC Scotland aired a documentary series about Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park called Inside the Zoo.
Animals and exhibits
Budongo Trail
Named after the Budongo Forest in Uganda, the Budongo Trail facility houses a troop of 15 chimpanzees; 7 males (Louis, Qafzeh, Paul, Rene, Frek, Liberius and Velu) and 8 females (Lucy, Eva, Sophie, Lianne, Heleen, Kilimi, Edith and Masindi). The main building features viewing galleries, a lecture theatre and interactive games and displays designed to teach visitors about the chimpanzee's lifestyle and social structure.
Living Links
Living Links is built around a field station and research centre for the study of primate behaviour. The exhibit features enclosures housing common squirrel monkeys and tufted capuchins.
Monkey House
Is now closed for redevelopment (April 2024).
Penguins Rock
Two king penguins
Edinburgh Zoo is well known for housing penguins in its collection, the first three being king penguins, which arrived in January 1913. The zoo's current penguin pool, named "Penguins Rock", is 65 metres long, 3.5 metres deep at its deepest point, contains 1.2 million litres of water, and houses colonies of gentoo, king, and northern rockhopper penguins.
Giant pandas
Tian Tian, the female giant panda, who came to the zoo with her male companion in late 2011, who then left in December of 2023
In 2011, Edinburgh Zoo leased two giant pandas, a male named Yáng Guāng (陽光, meaning "sunshine", born 2003) and a female named Tián Tián (甜甜, meaning "sweetie", born 2003), from the Bifengxia Breeding Centre in China at a cost of $1m a year. The zoo spent £285,000 building an enclosure is especially for the pandas. They were originally meant to remain at the zoo for a maximum of ten years before being returned to China, but in December 2021, it was confirmed that the pandas would remain in the zoo until the end of 2023. Edinburgh Zoo was, at the time, the only zoo in the United Kingdom that housed giant pandas.
The Pandas were flown back to China on December 4, 2023, signalling the end of their time in the UK.
Magic Forest
Located near the sun bear habitat, the Magic Forest is a building that houses several of the smaller rainforest animals like cotton-top tamarins, eastern pygmy marmosets, Goeldi's monkeys, gray-handed night monkeys, ground cuscuses and Northern Luzon giant cloud rats.
Sloths and Armadillos
Formerly Brilliant Birds, this walk through enclosure was opened in September 2021 and tells the story of wildlife in South America. It houses a pair of Linnaeus's two-toed sloths named Nico and Feira, making Edinburgh Zoo currently the only zoo in Scotland to have sloths. It also houses two large hairy armadillos named Nymeria and Diogo.
Giraffe House
In 2019, Edinburgh Zoo announced the development of a new enclosure for giraffes, and launched a Crowdfunder campaign to raise money for the project. Construction of the giraffe house began in 2019, and it opened in June 2021. The zoo owns a bachelor herd of five male Nubian giraffes named Ronnie, Arrow, Gerald, Fennessy and Gilbert.
Wee Beasties
Opened in 2017, "Wee Beasties" is an indoor exhibit displaying some the zoo's smaller species, including blue poison dart frogs, axolotl, pancake tortoises, partula snails, Chilean rose tarantulas, and an coral reef tank containing tropical fish such as percula clownfish, Lamarck's angelfish and yellow tangs.
Koala Territory and Wallaby Outback
Koala Territory was first opened in 2005, and currently houses three female koalas, Kalari, her daughter Myaree and niece Talara. Koala Territory is decorated with Aboriginal-inspired artwork, and features a garden of eucalyptus plants.
Wallaby Outback is a walk-through exhibit next to Koala Territory housing swamp wallabies and western grey kangaroos, and was opened in 2015.
Animal Antics
A daily show in which keepers demonstrate the natural skills of animals to an audience of visitors. Keepers use positive reinforcement training with every animal, which means that the animals that are present at the talks are never forced. Because of this, the animals used in Animal Antics vary between shows.
Other mammals
Other notable mammal species in the zoo's collection include meerkats, red pandas, red river hogs, Kirk's dik-diks, L'Hoest's monkeys, Chinese gorals, Bagot goats, ring-tailed lemurs, red-bellied lemurs, buff-cheeked gibbons, pygmy hippopotamus, Asian small-clawed otters, crowned lemurs, banteng, greater one-horned rhinoceros, southern pudu, Azara's agoutis, sun bears, binturongs, Scottish wildcats, geladas, Visayan warty pigs, Visayan spotted deer, Przewalski's horses, Asiatic lions, Sumatran tigers, giant anteaters, Grévy's zebras and nyala.
Other birds
A Stanley crane.
Other notable bird species in the zoo's collection include Chilean flamingos, waldrapp ibis, black storks, great white pelicans, East African crowned cranes, vulturine guineafowl, southern cassowaries, red-fronted macaws and Egyptian vultures.
Military animals
A statue of Nils Olav
Some of the zoo's animals have held military rank.
Wojtek was a bear adopted in Iran by the Polish II Corps and enlisted into the 22nd Artillery Supply Company to allow him to travel when the troops were posted. He served in the Middle East and during the Battle of Monte Cassino and retired to Edinburgh Zoo when the Polish troops, billeted in Scotland, demobilised.
Sir Nils Olav, a king penguin, was the mascot and Colonel-in-Chief of the Norwegian King's Guard. He was adopted in 1972 when the King's Guard were in the city for the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, given the rank of visekorporal (lance corporal), and promoted each time the corps visited the city. He died in 1987 and his successor, Nils Olav II, inherited his rank. Nils was visited by the Norwegian King's Guard on 15 August 2008 and awarded a knighthood. The honour was approved by the King of Norway, King Harald V. During the ceremony a crowd of several hundred people joined the 130 guardsmen at the zoo to hear a citation from King Harald the Fifth of Norway read out, which described Nils as a penguin "in every way qualified to receive the honour and dignity of knighthood".
Future developments
The giraffe house is intended to be the first of five large scale projects the zoo is planning as part of the "Edinburgh Zoo's Big 5" initiative, these include updated enclosures for the sun bears, rhinoceros and king penguins, as well as a new tropical house with free-roaming monkeys and birds.
Research and conservation
Edinburgh Zoo is home to a primate behavioural research centre, Living Links. Living Links consists of a field station and research centre that was developed in a partnership with the University of St Andrews. The centre houses capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys originating from the forests of South America, and offers researchers opportunities to study primate behaviour.
Budongo Trail, a chimpanzee enclosure, was opened in May 2008 by The Princess Royal. Budongo Trail is a naturalistic enclosure which can house up to 40 chimps. It includes a large outdoor area and three separate indoor areas for the chimps together with observation areas and a lecture theatre for the public. The RZSS is the principal sponsor in the long-term study and conservation of a group of approximately 60 chimpanzees as part of the Budongo Conservation Field Station in Uganda, Africa. Amidst the opening of Budongo Trail, Jane Goodall described it as a "wonderful facility" where primates "are probably better off living in the wild in an area like Budongo , where one in six gets caught in a wire snare, and countries like Congo, where chimpanzees, monkeys and gorillas are shot for food commercially."
Gentoo penguins – adults and chicks
In July 2006, a cull of invasive brown rats on the Scottish island of Canna was deemed a provisional success and after two years of observation, during which time no rats were observed, the island was declared officially rat free by the Environment Minister, Mike Russell on 7 June 2008. The rats had been outcompeting the rare local wood mouse, known as the Canna mouse and also endangering local seabird populations. The National Trust for Scotland which own the island invested £500,000 employing exterminators from New Zealand to cull the estimated 10,000 brown rats. in co-operation with RZSS, approximately 150 Canna mice were captured and homed at Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park. 40 mice were returned to the island in late 2006 with the remaining being re-introduced in stages.
In May 2008, a joint application submitted by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) and the Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) was approved by the Scottish Government allowing for a trial reintroduction of the European beaver to the Knapdale Forest in Mid-Argyll. If the trial is successful then the European beaver will be the first mammal to be reintroduced to the United Kingdom. Beavers have been extinct in Scotland since the 16th century, when they were hunted for their pelt, meat and medicinal properties (use of castoreum).
Zoo gardens
Before being acquired by the society, the Corstorphine hill site was a nursery, once owned by Thomas Blaikie, who planted many of the great French parks such as 'La Bagatelle'. On this site two nurserymen raised the famous apple cultivars 'John Downie' and 'James Grieve'. Today, the zoo has one of the most diverse tree collections in the Lothians with 120 species. The south-facing aspect allows bananas to be grown outside. Increasingly, horticulture is seen as a discipline in its own right, with the focus on habitat creation within enclosures, food stuffs for the animals, and enrichment for both the animals and the visiting public.
Controversies
Organisations that remain critical of Edinburgh Zoo's work include the Animal Liberation Front, who have voiced their distaste for the quality of the enclosure that formerly housed polar bears. The Born Free Foundation has also stated several times that the zoo fails in its conservation work, as well as opposing the zoo's plans to house elephants.
Edinburgh Zoo received a public backlash on Twitter after the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) recommended that they should cull three red river hog piglets after an unplanned birth. A protest took place under the #savethehogs tag on Thursday 3 February 2011. The Twitter campaign was started by OneKind, with major support from Captive Animals Protection Society. On Friday 4 February 2011, it was announced that the #savethehogs campaign had been successful and the zoo would attempt to re-home the piglets. The zoo also came under criticism for plans to charge £20 per person for visitors to watch the necropsy of an animal. A OneKind spokesman criticised the idea, largely due to the timing of the event, which was scheduled to take place two months after the zoo announced a £2 million loss in profits, making the necropsy seem like a "Money-making drive".
Following various internal issues and allegations relating to senior staff, the zoo was subject to investigations relating to its charitable status. The Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator (OSCR) held an inquiry into the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, and one director was fired while two others were suspended. The zoo suspended its chief operating officer and acting chief executive Gary Wilson while it investigated allegations made against him. In February 2012, the zoo was told to conduct a full review of its financial controls following an inquiry into complaints about how the zoo was run in 2011. The report by the OSCR cleared the zoo of misconduct but found "areas of governance that could be improved".
Animal escapes
In July 2011, the zoo's monkey house had to be closed after a gelada escaped from its enclosure. The animal vaulted an electric fence as it tried to escape whilst visitors looked on.
In May 2012, several hundred zoo visitors were forced to seek shelter after a family of red river hogs escaped from keepers and ran amok. Those who had taken refuge in the monkey house later described scenes where zoo workers pursued the animals with various equipment including brushes and dart guns. Though the drama lasted over an hour, the adult hogs were recaptured unharmed.
In August 2012, a scarlet ibis escaped from the zoo and went on the loose in the city after a squirrel had chewed a hole in the netting at the top of the cage. Keepers noticed the ibis was missing and later that day the bird was spotted more than 3 miles away in Dundas Street, near the city centre. The ibis was missing for nearly a week before being recaptured four miles from the zoo.
In September 2012, zoo customers were escorted indoors when a Heck bull escaped from his enclosure. The 600 kg animal with three feet long horns was loose for over 40 minutes, until zoo workers and vets managed to restrain him by using tranquilliser darts.
References
^ "Our history". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
^ a b "Zoo Beginnings". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Edinburgh Zoo Animal Inventory" (PDF). rzss.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
^
"BIAZA Zoos and Aquariums". biaza.org.uk. BIAZA. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
^
"EAZA Member Zoos & Aquariums". eaza.net. EAZA. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
^
"Zoos and Aquariums of the World". waza.org. WAZA. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
^ a b "Visits made in 2022 to visitor attractions in membership with ALVA".
^ "Animals & Conservation". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ a b "Beavers". RZSS. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Review of Edinburgh Zoo". goodzoos.com. 1992. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 15 June 2007.
^ a b c "Design of the Zoo". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ Dictionary of Scottish Architects: Robert Lorimer
^ Obituary of Mr. Gilbert Fisher, The Scotsman, 15 July 1985, p.2.
^ "Highland Wildlife Park Trips". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Support the Zoo". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 21 December 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ Shennan, Rhona (7 September 2020). "Edinburgh Zoo: when is the new BBC documentary series 'Inside the Zoo' on TV - and what's it about?". The Scotsman. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
^ "Inside the Zoo". BBC Scotland. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
^ "Budongo Trail". edinburghzoo.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 12 December 2009. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ a b "Living Links". edinburghzoo.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 12 December 2009. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Penguins Rock – Now Open!". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 3 July 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Edinburgh Zoo's giant pandas to stay another two years". BBC News. 7 December 2021.
^ "Edinburgh Zoo". giantpandazoo.com. GiantPandZoo. Archived from the original on 31 July 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
^ "Giant Pandas". edinburghzoo.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 18 February 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Edinburgh Zoo welcomes Scotland's only sloths". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
^ "Stick your neck out for giraffes". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
^ "Nubian giraffes". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2021.
^ "Animals & Attractions". edinburghzoo.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Animal Antics". edinburghzoo.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Honour sought for 'Soldier Bear'". BBC News. 25 January 2008. Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Penguin picks up military honour". BBC News. 17 August 2001. Archived from the original on 25 February 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Military penguin becomes a 'Sir'". BBC News. 15 August 2008. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
^ Edinburgh Zoo. "Give Giraffes a Home at Edinburgh Zoo!". Crowdfunder. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
^ Bowler, Mark T.; Buchanan-Smith, Hannah M.; Whiten, Andrew (4 April 2012). "Assessing Public Engagement with Science in a University Primate Research Centre in a National Zoo". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e34505. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...734505B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.270.4287. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034505. PMC 3319593. PMID 22496822.
^ "Budongo Conservation Field Station". Budongo Conservation Field Station. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
^ Mike Wade, Zoos are best hope, says Jane Goodall. Archived 6 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine The Times, 20 May 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2008.
^ "BBC NEWS | Scotland | Island's cull targets brown rats". News.bbc.co.uk. 14 January 2006. Archived from the original on 16 January 2006. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
^ "Rat free declaration for Island". BBC. 7 June 2008. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 14 August 2008.
^ "Rare mice returned to island home". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
^ "Beavers". RZSS. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Animal activists in terror threat against zoo". Edinburgh: The Scotsman. 29 August 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2007.
^ "Zoos 'failing' over work in wild". BBC News. 12 July 2007. Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 4 January 2008.
^ Emslie, Katie (24 March 2006). "Elephant plans 'a big mistake'". Edinburgh: The Scotsman. Archived from the original on 7 September 2006. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ Raimes, Victoria (2 February 2011). "Three little pigs face chop in breeding row". The Scotsman. Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
^ Raimes, Victoria (3 February 2011). "Zoo piglets' bacon saved after protest". The Scotsman. Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
^ "Edinburgh Zoo condemned for planning live autopsy of animal | Edinburgh News | STV Local". Local.stv.tv. 13 July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Anger at zoo's 'ghoulish' autopsy show". scotsman.com. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ Brian Donnelly Exclusive (6 May 2011). "Watchdog to investigate crisis-hit zoo – Herald Scotland | News | Home News". Herald Scotland. Archived from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "BBC News – Edinburgh Zoo investigated by charity watchdog". bbc.co.uk. 6 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ "BBC News – Edinburgh Zoo chief executive Gary Wilson suspended". bbc.co.uk. 24 March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ "BBC News – Call for review into Edinburgh Zoo financial controls". bbc.co.uk. 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2012.
^ "Monkey business: Escaped primate leads keepers on a chase through the zoo | Edinburgh News | STV Local". Local.stv.tv. 30 June 2011. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
^ "Baboon leaps over monkey house fence – Edinburgh Evening News". Edinburghnews.scotsman.com. 30 June 2011. Archived from the original on 12 September 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ a b c "Bull escapes from Edinburgh Zoo enclosure". BBC News. 3 September 2012. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
^ "Bright red bird escapes from Edinburgh Zoo". BBC News. 22 August 2012. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*"},{"link_name":"Scottish Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language"},{"link_name":"non-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organization"},{"link_name":"zoological park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo"},{"link_name":"Corstorphine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corstorphine"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Corstorphine Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corstorphine_Hill"},{"link_name":"Royal Zoological Society of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Zoological_Society_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alva-2022-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-begin-2"},{"link_name":"captive breeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captive_breeding"},{"link_name":"animal behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"},{"link_name":"conservation programmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movement"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"penguins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin"},{"link_name":"koalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koala"},{"link_name":"giant pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda"},{"link_name":"British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_and_Irish_Association_of_Zoos_and_Aquariums"},{"link_name":"European Association of Zoos and Aquaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Association_of_Zoos_and_Aquaria"},{"link_name":"World Association of Zoos and Aquariums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Association_of_Zoos_and_Aquariums"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edinburghzoo1-9"}],"text":"Zoo in Edinburgh, Scotland, United KingdomEdinburgh Zoo (Scottish Gaelic: Sù Dhùn Èideann), formerly the Scottish National Zoological Park, is an 82-acre (33 ha) non-profit zoological park in the Corstorphine area of Edinburgh, Scotland.The zoo is positioned on the south-facing slopes of Corstorphine Hill, giving extensive views of the city. Established in 1913, and owned by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, it receives over 600,000 visitors a year, which makes it one of Scotland's most popular paid-for tourist attractions.[7][2] As well as catering for tourists and locals, the zoo is involved in many scientific pursuits, such as captive breeding of endangered animals, researching into animal behaviour, and active participation in various conservation programmes around the world.[8]Edinburgh Zoo was the first zoo in the world to house and breed penguins. It is the only zoo in Britain to house Queensland koalas and, until December 2023, giant pandas. The zoo is a member of the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA), the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), and the Association of Scottish Visitor Attractions. It has also been granted four stars by the Scottish Tourism Board. The zoo gardens boast one of the most diverse tree collections in the Lothians.[9]","title":"Edinburgh Zoo"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Zoological Society of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Zoological_Society_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_organization"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hailing Gillespie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hailing_Gillespie"},{"link_name":"Corstorphine Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corstorphine_Hill"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh Town Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Tierpark Hagenbeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierpark_Hagenbeck"},{"link_name":"Hamburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg"},{"link_name":"menageries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie"},{"link_name":"Victorian era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edinburghzoo2-11"},{"link_name":"Patrick Geddes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Geddes"},{"link_name":"Frank Mears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Mears"},{"link_name":"Robert Lorimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lorimer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Royal Charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Charter"},{"link_name":"His Majesty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majesty"},{"link_name":"King George VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edinburghzoo2-11"},{"link_name":"king penguins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_penguin"},{"link_name":"Leith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leith"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edinburghzoo2-11"},{"link_name":"Tom Gillespie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hailing_Gillespie"},{"link_name":"Gilbert D. Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Dempster_Fisher"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Highland Wildlife Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highland_Wildlife_Park"},{"link_name":"Kingussie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingussie"},{"link_name":"Inverness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverness"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"breeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction"},{"link_name":"biodiversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity"},{"link_name":"conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_ethic"},{"link_name":"sustainability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"BBC Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Highland Wildlife Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highland_Wildlife_Park"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) was founded as a registered charity in 1909 by an Edinburgh lawyer, Thomas Hailing Gillespie. The Corstorphine Hill site was purchased by the Society with help from the Edinburgh Town Council in early 1913.[10] Gillespie's vision of what a zoological park should be was modelled after the 'open design' of Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, a zoo which promoted a more spacious and natural environment for the animals, and stood in stark contrast to the steel cages typical of the menageries built during the Victorian era.[11] The design and layout were largely the product of Patrick Geddes and his son-in-law Frank Mears but Sir Robert Lorimer was involved in some of the more architectural elements including the remodelling of Corstorphine House at its centre.[12]The Scottish National Zoological Park was opened to the public in 1913 and was incorporated by Royal Charter later that year. In 1948, following a visit by His Majesty King George VI, the Society was granted the privilege of adding the prefix 'Royal' to its name. It remains the only zoo with a Royal Charter in the United Kingdom.[11]Edinburgh Zoo's long association with penguins began in January 1914, with the arrival of three king penguins from the Christian Salvesen whaling expedition which docked in Leith. The subsequent successful hatching of a king penguin chick in 1919 was the first penguin to be hatched in captivity. These were the first penguins to be seen outside of the South Atlantic anywhere in the world. The now famous daily penguin parade started by accident in 1950 with the escape of several birds. This proved so popular with visitors and the penguins that it is a daily feature of the zoo today.[11]After Tom Gillespie retired, Gilbert D. Fisher was appointed director-secretary of the zoo in 1956. He held the post till he retired in 1971.[13]In 1986, the Society acquired the Highland Wildlife Park at Kingussie, 30 miles (48 km) south of Inverness. The zoo and the park work together in providing the most appropriate captive habitat possible in Scotland. Public visitation trips between both sites are organised frequently by the RZSS.[14]The zoo still retains the original charter, which drives its active breeding programme, and biodiversity, conservation and sustainability initiatives. The RZSS provides multiple ways for the public to help support its mission, including a membership club, animal adoption, donations, legacies and volunteering.[15]Starting in September 2020, BBC Scotland aired a documentary series about Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park called Inside the Zoo.[16][17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Budongo Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budongo_Forest"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda"},{"link_name":"chimpanzees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Budongo Trail","text":"Named after the Budongo Forest in Uganda, the Budongo Trail facility houses a troop of 15 chimpanzees; 7 males (Louis, Qafzeh, Paul, Rene, Frek, Liberius and Velu) and 8 females (Lucy, Eva, Sophie, Lianne, Heleen, Kilimi, Edith and Masindi). The main building features viewing galleries, a lecture theatre and interactive games and displays designed to teach visitors about the chimpanzee's lifestyle and social structure.[18]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"common squirrel monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_squirrel_monkey"},{"link_name":"tufted capuchins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufted_capuchin"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zoo_livinglinks-19"}],"sub_title":"Living Links","text":"Living Links is built around a field station and research centre for the study of primate behaviour. The exhibit features enclosures housing common squirrel monkeys and tufted capuchins.[19]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Monkey House","text":"Is now closed for redevelopment (April 2024).","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penguins_Edinburgh_Zoo_2004_SMC.jpg"},{"link_name":"king penguins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_penguin"},{"link_name":"gentoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentoo_penguin"},{"link_name":"northern rockhopper penguins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_rockhopper_penguin"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Penguins Rock","text":"Two king penguinsEdinburgh Zoo is well known for housing penguins in its collection, the first three being king penguins, which arrived in January 1913. The zoo's current penguin pool, named \"Penguins Rock\", is 65 metres long, 3.5 metres deep at its deepest point, contains 1.2 million litres of water, and houses colonies of gentoo, king, and northern rockhopper penguins.[20]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tian_Tian.JPG"},{"link_name":"giant pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda"},{"link_name":"Tián Tián","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C3%A1n_Ti%C3%A1n"},{"link_name":"Bifengxia Breeding Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifengxia_Panda_Base"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-giantpandazoo-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zoo_giantpandas-23"}],"sub_title":"Giant pandas","text":"Tian Tian, the female giant panda, who came to the zoo with her male companion in late 2011, who then left in December of 2023In 2011, Edinburgh Zoo leased two giant pandas, a male named Yáng Guāng (陽光, meaning \"sunshine\", born 2003) and a female named Tián Tián (甜甜, meaning \"sweetie\", born 2003), from the Bifengxia Breeding Centre in China at a cost of $1m a year. The zoo spent £285,000 building an enclosure is especially for the pandas. They were originally meant to remain at the zoo for a maximum of ten years before being returned to China, but in December 2021, it was confirmed that the pandas would remain in the zoo until the end of 2023.[21] Edinburgh Zoo was, at the time, the only zoo in the United Kingdom that housed giant pandas.[22][23]\nThe Pandas were flown back to China on December 4, 2023, signalling the end of their time in the UK.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cotton-top tamarins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton-top_tamarin"},{"link_name":"eastern pygmy marmosets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_pygmy_marmoset"},{"link_name":"Goeldi's monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goeldi%27s_monkey"},{"link_name":"gray-handed night monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray-handed_night_monkey"},{"link_name":"ground cuscuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_cuscus"},{"link_name":"Northern Luzon giant cloud rats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Luzon_giant_cloud_rat"}],"sub_title":"Magic Forest","text":"Located near the sun bear habitat, the Magic Forest is a building that houses several of the smaller rainforest animals like cotton-top tamarins, eastern pygmy marmosets, Goeldi's monkeys, gray-handed night monkeys, ground cuscuses and Northern Luzon giant cloud rats.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linnaeus's two-toed sloths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Sloths and Armadillos","text":"Formerly Brilliant Birds, this walk through enclosure was opened in September 2021 and tells the story of wildlife in South America. It houses a pair of Linnaeus's two-toed sloths named Nico and Feira, making Edinburgh Zoo currently the only zoo in Scotland to have sloths. It also houses two large hairy armadillos named Nymeria and Diogo.[24]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"giraffes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giraffe"},{"link_name":"Crowdfunder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdfunder"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Nubian giraffes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rothschild%27s_giraffe"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Giraffe House","text":"In 2019, Edinburgh Zoo announced the development of a new enclosure for giraffes, and launched a Crowdfunder campaign to raise money for the project.[25] Construction of the giraffe house began in 2019, and it opened in June 2021. The zoo owns a bachelor herd of five male Nubian giraffes named Ronnie, Arrow, Gerald, Fennessy and Gilbert.[26]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"blue poison dart frogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_poison_dart_frog"},{"link_name":"axolotl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axolotl"},{"link_name":"pancake tortoises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancake_tortoise"},{"link_name":"partula snails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partula_(gastropod)"},{"link_name":"Chilean rose tarantulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_rose_tarantula"},{"link_name":"percula clownfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percula_clownfish"},{"link_name":"Lamarck's angelfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genicanthus_lamarck"},{"link_name":"yellow tangs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_tang"}],"sub_title":"Wee Beasties","text":"Opened in 2017, \"Wee Beasties\" is an indoor exhibit displaying some the zoo's smaller species, including blue poison dart frogs, axolotl, pancake tortoises, partula snails, Chilean rose tarantulas, and an coral reef tank containing tropical fish such as percula clownfish, Lamarck's angelfish and yellow tangs.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"koalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koala"},{"link_name":"eucalyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus"},{"link_name":"swamp wallabies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp_wallaby"},{"link_name":"western grey kangaroos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_grey_kangaroo"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Koala Territory and Wallaby Outback","text":"Koala Territory was first opened in 2005, and currently houses three female koalas, Kalari, her daughter Myaree and niece Talara. Koala Territory is decorated with Aboriginal-inspired artwork, and features a garden of eucalyptus plants.Wallaby Outback is a walk-through exhibit next to Koala Territory housing swamp wallabies and western grey kangaroos, and was opened in 2015.[27]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"positive reinforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_reinforcement"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Animal Antics","text":"A daily show in which keepers demonstrate the natural skills of animals to an audience of visitors. Keepers use positive reinforcement training with every animal, which means that the animals that are present at the talks are never forced.[28] Because of this, the animals used in Animal Antics vary between shows.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meerkats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkat"},{"link_name":"red pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_panda"},{"link_name":"red river hogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_river_hog"},{"link_name":"Kirk's dik-diks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk%27s_dik-dik"},{"link_name":"L'Hoest's monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Hoest%27s_monkey"},{"link_name":"Chinese gorals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_goral"},{"link_name":"Bagot goats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagot_goat"},{"link_name":"ring-tailed lemurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur"},{"link_name":"red-bellied lemurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-bellied_lemur"},{"link_name":"buff-cheeked gibbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-cheeked_gibbon"},{"link_name":"pygmy hippopotamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmy_hippopotamus"},{"link_name":"Asian small-clawed otters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_small-clawed_otter"},{"link_name":"crowned lemurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowned_lemur"},{"link_name":"banteng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteng"},{"link_name":"greater one-horned rhinoceros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rhinoceros"},{"link_name":"southern pudu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_pudu"},{"link_name":"Azara's agoutis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azara%27s_agouti"},{"link_name":"sun bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_bear"},{"link_name":"binturongs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binturong"},{"link_name":"Scottish wildcats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_wildcat"},{"link_name":"geladas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelada"},{"link_name":"Visayan warty pigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visayan_warty_pig"},{"link_name":"Visayan spotted deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visayan_spotted_deer"},{"link_name":"Przewalski's horses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przewalski%27s_horse"},{"link_name":"Asiatic lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_lion"},{"link_name":"Sumatran tigers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatran_tiger"},{"link_name":"giant anteaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_anteater"},{"link_name":"Grévy's zebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A9vy%27s_zebra"},{"link_name":"nyala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyala"}],"sub_title":"Other mammals","text":"Other notable mammal species in the zoo's collection include meerkats, red pandas, red river hogs, Kirk's dik-diks, L'Hoest's monkeys, Chinese gorals, Bagot goats, ring-tailed lemurs, red-bellied lemurs, buff-cheeked gibbons, pygmy hippopotamus, Asian small-clawed otters, crowned lemurs, banteng, greater one-horned rhinoceros, southern pudu, Azara's agoutis, sun bears, binturongs, Scottish wildcats, geladas, Visayan warty pigs, Visayan spotted deer, Przewalski's horses, Asiatic lions, Sumatran tigers, giant anteaters, Grévy's zebras and nyala.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stanleycrane.JPG"},{"link_name":"Chilean flamingos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_flamingo"},{"link_name":"waldrapp ibis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_bald_ibis"},{"link_name":"black storks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_stork"},{"link_name":"great white pelicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_white_pelican"},{"link_name":"East African crowned cranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_crowned_crane"},{"link_name":"vulturine guineafowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulturine_guineafowl"},{"link_name":"southern cassowaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_cassowary"},{"link_name":"red-fronted macaws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-fronted_macaw"},{"link_name":"Egyptian vultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_vulture"}],"sub_title":"Other birds","text":"A Stanley crane.Other notable bird species in the zoo's collection include Chilean flamingos, waldrapp ibis, black storks, great white pelicans, East African crowned cranes, vulturine guineafowl, southern cassowaries, red-fronted macaws and Egyptian vultures.","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nils_Olav_Statue_May_1_2007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wojtek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojtek_(bear)"},{"link_name":"Polish II Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_II_Corps"},{"link_name":"Battle of Monte Cassino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Cassino"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Sir Nils Olav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nils_Olav"},{"link_name":"King's Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Majestet_Kongens_Garde"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh Military Tattoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Military_Tattoo"},{"link_name":"visekorporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_corporal"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"knighthood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knighthood"},{"link_name":"King Harald V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Harald_V"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Military animals","text":"A statue of Nils OlavSome of the zoo's animals have held military rank.Wojtek was a bear adopted in Iran by the Polish II Corps and enlisted into the 22nd Artillery Supply Company to allow him to travel when the troops were posted. He served in the Middle East and during the Battle of Monte Cassino and retired to Edinburgh Zoo when the Polish troops, billeted in Scotland, demobilised.[29]\nSir Nils Olav, a king penguin, was the mascot and Colonel-in-Chief of the Norwegian King's Guard. He was adopted in 1972 when the King's Guard were in the city for the Edinburgh Military Tattoo, given the rank of visekorporal (lance corporal), and promoted each time the corps visited the city. He died in 1987 and his successor, Nils Olav II, inherited his rank.[30] Nils was visited by the Norwegian King's Guard on 15 August 2008 and awarded a knighthood. The honour was approved by the King of Norway, King Harald V. During the ceremony a crowd of several hundred people joined the 130 guardsmen at the zoo to hear a citation from King Harald the Fifth of Norway read out, which described Nils as a penguin \"in every way qualified to receive the honour and dignity of knighthood\".[31]","title":"Animals and exhibits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"needs update?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"}],"text":"The giraffe house is intended to be the first of five large scale projects the zoo is planning as part of the \"Edinburgh Zoo's Big 5\" initiative, these include updated enclosures for the sun bears, rhinoceros and king penguins, as well as a new tropical house with free-roaming monkeys and birds.[32][needs update?]","title":"Future developments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"primate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatology"},{"link_name":"behavioural research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PLOS-33"},{"link_name":"University of St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"capuchin monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capuchin_monkey"},{"link_name":"squirrel monkeys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squirrel_monkey"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zoo_livinglinks-19"},{"link_name":"chimpanzee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_chimpanzee"},{"link_name":"The Princess Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne,_Princess_Royal"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Jane Goodall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Goodall"},{"link_name":"Congo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pygoscelis_papua_-Edinburgh_Zoo_-Scotland-8a.jpg"},{"link_name":"brown rats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_rat"},{"link_name":"Canna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canna,_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Mike Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Russell_(Scottish_politician)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"National Trust for Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Trust_for_Scotland"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"European beaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_beaver"},{"link_name":"Argyll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyll"},{"link_name":"mammal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"hunted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting"},{"link_name":"pelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_clothing"},{"link_name":"meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat"},{"link_name":"castoreum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castoreum"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Edinburgh Zoo is home to a primate behavioural research centre, Living Links.[33] Living Links consists of a field station and research centre that was developed in a partnership with the University of St Andrews. The centre houses capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys originating from the forests of South America, and offers researchers opportunities to study primate behaviour.[19]Budongo Trail, a chimpanzee enclosure, was opened in May 2008 by The Princess Royal. Budongo Trail is a naturalistic enclosure which can house up to 40 chimps. It includes a large outdoor area and three separate indoor areas for the chimps together with observation areas and a lecture theatre for the public. The RZSS is the principal sponsor in the long-term study and conservation of a group of approximately 60 chimpanzees as part of the Budongo Conservation Field Station in Uganda, Africa.[34] Amidst the opening of Budongo Trail, Jane Goodall described it as a \"wonderful facility\" where primates \"are probably better off [than] living in the wild in an area like Budongo [Forest], where one in six gets caught in a wire snare, and countries like Congo, where chimpanzees, monkeys and gorillas are shot for food commercially.\"[35]Gentoo penguins – adults and chicksIn July 2006, a cull of invasive brown rats on the Scottish island of Canna was deemed a provisional success[36] and after two years of observation, during which time no rats were observed, the island was declared officially rat free by the Environment Minister, Mike Russell on 7 June 2008.[37] The rats had been outcompeting the rare local wood mouse, known as the Canna mouse and also endangering local seabird populations. The National Trust for Scotland which own the island invested £500,000 employing exterminators from New Zealand to cull the estimated 10,000 brown rats. in co-operation with RZSS, approximately 150 Canna mice were captured and homed at Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park. 40 mice were returned to the island in late 2006 with the remaining being re-introduced in stages.[38]In May 2008, a joint application submitted by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) and the Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) was approved by the Scottish Government allowing for a trial reintroduction of the European beaver to the Knapdale Forest in Mid-Argyll. If the trial is successful then the European beaver will be the first mammal to be reintroduced to the United Kingdom. Beavers have been extinct in Scotland since the 16th century, when they were hunted for their pelt, meat and medicinal properties (use of castoreum).[39]","title":"Research and conservation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edinburghzoo1-9"}],"text":"Before being acquired by the society, the Corstorphine hill site was a nursery, once owned by Thomas Blaikie, who planted many of the great French parks such as 'La Bagatelle'. On this site two nurserymen raised the famous apple cultivars 'John Downie' and 'James Grieve'. Today, the zoo has one of the most diverse tree collections in the Lothians with 120 species. The south-facing aspect allows bananas to be grown outside. Increasingly, horticulture is seen as a discipline in its own right, with the focus on habitat creation within enclosures, food stuffs for the animals, and enrichment for both the animals and the visiting public.[9]","title":"Zoo gardens"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Animal Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front"},{"link_name":"polar bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bears"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Born Free Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_Free_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elephants-42"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"OneKind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneKind"},{"link_name":"Captive Animals Protection Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captive_Animals_Protection_Society"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"OneKind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneKind"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"OSCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Scottish_Charity_Regulator"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"Organisations that remain critical of Edinburgh Zoo's work include the Animal Liberation Front, who have voiced their distaste for the quality of the enclosure that formerly housed polar bears.[40] The Born Free Foundation has also stated several times that the zoo fails in its conservation work,[41] as well as opposing the zoo's plans to house elephants.[42]Edinburgh Zoo received a public backlash on Twitter after the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) recommended that they should cull three red river hog piglets after an unplanned birth. A protest took place under the #savethehogs tag on Thursday 3 February 2011.[43] The Twitter campaign was started by OneKind, with major support from Captive Animals Protection Society. On Friday 4 February 2011, it was announced that the #savethehogs campaign had been successful and the zoo would attempt to re-home the piglets.[44] The zoo also came under criticism for plans to charge £20 per person for visitors to watch the necropsy of an animal.[45] A OneKind spokesman criticised the idea, largely due to the timing of the event, which was scheduled to take place two months after the zoo announced a £2 million loss in profits, making the necropsy seem like a \"Money-making drive\".[46]Following various internal issues and allegations relating to senior staff, the zoo was subject to investigations relating to its charitable status. The Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator (OSCR) held an inquiry into the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, and one director was fired while two others were suspended.[47][48] The zoo suspended its chief operating officer and acting chief executive Gary Wilson while it investigated allegations made against him.[49] In February 2012, the zoo was told to conduct a full review of its financial controls following an inquiry into complaints about how the zoo was run in 2011. The report by the OSCR cleared the zoo of misconduct but found \"areas of governance that could be improved\".[50]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gelada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelada"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"red river hogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_river_hog"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-53"},{"link_name":"scarlet ibis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_ibis"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-53"},{"link_name":"Heck bull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heck_cattle"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-53"}],"sub_title":"Animal escapes","text":"In July 2011, the zoo's monkey house had to be closed after a gelada escaped from its enclosure. The animal vaulted an electric fence as it tried to escape whilst visitors looked on.[51][52]In May 2012, several hundred zoo visitors were forced to seek shelter after a family of red river hogs escaped from keepers and ran amok. Those who had taken refuge in the monkey house later described scenes where zoo workers pursued the animals with various equipment including brushes and dart guns. Though the drama lasted over an hour, the adult hogs were recaptured unharmed.[53]In August 2012, a scarlet ibis escaped from the zoo and went on the loose in the city after a squirrel had chewed a hole in the netting at the top of the cage. Keepers noticed the ibis was missing and later that day the bird was spotted more than 3 miles away in Dundas Street, near the city centre.[54] The ibis was missing for nearly a week before being recaptured four miles from the zoo.[53]In September 2012, zoo customers were escorted indoors when a Heck bull escaped from his enclosure. The 600 kg animal with three feet long horns was loose for over 40 minutes, until zoo workers and vets managed to restrain him by using tranquilliser darts.[53]","title":"Controversies"}]
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[{"image_text":"Two king penguins","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Penguins_Edinburgh_Zoo_2004_SMC.jpg/170px-Penguins_Edinburgh_Zoo_2004_SMC.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tian Tian, the female giant panda, who came to the zoo with her male companion in late 2011, who then left in December of 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tian_Tian.JPG/220px-Tian_Tian.JPG"},{"image_text":"A Stanley crane.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Stanleycrane.JPG/220px-Stanleycrane.JPG"},{"image_text":"A statue of Nils Olav","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Nils_Olav_Statue_May_1_2007.jpg/170px-Nils_Olav_Statue_May_1_2007.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gentoo penguins – adults and chicks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Pygoscelis_papua_-Edinburgh_Zoo_-Scotland-8a.jpg/220px-Pygoscelis_papua_-Edinburgh_Zoo_-Scotland-8a.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Our history\". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/our-history/","url_text":"\"Our history\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211019225908/https://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/our-history/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Zoo Beginnings\". Edinburgh Zoo. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928181348/http://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/SnippetAccess.aspx?id=349&pid=79&pageIndex=4","url_text":"\"Zoo Beginnings\""},{"url":"http://www.edinburghzoo.org.uk/SnippetAccess.aspx?id=349&pid=79&pageIndex=4","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Edinburgh Zoo Animal Inventory\" (PDF). rzss.org.uk. Edinburgh Zoo. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2023. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BFAin_Ghazal_statues
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ʿAin Ghazal statues
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["1 Description","2 Discovery and conservation","3 See also","4 References"]
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Coordinates: 31°59′17″N 35°58′34″E / 31.988°N 35.976°E / 31.988; 35.976Early Neolithic statues found in Jordan
ʿAin Ghazal statuesMaterialplaster and reedSize32 itemsCreatedbetween 7200 BC and 6250 BC Discovered1983ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, Jordan31°59′17″N 35°58′34″E / 31.988°N 35.976°E / 31.988; 35.976Present locationThe Jordan MuseumʿAin GhazalShow map of Near EastʿAin GhazalShow map of Jordan
The ʿAin Ghazal statues are a number of large-scale lime plaster and reed statues discovered at the archeological site of ʿAin Ghazal in Amman, Jordan, dating back to approximately 9000 years ago (made between 7200 BC and 6250 BCE), from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period. A total of 15 statues and 15 busts were discovered in 1983 and 1985 in two underground caches, created about 200 years apart.
The statues are among the earliest large-scale representations of the human form, and represent remarkable specimens of prehistoric art from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B or C period. Their purpose remains uncertain, with archaeologists believing they may have been buried just after production, having possibly been made with that intent.
The ʿAin Ghazal Statues are today part of the collections of The Jordan Museum in Amman, with some also on display at the Amman Citadel's Jordan Archaeological Museum, while a few have been loaned to foreign museums: one statue is in the Louvre Museum in Paris; parts of three other statues can be seen at the British Museum in London; and one of the figures with two heads is on show in the Louvre Abu Dhabi.
Description
Statues at the Amman Citadel
Closeup of one of the bicephalous statues
The figures are of two types, full statues and busts. Some of the busts are two-headed. Great effort was put into modelling the heads, with wide-open eyes and bitumen-outlined irises. The statues represent men, women and children; women are recognizable by features resembling breasts and slightly enlarged bellies, but neither male nor female sexual characteristics are emphasized, and none of the statues have genitals, the only part of the statue fashioned with any amount of detail being the faces.
The statues were formed by modelling moist plaster from limestone on a reed core using plants that grew along the banks of the Zarqa River. The reed decayed over the millennia, leaving plaster shells with hollow interiors. Lime plaster is formed by heating limestone to temperatures between 600 and 900 °C (1,100 and 1,700 °F); hydrated lime is then combined with water to make a dough, which was then modelled. Plaster becomes a water-resistant material when it dries and hardens. Heads, torsos and legs were formed from separate bundles of reeds which were then assembled and covered in plaster. The irises were outlined with bitumen and the heads were likely covered with some sort of wig.
They are taller than figurines or statuettes, but not human-sized, the tallest statues having a height of close to 1 m (3 ft). They are disproportionately flat, about 10 cm (4 in) in thickness. They were nevertheless designed to stand up, probably anchored to the floor in enclosed areas and intended to be seen only from the front. The way the statues were made would not have permitted them to last long, and since they were buried in pristine condition it is possible that they were never on display for any extended period of time, but rather produced for the purpose of intentional burial.
Discovery and conservation
ʿAin Ghazal statue at the Jordan Archaeological Museum, Amman
The site of ʿAin Ghazal was discovered in 1974 by developers who were building a highway connecting Amman to the city of Zarqa. Excavation began in 1982.
The site was inhabited during c. 7250–5000 BC. In its prime era, during the first half of the 7th millennium BC, the settlement extended over 10–15 hectares (25–37 ac) and was inhabited by c. 3000 people.
The statues were discovered in 1983. While examining a cross section of earth in a path carved out by a bulldozer, archaeologists came across the edge of a large pit 2.5 meters (8 ft) under the surface containing plaster statues.
Excavation led by Gary O. Rollefson took place in 1984/85, with a second set of excavation under the direction of Rollefson and Zeidan Kafafi during 1993–1996.
A total of 15 statues and 15 busts were found in two caches, which were separated by nearly 200 years. Because they were carefully deposited in pits dug into the floors of abandoned houses, they are remarkably well preserved. Remains of similar statues found at Jericho and Nahal Hemar have survived only in fragmentary state.
The pit where the statues were found was carefully dug around, and the contents were placed in a wooden box filled with polyurethane foam for protection during shipping. The statues are made of plaster, which is fragile especially after being buried for so long. The first set of statues discovered at the site was sent to the Royal Archaeological Institute in Great Britain, while the second set, found a few years later, were sent to the Smithsonian Institution in New York for restoration work. The statues were returned to Jordan after their conservation and can be seen in the Jordan Museum.
Part of the find is on loan in the British Museum. One statue is on loan at the Louvre Museum in Paris, and one of the figures with two heads is on show at the Louvre Abu Dhabi.
Louvre ʿAin Ghazal statue, frontal
Louvre ʿAin Ghazal statue left profile
Louvre ʿAin Ghazal statue right profile
Micah, ʿAin Ghazal Statue, the British Museum
Noah, ʿAin Ghazal Statue, the British Museum
Head, human statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, the Jordan Museum
Double-headed statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum
Statue, human, from ʿAin Ghazal city, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum
Statue, human, from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum
Two-headed statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Jordan Museum, Amman
Human statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman city, Jordan Museum
Human statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Jordan Museum, Amman
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sculptures of Ain Ghazal.
Jericho: Stone Age (Tell es-Sultan and its spring), for instance the Jericho Statue, from c. 9000 years ago
Urfa Man, c. 9000 BC
References
^ Ben-Nissan, Besim (17 April 2014). Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials. Springer Science & Business. p. 436. ISBN 9783642539800. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
^ a b Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2006). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective: Volume 1 (Twelfth ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0-495-00479-0. "ca. 6500 6250 BCE".
^ Ben-Nissan, Besim (17 April 2014). Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials. Springer Science & Business. p. 436. ISBN 9783642539800. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
^ "Ain Ghazal | Description, Culture, Significance, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2021-11-17.
^ McCarter, Susan (12 November 2012). Neolithic. Routledge. pp. 161–163. ISBN 9781134220397. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
G. O. Rollefson in: Ian Kuijt (ed.), Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation, Springer (2006), p. 153.
^ "Lime Plaster statues". British Museum. Trustees of the British Museum. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
The tallest of the Ayn Ghazal statues reach about 1 m in height, and they are assumed to have been free-standing, though anchored in the ground as they could not stand up unsupported.
Upper Paleolithic figurines tend to be smaller than 20 cm in height. Taller representations of the human form from the Paleolithic era, such as the Venus of Laussel, are in bas-relief or painted.
^ a b c McCarter, Susan (2012). Neolithic, Routledge, p. 163.
^ Feldman, Keffie. "Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures". Joukowsky Institute, Brown University. Retrieved 16 June 2018. They are largely held to represent the ancestors of those in the community, or variations on this theme. One can make the argument for this based on the similar treatment of the heads of these statues and the disarticulated and buried plastered skulls. The burial of the statues is also similar to the manner in which the people of Ain Ghazal buried their dead. However, what if these statues are not representations at all, but instead are enlivened objects themselves? What if they were buried in a similar manner to humans because they were thought to have died, or have lost their animate powers? These statues bring up equally many questions as answers, and for this reason will provide a rich site for future study.
^ "British Museum, London, United Kingdom — Google Arts & Culture". artsandculture.google.com. Retrieved 2021-09-09.
^ a b Carvalho, Stanley (2017-11-07). "East meets West as Louvre Abu Dhabi opens in the Gulf". Reuters. Retrieved 2019-11-15.
^ a b "The First Villages | Gallery 1". Louvre Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 2021-09-04.
^ a b "Preserving Ancient Statues from Jordan (1996-1997 exhibition )". Arthur M. Sackler Gallery & Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 20 February 2001. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
^ a b McCarter, Susan (2012). Neolithic, Routledge, p. 161.
Cache 1: Sq 2083 Loc. 20: 13 full figures, 12 one-headed busts
Cache 2: Sq 3282 Loc 049: 2 figures, 3 two-headed busts and 2 unidentified pieces.
^ McGovern, Patrick E (30 October 2010). Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages. University of California Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780520944688. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
^ a b Barker, Graeme; Goucher, Candice (2015). The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 426–. ISBN 978-1-316-29778-0.
^ preliminary excavation reports: Rollefson, G., and Kafafi, Z. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 38 (1994), 11–32; 40 (1996), 11–28; 41 (1997), 27–48.
^ Tubb, Kathryn W., The statues of 'Ain Ghazal: discovery, recovery and reconstruction, Archaeology International, archived from the original (pdf) on 2015-04-03
^ Kafafi, Zeidan (2014). "Chapter two - From the First Men's Steps to the Hellenistic Age (-1.5 mya – 323 BC): Ayn Ghazal. A 10,000 year-old Jordanian village". In Ababsa, Myriam (ed.). Atlas of Jordan: History, Territories and Society. Contemporain publications. Presses de l'Ifpo. pp. 111–113. ISBN 978-2-35159438-4 – via OpenEdition Books.
Akkermans, Peter M.M.G. and Glenn M. Schwartz (2003), The archaeology of Syria: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (ca. 16,000–300 BC), Cambridge World Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, pp. 83ff.
Grissom, C.A. (2000), "Neolithic statues from 'Ain Ghazal: construction and form", American Journal of Archaeology 104, 25–45.
Rollefson, G.O. (1983), "Ritual and ceremony at Neolithic 'Ain Ghazal (Jordan)". Paléorient 9, 29–38.
Rollefson, G.O. (1984), "Early Neolithic statuary from 'Ain Ghazal (Jordan)", Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 116, 185–192.
Rollefson, G.O. (1986), "Neolithic 'Ain Ghazal (Jordan)- Ritual and ceremony II", Paléorient 12, 45–51.
vteLouvre MuseumBuilding
Louvre Colonnade
Lescot Wing
Pavillon de Flore
Pavillon de l'Horloge
Louvre Pyramid
Pyramide inversée
Cour Carrée
Medieval Louvre
AntiquitiesNear Eastand Middle East
ʿAin Ghazal statue
Amarna letter EA 362
Amarna letter EA 364
Amarna letter EA 365
Amarna letter EA 367
Assyrian lion weights
Baal with Thunderbolt
Bushel with ibex motifs
Cippi of Melqart
Code of Hammurabi
Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II
Gudea cylinders
Hurrian foundation pegs
Investiture of Zimri-Lim
Lament for Ur
Land grant to Marduk-apla-iddina I by Meli-Shipak II
Land grant to Munnabittu kudurru
Lion of Mari
Manishtushu Obelisk
Masub inscription
Mesha Stele
Namara inscription
Narundi
Nazareth Inscription
Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone
Neirab steles
Osorkon Bust
Phoenician metal bowls
Quintus Marcius trilingual inscription
Sidon Mithraeum
Statue of Iddi-Ilum
Statue of Ebih-Il
Stele of the Vultures
Stele of Zakkur
Tayma stones
Tiara of Saitaferne
Vase of Entemena
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
Worshipper of Larsa
Yehawmilk Stele
Ziwiye hoard
Ancient Egypt
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Banishment Stela
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Bronze Sphinx of Thutmose III
Cosmetic Spoon: Young Girl Swimming
Dendera zodiac
Great Sphinx of Tanis
Khonsuemheb and the Ghost
Raherka and Meresankh
Stela of Pasenhor
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Bull Palette
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Greece and Rome,Etruscan
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Cupid and Psyche
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Dinos of the Gorgon Painter
Dying Gaul
Eurytios Krater
Furietti Centaurs
Gladiator Mosaic
Hera Borghese
Hercules and the lion of Nemea
Judgement of Paris (mosaic)
Lady of Auxerre
Las Incantadas
Marcellus as Hermes Logios
Nazareth Inscription
Rampin Rider
Sarcophagus of the Spouses
Sleeping Ariadne
Sleeping Hermaphroditus
Statue of the Tiber river with Romulus and Remus
The Exaltation of the Flower
Venus and Mars
Venus de Milo
Venus Genetrix
Venus of Arles
Winged Lion of Vulci
Winged Victory of Samothrace
Byzantine
Harbaville Triptych
Lampsacus Treasure
PaintingsFrench
Anonymous: Diana the Huntress; Gabrielle d'Estrées et une de ses sœurs
Boilly: Artists in Isabey's Studio
Boucher: The Brunette Odalisque; Diana Bathing; Vulcan Presenting Venus with Arms for Aeneas
Chardin: The Attributes of Civilian and Military Music; The Attributes of Music, the Arts and the Sciences; Boy with a Spinning-Top; The Buffet; The Ray; Saying Grace
Chassériau: Aline Chassériau; Self-Portrait; The Toilette of Esther; The Two Sisters
Claude: Village Fête
Corot: The Bridge at Narni
David: Andromache Mourning Hector; The Coronation of Napoleon; The Intervention of the Sabine Women; Leonidas at Thermopylae; The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons; The Loves of Paris and Helen; Minerva Fighting Mars; Oath of the Horatii; Portrait of Madame Marie-Louise Trudaine; Portrait of Madame Récamier; Portrait of Pope Pius VII; Self-Portrait
Delacroix: The Barque of Dante; The Bride of Abydos; The Death of Sardanapalus; Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople; Liberty Leading the People; Lion Devouring a Rabbit; Mademoiselle Rose; The Massacre at Chios; The Murder of the Bishop of Liège; Orphan Girl at the Cemetery; Portrait of Frédéric Chopin; The Picador; Women of Algiers; A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother
Delaroche: Bonaparte Crossing the Alps; The Children of Edward; The Young Martyr
Flandrin: Study (Young Male Nude Seated Beside the Sea)
Fragonard: Coresus Sacrificing Himself to Save Callirhoe; The Bolt
Géricault: The 1821 Derby at Epsom; The Charging Chasseur; The Raft of the Medusa; The Woman with a Gambling Mania; The Wounded Cuirassier
Greuze: The Village Bride
Gros: Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole; Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa; Equestrian Portrait of Joachim Murat, King of Naples; Napoléon on the Battlefield of Eylau
Guérin: Jeune fille en buste
Huet: The Flood of Saint-Cloud; Normandy Thatched Cottage, Old Trouville
Ingres: The Apotheosis of Homer; Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing Henry IV's Sword; Grande Odalisque; Joan of Arc at the Coronation of Charles VII; Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière; Oedipus and the Sphinx; Portrait of Madame Marcotte de Sainte-Marie; Portrait of Monsieur Bertin; Roger Freeing Angelica; The Turkish Bath; The Valpinçon Bather
La Tour: The Adoration of the Shepherds; The Card Sharp with the Ace of Diamonds; Joseph the Carpenter; Magdalene with the Smoking Flame; Saint Sebastian Tended by Saint Irene
Philippe de Champaigne: Ex-Voto de 1662
Poussin: Et in Arcadia ego; The Four Seasons; The Funeral of Phocion; The Inspiration of the Poet; Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice
Quarton: Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon
Robert: Principal Monuments of France; Project for the Transformation of the Grande Galerie du Louvre
Scheffer: Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil
Vernet: A Mediterranean Port
Vouet: Allegory of Wealth; Hesselin Madonna
Watteau: The Embarkation for Cythera; The Faux Pas; L'Indifférent; Jupiter and Antiope; Pierrot; The Two Cousins
Italian
Fra Angelico: Coronation of the Virgin
Antonello da Messina: Christ at the Column
Arcimboldo: The Four Seasons
Bellini: Christ Blessing; Madonna and Child with Saint Peter and Saint Sebastian; Portrait of a Young Man
Botticelli: Three Scenes from the Life of Esther; Venus and the Three Graces Presenting Gifts to a Young Woman; A Young Man Being Introduced to the Seven Liberal Arts
Caravaggio: Death of the Virgin; The Fortune Teller; Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page
Carpaccio: The Sermon of St. Stephen
Carracci: Fishing; Hunting
Cimabue: Maestà
Correggio: Allegory of Vice; Allegory of Virtue; Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine; Venus and Cupid with a Satyr
Costa: Allegory of Isabella d'Este's Coronation; Reign of Comus
Ghirlandaio: An Old Man and his Grandson; Visitation
Giordano: Adoration of the Shepherds; Marriage of the Virgin
Giotto: Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata
Guardi: The Doge on the Bucintoro near the Riva di Sant'Elena
Leonardo: Bacchus; La belle ferronnière; Mona Lisa; Saint John the Baptist; The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne; Virgin of the Rocks
Lippi: Barbadori Altarpiece; The Healing of Justinian the Canon; Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata
Lotto: Christ Carrying the Cross; Holy Family with the Family of St John the Baptist; Saint Jerome in Penitence
Mantegna: Crucifixion; Judgement of Solomon; Madonna della Vittoria; Parnassus; Saint Sebastian; Triumph of the Virtues
Martini: The Carrying of the Cross
Moretto: Saints Bonaventure and Anthony of Padua; Saints Bernardino of Siena and Louis of Toulouse
Palmezzano: Dead Christ
Panini: Ancient Rome
Parmigianino: Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine
Perugino: Apollo and Daphnis; The Battle Between Love and Chastity; Madonna and Child with St John the Baptist and St Catherine of Alexandria; Madonna and Child with St Rose and St Catherine (with Ingegno); St Sebastian; Young Saint with a Sword
Piero della Francesca: Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta
Pisanello: Portrait of a Princess
Raphael: Angel Holding a Phylactery; La belle jardinière; Holy Family of Francis I; Madonna with the Blue Diadem (with Penni); Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione; Saint George; Saint Michael; Saint Michael Vanquishing Satan; Self-Portrait with a Friend; Small Holy Family
Romano: Portrait of Doña Isabel de Requesens y Enríquez de Cardona-Anglesola (with Raphael)
Salviati: The Incredulity of Saint Thomas
Savoldo: Portrait of a Clad Warrior
Signorelli: Adoration of the Magi; Birth of John the Baptist
Tintoretto: Self Portrait
Titian: The Crowning with Thorns; The Entombment of Christ; Madonna of the Rabbit; Man with a Glove; Pardo Venus; Pastoral Concert (also attributed to Giorgione); Saint Jerome in Penitence; Woman with a Mirror
Tura: Pietà with Saints
Uccello: The Battle of San Romano
Veronese: The Wedding at Cana
Northern
Bosch: Ship of Fools
Bruegel: The Beggars
Christus: Lamentation (Pietà)
David: Cervara Altarpiece; Triptych of the Sedano family
Dürer: Portrait of the Artist Holding a Thistle
van Dyck: Charles I at the Hunt; Crucifixion with the Virgin Mary, St John and St Mary Magdalene; Madonna and Child with Two Donors
van Eyck: Madonna of Chancellor Rolin
Friedrich: The Tree of Crows
Hals: Catharina Both-van der Eem; The Gypsy Girl; The Lute Player
Holbein: Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam; Portrait of Nicolaus Kratzer
de Hooch: Card Players in a Rich Interior
Jordaens: The Four Evangelists
Matsys: The Money Changer and His Wife
Memling: Diptych of an elderly couple
Metsu: The Vegetable Market in Amsterdam
Rembrandt: The Archangel Raphael Leaving Tobias' Family; Bathsheba at Her Bath; Landscape with a Castle; Pendant portraits of Marten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit; Philosopher in Meditation; Saint Matthew and the Angel; Self-Portrait; Slaughtered Ox
Rubens: Helena Fourment with a Carriage; Helena Fourment with Children; Hercules and Omphale; Ixion, King of the Lapiths, Deceived by Juno, Who He Wished to Seduce; Marie de' Medici cycle; The Village Fête; The Virgin and Child Surrounded by the Holy Innocents
Ruisdael: Dune Landscape near Haarlem; The Ray of Light; Storm Off a Sea Coast
Scheffer: Francesca da Rimini and Paolo Malatesta Appraised by Dante and Virgil
Vermeer: The Astronomer; The Lacemaker
van der Weyden: Annunciation Triptych; Braque Triptych
Wtewael: Perseus Freeing Andromeda
Spanish
El Greco: Christ on the Cross Adored by Two Donors; Portrait of Antonio de Covarrubias; Saint Louis
Goya: Portrait of Ferdinand Guillemardet; Portrait of the Marquise de la Solana; Still Life of a Lamb's Head and Flanks
Murillo: The Birth of the Virgin; The Young Beggar
Ribera: The Clubfoot
Zurbarán: Displaying the Body of Saint Bonaventure; Saint Apollonia
English
Bonington: Francis I, Charles V and the Duchess of Étampes
Lewis: Street Scene near the El Ghouri Mosque in Cairo
American
Leutze: Christopher Columbus Before the Council of Salamanca
Category
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lime plaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_plaster"},{"link_name":"statues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue"},{"link_name":"ʿAin Ghazal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BFAin_Ghazal"},{"link_name":"Amman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-date-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Pre-Pottery Neolithic B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aingazal-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarter163-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldman-8"},{"link_name":"The Jordan Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jordan_Museum"},{"link_name":"Amman Citadel's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman_Citadel"},{"link_name":"Jordan Archaeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Archaeological_Museum"},{"link_name":"Louvre Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Louvre Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre_Abu_Dhabi"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-11"}],"text":"Early Neolithic statues found in JordanThe ʿAin Ghazal statues are a number of large-scale lime plaster and reed statues discovered at the archeological site of ʿAin Ghazal in Amman, Jordan, dating back to approximately 9000 years ago (made between 7200 BC[3] and 6250 BCE),[4] from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic C period.[2] A total of 15 statues and 15 busts were discovered in 1983 and 1985 in two underground caches, created about 200 years apart.[5]The statues are among the earliest large-scale representations of the human form, and represent remarkable specimens of prehistoric art from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B or C period.[6] Their purpose remains uncertain, with archaeologists believing they may have been buried just after production, having possibly been made with that intent.[7][8]The ʿAin Ghazal Statues are today part of the collections of The Jordan Museum in Amman, with some also on display at the Amman Citadel's Jordan Archaeological Museum, while a few have been loaned to foreign museums: one statue is in the Louvre Museum in Paris; parts of three other statues can be seen at the British Museum in London;[9] and one of the figures with two heads is on show in the Louvre Abu Dhabi.[10][11]","title":"ʿAin Ghazal statues"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20100923_amman41.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20100923_amman37.JPG"},{"link_name":"bicephalous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicephalous"},{"link_name":"two-headed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicephaly"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarter163-7"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"Zarqa River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarqa_River"},{"link_name":"hydrated lime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wjoc-12"},{"link_name":"figurines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurine"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarter161-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rrjio-14"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarter163-7"}],"text":"Statues at the Amman CitadelCloseup of one of the bicephalous statuesThe figures are of two types, full statues and busts. Some of the busts are two-headed. Great effort was put into modelling the heads, with wide-open eyes and bitumen-outlined irises. The statues represent men, women and children; women are recognizable by features resembling breasts and slightly enlarged bellies, but neither male nor female sexual characteristics are emphasized, and none of the statues have genitals, the only part of the statue fashioned with any amount of detail being the faces.[7]The statues were formed by modelling moist plaster from limestone on a reed core using plants that grew along the banks of the Zarqa River. The reed decayed over the millennia, leaving plaster shells with hollow interiors. Lime plaster is formed by heating limestone to temperatures between 600 and 900 °C (1,100 and 1,700 °F); hydrated lime is then combined with water to make a dough, which was then modelled. Plaster becomes a water-resistant material when it dries and hardens. Heads, torsos and legs were formed from separate bundles of reeds which were then assembled and covered in plaster. The irises were outlined with bitumen and the heads were likely covered with some sort of wig.[12]They are taller than figurines or statuettes, but not human-sized, the tallest statues having a height of close to 1 m (3 ft). They are disproportionately flat, about 10 cm (4 in) in thickness. They were nevertheless designed to stand up, probably anchored to the floor in enclosed areas and intended to be seen only from the front.[13][14] The way the statues were made would not have permitted them to last long, and since they were buried in pristine condition it is possible that they were never on display for any extended period of time, but rather produced for the purpose of intentional burial.[7]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ain_Ghazal_Statue_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Amman_Jordan0821.jpg"},{"link_name":"ʿAin Ghazal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BFAin_Ghazal"},{"link_name":"Amman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman"},{"link_name":"Zarqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarqa"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barker-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barker-15"},{"link_name":"Gary O. Rollefson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_O._Rollefson"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Jericho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jericho"},{"link_name":"Nahal Hemar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahal_Hemar_Cave"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCarter161-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wjoc-12"},{"link_name":"Royal Archaeological Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Archaeological_Institute"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution"},{"link_name":"the Jordan Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jordan_Museum"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"Louvre Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre"},{"link_name":"Louvre Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre_Abu_Dhabi"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ain_Ghazal_statue_frontal.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ain_Ghazal_statue_left_profile.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ain_Ghazal_statue_right_profile.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Micah,_Ain_Ghazal_Statue,_the_British_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noah,_Ain_Ghazal_Statue,_the_British_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head,_human_statue_from_Aig_Ghazal,_Amman,_the_Jordan_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Double-headed_statue_from_Ain_Ghazal,_Amman,_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue,_human,_from_Ain_Ghazal_city,_Amman,_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue,_human,_from_Ain_Ghazal,_Amman,_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two-headed_statue_from_Ain_Ghazal,_Jordan_Museum,_Amman.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_statue_from_Ain_Ghazal,_Amman_city,_Jordan_Museum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_statue_from_Ain_Ghazal,_Jordan_Museum,_Amman.jpg"}],"text":"ʿAin Ghazal statue at the Jordan Archaeological Museum, AmmanThe site of ʿAin Ghazal was discovered in 1974 by developers who were building a highway connecting Amman to the city of Zarqa. Excavation began in 1982.\nThe site was inhabited during c. 7250–5000 BC.[15] In its prime era, during the first half of the 7th millennium BC, the settlement extended over 10–15 hectares (25–37 ac) and was inhabited by c. 3000 people.[15]The statues were discovered in 1983. While examining a cross section of earth in a path carved out by a bulldozer, archaeologists came across the edge of a large pit 2.5 meters (8 ft) under the surface containing plaster statues. \nExcavation led by Gary O. Rollefson took place in 1984/85, with a second set of excavation under the direction of Rollefson and Zeidan Kafafi during 1993–1996.[16]A total of 15 statues and 15 busts were found in two caches, which were separated by nearly 200 years. Because they were carefully deposited in pits dug into the floors of abandoned houses, they are remarkably well preserved.[17] Remains of similar statues found at Jericho and Nahal Hemar have survived only in fragmentary state.[13]The pit where the statues were found was carefully dug around, and the contents were placed in a wooden box filled with polyurethane foam for protection during shipping.[12] The statues are made of plaster, which is fragile especially after being buried for so long. The first set of statues discovered at the site was sent to the Royal Archaeological Institute in Great Britain, while the second set, found a few years later, were sent to the Smithsonian Institution in New York for restoration work. The statues were returned to Jordan after their conservation and can be seen in the Jordan Museum.[18]Part of the find is on loan in the British Museum. One statue is on loan at the Louvre Museum in Paris, and one of the figures with two heads is on show at the Louvre Abu Dhabi.[10][11]Louvre ʿAin Ghazal statue, frontal\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLouvre ʿAin Ghazal statue left profile\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLouvre ʿAin Ghazal statue right profile\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMicah, ʿAin Ghazal Statue, the British Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNoah, ʿAin Ghazal Statue, the British Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHead, human statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, the Jordan Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDouble-headed statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatue, human, from ʿAin Ghazal city, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatue, human, from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman, Jordan Archaeological Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTwo-headed statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Jordan Museum, Amman\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHuman statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Amman city, Jordan Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHuman statue from ʿAin Ghazal, Jordan Museum, Amman","title":"Discovery and conservation"}]
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[{"image_text":"Statues at the Amman Citadel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/20100923_amman41.JPG/220px-20100923_amman41.JPG"},{"image_text":"Closeup of one of the bicephalous statues","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/20100923_amman37.JPG/220px-20100923_amman37.JPG"},{"image_text":"ʿAin Ghazal statue at the Jordan Archaeological Museum, Amman","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ain_Ghazal_Statue_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Amman_Jordan0821.jpg/220px-Ain_Ghazal_Statue_Jordan_Archaeological_Museum_Amman_Jordan0821.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Sculptures of Ain Ghazal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sculptures_of_Ain_Ghazal"},{"title":"Jericho: Stone Age (Tell es-Sultan and its spring)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jericho#Stone_Age:_Tell_es-Sultan_and_spring"},{"title":"the Jericho Statue, from c. 9000 years ago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jericho_Statue.png"},{"title":"Urfa Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urfa_Man"}]
|
[{"reference":"Ben-Nissan, Besim (17 April 2014). Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials. Springer Science & Business. p. 436. ISBN 9783642539800. Retrieved 5 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Gmm4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA436","url_text":"Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642539800","url_text":"9783642539800"}]},{"reference":"Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2006). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective: Volume 1 (Twelfth ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0-495-00479-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belmont,_California","url_text":"Belmont, California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-00479-0","url_text":"0-495-00479-0"}]},{"reference":"Ben-Nissan, Besim (17 April 2014). Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials. Springer Science & Business. p. 436. ISBN 9783642539800. Retrieved 5 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Gmm4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA436","url_text":"Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642539800","url_text":"9783642539800"}]},{"reference":"\"Ain Ghazal | Description, Culture, Significance, & Facts | Britannica\". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2021-11-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Ain-Ghazal","url_text":"\"Ain Ghazal | Description, Culture, Significance, & Facts | Britannica\""}]},{"reference":"McCarter, Susan (12 November 2012). Neolithic. Routledge. pp. 161–163. ISBN 9781134220397. Retrieved 20 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dKDfRMNpsmYC&pg=PA161","url_text":"Neolithic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134220397","url_text":"9781134220397"}]},{"reference":"\"Lime Plaster statues\". British Museum. Trustees of the British Museum. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151018143147/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/l/lime_plaster_statues.aspx","url_text":"\"Lime Plaster statues\""},{"url":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/l/lime_plaster_statues.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Feldman, Keffie. \"Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures\". Joukowsky Institute, Brown University. Retrieved 16 June 2018. They are largely held to represent the ancestors of those in the community, or variations on this theme. One can make the argument for this based on the similar treatment of the heads of these statues and the disarticulated and buried plastered skulls. The burial of the statues is also similar to the manner in which the people of Ain Ghazal buried their dead. However, what if these statues are not representations at all, but instead are enlivened objects themselves? What if they were buried in a similar manner to humans because they were thought to have died, or have lost their animate powers? These statues bring up equally many questions as answers, and for this reason will provide a rich site for future study.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/architecturebodyperformance/326.html","url_text":"\"Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures\""}]},{"reference":"\"British Museum, London, United Kingdom — Google Arts & Culture\". artsandculture.google.com. Retrieved 2021-09-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/british-museum/AwEp68JO4NECkQ?sv_h=316.4182620279755&sv_p=-8.067471856963579&sv_pid=FBMkuaIhF9L-wVvBKWVQjA&sv_lid=3582009757710443819&sv_lng=-0.1278856906070018&sv_lat=51.51957185414885&sv_z=0.6911292499459274","url_text":"\"British Museum, London, United Kingdom — Google Arts & Culture\""}]},{"reference":"Carvalho, Stanley (2017-11-07). \"East meets West as Louvre Abu Dhabi opens in the Gulf\". Reuters. Retrieved 2019-11-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-emirates-louvre/east-meets-west-as-louvre-abu-dhabi-opens-in-the-gulf-idUSKBN1D719F","url_text":"\"East meets West as Louvre Abu Dhabi opens in the Gulf\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"}]},{"reference":"\"The First Villages | Gallery 1\". Louvre Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 2021-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.louvreabudhabi.ae/en/Explore/museum-galleries/gallery-1","url_text":"\"The First Villages | Gallery 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Preserving Ancient Statues from Jordan (1996-1997 exhibition )\". Arthur M. Sackler Gallery & Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 20 February 2001. Retrieved 20 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010220131933/http://www.asia.si.edu/jordan/html/textonly.htm","url_text":"\"Preserving Ancient Statues from Jordan (1996-1997 exhibition )\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution","url_text":"Smithsonian Institution"},{"url":"http://www.asia.si.edu/jordan/html/textonly.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"McGovern, Patrick E (30 October 2010). Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages. University of California Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780520944688. Retrieved 20 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PV5UO1ELsSUC&pg=PA91","url_text":"Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520944688","url_text":"9780520944688"}]},{"reference":"Barker, Graeme; Goucher, Candice (2015). The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 426–. ISBN 978-1-316-29778-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ri07CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT426","url_text":"The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-29778-0","url_text":"978-1-316-29778-0"}]},{"reference":"Tubb, Kathryn W., The statues of 'Ain Ghazal: discovery, recovery and reconstruction, Archaeology International, archived from the original (pdf) on 2015-04-03","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150403005601/http://www.ai-journal.com/article/download/ai.0514/165/","url_text":"The statues of 'Ain Ghazal: discovery, recovery and reconstruction"},{"url":"http://www.ai-journal.com/article/download/ai.0514/165/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kafafi, Zeidan (2014). \"Chapter two - From the First Men's Steps to the Hellenistic Age (-1.5 mya – 323 BC): Ayn Ghazal. A 10,000 year-old Jordanian village\". In Ababsa, Myriam (ed.). Atlas of Jordan: History, Territories and Society. Contemporain publications. Presses de l'Ifpo. pp. 111–113. ISBN 978-2-35159438-4 – via OpenEdition Books.","urls":[{"url":"http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/4883?lang=en","url_text":"\"Chapter two - From the First Men's Steps to the Hellenistic Age (-1.5 mya – 323 BC): Ayn Ghazal. A 10,000 year-old Jordanian village\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35159438-4","url_text":"978-2-35159438-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_pour_l%27%C3%89dition_%C3%89lectronique_Ouverte","url_text":"OpenEdition Books"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%CA%BFAin_Ghazal_statues¶ms=31.988_N_35.976_E_","external_links_name":"31°59′17″N 35°58′34″E / 31.988°N 35.976°E / 31.988; 35.976"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=%CA%BFAin_Ghazal_statues¶ms=31.988_N_35.976_E_","external_links_name":"31°59′17″N 35°58′34″E / 31.988°N 35.976°E / 31.988; 35.976"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Gmm4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA436","external_links_name":"Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Gmm4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA436","external_links_name":"Advances in Calcium Phosphate Biomaterials"},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Ain-Ghazal","external_links_name":"\"Ain Ghazal | Description, Culture, Significance, & Facts | Britannica\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dKDfRMNpsmYC&pg=PA161","external_links_name":"Neolithic"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2D8OBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA153","external_links_name":"p. 153"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151018143147/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/l/lime_plaster_statues.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Lime Plaster statues\""},{"Link":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/l/lime_plaster_statues.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/architecturebodyperformance/326.html","external_links_name":"\"Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures\""},{"Link":"https://artsandculture.google.com/streetview/british-museum/AwEp68JO4NECkQ?sv_h=316.4182620279755&sv_p=-8.067471856963579&sv_pid=FBMkuaIhF9L-wVvBKWVQjA&sv_lid=3582009757710443819&sv_lng=-0.1278856906070018&sv_lat=51.51957185414885&sv_z=0.6911292499459274","external_links_name":"\"British Museum, London, United Kingdom — Google Arts & Culture\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-emirates-louvre/east-meets-west-as-louvre-abu-dhabi-opens-in-the-gulf-idUSKBN1D719F","external_links_name":"\"East meets West as Louvre Abu Dhabi opens in the Gulf\""},{"Link":"https://www.louvreabudhabi.ae/en/Explore/museum-galleries/gallery-1","external_links_name":"\"The First Villages | Gallery 1\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010220131933/http://www.asia.si.edu/jordan/html/textonly.htm","external_links_name":"\"Preserving Ancient Statues from Jordan (1996-1997 exhibition )\""},{"Link":"http://www.asia.si.edu/jordan/html/textonly.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PV5UO1ELsSUC&pg=PA91","external_links_name":"Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ri07CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT426","external_links_name":"The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE–500 CE"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150403005601/http://www.ai-journal.com/article/download/ai.0514/165/","external_links_name":"The statues of 'Ain Ghazal: discovery, recovery and reconstruction"},{"Link":"http://www.ai-journal.com/article/download/ai.0514/165/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/4883?lang=en","external_links_name":"\"Chapter two - From the First Men's Steps to the Hellenistic Age (-1.5 mya – 323 BC): Ayn Ghazal. A 10,000 year-old Jordanian village\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_lateral_flap
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Voiced retroflex lateral flap
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["1 Features","2 Occurrence","3 References","4 External links"]
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Consonantal sound represented by ⟨𝼈⟩ in IPA
Voiced retroflex lateral flap𝼈ɭ̆ɺ̣Audio sample
source · helpEncodingEntity (decimal)𝼈Unicode (hex)U+1DF08
Image
The voiced retroflex lateral flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The 'implicit' symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is ⟨𝼈 ⟩. The sound may also be transcribed as a short ⟨ɭ̆ ⟩, or with the retired IPA dot diacritic, ⟨ɺ̣⟩.
Features
Features of the voiced retroflex lateral flap:
Its manner of articulation is tap or flap, which means it is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (usually the tongue) is thrown against another.
Its place of articulation is retroflex, which prototypically means it is articulated subapical (with the tip of the tongue curled up), but more generally, it means that it is postalveolar without being palatalized. That is, besides the prototypical subapical articulation, the tongue can be apical (pointed) or, in some fricatives, laminal (flat).
Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
Language
Word
IPA
Meaning
Notes
Ilgar
Contrasts /l, ɺ, ɭ, 𝼈 / and possibly /ʎ, ʎ̆/, though the last are likely underlying sequences of /lj, ɺj/.
Iwaidja
'my foot'
Contrasts /l, ɺ, ɭ, 𝼈 / and possibly /ʎ, ʎ̆/, though the last are likely underlying sequences of /lj, ɺj/.
Kannada
ಕೇಳಿ/Kēḷi
'to ask'
Can be an approximant instead.
Kobon
ƚawƚ
'to shoot'
Subapical.
Konkani
फळ/fāḷ
'fruit'
Kresh
—
—
Malayalam
വേളി/vēḷi
'marriage'
Can be an approximant instead.
Marathi
केळी/Kēḷī
'bananas'
See Marathi phonology
Tarama & Irabu
—
'to pull'
Norwegian
Trøndersk
glas
'glass'
Apical postalveolar; also described as central . See Norwegian phonology
O'odham
—
—
Apical postalveolar.
Pashto
ړوند/llund
'blind'
Contrasts plain and nasalized flaps. Tend to be lateral at the beginning of a prosodic unit, and a central flap or approximant elsewhere.
Tamil
குளி/Kuḷi
'bathe'
Allophone of /ɭ /. See Tamil phonology
Telugu
పెళ్ళి/Pelli
'Marriage'
Allophone of /ɭ /. See Telugu phonology
Tarahumara
Western Rarámuri
—
—
Often transcribed /𝼈 /.
Totoli
—
'snake'
Allophone of /ɺ/ after back vowels.
Tukang Besi
—
—
Possible allophone of /l/ after back vowels, as well as an allophone of /r/.
Wayuu
laülaa
'old man'
postalveolar?
Zaghawa
Chadian dialects
Beri
'Zaghawa'
A retroflex lateral flap has been reported from various languages of Sulawesi such as the Sangiric languages, Buol and Totoli, as well as Nambikwara in Brazil (plain and laryngealized), Gaagudju in Australia, Purépecha and Western Rarámuri in Mexico, Moro in Sudan, O'odham and Mohawk in the United States, Chaga in Tanzania, and Kanuri in Nigeria.
Various Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages of Indian subcontinent are reported to have a retroflex lateral flap, either phonemically or phonetically, including Gujarati, Konkani, Marathi, Odia, and Rajasthani. Masica describes the sound as widespread in the Indic languages of India:
A retroflex flapped lateral /ḷ/, contrasting with ordinary /l/, is a prominent feature of Odia, Marathi–Konkani, Gujarati, most varieties of Rajasthani and Bhili, Punjabi, some dialects of "Lahnda", ... most dialects of West Pahari, and Kumauni (not in the Southeastern dialect described by Apte and Pattanayak), as well as Hariyanvi and the Saharanpur subdialect of Northwestern Kauravi ("Vernacular Hindustani") investigated by Gumperz. It is absent from most other NIA languages, including most Hindi dialects, Nepali, Garhwali, Bengali, Assamese, Kashmiri and other Dardic languages (except for the Dras dialect of Shina and possibly Khowar), the westernmost West Pahari dialects bordering Dardic (Bhalesi, Khashali, Rudhari, Padari) as well as the easternmost (Jaunsari, Sirmauri), and from Sindhi, Kacchi, and Siraiki. It was once present in Sinhalese, but in the modern language has merged with /l/.
References
^ The substitution ⟨ɺ̢ ⟩ may be used when ⟨𝼈 ⟩ cannot be displayed properly. The two are not canonically equivalent in Unicode. Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (8 November 2020). "Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic" (PDF).
^ Brown, D. Richard (1994). "Kresh". In Kahrel, Peter; van den Berg, René (eds.). Typological Studies in Negation. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 29. John Benjamins. p. 163. doi:10.1075/tsl.29.09bro. ISBN 978-90-272-2919-9.
^ Jarosz, Aleksandra (2014). "Miyako-Ryukyuan and its contribution to linguistic diversity". JournaLIPP (3): 43. doi:10.5282/journalipp/192.
^ a b Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, p. 155, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
^ Heide, Eldar (2010), "Tjukk l – Retroflektert tydeleggjering av kort kvantitet. Om kvalitetskløyvinga av det gamle kvantitetssystemet.", Maal og Minne (in Norwegian), 1 (2010), Novus forlag: 3–44
^ a b Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 213. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
^ a b MacKenzie, D. N. (1990). "Pashto". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.). The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9780415057721.
^ a b Penzl, Herbert (1965). A reader of Pashto. p. 7.
^ Burgess, Don (1984). "Western Tarahumara". In Langacker, Ronald W. (ed.). Southern Uto-Aztecan Grammatical Sketches. Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar. Vol. 4. SIL. p. 7. ISBN 0-88312-098-4. LCCN 84-051054. The voiced alveolar retroflexed lateral l is difficult for a non-native speaker to distinguish from the alveolar retroflexed vibrant r.
^ a b Himmelmann, Nikolaus (2001). Sourcebook on Tomini-Tolitoli languages: General information and word lists. The Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-511. ISBN 0-85883-516-9.
^ a b Donohue, Mark (1999), "Tukang Besi", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, p. 152, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
^ Sneddon, J. N. (1984). Proto-Sangiric & the Sangiric languages. Pacific Linguistics. pp. 20, 23. doi:10.15144/PL-B91.
^ Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2
^ Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2
External links
List of languages with on PHOIBLE
vteInternational Phonetic Alphabet (chart)IPA topicsIPA
International Phonetic Association
History of the alphabet
Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA)
Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS)
Journal of the IPA (JIPA)
Special topics
Cursive forms
Case variants
Obsolete and nonstandard symbols
Naming conventions
Sinological extensions
World Orthography
IPA chart for English dialects
Encodings
ASCII encodings
SAMPA
X-SAMPA
Kirshenbaum
TIPA
Phonetic symbols in Unicode
IPA number
IPA Braille
ConsonantsPulmonic consonants
Place →
Labial
Coronal
Dorsal
Laryngeal
Manner ↓
Bilabial
Labiodental
Linguolabial
Dental
Alveolar
Postalveolar
Retroflex
Palatal
Velar
Uvular
Pharyngeal/epiglottal
Glottal
Nasal
m̥
m
ɱ̊
ɱ
n̼
n̥
n
ɳ̊
ɳ
ɲ̊
ɲ
ŋ̊
ŋ
ɴ̥
ɴ
Plosive
p
b
p̪
b̪
t̼
d̼
t
d
ʈ
ɖ
c
ɟ
k
ɡ
q
ɢ
ʡ
ʔ
Sibilant affricate
ts
dz
t̠ʃ
d̠ʒ
tʂ
dʐ
tɕ
dʑ
Non-sibilant affricate
pɸ
bβ
p̪f
b̪v
t̪θ
d̪ð
tɹ̝̊
dɹ̝
t̠ɹ̠̊˔
d̠ɹ̠˔
cç
ɟʝ
kx
ɡɣ
qχ
ɢʁ
ʡʜ
ʡʢ
ʔh
Sibilant fricative
s
z
ʃ
ʒ
ʂ
ʐ
ɕ
ʑ
Non-sibilant fricative
ɸ
β
f
v
θ̼
ð̼
θ
ð
θ̠
ð̠
ɹ̠̊˔
ɹ̠˔
ɻ̊˔
ɻ˔
ç
ʝ
x
ɣ
χ
ʁ
ħ
ʕ
h
ɦ
Approximant
ʋ
ɹ
ɻ
j
ɰ
ʔ̞
Tap/flap
ⱱ̟
ⱱ
ɾ̼
ɾ̥
ɾ
ɽ̊
ɽ
ɢ̆
ʡ̆
Trill
ʙ̥
ʙ
r̥
r
ɽ̊r̥
ɽr
ʀ̥
ʀ
ʜ
ʢ
Lateral affricate
tɬ
dɮ
tꞎ
d𝼅
c𝼆
ɟʎ̝
k𝼄
ɡʟ̝
Lateral fricative
ɬ
ɮ
ꞎ
𝼅
𝼆
ʎ̝
𝼄
ʟ̝
Lateral approximant
l
ɭ
ʎ
ʟ
ʟ̠
Lateral tap/flap
ɺ̥
ɺ
𝼈̥
𝼈
ʎ̆
ʟ̆
IPA help
audio
full chart
template
Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
Non-pulmonic consonants
BL
LD
D
A
PA
RF
P
V
U
EG
Ejective
Stop
pʼ
tʼ
ʈʼ
cʼ
kʼ
qʼ
ʡʼ
Affricate
p̪fʼ
t̪θʼ
tsʼ
t̠ʃʼ
tʂʼ
tɕʼ
kxʼ
qχʼ
Fricative
ɸʼ
fʼ
θʼ
sʼ
ʃʼ
ʂʼ
ɕʼ
xʼ
χʼ
Lateral affricate
tɬʼ
c𝼆ʼ
k𝼄ʼ
q𝼄ʼ
Lateral fricative
ɬʼ
Click(top: velar;bottom: uvular)
Tenuis
kʘqʘ
kǀqǀ
kǃqǃ
k𝼊q𝼊
kǂqǂ
Voiced
ɡʘɢʘ
ɡǀɢǀ
ɡǃɢǃ
ɡ𝼊ɢ𝼊
ɡǂɢǂ
Nasal
ŋʘɴʘ
ŋǀɴǀ
ŋǃɴǃ
ŋ𝼊ɴ𝼊
ŋǂɴǂ
ʞ
Tenuis lateral
kǁqǁ
Voiced lateral
ɡǁɢǁ
Nasal lateral
ŋǁɴǁ
Implosive
Voiced
ɓ
ɗ
ᶑ
ʄ
ɠ
ʛ
Voiceless
ɓ̥
ɗ̥
ᶑ̊
ʄ̊
ɠ̊
ʛ̥
IPA help
audio
full chart
template
Co-articulated consonants
Nasal
n͡m
Labial–alveolar
ŋ͡m
Labial–velar
Plosive
t͡pd͡b
Labial–alveolar
k͡pɡ͡b
Labial–velar
q͡ʡ
Uvular–epiglottal
q͡p
Labial–uvular
Fricative/approximant
ɥ̊ɥ
Labial–palatal
ʍw
Labial–velar
ɧ
Sj-sound (variable)
Lateral approximant
ɫ
Velarized alveolar
Implosive
ɠ̊͜ɓ̥
ɠ͡ɓ
Labial–velar
Ejective
t͡pʼ
Labial–alveolar
IPA help
full chart
template
Other
Nasal labial–velar approximant
Nasal palatal approximant
Voiceless bidental fricative
Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop
Voiceless nasal glottal approximant
Vowels
Front
Central
Back
Close
i
y
ɨ
ʉ
ɯ
u
Near-close
ɪ
ʏ
ʊ
Close-mid
e
ø
ɘ
ɵ
ɤ
o
Mid
e̞
ø̞
ə
ɤ̞
o̞
Open-mid
ɛ
œ
ɜ
ɞ
ʌ
ɔ
Near-open
æ
ɐ
Open
a
ɶ
ä
ɑ
ɒ
IPA help
audio
full chart
template
Legend: unrounded • rounded
vteThe letter RGeneral
Rhotic consonants (R-like sounds)
Perception of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers
Pronunciation of English /r/
Rhoticity in English
R-colored vowel
Rhotacism
Guttural R
Linking and intrusive R
Pronunciations
Voiceless alveolar trill
Voiced alveolar trill
Voiced alveolar or postalveolar approximant
Voiceless alveolar tap
Voiced alveolar tap
Voiced alveolar lateral flap
Voiced retroflex approximant
Voiced retroflex flap
Voiced retroflex trill
Voiced velar approximant
Voiced velar bunched approximant
Voiceless velar fricative
Voiced velar fricative
Voiceless uvular trill
Voiced uvular trill
Voiceless uvular fricative
Voiced uvular fricative
Voiced pharyngeal fricative
Voiceless glottal fricative
Voiced glottal fricative
Variations
Ꝛꝛ (R rotunda)
Ꞃꞃ (Insular)
Ɽɽ (R with tail)
Ɍɍ (R with stroke)
Ʀʀ
Ȑȑ
Ŕŕ
Ŗŗ
Řř
Ȓȓ
R̃r̃
Ṙṙ
Ṛṛ
R̄r̄
Ṝṝ
Ṟṟ
Rd
Rh
Rl
Rm
Rn
Rp
Rr
Rs
Rt
Rw
Rz
Rnd
ᚱ (Raidô)
ℝ (Real number)
® (Registered trademark symbol)
Ⓡ (Enclosed R)
℞ (Medical prescription)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consonantal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant"},{"link_name":"spoken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech"},{"link_name":"languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pulmonic-1"}],"text":"The voiced retroflex lateral flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The 'implicit' symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is ⟨𝼈 ⟩.[1] The sound may also be transcribed as a short ⟨ɭ̆ ⟩, or with the retired IPA dot diacritic, ⟨ɺ̣⟩.","title":"Voiced retroflex lateral flap"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"manner of articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"tap or flap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants"},{"link_name":"place of articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"retroflex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex_consonant"},{"link_name":"subapical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subapical_consonant"},{"link_name":"postalveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"palatalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"apical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apical_consonant"},{"link_name":"laminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminal_consonant"},{"link_name":"phonation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation"},{"link_name":"oral consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_consonant"},{"link_name":"lateral consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant"},{"link_name":"airstream mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstream_mechanism"},{"link_name":"pulmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonic_egressive"},{"link_name":"intercostal muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercostal_muscle"},{"link_name":"abdominal muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_muscles"}],"text":"Features of the voiced retroflex lateral flap:Its manner of articulation is tap or flap, which means it is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (usually the tongue) is thrown against another.\nIts place of articulation is retroflex, which prototypically means it is articulated subapical (with the tip of the tongue curled up), but more generally, it means that it is postalveolar without being palatalized. That is, besides the prototypical subapical articulation, the tongue can be apical (pointed) or, in some fricatives, laminal (flat).\nIts phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.\nIt is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.\nIt is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.\nThe airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sulawesi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulawesi"},{"link_name":"Sangiric languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangiric_languages"},{"link_name":"Buol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buol_language"},{"link_name":"Totoli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totoli_language"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Nambikwara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambikwara_language"},{"link_name":"Gaagudju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaagudju_language"},{"link_name":"Purépecha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language"},{"link_name":"Western Rarámuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarahumara_language"},{"link_name":"Moro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moro_language"},{"link_name":"O'odham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27odham_language"},{"link_name":"Mohawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohawk_language"},{"link_name":"Chaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaga_languages"},{"link_name":"Kanuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanuri_language"},{"link_name":"Dravidian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages"},{"link_name":"Indo-Aryan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages"},{"link_name":"Indian subcontinent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinent"},{"link_name":"Gujarati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarati_language"},{"link_name":"Konkani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkani_language"},{"link_name":"Marathi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language"},{"link_name":"Odia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odia_language"},{"link_name":"Rajasthani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_language"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"NIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Indo-Aryan"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"A retroflex lateral flap has been reported from various languages of Sulawesi such as the Sangiric languages, Buol and Totoli,[12] as well as Nambikwara in Brazil (plain and laryngealized), Gaagudju in Australia, Purépecha and Western Rarámuri in Mexico, Moro in Sudan, O'odham and Mohawk in the United States, Chaga in Tanzania, and Kanuri in Nigeria.Various Dravidian and Indo-Aryan languages of Indian subcontinent are reported to have a retroflex lateral flap, either phonemically or phonetically, including Gujarati, Konkani, Marathi, Odia, and Rajasthani.[13] Masica describes the sound as widespread in the Indic languages of India:A retroflex flapped lateral /ḷ/, contrasting with ordinary /l/, is a prominent feature of Odia, Marathi–Konkani, Gujarati, most varieties of Rajasthani and Bhili, Punjabi, some dialects of \"Lahnda\", ... most dialects of West Pahari, and Kumauni (not in the Southeastern dialect described by Apte and Pattanayak), as well as Hariyanvi and the Saharanpur subdialect of Northwestern Kauravi (\"Vernacular Hindustani\") investigated by Gumperz. It is absent from most other NIA languages, including most Hindi dialects, Nepali, Garhwali, Bengali, Assamese, Kashmiri and other Dardic languages (except for the Dras dialect of Shina and possibly Khowar), the westernmost West Pahari dialects bordering Dardic (Bhalesi, Khashali, Rudhari, Padari) as well as the easternmost (Jaunsari, Sirmauri), and from Sindhi, Kacchi, and Siraiki. It was once present in Sinhalese, but in the modern language has merged with /l/.[14]","title":"Occurrence"}]
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[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IPA_Unicode_0x1DF08.svg/150px-IPA_Unicode_0x1DF08.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Miller, Kirk; Ashby, Michael (8 November 2020). \"Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf","url_text":"\"Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic\""}]},{"reference":"Brown, D. Richard (1994). \"Kresh\". In Kahrel, Peter; van den Berg, René (eds.). Typological Studies in Negation. Typological Studies in Language. Vol. 29. John Benjamins. p. 163. doi:10.1075/tsl.29.09bro. ISBN 978-90-272-2919-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1075%2Ftsl.29.09bro","url_text":"10.1075/tsl.29.09bro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2919-9","url_text":"978-90-272-2919-9"}]},{"reference":"Jarosz, Aleksandra (2014). \"Miyako-Ryukyuan and its contribution to linguistic diversity\". JournaLIPP (3): 43. doi:10.5282/journalipp/192.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5282%2Fjournalipp%2F192","url_text":"10.5282/journalipp/192"}]},{"reference":"Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, p. 155, ISBN 87-500-3865-6","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-500-3865-6","url_text":"87-500-3865-6"}]},{"reference":"Heide, Eldar (2010), \"Tjukk l – Retroflektert tydeleggjering av kort kvantitet. Om kvalitetskløyvinga av det gamle kvantitetssystemet.\", Maal og Minne (in Norwegian), 1 (2010), Novus forlag: 3–44","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/2401067","url_text":"\"Tjukk l – Retroflektert tydeleggjering av kort kvantitet. Om kvalitetskløyvinga av det gamle kvantitetssystemet.\""}]},{"reference":"Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 213. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged","url_text":"Ladefoged, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Maddieson","url_text":"Maddieson, Ian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages","url_text":"The Sounds of the World's Languages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6","url_text":"0-631-19815-6"}]},{"reference":"MacKenzie, D. N. (1990). \"Pashto\". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.). The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9780415057721.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415057721","url_text":"9780415057721"}]},{"reference":"Penzl, Herbert (1965). A reader of Pashto. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Burgess, Don (1984). \"Western Tarahumara\". In Langacker, Ronald W. (ed.). Southern Uto-Aztecan Grammatical Sketches. Studies in Uto-Aztecan Grammar. Vol. 4. SIL. p. 7. ISBN 0-88312-098-4. LCCN 84-051054. The voiced alveolar retroflexed lateral l is difficult for a non-native speaker to distinguish from the alveolar retroflexed vibrant r.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/8587","url_text":"Southern Uto-Aztecan Grammatical Sketches"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88312-098-4","url_text":"0-88312-098-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/84-051054","url_text":"84-051054"}]},{"reference":"Himmelmann, Nikolaus (2001). Sourcebook on Tomini-Tolitoli languages: General information and word lists. The Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-511. ISBN 0-85883-516-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.15144%2FPL-511","url_text":"10.15144/PL-511"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85883-516-9","url_text":"0-85883-516-9"}]},{"reference":"Donohue, Mark (1999), \"Tukang Besi\", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, p. 152, ISBN 0-521-63751-1","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63751-1","url_text":"0-521-63751-1"}]},{"reference":"Sneddon, J. N. (1984). Proto-Sangiric & the Sangiric languages. Pacific Linguistics. pp. 20, 23. doi:10.15144/PL-B91.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.15144%2FPL-B91","url_text":"10.15144/PL-B91"}]},{"reference":"Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Masica","url_text":"Masica, Colin"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC","url_text":"The Indo-Aryan Languages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29944-2","url_text":"978-0-521-29944-2"}]},{"reference":"Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Masica","url_text":"Masica, Colin"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC","url_text":"The Indo-Aryan Languages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29944-2","url_text":"978-0-521-29944-2"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Magee_(actor)
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Patrick Magee (actor)
|
["1 Biography","1.1 Stage acting","1.2 Film career","2 Personal life","3 Death","4 Legacy","5 Partial stage credits","6 Filmography","6.1 Film","6.2 Television","6.3 Radio","7 References","8 External links"]
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Northern Irish actor (1922–1982)
Not to be confused with Patrick Macnee.
Patrick MageeMagee in Dementia 13 (1963)BornPatrick George McGee(1922-03-31)31 March 1922Armagh, County Armagh, Northern IrelandDied14 August 1982(1982-08-14) (aged 60)London, EnglandEducationSt Patrick's Grammar School, ArmaghOccupationsActorstage directorYears active1959–1982Spouse
Belle Sherry (m. 1958)Children2AwardsTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play1966 Marat/Sade
Patrick George Magee (né McGee, 31 March 1922 – 14 August 1982) was a Northern Irish actor. He was noted for his collaborations with playwrights Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter, sometimes called "Beckett's favourite actor," as well as creating the role of the Marquis de Sade in the original stage and screen productions of Marat/Sade.
Known for his distinctive voice, he also appeared in numerous horror films and in two Stanley Kubrick films – A Clockwork Orange (1971) and Barry Lyndon (1975) – and three Joseph Losey films – The Criminal (1960), The Servant (1963) and Galileo (1975). He was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1964 to 1970.
Critic Antonia Quirke posthumously described him as "a presence so full of strangeness and charisma and difference and power," while scholar Conor Carville wrote that Magee was an "avant-garde bad-boy" and "very important and unjustly forgotten figure who represents an important aspect of the cultural ferment of the 1960s and 1970s in Britain."
Biography
McGee (he changed the spelling of his surname to Magee when he began performing, most likely to avoid confusion with another actor) was born into a middle-class Catholic family at 2 Edward Street, Armagh, County Armagh. The eldest of five children, he was educated at St. Patrick's Grammar School.
Stage acting
His first stage experience in Ireland was with Anew McMaster's touring company, performing the works of Shakespeare. It was here that he first worked with Pinter. He was then brought to London by Tyrone Guthrie for a series of Irish plays. He met Beckett in 1957 and soon recorded passages from the novel, Molloy, and the short story, From an Abandoned Work, for BBC radio. Impressed by "the cracked quality of Magee's distinctly Irish voice," Beckett requested copies of the tapes and wrote Krapp's Last Tape especially for the actor. First produced at the Royal Court Theatre in London on 28 October 1958, the play starred Magee directed by Donald McWhinnie. A televised version with Magee directed by McWhinnie was later broadcast by BBC2 on 29 November 1972. Beckett's biographer Anthony Cronin wrote that "there was a sense in which, as an actor, he had been waiting for Beckett as Beckett had been waiting for him."
In 1964, he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company, after Pinter, directing his own play The Birthday Party, specifically requested him for the role of McCann, and stated he was the strongest in the cast. In 1965 he portrayed the Marquis de Sade in Peter Brook's production of Peter Weiss' Marat/Sade, and when the play transferred to Broadway he won a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. He also appeared in the 1966 RSC production of Staircase opposite Paul Scofield. In 1969, he played Inspector Hawkins in the RSC's original production of Dutch Uncle. His last play with the company was Battle of Shrivings in 1970, at the Lyric Theatre, under the direction of Peter Hall.
In 1970, he played Daniel Webster in Scratch, a Broadway adaptation of The Devil and Daniel Webster by Archibald MacLean.
Film career
Early film roles included Joseph Losey's The Criminal (1960) Dementia 13 (1963) and The Servant (1963), the latter an adaptation scripted by Pinter. He also appeared as Surgeon-Major Reynolds in Zulu (1964), Séance on a Wet Afternoon (1964), Anzio (1968), and in the film versions of Marat/Sade (1967; as de Sade) and The Birthday Party (1968). He is perhaps best known for his role as the victimised writer Frank Alexander, who tortures Alex DeLarge with Beethoven's music, in Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange (1971). His other role for Kubrick was as Redmond Barry's mentor, the Chevalier de Balibari, in Barry Lyndon (1975). He reprised his role as the Marquis de Sade in the 1966 film adaptation of Marat/Sade, also directed by Peter Brook.
Magee also appeared in King Lear (1971), Young Winston (1972), The Final Programme (1973), Galileo (1975), Sir Henry at Rawlinson End (1980) and Chariots of Fire (1981), but was most often seen in horror films. These included the early Francis Ford Coppola outing Dementia 13 (1963), Roger Corman's The Masque of Red Death (1964), and the Boris Karloff vehicle Die, Monster, Die! (1965) for AIP; The Skull (1965), Tales from the Crypt (1972), Asylum (1972), and And Now the Screaming Starts! (1973) for Amicus Productions; Demons of the Mind (1972) for Hammer Film Productions; Lucio Fulci's The Black Cat (1981), and Walerian Borowczyk's Docteur Jekyll et les femmes (1981), which proved his final film role.
Personal life
Magee married Belle Sherry, also a native of County Armagh, in 1958. The couple had two children, twins Mark and Caroline (b. February 1961), and remained together until Magee's death.
He was known as something of a "hellraiser." He often struggled with bouts of alcoholism and gambling that adversely affected his finances, and his professional relationships.
He was a staunch Irish republican, and an active campaigner for left-wing social and political causes. In 1976, he played an instrumental role in persuading his trade union Equity to boycott South Africa over the country's apartheid laws.
Death
A heavy drinker, Magee died from a heart attack at his flat in Fulham, southwest London, on 14 August 1982, at the age of 60, according to obituaries in The Glasgow Herald and The New York Times.
Legacy
Conor Carville, of the University of Reading, wrote of Magee:
" is a very important and unjustly forgotten figure who represents an important aspect of the cultural ferment of the 1960s and 1970s in Britain. The persona he had off-stage was that of a hell raiser, and this blended into the roles he was cast in. He was at the forefront of theatrical and cinematic experiment of the time, and yet, as a BBC stalwart on both radio and TV and a West End actor, he was also ensconced in the mainstream. As well as this, his immersion in the new British horror genre meant he moved in underground circles. My research has revealed an undercurrent of desperation in his career, as he took on such roles for the income they provided. It is this multifaced character that makes Magee a lightning rod for the tensions and contradictions of his era."
On 29 July 2017, actor Stephen Rea, who appeared alongside Patrick Magee in a production of Samuel Beckett's play Endgame, unveiled a blue plaque commemorating Magee's birthplace at 2 Edward Street, Armagh.
In a retrospective written on the actor's 100th birthday in 2022 on Senses of Cinema, Mark Lager particularly praised Patrick Magee as the character Krapp in Samuel Beckett's Krapp's Last Tape and as the character McCann in Harold Pinter's The Birthday Party as the best performances of his career, while also considering his character of the blind patient George Carter in Freddie Francis's Tales from the Crypt as his most memorable of many performances in horror films.
Partial stage credits
Year
Title
Role
Director
Original venue
Notes
Ref.
1948
Mountain Post
Maton
R.H. MacCandless
Ulster Group Theatre, Belfast
1949
Bannister's Cafe
Walter Bannister
Himself
Also director
1950
The Square Peg
Reverend Alexander McCrea
Himself
1951
The Passing Day
Hind
Tyrone Guthrie
Ambassadors Theatre, London
Credited as 'Pat Magee'
1955-56
The Queen and the Rebels
Peasant
Frank Hauser
Theatre Royal Haymarket, London
1956
The Shadow of a Gunman
Adolphus Gregson
John Gibson
New Lindsey Theatre Club, London
1958
Krapp's Last Tape
Krapp
Donald McWhinnie
Royal Court Theatre, London
1959
The Buskers
Max
Toby Robertson
Arts Theatre, London
1959-60
Rosmersholm
George Devine
Royal Court Theatre, London
1961
Progress to the Park
Mr. Laughlin
Ted Kotcheff
Grand Theatre, Blackpool
A Whistle in the Dark
Michael Carney Sr.
Edward Burnham
Theatre Royal Stratford East, London
For Theatre Workshop
1964
The Birthday Party
McCann
Harold Pinter
Aldwych Theatre, London
For Royal Shakespeare Company
Afore Night Come
Roche
Clifford Williams
Endgame
Hamm
Donald McWhinnie
Marat/Sade
Marquis de Sade
Peter Brook
1965
Mr Puntila and his Man Matti
Matti Altonen
Michel Saint-Denis
Hamlet
Ghost of Old Denmark
Peter Hall
Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon
Marat/Sade
Marquis de Sade
Peter Brook
Aldwych Theatre, London
1965-66
Martin Beck Theatre, New York City
Won Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play
1966
The Meteor
Wolfgang Schwitter
Clifford Williams
Aldwych Theatre, London
For Royal Shakespeare Company
Staircase
Harry Leeds
Peter Hall
Theatre Royal, Brighton
Aldwych Theatre, London
1966-67
Marat/Sade
Marquis de Sade
Donald Driver
Majestic Theatre, Broadway
1967
Keep It in the Family
Frank Brady
Allan Davis
Plymouth Theatre, Broadway
1969
Dutch Uncle
Inspector Hawkins
Peter Hall
Theatre Royal, Brighton
For Royal Shakespeare Company
Aldwych Theatre, London
1970
Battle of Shrivings
Mark
Lyric Theatre, London
1971
Scratch
Daniel Webster
Peter Hunt
St. James Theatre, Broadway
1974
The Master Builder
Halvard Solness
Himself
Thorndike Theatre, Leatherhead
Also director
1975-76
The White Devil
Monticelso
Michael Lindsay-Hogg
The Old Vic, London
1976
That Time
Donald McWhinnie
Royal Court Theatre, London
1980
Doctor Faustus
Mephistopheles
Christopher Fettes
Lyric Hammersmith Theatre, London
Fortune Theatre, London
Filmography
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1960
The Criminal
Barrows
aka Concrete Jungle
1961
Rag Doll
Flynn
aka Young, Willing and Eager
Never Back Losers
Ben Black
1962
The Boys
Mr Lee
A Prize of Arms
RSM Hicks
1963
Ricochet
Inspector Cummins
The Young Racers
Sir William Dragonet
The Very Edge
Simmonds
The Servant
Bishop
Dementia 13
Justin Caleb
Operacija Ticijan
Dr. Morisijus
aka Operation Titian
1964
Zulu
Surgeon James Henry Reynolds
Séance on a Wet Afternoon
Walsh
The Masque of the Red Death
Alfredo
1965
The Skull
Police Surgeon
Die, Monster, Die!
Dr Henderson
Alternative title: Monster of Terror
Portrait in Terror
Mauricio Zaroni
1967
Marat/Sade
Marquis de Sade
1968
Anzio
General Starkey
Decline and Fall... of a Birdwatcher
Maniac
The Birthday Party
Shamus McCann
1969
Hard Contract
Alexi
1970
Cromwell
Hugh Peters
You Can't Win 'Em All
The General – Atatürk
1971
King Lear
Cornwall
The Trojan Women
Menelaus
A Clockwork Orange
Mr Alexander
1972
Tales from the Crypt
George Carter
(segment 5 "Blind Alleys")
The Fiend
Minister
aka Beware My Brethren
Asylum
Dr Rutherford
(segment: "Mannikins of Horror")
Young Winston
General Bindon Blood
Pope Joan
Elder monk
Demons of the Mind
Falkenberg
1973
And Now the Screaming Starts!
Dr Whittle
Lady Ice
Paul Booth
The Final Programme
Dr Baxter
aka The Last Days of Man on Earth
1974
Luther
Hans
Simona
Le père
1975
Galileo
Cardinal Bellarmin
Barry Lyndon
The Chevalier du Balibari
1977
Telefon
General Strelsky
1979
The Brontë Sisters
Reverend Bronte
1980
Rough Cut
Ernst Mueller
The Sleep of Death
Marquis
Hawk the Slayer
Priest
Sir Henry at Rawlinson End
Reverend Slodden
1981
Chariots of Fire
Lord Cadogan
The Monster Club
Innkeeper – Luna's Father
The Black Cat
Professor Robert Miles
Blood of Dr. Jekyll
General William Danvers Carew
aka The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Miss Osbourne
Television
1965 Doctor Finlay's Casebook (episode: Beware of the Dog)
1973 The Protectors (Chase) as Garder
1974 King Lear as King Lear for six-part Thames Television series.
Thriller (1975) as Professor Carnaby
The Flipside of Dominick Hide and Another Flip for Dominick (1979–82) as Caleb Line (final television appearance)
Radio
From an Abandoned Work (radio play by Samuel Beckett) Monologue first broadcast in 1957 by the BBC.
Hordes of the Things (radio series) 1980 as The Narrator.
References
^ Birthdate cited in Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett (2004), ed. Ackerley and Gontarski, 339. National Portrait Gallery also cites 1922 as birthdate.
^ "BFI Screenonline: Magee, Patrick (1922-1982) Biography". www.screenonline.org.uk. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
^ a b "'Unjustly forgotten' actor that brought Beckett's writing to life to be honoured at birthplace". 24 August 2020. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ a b "Patrick Magee, British Actor, Won a Tony for 'Marat/Sade'". The New York Times. 16 August 1982.
^ "The treasure trove of Samuel Beckett recordings hidden online". The Samuel Beckett Society. 9 June 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ a b "University of Reading". University of Reading. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ David Pattie (2000). The Complete Critical Guide to Samuel Beckett. Psychology Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-415-20253-4.
^ Cited in Grove Companion to Samuel Beckett (2004), ed. Ackerley and Gontarski, 339.
^ Ackerley and Gontarski (ed.), 302
^ Anthony Cronin: Samuel Beckett The Last Modernist, London 1997 , p. 471
^ a b Little, Ivan (28 July 2017). "A drunk, gambler and hell-raiser, but a towering acting talent... remembering Patrick Magee". Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
^ "The Glasgow Herald — Google News Archive Search". google.com. and NYT Magee obituary
^ McKenna, Michael (10 July 2017). "Celebrated Armagh actor Patrick Magee to be honoured with Blue Plaque". Armagh I. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
^ Lager, Mark (2022). "Great Actors - Patrick Magee". Senses of Cinema.
^ "Mountain Post". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Bannister's Cafe". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "The Square Peg". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Passing Day | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Queen and the Rebels | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Shadow of a Gunman | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Krapp's Last Tape". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Buskers | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Rosmersholm | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Progress to the Park | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of A Whistle in the Dark | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Birthday Party | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Afore Night Come | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Endgame | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Puntila | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of Hamlet | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "THE PERSECUTION AND ASSASSINATION OF JEAN-PAUL MARAT AS PERFORMED BY THE INMATES OF THE ASYLUM OF CHARENTON UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE MARQUIS DE SADE". Playbill.
^ "Production of The Meteor | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ a b "Production of Staircase | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade - 1967 Broadway - Backstage & Production Info". www.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Keep It in the Family". Playbill.
^ a b "Production of Dutch Uncle | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ a b "Patrick Magee | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "Scratch". Playbill.
^ "Production of The White Devil | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ "That Time". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
^ a b "Production of Doctor Faustus | Theatricalia". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Patrick Magee (actor).
Patrick Magee at the Internet Broadway Database
Patrick Magee at IMDb
Patrick Magee at the BFI's Screenonline
Patrick Magee BFI
vteTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play1949–1975
Arthur Kennedy (1949)
Eli Wallach (1951)
John Cromwell (1952)
John Williams (1953)
John Kerr (1954)
Francis L. Sullivan (1955)
Ed Begley (1956)
Frank Conroy (1957)
Henry Jones (1958)
Charlie Ruggles (1959)
Roddy McDowall (1960)
Martin Gabel (1961)
Walter Matthau (1962)
Alan Arkin (1963)
Hume Cronyn (1964)
Jack Albertson (1965)
Patrick Magee (1966)
Ian Holm (1967)
James Patterson (1968)
Al Pacino (1969)
Ken Howard (1970)
Paul Sand (1971)
Vincent Gardenia (1972)
John Lithgow (1973)
Ed Flanders (1974)
Frank Langella (1975)
1976–2000
Edward Herrmann (1976)
Jonathan Pryce (1977)
Lester Rawlins (1978)
Michael Gough (1979)
David Rounds (1980)
Brian Backer (1981)
Zakes Mokae (1982)
Matthew Broderick (1983)
Joe Mantegna (1984)
Barry Miller (1985)
John Mahoney (1986)
John Randolph (1987)
BD Wong (1988)
Boyd Gaines (1989)
Charles Durning (1990)
Kevin Spacey (1991)
Laurence Fishburne (1992)
Stephen Spinella (1993)
Jeffrey Wright (1994)
John Glover (1995)
Ruben Santiago-Hudson (1996)
Owen Teale (1997)
Tom Murphy (1998)
Frank Wood (1999)
Roy Dotrice (2000)
2001–present
Robert Sean Leonard (2001)
Frank Langella (2002)
Denis O'Hare (2003)
Brían F. O'Byrne (2004)
Liev Schreiber (2005)
Ian McDiarmid (2006)
Billy Crudup (2007)
Jim Norton (2008)
Roger Robinson (2009)
Eddie Redmayne (2010)
John Benjamin Hickey (2011)
Christian Borle (2012)
Courtney B. Vance (2013)
Mark Rylance (2014)
Richard McCabe (2015)
Reed Birney (2016)
Michael Aronov (2017)
Nathan Lane (2018)
Bertie Carvel (2019)
David Alan Grier (2020/21)
Jesse Tyler Ferguson (2022)
Brandon Uranowitz (2023)
Will Brill (2024)
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Spain
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BnF data
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Patrick Macnee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Macnee"},{"link_name":"Northern Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Irish"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Samuel Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"Marquis de Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade"},{"link_name":"Marat/Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marat/Sade"},{"link_name":"Stanley Kubrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes-4"},{"link_name":"A Clockwork Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(film)"},{"link_name":"Barry Lyndon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Lyndon"},{"link_name":"Joseph Losey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Losey"},{"link_name":"The Criminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Criminal_(1960_film)"},{"link_name":"The Servant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Servant_(1963_film)"},{"link_name":"Galileo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(1975_film)"},{"link_name":"Royal Shakespeare Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"Antonia Quirke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonia_Quirke"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Patrick Macnee.Patrick George Magee (né McGee, 31 March 1922 – 14 August 1982) was a Northern Irish actor.[2] He was noted for his collaborations with playwrights Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter, sometimes called \"Beckett's favourite actor,\"[3] as well as creating the role of the Marquis de Sade in the original stage and screen productions of Marat/Sade.Known for his distinctive voice, he also appeared in numerous horror films and in two Stanley Kubrick films[4] – A Clockwork Orange (1971) and Barry Lyndon (1975) – and three Joseph Losey films – The Criminal (1960), The Servant (1963) and Galileo (1975). He was a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1964 to 1970.Critic Antonia Quirke posthumously described him as \"a presence so full of strangeness and charisma and difference and power,\"[5] while scholar Conor Carville wrote that Magee was an \"avant-garde bad-boy\" and \"very important and unjustly forgotten figure who represents an important aspect of the cultural ferment of the 1960s and 1970s in Britain.\"[6]","title":"Patrick Magee (actor)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Catholics"},{"link_name":"Armagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armagh"},{"link_name":"County Armagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Armagh"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pattie2000-7"},{"link_name":"St. Patrick's Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Grammar_School,_Armagh"}],"text":"McGee (he changed the spelling of his surname to Magee when he began performing, most likely to avoid confusion with another actor) was born into a middle-class Catholic family at 2 Edward Street, Armagh, County Armagh.[7] The eldest of five children, he was educated at St. Patrick's Grammar School.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Anew McMaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anew_McMaster"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Tyrone Guthrie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone_Guthrie"},{"link_name":"Molloy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molloy_(novel)"},{"link_name":"From an Abandoned Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_an_Abandoned_Work"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Krapp's Last Tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krapp%27s_Last_Tape"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Donald McWhinnie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_McWhinnie"},{"link_name":"BBC2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Two"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Anthony Cronin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Cronin"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Royal Shakespeare Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company"},{"link_name":"The Birthday Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birthday_Party_(play)"},{"link_name":"Marquis de Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade"},{"link_name":"Peter Brook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Brook"},{"link_name":"Peter Weiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Weiss"},{"link_name":"Marat/Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marat/Sade"},{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Tony Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Featured Actor in a Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Featured_Actor_in_a_Play"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes-4"},{"link_name":"Staircase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staircase_(play)"},{"link_name":"Paul Scofield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Scofield"},{"link_name":"Dutch Uncle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Uncle_(play)"},{"link_name":"Lyric Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_Theatre,_London"},{"link_name":"Peter Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Hall_(director)"},{"link_name":"The Devil and Daniel Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Devil_and_Daniel_Webster"},{"link_name":"Archibald MacLean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_MacLean"}],"sub_title":"Stage acting","text":"His first stage experience in Ireland was with Anew McMaster's touring company, performing the works of Shakespeare. It was here that he first worked with Pinter. He was then brought to London by Tyrone Guthrie for a series of Irish plays. He met Beckett in 1957 and soon recorded passages from the novel, Molloy, and the short story, From an Abandoned Work, for BBC radio. Impressed by \"the cracked quality of Magee's distinctly Irish voice,\" Beckett requested copies of the tapes and wrote Krapp's Last Tape especially for the actor.[8] First produced at the Royal Court Theatre in London on 28 October 1958, the play starred Magee directed by Donald McWhinnie. A televised version with Magee directed by McWhinnie was later broadcast by BBC2 on 29 November 1972.[9] Beckett's biographer Anthony Cronin wrote that \"there was a sense in which, as an actor, he had been waiting for Beckett as Beckett had been waiting for him.\"[10]In 1964, he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company, after Pinter, directing his own play The Birthday Party, specifically requested him for the role of McCann, and stated he was the strongest in the cast. In 1965 he portrayed the Marquis de Sade in Peter Brook's production of Peter Weiss' Marat/Sade, and when the play transferred to Broadway he won a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play.[4] He also appeared in the 1966 RSC production of Staircase opposite Paul Scofield. In 1969, he played Inspector Hawkins in the RSC's original production of Dutch Uncle. His last play with the company was Battle of Shrivings in 1970, at the Lyric Theatre, under the direction of Peter Hall.In 1970, he played Daniel Webster in Scratch, a Broadway adaptation of The Devil and Daniel Webster by Archibald MacLean.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joseph Losey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Losey"},{"link_name":"The Criminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Criminal_(1960_film)"},{"link_name":"Dementia 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia_13"},{"link_name":"The Servant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Servant_(1963_film)"},{"link_name":"Surgeon-Major Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Henry_Reynolds"},{"link_name":"Zulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu_(1964_film)"},{"link_name":"Séance on a Wet Afternoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9ance_on_a_Wet_Afternoon"},{"link_name":"Anzio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anzio_(film)"},{"link_name":"de Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade"},{"link_name":"The Birthday Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birthday_Party_(1968_film)"},{"link_name":"Alex DeLarge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_(A_Clockwork_Orange)"},{"link_name":"Beethoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven"},{"link_name":"Stanley Kubrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick"},{"link_name":"A Clockwork Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clockwork_Orange_(film)"},{"link_name":"Barry Lyndon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Lyndon"},{"link_name":"Marquis de Sade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade"},{"link_name":"1966 film adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marat/Sade_(film)"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear_(1971_British_film)"},{"link_name":"Young Winston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Winston"},{"link_name":"The Final Programme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Final_Programme_(film)"},{"link_name":"Galileo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(1975_film)"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry at Rawlinson End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Henry_at_Rawlinson_End_(film)"},{"link_name":"Chariots of Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariots_of_Fire"},{"link_name":"Francis Ford Coppola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Ford_Coppola"},{"link_name":"Dementia 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia_13"},{"link_name":"Roger Corman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Corman"},{"link_name":"The Masque of Red Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Masque_of_the_Red_Death_(1964_film)"},{"link_name":"Boris Karloff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Karloff"},{"link_name":"Die, Monster, Die!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die,_Monster,_Die!"},{"link_name":"AIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_International_Pictures"},{"link_name":"The Skull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skull"},{"link_name":"Tales from the Crypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_from_the_Crypt_(film)"},{"link_name":"Asylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asylum_(1972_horror_film)"},{"link_name":"And Now the Screaming Starts!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_Now_the_Screaming_Starts!"},{"link_name":"Amicus Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amicus_Productions"},{"link_name":"Demons of the Mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demons_of_the_Mind"},{"link_name":"Hammer Film Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_Film_Productions"},{"link_name":"Lucio Fulci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucio_Fulci"},{"link_name":"The Black Cat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Cat_(1981_film)"},{"link_name":"Walerian Borowczyk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walerian_Borowczyk"},{"link_name":"Docteur Jekyll et les femmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docteur_Jekyll_et_les_femmes"}],"sub_title":"Film career","text":"Early film roles included Joseph Losey's The Criminal (1960) Dementia 13 (1963) and The Servant (1963), the latter an adaptation scripted by Pinter. He also appeared as Surgeon-Major Reynolds in Zulu (1964), Séance on a Wet Afternoon (1964), Anzio (1968), and in the film versions of Marat/Sade (1967; as de Sade) and The Birthday Party (1968). He is perhaps best known for his role as the victimised writer Frank Alexander, who tortures Alex DeLarge with Beethoven's music, in Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange (1971). His other role for Kubrick was as Redmond Barry's mentor, the Chevalier de Balibari, in Barry Lyndon (1975). He reprised his role as the Marquis de Sade in the 1966 film adaptation of Marat/Sade, also directed by Peter Brook.Magee also appeared in King Lear (1971), Young Winston (1972), The Final Programme (1973), Galileo (1975), Sir Henry at Rawlinson End (1980) and Chariots of Fire (1981), but was most often seen in horror films. These included the early Francis Ford Coppola outing Dementia 13 (1963), Roger Corman's The Masque of Red Death (1964), and the Boris Karloff vehicle Die, Monster, Die! (1965) for AIP; The Skull (1965), Tales from the Crypt (1972), Asylum (1972), and And Now the Screaming Starts! (1973) for Amicus Productions; Demons of the Mind (1972) for Hammer Film Productions; Lucio Fulci's The Black Cat (1981), and Walerian Borowczyk's Docteur Jekyll et les femmes (1981), which proved his final film role.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"County Armagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Armagh"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Irish republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_republicanism"},{"link_name":"left-wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-wing"},{"link_name":"Equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(British_trade_union)"},{"link_name":"apartheid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid_in_South_Africa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Little-11"}],"text":"Magee married Belle Sherry, also a native of County Armagh, in 1958. The couple had two children, twins Mark and Caroline (b. February 1961), and remained together until Magee's death.He was known as something of a \"hellraiser.\" He often struggled with bouts of alcoholism and gambling that adversely affected his finances, and his professional relationships.[6]He was a staunch Irish republican, and an active campaigner for left-wing social and political causes. In 1976, he played an instrumental role in persuading his trade union Equity to boycott South Africa over the country's apartheid laws.[11]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heart attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction"},{"link_name":"Fulham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulham"},{"link_name":"The Glasgow Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Herald_(Glasgow)"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"A heavy drinker, Magee died from a heart attack at his flat in Fulham, southwest London, on 14 August 1982, at the age of 60, according to obituaries in The Glasgow Herald and The New York Times.[12]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reading"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"Stephen Rea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Rea"},{"link_name":"Endgame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endgame_(play)"},{"link_name":"blue plaque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_plaque"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Little-11"},{"link_name":"Senses of Cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senses_of_Cinema"},{"link_name":"Samuel Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Krapp's Last Tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krapp%27s_Last_Tape"},{"link_name":"Harold Pinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Pinter"},{"link_name":"The Birthday Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birthday_Party_(play)"},{"link_name":"Freddie Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Francis"},{"link_name":"Tales from the Crypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales_from_the_Crypt_(film)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Conor Carville, of the University of Reading, wrote of Magee:[3]\"[Magee] is a very important and unjustly forgotten figure who represents an important aspect of the cultural ferment of the 1960s and 1970s in Britain. The persona he had off-stage was that of a hell raiser, and this blended into the roles he was cast in. He was at the forefront of theatrical and cinematic experiment of the time, and yet, as a BBC stalwart on both radio and TV and a West End actor, he was also ensconced in the mainstream. As well as this, his immersion in the new British horror genre meant he moved in underground circles. My research has revealed an undercurrent of desperation in his career, as he took on such roles for the income they provided. It is this multifaced character that makes Magee a lightning rod for the tensions and contradictions of his era.\"On 29 July 2017, actor Stephen Rea, who appeared alongside Patrick Magee in a production of Samuel Beckett's play Endgame, unveiled a blue plaque commemorating Magee's birthplace at 2 Edward Street, Armagh.[13][11]In a retrospective written on the actor's 100th birthday in 2022 on Senses of Cinema, Mark Lager particularly praised Patrick Magee as the character Krapp in Samuel Beckett's Krapp's Last Tape and as the character McCann in Harold Pinter's The Birthday Party as the best performances of his career, while also considering his character of the blind patient George Carter in Freddie Francis's Tales from the Crypt as his most memorable of many performances in horror films.[14]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Partial stage credits"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doctor Finlay's Casebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Finlay%27s_Casebook"},{"link_name":"King Lear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Lear"},{"link_name":"Thriller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thriller_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"The Flipside of Dominick Hide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flipside_of_Dominick_Hide"}],"sub_title":"Television","text":"1965 Doctor Finlay's Casebook (episode: Beware of the Dog)\n1973 The Protectors (Chase) as Garder\n1974 King Lear as King Lear for six-part Thames Television series.\nThriller (1975) as Professor Carnaby\nThe Flipside of Dominick Hide and Another Flip for Dominick (1979–82) as Caleb Line (final television appearance)","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"From an Abandoned Work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_an_Abandoned_Work"},{"link_name":"Samuel Beckett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Beckett"},{"link_name":"Hordes of the Things (radio series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hordes_of_the_Things_(radio_series)"}],"sub_title":"Radio","text":"From an Abandoned Work (radio play by Samuel Beckett) Monologue first broadcast in 1957 by the BBC.\nHordes of the Things (radio series) 1980 as The Narrator.","title":"Filmography"}]
|
[]
| null |
[{"reference":"\"BFI Screenonline: Magee, Patrick (1922-1982) Biography\". www.screenonline.org.uk. Retrieved 12 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/874278/index.html","url_text":"\"BFI Screenonline: Magee, Patrick (1922-1982) Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Unjustly forgotten' actor that brought Beckett's writing to life to be honoured at birthplace\". 24 August 2020. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200824153523/https://www.reading.ac.uk/news-archive/press-releases/pr734138.html","url_text":"\"'Unjustly forgotten' actor that brought Beckett's writing to life to be honoured at birthplace\""}]},{"reference":"\"Patrick Magee, British Actor, Won a Tony for 'Marat/Sade'\". The New York Times. 16 August 1982.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/16/obituaries/patrick-magee-british-actor-won-a-tony-for-marat-sade.html","url_text":"\"Patrick Magee, British Actor, Won a Tony for 'Marat/Sade'\""}]},{"reference":"\"The treasure trove of Samuel Beckett recordings hidden online\". The Samuel Beckett Society. 9 June 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://samuelbeckettsociety.org/2018/06/09/samuel-beckett-radio-online/","url_text":"\"The treasure trove of Samuel Beckett recordings hidden online\""}]},{"reference":"\"University of Reading\". University of Reading. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.reading.ac.uk/","url_text":"\"University of Reading\""}]},{"reference":"David Pattie (2000). The Complete Critical Guide to Samuel Beckett. Psychology Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-415-20253-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J8Jd4iMXsJ4C&pg=PA38","url_text":"The Complete Critical Guide to Samuel Beckett"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-20253-4","url_text":"978-0-415-20253-4"}]},{"reference":"Little, Ivan (28 July 2017). \"A drunk, gambler and hell-raiser, but a towering acting talent... remembering Patrick Magee\". Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved 28 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/film-tv/news/a-drunk-gambler-and-hellraiser-but-a-towering-acting-talent-remembering-patrick-magee-35974861.html","url_text":"\"A drunk, gambler and hell-raiser, but a towering acting talent... remembering Patrick Magee\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Glasgow Herald — Google News Archive Search\". google.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2507&dat=19820816&id=XPk9AAAAIBAJ&pg=5547,2457805","url_text":"\"The Glasgow Herald — Google News Archive Search\""}]},{"reference":"McKenna, Michael (10 July 2017). \"Celebrated Armagh actor Patrick Magee to be honoured with Blue Plaque\". Armagh I. Retrieved 18 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://armaghi.com/news/armagh-news/celebrated-armagh-actor-patrick-magee-to-be-honoured-with-blue-plaque/52593/","url_text":"\"Celebrated Armagh actor Patrick Magee to be honoured with Blue Plaque\""}]},{"reference":"Lager, Mark (2022). \"Great Actors - Patrick Magee\". Senses of Cinema.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2022/great-actors/magee-patrick/","url_text":"\"Great Actors - Patrick Magee\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senses_of_Cinema","url_text":"Senses of Cinema"}]},{"reference":"\"Mountain Post\". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishplayography.com/play.aspx?playid=31209","url_text":"\"Mountain Post\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bannister's Cafe\". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishplayography.com/play.aspx?playid=31408","url_text":"\"Bannister's Cafe\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Square Peg\". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishplayography.com/play.aspx?playid=31214","url_text":"\"The Square Peg\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Passing Day | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/3td/the-passing-day/production/8bx","url_text":"\"Production of The Passing Day | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Queen and the Rebels | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/455/the-queen-and-the-rebels/production/tjz","url_text":"\"Production of The Queen and the Rebels | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Shadow of a Gunman | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/d9/the-shadow-of-a-gunman/production/mtt","url_text":"\"Production of The Shadow of a Gunman | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Krapp's Last Tape\". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishplayography.com/play.aspx?playid=31689","url_text":"\"Krapp's Last Tape\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Buskers | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/hh4/the-buskers/production/16vr","url_text":"\"Production of The Buskers | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Rosmersholm | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/1zm/rosmersholm/production/9as","url_text":"\"Production of Rosmersholm | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Progress to the Park | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/eg0/progress-to-the-park/production/xdc","url_text":"\"Production of Progress to the Park | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of A Whistle in the Dark | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/cwh/a-whistle-in-the-dark/production/s2y","url_text":"\"Production of A Whistle in the Dark | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Birthday Party | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/5v/the-birthday-party/production/12c","url_text":"\"Production of The Birthday Party | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Afore Night Come | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/4r/afore-night-come/production/12d","url_text":"\"Production of Afore Night Come | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Endgame | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/62/endgame/production/12m","url_text":"\"Production of Endgame | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/64/the-persecution-and-assassination-of-jean-paul-marat-as-performed-by-the-inmates-of-the-asylum-of-charenton-under-the-direction-of-the-marquis-de-sade-or-maratsade/production/12t","url_text":"\"Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Puntila | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/6d/puntila/production/13c","url_text":"\"Production of Puntila | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Hamlet | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/2/hamlet/production/13d","url_text":"\"Production of Hamlet | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/64/the-persecution-and-assassination-of-jean-paul-marat-as-performed-by-the-inmates-of-the-asylum-of-charenton-under-the-direction-of-the-marquis-de-sade-or-maratsade/production/13h","url_text":"\"Production of The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of The Marquis de Sade (or Marat/Sade) | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"THE PERSECUTION AND ASSASSINATION OF JEAN-PAUL MARAT AS PERFORMED BY THE INMATES OF THE ASYLUM OF CHARENTON UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE MARQUIS DE SADE\". Playbill.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.playbill.com/production/the-persecution-and-assassination-of-jean-paul-marat-as-performed-by-the-inmates-of-the-asylum-of-charenton-under-the-direction-of-the-marquis-de-sade-martin-beck-theatre-vault-0000008243","url_text":"\"THE PERSECUTION AND ASSASSINATION OF JEAN-PAUL MARAT AS PERFORMED BY THE INMATES OF THE ASYLUM OF CHARENTON UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE MARQUIS DE SADE\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playbill","url_text":"Playbill"}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The Meteor | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/6n/the-meteor/production/13z","url_text":"\"Production of The Meteor | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Staircase | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/6v/staircase/production/147","url_text":"\"Production of Staircase | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade - 1967 Broadway - Backstage & Production Info\". www.broadwayworld.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.broadwayworld.com/shows/backstage.php?showid=2708","url_text":"\"The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade - 1967 Broadway - Backstage & Production Info\""}]},{"reference":"\"Keep It in the Family\". Playbill.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.playbill.com/production/keep-it-in-the-family-plymouth-theatre-vault-0000009597","url_text":"\"Keep It in the Family\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playbill","url_text":"Playbill"}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Dutch Uncle | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/7z/dutch-uncle/production/17b","url_text":"\"Production of Dutch Uncle | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Patrick Magee | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/person/3ec/patrick-magee","url_text":"\"Patrick Magee | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Scratch\". Playbill.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.playbill.com/production/scratch-st-james-theatre-vault-0000004198","url_text":"\"Scratch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playbill","url_text":"Playbill"}]},{"reference":"\"Production of The White Devil | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/zb/the-white-devil/production/avq","url_text":"\"Production of The White Devil | Theatricalia\""}]},{"reference":"\"That Time\". www.irishplayography.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishplayography.com/play.aspx?playid=31092","url_text":"\"That Time\""}]},{"reference":"\"Production of Doctor Faustus | Theatricalia\". theatricalia.com. Retrieved 11 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://theatricalia.com/play/40/doctor-faustus/production/11g3","url_text":"\"Production of Doctor Faustus | Theatricalia\""}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Ives_(UK_Parliament_constituency)
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St Ives (UK Parliament constituency)
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["1 Constituency profile","2 History","2.1 St Ives borough","2.2 St Ives county constituency","2.3 Prominent members","2.4 Usual late count in modern elections","3 Boundaries","3.1 Proposed","4 Members of Parliament","4.1 1558–1629","4.2 1640–1832","4.3 1832–1885","4.4 Since 1885","5 Elections","5.1 Elections in the 2020s","5.2 Elections in the 2010s","5.3 Elections in the 2000s","5.4 Elections in the 1990s","5.5 Elections in the 1980s","5.6 Elections in the 1970s","5.7 Elections in the 1960s","5.8 Elections in the 1950s","5.9 Elections in the 1940s","5.10 Elections in the 1930s","5.11 Elections in the 1920s","5.12 Elections in the 1910s","5.13 Elections in the 1900s","5.14 Elections in the 1890s","5.15 Elections in the 1880s","5.16 Elections in the 1870s","5.17 Elections in the 1860s","5.18 Elections in the 1850s","5.19 Elections in the 1840s","5.20 Elections in the 1830s","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Sources"]
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UK parliamentary constituency since 1885
St IvesCounty constituencyfor the House of CommonsBoundary of St Ives in CornwallLocation of Cornwall within EnglandCountyCornwallElectorate64,270 (2018)Major settlementsSt IvesPenzanceCurrent constituencyCreated1885Member of ParliamentDerek Thomas (Conservative)SeatsOneCreated fromHelston, St Ives and West Cornwall1558–1885Seats1558–1832: two1832–1885: oneType of constituencyBorough constituencyReplaced bySt Ives, Penzance and Helston
St Ives is a parliamentary constituency covering the western end of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. The constituency has been represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2015 by Derek Thomas, a Conservative MP.
The area's voters produced the 22nd closest result in the 2017 general election; a winning margin of 312 votes. Since 1992, the same locally leading two parties' candidates who were fielded (varying at different times) have won at least 27.2% of the vote each; the third placed candidate, that of the Labour Party, has fluctuated between 8.2% and 15.2% of share of the vote.
Constituency profile
The seat covers the southern end of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. Tourism is a significant sector in this former mining area.
History
St Ives has elected MPs to every Parliament since 1558, except for a brief period during the Protectorate. It was originally a mere parliamentary borough that returned two MPs until the Great Reform Act of 1832, when its representation was cut to a single member. In 1885 the borough was abolished, but the St Ives name was transferred to the surrounding county constituency.
St Ives borough
The borough established under Queen Mary consisted of the parish of St Ives in western Cornwall, a seaport and market town in which the main economic interests were fishing and the export of ores mined nearby. In 1831, the population of the borough was 4,776, and contained 1,002 houses.
The franchise was initially restricted to the town corporation, but after a judgment in a disputed election in 1702 the right to vote was given to all inhabitants paying scot and lot; in the early 19th century this amounted to a little over 300 voters. This was a wide franchise for the period, and its reasonable size meant that St Ives was one of the few Cornish boroughs that could claim not to be rotten.
Elections were usually contested. Local wealthiest families were able to exercise considerable influence on the outcome yet none was predominant. The result could rarely be taken for granted and it was necessary to court the voters assiduously. From the 17th century were three such families from the first: the Hobart family, the Praeds (at the time of Treventhoe manor), and the Dukes of Bolton (the Paulet family) – to which added by the mid 18th century the Stephens family. In 1751, however, John Stephens, who had previously allied himself with the Earl of Buckinghamshire (a Hobart) and managed the borough's elections on his behalf, "struck out on his own account" (defected independently) and secured the election of his son. Later in the decade Stephens and the Earl once more began to work together, but were unable to prevent Humphrey Mackworth Praed from establishing sufficient influence to sway one of the two seats.
By 1761 alliances coalesced, the Earl and Praed on one side nominating candidates against Stephens and the Duke of Bolton on the other. The by-election in 1763, when Buckinghamshire's brother-in-law Charles Hotham was re-elected after being appointed to a position in the Royal Household, cost the Earl £1,175 including 7 guineas each to 124 people, resulting in an uncontested election.
There was a further bitterly contested election in 1774: allegations of bribery were investigated by a House of Commons committee, whose proceedings are recounted at length by the contemporary historian of electoral abuses, Thomas Oldfield. Samuel Stephens, defeated by 7 votes, accused William Praed and Adam Drummond (the Duke of Bolton's candidate) of benefiting from several types of corruption. Humphrey Mackworth Praed, William's father, was said to have lent large sums to voters on the understanding that repayment would not be demanded if they voted for Praed and Drummond; but opposing counsel adduced evidence that Stephens had also resorted to bribery. However, it was alleged that many of Stephens' supporters had been prevented from voting, by rating them as not liable for scot and lot and so not eligible to vote; this disenfranchisement was a frequent abuse in such boroughs. His side, as petitioners, failed to bring any evidence of criminal misconduct by the parish overseers so the committee decided they had no jurisdiction to interfere. In the end, the committee upheld Drummond's election and declared that neither Stephens nor Praed had been properly elected, thus a writ was issued for a by-election to fill the second seat.
The cost of electioneering in St Ives seems eventually to have led to Buckinghamshire and Bolton withdrawing, and by 1784 Praed was considered unchallenged as patron. Nevertheless, Stephens' influence was not extinguished, and it was recorded that the patrons at the time of the Reform Act were Samuel Stephens of Tregarron and Sir Christopher Hawkins of Trewithan (who had purchased the manor of Mr Praed).
The Reform Act extended the boundaries, bringing in the neighbouring parishes of Lelant and Towednack and reduced the two St Ives seats to one. A new high of 584 voters qualified at the first reformed election, that of 1832.
On extension of the franchise in 1868 of the "second Reform Act", the electorate never passed 1,500, and had fallen to barely 1,000 by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the cornerstone of the third reform legislation, under which the "borough" for its parliamentary definition was abolished that year, the area becoming contributory to a larger county division.
St Ives county constituency
1885–1918
Division of counties into single-member constituencies was effected in 1885: Cornwall having six. The westernmost of these, in which St Ives stood, was formally The Western or St Ives Division of Cornwall but was most often referred to simply as St Ives or as West Cornwall.
This area included Penzance, Paul, Ludgvan and St Just, and stretched not only from Land's End to St Erth but also included the Isles of Scilly. This duchy seat was abnormally low in owner-occupiers, with many "nonconformist" Christians and the Conservatives were consequently very weak. However, local sentiment was strongly against Irish Home Rule or independence, seen as a particular threat to the livelihood of the fishermen and other maritime employees who made up much of the electorate, and St Ives therefore became a Liberal Unionist stronghold from 1886.
1918–1983
After the boundary revisions introduced at the general election of 1918, which brought in most of the villages on the Lizard Peninsula (though not Helston), the constituency was simply called Cornwall, St Ives. It underwent further boundary changes in 1950, bringing Helston into the constituency, and in 1983, when it was extended to include all of the Penwith local government district.
The character of the constituency was little changed any of these revisions, but party loyalties may have been disrupted by the 1918 changes. Labour put up a candidate for the first time in 1918, and took more than a third of the vote; at the next election, with Labour withdrawing and the Irish issue no longer able to help Cory, a Conservative was elected for the first time. For the next decade St Ives was a Conservative-Liberal marginal, changing hands four times in the 1920s. However, the formal split of National Liberals from the Liberals offered a popular compromise which suited the voters, so much so as to be a safe seat, and later for Conservatives when the National Liberals finally merged with them in the 1960s, until the formation of the Liberal Democrats re-invigorated the competition in the 1990s. Andrew George captured the seat after the retirement of the sitting Conservative MP in 1997, and took over half the vote in both 2001 and 2005.
Prominent members
1885–date
Walter Runciman held the most senior positions in Education, Agriculture and Trade taking together the period from 1908 until 1916 during the Asquith ministry. He was later re-appointed as the most senior minister in Trade from 1931 to 1937 in the all-party National Coalition Government.
Sir John Nott also held the most senior position in the Trade department before becoming Secretary of State for Defence, including during the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands and the ensuing Falklands War. His assertion that he was cutting the defence budget before the war was not capricious and he offered his resignation to Margaret Thatcher, however she kept him for the duration of the conflict and he stood down in 1983.
Usual late count in modern elections
At general elections, the constituency is usually one of the last to declare a result - the delay in bringing the ballot boxes over from the Isles of Scilly means that counting does not begin until the following day. In the 2015 general election it was the last constituency in the United Kingdom to declare, because the ballot boxes were flown in from the Isles of Scilly only on the first scheduled flight the following morning, having been kept in police cells overnight on St Mary's, with the declaration taking place at 15:30 on Friday afternoon. However, in 1987 and 1992 the constituency did count during the night rather than the next day. The seat was declared at about 1:30 am in 1987 and about 3:45 am in 1992. In 2019 it was planned to fly the ballot boxes in overnight, but bad weather prevented this and the seat was the last to declare in the UK.
Boundaries
Map of current boundaries
1885–1918: The Boroughs of St Ives and Penzance, the Sessional Division of West Penwith (including the Isles of Scilly), and the parishes of St Erth and Uny-Lelant.
1918–1950: The Boroughs of St Ives and Penzance, the Urban Districts of Ludgvan, Madron, Paul, and St Just, the Rural District of West Penwith, the Isles of Scilly, and part of the Rural District of Helston.
1950–1983: The Boroughs of St Ives, Penzance, and Helston, the Urban District of St Just, the Isles of Scilly, and parts of the Rural Districts of Kerrier and West Penwith.
1983–2010: The District of Penwith, the District of Kerrier wards of Breage and Germoe, Crowan, Grade-Ruan and Landewednack, Helston North, Helston South, Meneage, Mullion, Porthleven, St Keverne and Wendron, and Sithney, and the Isles of Scilly.
2010–present: The District of Penwith wards of Goldsithney, Gulval and Heamoor, Lelant and Carbis Bay, Ludgvan and Towednack, Madron and Zennor, Marazion and Perranuthnoe, Morvah, Pendeen and St Just, Penzance Central, Penzance East, Penzance Promenade, Penzance South, St Buryan, St Erth and St Hilary, St Ives North, and St Ives South, the District of Kerrier wards of Breage and Crowan, Grade-Ruan and Landewednack, Helston North, Helston South, Meneage, Mullion, Porthleven and Sithney, and St Keverne, and the Isles of Scilly.
The St Ives constituency covers the southwest of Cornwall, taking in the most southerly and westerly points of England (both its mainland and if islands are included), taking in parts of the former Penwith and Kerrier Districts. The main towns in the constituency are Penzance, St Ives and Helston. It also includes the Isles of Scilly, not shown on the map (having 1,700 electors out of a total of 63,000). The seat includes the Tate St Ives, St Michael's Mount (also an island) and Land's End.
Following the Boundary Commission' Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, Parliament increased the number of seats in the county from five to six for the 2010 general election, thus St Ives saw a loss of wards to the new Camborne and Redruth seat, including the St Ives Bay town of Hayle.
Proposed
Further to the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, enacted by the Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023, from the 2024 United Kingdom general election, the constituency will be composed of the following electoral divisions of Cornwall (as they existed on 4th May 2021):
Crowan, Sithney & Wendron; Helston North; Helston South & Meneage; Land’s End; Long Rock, Marazion & St Erth; Ludgvan, Madron, Gulval & Heamoor; Mousehole, Newlyn & St Buryan; Mullion & St Keverne; Penzance East; Penzance Promenade; Porthleven, Breage & Germoe; St Ives East, Lelant & Carbis Bay; St Ives West & Towednack; and
The Isles of Scilly.
Minor changes to align with revised electoral division boundaries and bring the electorate within the permitted range.vteCivil parishes of St Ives constituency Cornwall
Breage
Bryher
Crowan
Cury
Germoe
Grade–Ruan
Gunwalloe
Helston
Landewednack
Ludgvan
Madron
Marazion
Manaccan
Mawgan-in-Meneage
Morvah
Mullion
Penzance
Perranuthnoe
Porthleven
Sancreed
Sennen
Sithney
St Agnes
St Anthony-in-Meneage
St Buryan, Lamorna and Paul
St Erth
St Hilary
St Ives
St Just
St Keverne
St Levan
St Martin's
St Martin-in-Meneage
St Mary's
St Michael's Mount
Towednack
Tresco
Zennor
Cornwall Portal
Members of Parliament
1558–1629
Parliament of 1558
Thomas Randolph
William Chambers
Parliament of 1559
Robert Harrington
William Glasiour
Parliament of 1563–1567
John Harrington
Parliament of 1571
Thomas Clinton
John Newman
Parliament of 1572–1581
Thomas Randolph
Edward Williams
Parliament of 1584–1585
John James
Charles Blount
Parliament of 1586–1587
Thomas Colby
John Morley
Parliament of 1588–1589
Mark Steward
Henry Hobart
Parliament of 1593
Noel Sotherton
Nicholas Saunders
Parliament of 1597–1598
Vincent Skinner
Parliament of 1601
Thomas St Aubyn
Thomas Barton
Parliament of 1604–1611
John Tregannon
William Brook
Addled Parliament (1614)
Sir Joseph Killigrew
Sir Anthony Maney also elected for CirencesterThomas Tindall
Parliament of 1621–1622
Lord St John
Robert Bacon
Happy Parliament (1624–1625)
William Lake
Sir Francis Godolphin
Useless Parliament (1625)
Sir William Parkhurst
Parliament of 1625–1626
Edward Savage
Benjamin Tichborne also elected for PetersfieldWilliam Noy
Parliament of 1628–1629
John Payne
Francis Godolphin
No Parliament summoned 1629–1640
1640–1832
Year
First member
First party
Second member
Second party
April 1640
William Dell
Sir Henry Marten
November 1640
Lord Lisle
Parliamentarian
Francis Godolphin
Parliamentarian
1641 (?)
Edmund Waller
Royalist
July 1643
Waller disabled from sitting – seat vacant
1647
John Feilder
Recruiter
December 1648
Godolphin not recorded as sitting after Pride's Purge
1653
St Ives was unrepresented in the Barebones Parliament and the First and Second Parliaments of the Protectorate
January 1659
John St Aubyn
Peter Silly
May 1659
John Feilder
One seat vacant
May 1660
James Praed
John St Aubyn
July 1660
Edward Nosworthy, senior
March 1661
James Praed
December 1661
John Basset
1662
Daniel O'Neill
1665
Edward Nosworthy, senior
1679
Edward Nosworthy, junior
1681
James Praed
1685
Charles Davenant
Tory
James St. Amand
1689
James Praed
Walter Vincent
1690
William Harris
1695
John Michell
1698
Sir Charles Wyndham
January 1701
Benjamin Overton
December 1701
Sir John Hawles
Whig
1702
Richard Chaundler
1702
John Pitt
1705
Sir Bartholomew Gracedieu
John Borlase
1708
John Praed
1710
John Hopkins
1713
Sir William Pendarves
1715
Lord Harry Powlett
Whig
Sir John Hobart
1722
Henry Knollys
1727
Major-General Sir Robert Rich
1734
William Mackworth Praed
1741
John Bristow
Lieutenant-Colonel Gregory Beake
July 1747
Lord Hobart
December 1747
John Plumptre
1751
Samuel Stephens
1754
Hon. George Hobart
James Whitshed
1761
Humphrey Mackworth Praed
Colonel Charles Hotham
1768
Thomas Durrant
Adam Drummond
1774
William Praed
1775
Thomas Wynn
1778
Philip Dehany
1780
William Praed
Abel Smith
1784
Richard Barwell
1790
William Mills
1796
Sir Richard Glyn
1802
Jonathan Raine
1806
Samuel Stephens
Francis Horner
Whig
1807
Sir Walter Stirling, 1st Baronet
1812
William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley
Tory
1818
Samuel Stephens
1820
Lyndon Evelyn
Tory
James Graham
Whig
1821
Sir Christopher Hawkins, Bt
Tory
1826
James Halse
Tory
1828
Charles Arbuthnot
Tory
1830
William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley
Ultra Tory
James Morrison
Whig
1831
James Halse
Tory
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
Whig
1832
Representation reduced to one member
1832–1885
Election
Member
Party
1832
James Halse
Tory
1834
Conservative
1838 by-election
William Tyringham Praed
Conservative
1846 by-election
Lord William Powlett
Conservative
1852
Robert Laffan
Peelite
1857
Henry Paull
Conservative
1868
Charles Magniac
Liberal
1874
Edward Davenport
Conservative
1874 by-election
Charles Praed
Conservative
1875 by-election
Charles Praed
Conservative
1880
Sir Charles Reed
Liberal
1881 by-election
Charles Campbell Ross
Conservative
1885
Borough abolished; name transferred to county division
Since 1885
Election
Member
Party
1885
Sir John St Aubyn
Liberal
1886
Liberal Unionist
1887 by-election
Thomas Bedford Bolitho
Liberal Unionist
1900
Edward Hain
Liberal Unionist
1904
Liberal
1906
Clifford Cory
Liberal
1922
Anthony Hawke
Conservative
1923
Clifford Cory
Liberal
1924
Anthony Hawke
Conservative
1928 by-election
Hilda Runciman
Liberal
1929
Walter Runciman
Liberal
1931
National Liberal
1937 by-election
Alec Beechman
National Liberal
1950
Greville Howard
National Liberal
1966
John Nott
National Liberal
1968
Conservative
1983
David Harris
Conservative
1997
Andrew George
Liberal Democrat
2015
Derek Thomas
Conservative
Elections
St Ives electoral history
Elections in the 2020s
General election 2024: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Labour
Filson Ali
Green
Ian Flindall
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
The Common People
John Harris
Independent
Dave Laity
Reform UK
Giane Mortimer
Liberal
Paul Nicholson
UKIP
Jason Saunders
Conservative
Derek Thomas
Majority
Turnout
Registered electors
Swing
Elections in the 2010s
General election 2019: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Derek Thomas
25,365
49.3
+6.1
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
21,085
41.0
-1.6
Labour
Alana Bates
3,553
6.9
-7.4
Green
Ian Flindall
964
1.9
New
Liberal
Robert Smith
314
0.6
New
Common People
John Harris
132
0.3
New
Majority
4,280
8.3
+7.7
Turnout
51,413
74.9
-1.0
Conservative hold
Swing
+3.9
General election 2017: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Derek Thomas
22,120
43.2
+4.9
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
21,808
42.6
+9.4
Labour
Christopher Drew
7,298
14.3
+5.0
Majority
312
0.6
-4.5
Turnout
51,226
75.9
+2.2
Conservative hold
Swing
-2.3
General election 2015: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Derek Thomas
18,491
38.3
−0.7
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
16,022
33.2
−9.5
UKIP
Graham Calderwood
5,720
11.8
+6.2
Labour
Cornelius Olivier
4,510
9.3
+1.1
Green
Tim Andrewes
3,051
6.3
+3.5
Mebyon Kernow
Rob Simmons
518
1.1
+0.3
Majority
2,469
5.1
N/A
Turnout
48,312
73.7
+5.1
Conservative gain from Liberal Democrats
Swing
+4.5
General election 2010: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
19,619
42.7
−9.1
Conservative
Derek Thomas
17,900
39.0
+11.7
Labour
Philippa Latimer
3,751
8.2
-4.4
UKIP
Michael Faulkner
2,560
5.6
+1.3
Green
Tim Andrewes
1,308
2.8
-1.1
Cornish Democrats
Johnathan Rogers
396
0.9
New
Mebyon Kernow
Simon Reed
387
0.8
New
Majority
1,719
3.7
−19.3
Turnout
45,921
68.6
+0.8
Registered electors
66,944
Liberal Democrats hold
Swing
-10.4
Elections in the 2000s
General election 2005: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
25,577
50.7
−0.9
Conservative
Christian Mitchell
13,968
27.7
-3.5
Labour
Michael Dooley
6,583
13.1
-0.2
UKIP
Michael Faulkner
2,551
5.1
+2.2
Green
Katrina Slack
1,738
3.4
New
Majority
11,609
23.0
+2.6
Turnout
50,417
72.4
+6.1
Registered electors
74,716
Liberal Democrats hold
Swing
+1.3
General election 2001: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
25,413
51.6
+7.1
Conservative
Joanna Richardson
15,360
31.2
0.0
Labour
William Morris
6,567
13.3
-1.9
UKIP
Michael Faulkner
1,926
3.9
+2.8
Majority
10,053
20.4
+7.1
Turnout
49,266
66.3
-8.9
Registered electors
74,256
Liberal Democrats hold
Swing
-3.6
Elections in the 1990s
General election 1997: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
23,966
44.5
+4.4
Conservative
William Rogers
16,796
31.2
-11.7
Labour
Christopher Fegan
8,184
15.2
-0.8
Referendum
Michael Faulkner
3,714
6.9
New
UKIP
Patricia Garnier
567
1.1
New
Liberal
Frederick Stephens
425
0.8
-0.2
Independent
Kevin Lippiat
178
0.3
New
Independent
William Hitchins
71
0.1
New
Majority
7,170
13.3
N/A
Turnout
55,260
75.2
-5.1
Registered electors
71,680
Liberal Democrats gain from Conservative
Swing
+8.1
General election 1992: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
David Harris
24,528
42.9
-5.5
Liberal Democrats
Andrew George
22,883
40.1
+6.3
Labour
Stephen Warren
9,144
16.0
-1.8
Liberal
Graham Stephens
577
1.0
New
Majority
1,645
2.8
-11.8
Turnout
57,132
80.3
+3.1
Registered electors
71,152
Conservative hold
Swing
Elections in the 1980s
General election 1987: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
David Harris
25,174
48.4
-3.0
SDP
Hugh Carter
17,619
33.8
-1.0
Labour
Ian Hope
9,275
17.8
+6.6
Majority
7,555
14.6
-2.0
Turnout
52,059
77.2
+3.3
Registered electors
67,448
Conservative hold
Swing
General election 1983: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
David Harris
24,297
51.4
-2.6
SDP
Hugh Carter
16,438
34.8
+14.7
Labour
Mary Crowley
5,310
11.2
-9.7
Mebyon Kernow
Pedyr Prior
569
1.2
-2.8
Ecology
H. Hoptrough
439
0.9
-0.1
Independent
W.N.A. Horner
219
0.5
New
Majority
7,859
16.6
-16.5
Turnout
47,272
73.9
-3.1
Registered electors
64,012
Conservative hold
Swing
Elections in the 1970s
General election 1979: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
John Nott
22,352
54.0
+8.6
Labour
Richard Evans
8,636
20.9
-3.9
Liberal
J. Cotton
8,299
20.1
-9.7
Mebyon Kernow
Colin Murley
1,662
4.0
New
Ecology
H. Hoptrough
427
1.0
New
Majority
13,716
33.1
+17.7
Turnout
41,376
77.0
+3.3
Registered electors
53,715
Conservative hold
Swing
General election October 1974: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
John Nott
17,198
45.4
+0.3
Liberal
Terence Tonkin
11,330
29.8
-1.9
Labour
Bruce Tidy
9,388
24.8
+4.7
Majority
5,868
15.4
+2.0
Turnout
37,916
73.7
-5.7
Registered electors
51,440
Conservative hold
Swing
General election February 1974: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
John Nott
18,290
45.1
-5.8
Liberal
Terence Tonkin
12,865
31.7
+9.8
Labour
Bruce Tidy
9,231
20.1
-7.1
Independent
G. T. Taylor
177
0.4
New
Majority
5,425
13.4
-10.3
Turnout
40,561
79.4
+4.3
Registered electors
51,092
Conservative hold
Swing
General election 1970: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
John Nott
18,581
50.9
+9.6
Labour
Maureen Castle
9,913
27.2
-3.8
Liberal
Howard Levett Fry
7,981
21.9
-5.8
Majority
8,688
23.7
+13.4
Turnout
36,476
75.1
-2.8
Registered electors
48,063
Conservative hold
Swing
+6.7
Elections in the 1960s
General election 1966: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
John Nott
14,312
41.3
-1.3
Labour
Thomas F. G. Jones
10,713
31.0
+2.9
Liberal
John C. T. Trewin
9,593
27.7
-1.6
Majority
3,599
10.3
-3.0
Turnout
34,620
77.9
+2.8
Registered electors
44,419
National Liberal hold
Swing
-2.1
General election 1964: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Greville Howard
14,040
42.6
-5.3
Liberal
Gerald Edward Leaman Whitmarsh
9,641
29.3
+4.1
Labour
Thomas F. G. Jones
9,265
28.1
+1.2
Majority
4,399
13.3
-7.7
Turnout
32,946
75.1
+0.7
Registered electors
43,890
National Liberal hold
Swing
-4.7
Elections in the 1950s
General election 1959: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Greville Howard
15,700
47.9
-4.1
Labour
Duncan Longden
8,802
26.9
-2.8
Liberal
Gerald Edward Leaman Whitmarsh
8,258
25.2
+6.6
Majority
6,898
21.0
-1.3
Turnout
32,760
74.4
+0.5
Registered electors
44,010
National Liberal hold
Swing
-0.7
General election 1955: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Greville Howard
17,063
52.0
-1.3
Labour
Leslie Statton Pawley
9,728
29.7
-2.1
Liberal
Desmond Banks
6,020
18.6
+3.7
Majority
7,335
22.3
+0.7
Turnout
32,811
73.9
-4.8
Registered electors
44,374
National Liberal hold
Swing
+0.4
General election 1951: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Greville Howard
18,828
53.3
+7.3
Labour Co-op
Arthur Maddison
11,216
31.8
+1.1
Liberal
John Denis Gilbert Kellock
5,273
14.9
-8.4
Majority
7,612
21.6
+6.3
Turnout
35,317
78.7
-2.9
Registered electors
44,885
National Liberal hold
Swing
+3.1
General election 1950: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Greville Howard
16,653
46.0
-1.3
Labour
Peter Shore
11,118
30.7
+3.5
Liberal
Eric Farquhar Allison
8,421
23.3
-2.2
Majority
5,535
15.3
-4.8
Turnout
36,192
81.6
+11.0
Registered electors
44,342
National Liberal hold
Swing
Elections in the 1940s
General election 1945: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Alec Beechman
14,256
47.3
-3.1
Labour
Henry Brinton
8,190
27.2
New
Liberal
Eric Farquhar Allison
7,692
25.5
-24.1
Majority
6,066
20.1
+19.3
Turnout
30,138
70.6
+4.5
Registered electors
42,706
National Liberal hold
Swing
N/A
General election 1939–40:
Another general election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected;
Liberal National: Alec Beechman
Liberal:
Labour:
Elections in the 1930s
1937 St Ives by-election
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Alec Beechman
13,044
50.4
N/A
Liberal
Isaac Foot
12,834
49.6
New
Majority
210
0.8
N/A
Turnout
25,878
66.1
N/A
Registered electors
39,149
National Liberal hold
Swing
General election 1935: St. Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Walter Runciman
Unopposed
Registered electors
39,378
National Liberal hold
General election 1931: St. Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
National Liberal
Walter Runciman
Unopposed
Registered electors
38,230
National Liberal hold
Elections in the 1920s
General election 1929: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Walter Runciman
12,443
43.2
+0.6
Unionist
Andrew Caird
11,411
39.7
+0.3
Labour
William Edward Arnold-Forster
4,920
17.1
-0.9
Majority
1,032
3.5
+0.3
Turnout
28,764
76.5
-0.9
Registered electors
37,593
Liberal hold
Swing
+0.2
1928 St Ives by-election: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Hilda Runciman
10,241
42.6
-4.4
Unionist
Andrew Caird
9,478
39.4
-13.6
Labour
Frederick Jesse Hopkins
4,343
18.0
New
Majority
763
3.2
N/A
Turnout
24,062
77.4
+8.3
Registered electors
31,096
Liberal gain from Unionist
Swing
+4.6
General election 1924: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Unionist
Anthony Hawke
11,159
53.0
+12.4
Liberal
Clifford Cory
9,912
47.0
+0.5
Majority
1,247
6.0
N/A
Turnout
21,071
69.1
-2.3
Registered electors
30,512
Unionist gain from Liberal
Swing
+6.0
General election 1923: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Clifford Cory
9,922
46.5
0.0
Unionist
Anthony Hawke
8,652
40.6
-12.9
Labour
Albert Dunn
2,749
12.9
New
Majority
1,270
5.9
12.9
Turnout
21,323
71.4
+5.8
Registered electors
29,877
Liberal gain from Unionist
Swing
+6.5
General election 1922: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Unionist
Anthony Hawke
10,388
53.5
New
National Liberal
Clifford Cory
9,016
46.5
-12.1
Majority
1,372
7.0
N/A
Turnout
19,404
65.6
+13.9
Registered electors
29,561
Unionist gain from National Liberal
Swing
N/A
Elections in the 1910s
General election 1918: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
C
Liberal
Clifford Cory
8,659
58.6
+2.6
Labour
Albert Dunn
5,659
38.4
New
Ind. Unionist
Thomas Francis Tregoy Mitchell
436
3.0
New
Majority
3,000
20.2
+8.2
Turnout
14,754
51.7
-29.0
Registered electors
28,537
Liberal hold
Swing
N/A
C indicates candidate endorsed by the coalition government.
General election 1914–15:
Another general election was required to take place before the end of 1915. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place and by July 1914, the following candidates had been selected;
Liberal: Clifford Cory
Unionist: Anthony Hawke
General election December 1910: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Clifford Cory
4,253
56.0
+0.6
Liberal Unionist
Roland Edmund Lomax Vaughan-Williams
3,338
44.0
-0.6
Majority
915
12.0
+1.2
Turnout
7,591
80.7
-4.8
Registered electors
9,411
Liberal hold
Swing
+0.6
General election January 1910: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Clifford Cory
4,458
55.4
-2.8
Liberal Unionist
Cecil Levita
3,586
44.6
+2.8
Majority
872
10.8
-5.6
Turnout
8,044
85.5
+4.3
Registered electors
9,411
Liberal hold
Swing
-2.8
Elections in the 1900s
Clifford Cory
General election 1906: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Clifford Cory
4,244
58.2
New
Liberal Unionist
Philip Pilditch
3,052
41.8
N/A
Majority
1,192
16.4
N/A
Turnout
7,296
81.2
N/A
Registered electors
8,980
Liberal gain from Liberal Unionist
Swing
N/A
General election 1900: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Unionist
Edward Hain
Unopposed
Registered electors
8,369
Liberal Unionist hold
Elections in the 1890s
General election 1895: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Unionist
Thomas Bedford Bolitho
Unopposed
Registered electors
7,569
Liberal Unionist hold
General election 1892: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Unionist
Thomas Bedford Bolitho
Unopposed
Registered electors
7,130
Liberal Unionist hold
Elections in the 1880s
By-election, 9 July 1887: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Unionist
Thomas Bedford Bolitho
Unopposed
Liberal Unionist hold
Caused by St. Aubyn's elevation to the peerage, becoming Lord St. Levan.
General election 1886: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal Unionist
John St Aubyn
3,395
79.3
+35.6
Liberal
Samuel Barrow
888
20.7
−35.6
Majority
2,507
58.6
N/A
Turnout
4,283
56.3
−21.1
Registered electors
7,606
Liberal Unionist gain from Liberal
Swing
+35.6
General election 1885: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
John St Aubyn
3,313
56.3
+3.7
Conservative
Charles Campbell Ross
2,576
43.7
−3.7
Majority
737
12.6
+7.4
Turnout
5,889
77.4
−4.2
Registered electors
7,606
Liberal hold
Swing
+3.7
By-election, 13 April 1881: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Charles Campbell Ross
462
56.2
+8.8
Liberal
William Cole Pendarves
360
43.8
−8.8
Majority
102
12.4
N/A
Turnout
822
81.2
−0.4
Registered electors
1,012
Conservative gain from Liberal
Swing
+8.8
Caused by Reed's death.
General election 1880: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Charles Reed
487
52.6
+16.1
Conservative
Charles Campbell Ross
439
47.4
−16.1
Majority
48
5.2
N/A
Turnout
926
81.6
−1.1
Registered electors
1,135
Liberal gain from Conservative
Swing
+16.1
Elections in the 1870s
1875 St Ives by-election
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Charles Praed
658
54.5
-9.0
Liberal
Francis Lycett
550
45.5
+9.0
Majority
108
9.0
-18.0
Turnout
1,208
85.7
+3.0
Registered electors
1,410
Conservative hold
Swing
-9.0
Caused by the previous by-election being declared void on petition, on grounds of "general treating".
By-election, 30 December 1874: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Charles Praed
617
52.8
−10.7
Liberal
Francis Lycett
552
47.2
+10.7
Majority
65
5.6
−21.4
Turnout
1,169
81.7
−1.0
Registered electors
1,430
Conservative hold
Swing
−10.7
Caused by Davenport's death.
General election 1874: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Edward Davenport
751
63.5
New
Liberal
John Bedford Bolitho
432
36.5
N/A
Majority
319
27.0
N/A
Turnout
1,183
82.7
N/A
Registered electors
1,430
Conservative gain from Liberal
Swing
N/A
Elections in the 1860s
General election 1868: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Liberal
Charles Magniac
Unopposed
Registered electors
1,398
Liberal gain from Conservative
General election 1865: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Henry Paull
233
56.8
−9.6
Liberal
Edward Vivian
177
43.2
+9.6
Majority
56
13.6
−19.2
Turnout
410
84.4
+10.3
Registered electors
486
Conservative hold
Swing
−9.6
Elections in the 1850s
General election 1859: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Henry Paull
257
66.4
N/A
Liberal
Charles Frederick Giesler
130
33.6
New
Majority
127
32.8
N/A
Turnout
387
74.1
N/A
Registered electors
522
Conservative hold
Swing
N/A
General election 1857: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
Henry Paull
Unopposed
Registered electors
536
Conservative gain from Peelite
General election 1852: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Peelite
Robert Laffan
256
52.0
N/A
Conservative
Henry Paull
218
44.3
−20.7
Radical
Philip Edward Barnes
18
3.7
New
Majority
38
7.7
N/A
Turnout
492
85.1
+17.3
Registered electors
578
Peelite gain from Conservative
Swing
N/A
Elections in the 1840s
General election 1847: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
William Powlett
262
65.0
+14.6
Conservative
Peter Borthwick
141
35.0
−14.6
Majority
121
30.0
+29.2
Turnout
403
67.8
−22.2
Registered electors
594
Conservative hold
Swing
+14.6
By-election, 21 July 1846: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
William Powlett
Unopposed
Conservative hold
Caused by Praed's death.
General election 1841: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
William Tyringham Praed
272
50.4
+5.3
Conservative
Edwin Ley
268
49.6
−5.3
Majority
4
0.8
−9.0
Turnout
540
90.0
+4.5
Registered electors
600
Conservative hold
Swing
+5.3
Elections in the 1830s
By-election, 24 May 1838: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Conservative
William Tyringham Praed
256
50.8
+5.7
Conservative
Francis Hearle Stephens
248
49.2
−5.7
Majority
8
1.6
−8.2
Turnout
504
86.0
+0.5
Registered electors
586
Conservative hold
Swing
+5.7
Caused by Halse's death
General election 1837: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Conservative
James Halse
272
54.9
Conservative
William Tyringham Praed
223
45.1
Majority
49
9.8
Turnout
495
85.5
Registered electors
579
Conservative hold
General election 1835: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Conservative
James Halse
Unopposed
Registered electors
599
Conservative hold
General election 1832: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Tory
James Halse
302
59.3
Tory
William Mackworth Praed
168
33.0
Tory
Henry Lewis Stephens
39
7.7
Majority
134
26.3
Turnout
509
87.2
Registered electors
584
Tory hold
General election 1831: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
Tory
James Halse
Unopposed
Whig
Edward Lytton Bulwer
Unopposed
Registered electors
c. 499
Tory hold
Whig hold
General election 1830: St Ives
Party
Candidate
Votes
%
±%
Tory
William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley
217
39.5
Whig
James Morrison
181
33.0
Tory
James Halse
151
27.5
Turnout
316
c. 63.3
Registered electors
c. 499
Majority
36
6.5
Tory hold
Swing
Majority
30
5.5
N/A
Whig gain from Tory
Swing
See also
Cornwall portal
List of parliamentary constituencies in Cornwall
Notes
^ A county constituency (for the purposes of election expenses and type of returning officer).
^ As with all constituencies, the constituency elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election at least every five years.
^ Earls of Buckinghamshire from 1746.
^ Lord of a local manor.
^ Presumably paid to qualified voters, ensuring that it would be futile to contest here.
^ in his Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland.
^ Even though its MP from 1906, Sir Clifford Cory, was nominally a Liberal rather than a Unionist and stood against Liberal Unionists, he consistently stated his opposition to Irish Home Rule to voters at each election.
^ Possibly this is John Harington (treasurer).
^ The Dictionary of National Biography records that Blount was elected for Berealston, which he certainly represented in the following two Parliaments; but Browne Willis (whose information on the Parliament of 1584-5 Neale refers to as "fairly reliable") gives two other names for Berealston and lists Blount for St Ives.
^ Lisle was also elected for Yarmouth (Isle of Wight), which he chose to represent, and did not sit for St Ives.
^ In April 1660, St Ives made a double return; on 5 May 1660, the Commons resolved "That John St Aubyn and James Praed, esqrs, being duly returned by the proper officers, they ought to sit".
^ Hobart was also elected for Norwich, which he chose to represent, and never sat for St Ives.
^ On petition, Praed was declared not to have been duly elected, and a by-election was held.
^ Created The Lord Newborough (in the Peerage of Ireland) in 1776.
References
^ "England Parliamentary electorates 2010-2018". Boundary Commission for England. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
^ Library, House of Commons (23 June 2017). "GE2017: Marginal seats and turnout".
^ UK Polling Report http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/2015guide/stives/
^ "There are places of worship for the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, Primitive Methodists, and Wesleyans, which last have also a meeting-house in the village of Halsetown" Samuel Lewis, ed. (1848). "Ives, St. (parish of St Andrew)". A Topographical Dictionary of England. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
^ "Order of Declaration in the 2001 Election". demon.co.uk.
^ Scilly’s Polling Stations Open But Result Expected To Be Latest In UK, Scilly Today, 7 May 2015
^ BBC News Lib Dems defeated by Conservatives in Cornwall (8 May 2015)
^ "Final recommendations for Parliamentary constituencies in the county of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly". Boundary Commission for England. 9 January 2005. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
^ Fifth periodic report - Non-Metropolitan Counties and the Unitary Authorities The Stationery Office Published 26 February 2007 ISBN 0-10-170322-8
^ "The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023". Schedule 1 Part 7 South West region.
^ a b c d Leigh Rayment's Historical List of MPs – Constituencies beginning with "S" (part 1)
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Stooks Smith, Henry. (1973) . Craig, F. W. S. (ed.). The Parliaments of England (2nd ed.). Chichester: Parliamentary Research Services. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-900178-13-2.
^ "The General Election". Morning Post. 13 July 1852. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
^ Kate Kennally (7 June 2024). "STATEMENT OF PERSONS NOMINATED, NOTICE OF POLL AND SITUATION OF POLLING STATIONS - St Ives" (PDF). Cornwall Council. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
^ "St Ives Parliamentary constituency". BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
^ "St Ives parliamentary constituency". BBC News.
^ "UK Polling Report". ukpollingreport.co.uk.
^ "Candidates (PPCs) for St Ives in the UK 2015 general election – YourNextMP.com". YourNextMP. 14 December 2021.
^ "St Ives". BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
^ Lavery, Kevin (20 April 2010). "St. Ives statement of persons nominated and notice of poll" (PDF). Acting Returning Officer, Cornwall Council. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
^ "BBC NEWS – Election 2010 – St Ives". BBC News.
^ "Politics Resources". Election 1992. Politics Resources. 9 April 1992. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
^ "UK General Election results June 1987". Richard Kimber's Political Science Resource. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
^ "UK General Election results June 1983". Politics Resources. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
^ "UK General Election results May 1979". Politics Resources. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
^ a b c d e f g British parliamentary election results, 1950-1973 by FWS Craig
^ The Times' Guide to the House of Commons. 1951.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Craig, F. W. S. (1983). British parliamentary election results 1918-1949 (3 ed.). Chichester: Parliamentary Research Services. ISBN 0-900178-06-X.
^ a b c d e f g h i British parliamentary election results, 1885-1918 (Craig)
^ "The General Election". Huddersfield Chronicle. 8 July 1886. p. 4. Retrieved 10 December 2017 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "St Ives Election. Return Of Mr C C Ross". The Cornishman. No. 144. 14 April 1881. p. 8.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Craig, F. W. S., ed. (1977). British Parliamentary Election Results 1832-1885 (e-book) (1st ed.). London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-1-349-02349-3.
^ "The St Ives Election Petition". Cornish Telegraph. 24 February 1875. p. 3. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "St Ives". Western Morning News. 2 February 1874. p. 5. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "Candidates". Western Morning News. 3 July 1865. p. 3. Retrieved 17 March 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "St Ives". Royal Cornwall Gazette. 6 May 1859. p. 10. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "Borough of St. Ives". Royal Cornwall Gazette. 16 July 1852. p. 7. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "Election Intelligence". Morning Chronicle. 12 July 1852. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ "The General Election". Western Times. 7 August 1847. pp. 6–7. Retrieved 30 November 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.
^ a b Jenkins, Terry. "St. Ives". The History of Parliament. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
Sources
F. W. S. Craig, British Parliamentary Election Results 1832 - 1885
F. W. S. Craig, British Parliamentary Election Results 1885 - 1918
Election results, 1950 - 2005
Robert Beatson, A Chronological Register of Both Houses of Parliament (London: Longman, Hurst, Res & Orme, 1807) A Chronological Register of Both Houses of the British Parliament, from the Union in 1708, to the Third Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1807
D. Brunton & D. H. Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954)
Cobbett's Parliamentary history of England, from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803 (London: Thomas Hansard, 1808) titles A-Z
Michael Kinnear, The British Voter (London: BH Batsford, Ltd, 1968)
Lewis Namier & John Brooke, The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1754-1790 (London: HMSO, 1964)
J. E. Neale, The Elizabethan House of Commons (London: Jonathan Cape, 1949)
T. H. B. Oldfield, The Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland (London: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, 1816)
Henry Pelling, Social Geography of British Elections 1885-1910 (London: Macmillan, 1967)
J Holladay Philbin, Parliamentary Representation 1832 - England and Wales (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965)
Edward Porritt and Annie G. Porritt, The Unreformed House of Commons (Cambridge University Press, 1903)
Willis, Browne (1750). Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ... London. p. 1.
Frederic A. Youngs Jr., Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England, Vol I (London: Royal Historical Society, 1979)
vteConstituencies in South West England (55)Conservative (45)
Bournemouth East
Bournemouth West
Bridgwater and West Somerset
Camborne and Redruth
Central Devon
Cheltenham
Chippenham
Christchurch
Devizes
East Devon
Filton and Bradley Stoke
Forest of Dean
Gloucester
Mid Dorset and North Poole
Newton Abbot
North Cornwall
North Devon
North Dorset
North East Somerset
North Somerset
North Wiltshire
Plymouth Moor View
Poole
Salisbury
South Dorset
South East Cornwall
South Swindon
South West Devon
South West Wiltshire
St Austell and Newquay
St Ives
Stroud
Swindon North
Taunton Deane
Tewkesbury
The Cotswolds
Thornbury and Yate
Torbay
Torridge and West Devon
Totnes
Truro and Falmouth
Wells
West Dorset
Weston-super-Mare
Yeovil
Labour (7)
Bristol East
Bristol North West
Bristol South
Bristol West
Exeter
Kingswood
Plymouth Sutton and Devonport
Liberal Democrats (3)
Bath
Somerton and Frome
Tiverton and Honiton
Not yet contested (17)
Bridgwater
Bristol Central
Bristol North East
East Wiltshire
Exmouth and Exeter East
Frome and East Somerset
Glastonbury and Somerton
Honiton and Sidmouth
Melksham and Devizes
North Cotswolds
North East Somerset and Hanham
South Cotswolds
South Devon
Taunton and Wellington
Tiverton and Minehead
Torridge and Tavistock
Wells and Mendip Hills
East Midlands
East of England
London
North East England
North West England
Northern Ireland
Scotland
South East England
South West England
Wales
West Midlands
Yorkshire and the Humber
Party affiliations are based on the situation as of the dissolution of parliament on 30 May 2024. Technically all seats are now vacant until the general election on 4 July 2024.
Authority control databases: People
UK Parliament
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_Kingdom_Parliament_constituencies"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Isles of Scilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"[n 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"UK Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Derek Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Thomas_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[n 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"2017 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"}],"text":"St Ives is a parliamentary constituency covering the western end of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.[n 1] The constituency has been represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2015 by Derek Thomas, a Conservative MP.[n 2]The area's voters produced the 22nd closest result in the 2017 general election;[2] a winning margin of 312 votes. Since 1992, the same locally leading two parties' candidates who were fielded (varying at different times) have won at least 27.2% of the vote each; the third placed candidate, that of the Labour Party, has fluctuated between 8.2% and 15.2% of share of the vote.","title":"St Ives (UK Parliament constituency)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The seat covers the southern end of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. Tourism is a significant sector in this former mining area.[3]","title":"Constituency profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"parliamentary borough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_borough"},{"link_name":"Great Reform Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Reform_Act"},{"link_name":"county constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_constituency"}],"text":"St Ives has elected MPs to every Parliament since 1558, except for a brief period during the Protectorate. It was originally a mere parliamentary borough that returned two MPs until the Great Reform Act of 1832, when its representation was cut to a single member. In 1885 the borough was abolished, but the St Ives name was transferred to the surrounding county constituency.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Queen Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"St Ives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Ives,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"scot and lot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scot_and_lot"},{"link_name":"rotten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_rotten_boroughs"},{"link_name":"Hobart family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_of_Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"[n 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Praeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praed_Street"},{"link_name":"Dukes of Bolton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Bolton"},{"link_name":"[n 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Charles Hotham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Charles_Hotham-Thompson,_8th_Baronet"},{"link_name":"[n 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[n 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Samuel Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Stephens_(senior)"},{"link_name":"William Praed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Praed"},{"link_name":"Adam Drummond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Drummond_(politician)"},{"link_name":"counsel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/counsel"},{"link_name":"Reform Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Act"},{"link_name":"Samuel Stephens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Stephens_(junior)"},{"link_name":"Sir Christopher Hawkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Christopher_Hawkins,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Lelant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelant"},{"link_name":"Towednack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Towednack"},{"link_name":"that of 1832","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Redistribution of Seats Act 1885","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistribution_of_Seats_Act_1885"},{"link_name":"that year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885_United_Kingdom_general_election"}],"sub_title":"St Ives borough","text":"The borough established under Queen Mary consisted of the parish of St Ives in western Cornwall, a seaport and market town in which the main economic interests were fishing and the export of ores mined nearby. In 1831, the population of the borough was 4,776, and contained 1,002 houses.The franchise was initially restricted to the town corporation, but after a judgment in a disputed election in 1702 the right to vote was given to all inhabitants paying scot and lot; in the early 19th century this amounted to a little over 300 voters. This was a wide franchise for the period, and its reasonable size meant that St Ives was one of the few Cornish boroughs that could claim not to be rotten.Elections were usually contested. Local wealthiest families were able to exercise considerable influence on the outcome yet none was predominant. The result could rarely be taken for granted and it was necessary to court the voters assiduously. From the 17th century were three such families from the first: the Hobart family,[n 3] the Praeds (at the time of Treventhoe manor), and the Dukes of Bolton (the Paulet family) [n 4] – to which added by the mid 18th century the Stephens family. In 1751, however, John Stephens, who had previously allied himself with the Earl of Buckinghamshire (a Hobart) and managed the borough's elections on his behalf, \"struck out on his own account\" (defected independently) and secured the election of his son. Later in the decade Stephens and the Earl once more began to work together, but were unable to prevent Humphrey Mackworth Praed from establishing sufficient influence to sway one of the two seats.By 1761 alliances coalesced, the Earl and Praed on one side nominating candidates against Stephens and the Duke of Bolton on the other. The by-election in 1763, when Buckinghamshire's brother-in-law Charles Hotham was re-elected after being appointed to a position in the Royal Household, cost the Earl £1,175 including 7 guineas each to 124 people, resulting in an uncontested election.[n 5]There was a further bitterly contested election in 1774: allegations of bribery were investigated by a House of Commons committee, whose proceedings are recounted at length by the contemporary historian of electoral abuses, Thomas Oldfield.[n 6] Samuel Stephens, defeated by 7 votes, accused William Praed and Adam Drummond (the Duke of Bolton's candidate) of benefiting from several types of corruption. Humphrey Mackworth Praed, William's father, was said to have lent large sums to voters on the understanding that repayment would not be demanded if they voted for Praed and Drummond; but opposing counsel adduced evidence that Stephens had also resorted to bribery. However, it was alleged that many of Stephens' supporters had been prevented from voting, by rating them as not liable for scot and lot and so not eligible to vote; this disenfranchisement was a frequent abuse in such boroughs. His side, as petitioners, failed to bring any evidence of criminal misconduct by the parish overseers so the committee decided they had no jurisdiction to interfere. In the end, the committee upheld Drummond's election and declared that neither Stephens nor Praed had been properly elected, thus a writ was issued for a by-election to fill the second seat.The cost of electioneering in St Ives seems eventually to have led to Buckinghamshire and Bolton withdrawing, and by 1784 Praed was considered unchallenged as patron. Nevertheless, Stephens' influence was not extinguished, and it was recorded that the patrons at the time of the Reform Act were Samuel Stephens of Tregarron and Sir Christopher Hawkins of Trewithan (who had purchased the manor of Mr Praed).The Reform Act extended the boundaries, bringing in the neighbouring parishes of Lelant and Towednack and reduced the two St Ives seats to one. A new high of 584 voters qualified at the first reformed election, that of 1832.On extension of the franchise in 1868 of the \"second Reform Act\", the electorate never passed 1,500, and had fallen to barely 1,000 by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, the cornerstone of the third reform legislation, under which the \"borough\" for its parliamentary definition was abolished that year, the area becoming contributory to a larger county division.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Penzance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance"},{"link_name":"Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Ludgvan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludgvan"},{"link_name":"St Just","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Just_in_Penwith"},{"link_name":"Land's End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%27s_End"},{"link_name":"St Erth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Erth"},{"link_name":"Isles of Scilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"duchy seat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"nonconformist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Irish Home Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule"},{"link_name":"Liberal Unionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Unionist"},{"link_name":"[n 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"general election of 1918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Lizard Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lizard_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Helston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helston"},{"link_name":"Helston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helston"},{"link_name":"Penwith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penwith"},{"link_name":"Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"National Liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberal_Party_(UK,_1931)"},{"link_name":"safe seat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_seat"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Andrew George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_George_(politician)"},{"link_name":"1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"over half the vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_majority"},{"link_name":"2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election"}],"sub_title":"St Ives county constituency","text":"1885–1918Division of counties into single-member constituencies was effected in 1885: Cornwall having six. The westernmost of these, in which St Ives stood, was formally The Western or St Ives Division of Cornwall but was most often referred to simply as St Ives or as West Cornwall.This area included Penzance, Paul, Ludgvan and St Just, and stretched not only from Land's End to St Erth but also included the Isles of Scilly. This duchy seat was abnormally low in owner-occupiers, with many \"nonconformist\" Christians[4] and the Conservatives were consequently very weak. However, local sentiment was strongly against Irish Home Rule or independence, seen as a particular threat to the livelihood of the fishermen and other maritime employees who made up much of the electorate, and St Ives therefore became a Liberal Unionist stronghold from 1886.[n 7]1918–1983After the boundary revisions introduced at the general election of 1918, which brought in most of the villages on the Lizard Peninsula (though not Helston), the constituency was simply called Cornwall, St Ives. It underwent further boundary changes in 1950, bringing Helston into the constituency, and in 1983, when it was extended to include all of the Penwith local government district.The character of the constituency was little changed any of these revisions, but party loyalties may have been disrupted by the 1918 changes. Labour put up a candidate for the first time in 1918, and took more than a third of the vote; at the next election, with Labour withdrawing and the Irish issue no longer able to help Cory, a Conservative was elected for the first time. For the next decade St Ives was a Conservative-Liberal marginal, changing hands four times in the 1920s. However, the formal split of National Liberals from the Liberals offered a popular compromise which suited the voters, so much so as to be a safe seat, and later for Conservatives when the National Liberals finally merged with them in the 1960s, until the formation of the Liberal Democrats re-invigorated the competition in the 1990s. Andrew George captured the seat after the retirement of the sitting Conservative MP in 1997, and took over half the vote in both 2001 and 2005.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walter Runciman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Runciman,_1st_Viscount_Runciman_of_Doxford"},{"link_name":"Asquith ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Government_1905-1915"},{"link_name":"National Coalition Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_National_Government"},{"link_name":"John Nott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nott"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State for Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Defence"},{"link_name":"Argentine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Falkland Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falkland_Islands"},{"link_name":"Falklands War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War"},{"link_name":"Margaret Thatcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher"}],"sub_title":"Prominent members","text":"1885–dateWalter Runciman held the most senior positions in Education, Agriculture and Trade taking together the period from 1908 until 1916 during the Asquith ministry. He was later re-appointed as the most senior minister in Trade from 1931 to 1937 in the all-party National Coalition Government.Sir John Nott also held the most senior position in the Trade department before becoming Secretary of State for Defence, including during the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands and the ensuing Falklands War. His assertion that he was cutting the defence budget before the war was not capricious and he offered his resignation to Margaret Thatcher, however she kept him for the duration of the conflict and he stood down in 1983.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isles of Scilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"St Mary's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary%27s,_Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Usual late count in modern elections","text":"At general elections, the constituency is usually one of the last to declare a result - the delay in bringing the ballot boxes over from the Isles of Scilly means that counting does not begin until the following day.[5] In the 2015 general election it was the last constituency in the United Kingdom to declare, because the ballot boxes were flown in from the Isles of Scilly only on the first scheduled flight the following morning, having been kept in police cells overnight on St Mary's,[6] with the declaration taking place at 15:30 on Friday afternoon.[7] However, in 1987 and 1992 the constituency did count during the night rather than the next day. The seat was declared at about 1:30 am in 1987 and about 3:45 am in 1992. In 2019 it was planned to fly the ballot boxes in overnight, but bad weather prevented this and the seat was the last to declare in the UK.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Lelant and Carbis Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelant_%26_Carbis_Bay_(electoral_division)"},{"link_name":"St Ives North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Ives_North_(electoral_division)"},{"link_name":"Helston South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helston_South_(electoral_division)"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"most southerly and westerly points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Penwith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penwith"},{"link_name":"Kerrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerrier"},{"link_name":"Penzance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance"},{"link_name":"St Ives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Ives,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Helston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helston"},{"link_name":"Isles of Scilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"Tate St Ives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tate_St_Ives"},{"link_name":"St Michael's Mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Michael%27s_Mount"},{"link_name":"Land's End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%27s_End"},{"link_name":"Boundary Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_Commission_for_England"},{"link_name":"Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies"},{"link_name":"2010 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCECornwall-15"},{"link_name":"Camborne and Redruth seat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camborne_and_Redruth_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Hayle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayle"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-offd-16"}],"text":"Map of current boundaries1885–1918: The Boroughs of St Ives and Penzance, the Sessional Division of West Penwith (including the Isles of Scilly), and the parishes of St Erth and Uny-Lelant.1918–1950: The Boroughs of St Ives and Penzance, the Urban Districts of Ludgvan, Madron, Paul, and St Just, the Rural District of West Penwith, the Isles of Scilly, and part of the Rural District of Helston.1950–1983: The Boroughs of St Ives, Penzance, and Helston, the Urban District of St Just, the Isles of Scilly, and parts of the Rural Districts of Kerrier and West Penwith.1983–2010: The District of Penwith, the District of Kerrier wards of Breage and Germoe, Crowan, Grade-Ruan and Landewednack, Helston North, Helston South, Meneage, Mullion, Porthleven, St Keverne and Wendron, and Sithney, and the Isles of Scilly.2010–present: The District of Penwith wards of Goldsithney, Gulval and Heamoor, Lelant and Carbis Bay, Ludgvan and Towednack, Madron and Zennor, Marazion and Perranuthnoe, Morvah, Pendeen and St Just, Penzance Central, Penzance East, Penzance Promenade, Penzance South, St Buryan, St Erth and St Hilary, St Ives North, and St Ives South, the District of Kerrier wards of Breage and Crowan, Grade-Ruan and Landewednack, Helston North, Helston South, Meneage, Mullion, Porthleven and Sithney, and St Keverne, and the Isles of Scilly.The St Ives constituency covers the southwest of Cornwall, taking in the most southerly and westerly points of England (both its mainland and if islands are included), taking in parts of the former Penwith and Kerrier Districts. The main towns in the constituency are Penzance, St Ives and Helston. It also includes the Isles of Scilly, not shown on the map (having 1,700 electors out of a total of 63,000). The seat includes the Tate St Ives, St Michael's Mount (also an island) and Land's End.Following the Boundary Commission' Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, Parliament increased the number of seats in the county from five to six for the 2010 general election,[8] thus St Ives saw a loss of wards to the new Camborne and Redruth seat, including the St Ives Bay town of Hayle.[9]","title":"Boundaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies"},{"link_name":"2024 United Kingdom general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:St_Ives_CP_navigation_box"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:St_Ives_CP_navigation_box"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:St_Ives_CP_navigation_box"},{"link_name":"St Ives constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cornwall.svg"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Breage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breage,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Bryher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryher"},{"link_name":"Crowan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowan"},{"link_name":"Cury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cury"},{"link_name":"Germoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germoe"},{"link_name":"Grade–Ruan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade%E2%80%93Ruan"},{"link_name":"Gunwalloe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunwalloe"},{"link_name":"Helston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helston"},{"link_name":"Landewednack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landewednack"},{"link_name":"Ludgvan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludgvan"},{"link_name":"Madron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madron"},{"link_name":"Marazion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marazion"},{"link_name":"Manaccan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manaccan"},{"link_name":"Mawgan-in-Meneage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawgan-in-Meneage"},{"link_name":"Morvah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morvah"},{"link_name":"Mullion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mullion,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"Penzance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance"},{"link_name":"Perranuthnoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perranuthnoe"},{"link_name":"Porthleven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porthleven"},{"link_name":"Sancreed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancreed"},{"link_name":"Sennen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennen"},{"link_name":"Sithney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sithney"},{"link_name":"St Agnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Agnes,_Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"St Anthony-in-Meneage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Anthony-in-Meneage"},{"link_name":"St Buryan, Lamorna and Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Buryan,_Lamorna_and_Paul"},{"link_name":"St Erth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Erth"},{"link_name":"St Hilary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Hilary,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"St Ives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Ives,_Cornwall"},{"link_name":"St Just","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Just_in_Penwith"},{"link_name":"St Keverne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Keverne"},{"link_name":"St Levan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Levan"},{"link_name":"St Martin's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Martin%27s,_Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"St Martin-in-Meneage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Martin-in-Meneage"},{"link_name":"St Mary's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary%27s,_Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"St Michael's Mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Michael%27s_Mount"},{"link_name":"Towednack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Towednack"},{"link_name":"Tresco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tresco,_Isles_of_Scilly"},{"link_name":"Zennor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zennor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StIves2007Constituency.svg"},{"link_name":"Cornwall Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Cornwall"}],"sub_title":"Proposed","text":"Further to the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, enacted by the Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023, from the 2024 United Kingdom general election, the constituency will be composed of the following electoral divisions of Cornwall (as they existed on 4th May 2021):Crowan, Sithney & Wendron; Helston North; Helston South & Meneage; Land’s End; Long Rock, Marazion & St Erth; Ludgvan, Madron, Gulval & Heamoor; Mousehole, Newlyn & St Buryan; Mullion & St Keverne; Penzance East; Penzance Promenade; Porthleven, Breage & Germoe; St Ives East, Lelant & Carbis Bay; St Ives West & Towednack; and\nThe Isles of Scilly.[10]Minor changes to align with revised electoral division boundaries and bring the electorate within the permitted range.vteCivil parishes of St Ives constituency Cornwall\nBreage\nBryher\nCrowan\nCury\nGermoe\nGrade–Ruan\nGunwalloe\nHelston\nLandewednack\nLudgvan\nMadron\nMarazion\nManaccan\nMawgan-in-Meneage\nMorvah\nMullion\nPenzance\nPerranuthnoe\nPorthleven\nSancreed\nSennen\nSithney\nSt Agnes\nSt Anthony-in-Meneage\nSt Buryan, Lamorna and Paul\nSt Erth\nSt Hilary\nSt Ives\nSt Just\nSt Keverne\nSt Levan\nSt Martin's\nSt Martin-in-Meneage\nSt Mary's\nSt Michael's Mount\nTowednack\nTresco\nZennor\nCornwall Portal","title":"Boundaries"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Members of Parliament"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1558–1629","title":"Members of Parliament"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1640–1832","title":"Members of Parliament"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"1832–1885","title":"Members of Parliament"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Since 1885","title":"Members of Parliament"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Ives_electoral_history.png"}],"text":"St Ives electoral history","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 2020s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 2010s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 2000s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1990s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1980s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1970s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1960s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1950s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alec Beechman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Beechman"}],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1940s","text":"General election 1939–40:\nAnother general election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected;Liberal National: Alec Beechman\nLiberal:\nLabour:","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1930s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1920s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clifford Cory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Cory"},{"link_name":"Anthony Hawke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hawke"}],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1910s","text":"General election 1914–15:\nAnother general election was required to take place before the end of 1915. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place and by July 1914, the following candidates had been selected;Liberal: Clifford Cory\nUnionist: Anthony Hawke","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clifford_Cory.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1900s","text":"Clifford Cory","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1890s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1880s","text":"Caused by St. Aubyn's elevation to the peerage, becoming Lord St. Levan.Caused by Reed's death.","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1870s","text":"Caused by the previous by-election being declared void on petition, on grounds of \"general treating\".[33]Caused by Davenport's death.","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1860s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1850s","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1840s","text":"Caused by Praed's death.","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Elections in the 1830s","text":"Caused by Halse's death","title":"Elections"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"county constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_constituency"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Member of Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"first past the post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_past_the_post"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"manor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manorialism"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"1906","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Sir Clifford Cory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Clifford_Cory,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"John Harington (treasurer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harington_(treasurer)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Yarmouth (Isle of Wight)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouth_(Isle_of_Wight)_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"Norwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"Peerage of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peerage_of_Ireland"}],"text":"^ A county constituency (for the purposes of election expenses and type of returning officer).\n\n^ As with all constituencies, the constituency elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election at least every five years.\n\n^ Earls of Buckinghamshire from 1746.\n\n^ Lord of a local manor.\n\n^ Presumably paid to qualified voters, ensuring that it would be futile to contest here.\n\n^ in his Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland.\n\n^ Even though its MP from 1906, Sir Clifford Cory, was nominally a Liberal rather than a Unionist and stood against Liberal Unionists, he consistently stated his opposition to Irish Home Rule to voters at each election.\n\n^ Possibly this is John Harington (treasurer).\n\n^ The Dictionary of National Biography records that Blount was elected for Berealston, which he certainly represented in the following two Parliaments; but Browne Willis (whose information on the Parliament of 1584-5 Neale refers to as \"fairly reliable\") gives two other names for Berealston and lists Blount for St Ives.\n\n^ Lisle was also elected for Yarmouth (Isle of Wight), which he chose to represent, and did not sit for St Ives.\n\n^ In April 1660, St Ives made a double return; on 5 May 1660, the Commons resolved \"That John St Aubyn and James Praed, esqrs, being duly returned by the proper officers, they ought to sit\".\n\n^ Hobart was also elected for Norwich, which he chose to represent, and never sat for St Ives.\n\n^ On petition, Praed was declared not to have been duly elected, and a by-election was held.\n\n^ Created The Lord Newborough (in the Peerage of Ireland) in 1776.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"F. W. S. Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._S._Craig"},{"link_name":"Election results, 1950 - 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/edates.htm"},{"link_name":"Robert Beatson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Beatson"},{"link_name":"A Chronological Register of Both Houses of the British Parliament, from the Union in 1708, to the Third Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1807","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Gh2wKY2rkDUC&q=Return+of+Members+of+Parliament"},{"link_name":"D. H. Pennington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._H._Pennington"},{"link_name":"titles A-Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150904125310/http://www2.odl.ox.ac.uk/gsdl/cgi-bin/library?e=p-000-00---0modhis06--00-0-0-0prompt-10---4------0-1l--1-en-50---20-about---00001-001-1-1isoZz-8859Zz-1-0&a=d&cl=CL1"},{"link_name":"Lewis Namier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Namier"},{"link_name":"J. E. Neale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._E._Neale"},{"link_name":"T. H. B. Oldfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._H._B._Oldfield"},{"link_name":"Henry Pelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Pelling"},{"link_name":"Willis, Browne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browne_Willis"},{"link_name":"Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ...","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5V09AAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5V09AAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false"},{"link_name":"Royal Historical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Historical_Society"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_South_West_England"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Constituencies_in_South_West_England"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constituencies_in_South_West_England"},{"link_name":"Constituencies in South West England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_constituencies_in_South_West_England"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Bournemouth East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_East_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bournemouth West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_West_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bridgwater and West Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgwater_and_West_Somerset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Camborne and Redruth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camborne_and_Redruth_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Central Devon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Devon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Cheltenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheltenham_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Chippenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chippenham_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Christchurch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christchurch_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Devizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devizes_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"East Devon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Devon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Filton and Bradley 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Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_Somerset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"North Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Somerset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"North Wiltshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Wiltshire_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Plymouth Moor View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Moor_View_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Poole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poole_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Salisbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salisbury_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"South Dorset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dorset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"South East Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_Cornwall_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"South 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Dorset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Dorset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Weston-super-Mare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weston-super-Mare_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Yeovil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeovil_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Bristol East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_East_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bristol North West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_North_West_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bristol South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_South_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bristol West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_West_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Exeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exeter_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Kingswood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingswood_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Plymouth Sutton and Devonport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Sutton_and_Devonport_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Somerton and Frome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerton_and_Frome_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Tiverton and Honiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiverton_and_Honiton_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bridgwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgwater_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bristol Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Central_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Bristol North East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_North_East_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"East Wiltshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Wiltshire_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Exmouth and Exeter East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exmouth_and_Exeter_East_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Frome and East Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frome_and_East_Somerset_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Glastonbury and Somerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_and_Somerton_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Honiton and Sidmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honiton_and_Sidmouth_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Melksham and Devizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melksham_and_Devizes_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"North Cotswolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Cotswolds_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"North East Somerset and Hanham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_Somerset_and_Hanham_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"South Cotswolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Cotswolds_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"South Devon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Devon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Taunton and Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunton_and_Wellington_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Tiverton and Minehead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiverton_and_Minehead_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Torridge and Tavistock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torridge_and_Tavistock_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Wells and Mendip Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_and_Mendip_Hills_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"East Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_the_East_Midlands"},{"link_name":"East of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_the_East_of_England"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_London"},{"link_name":"North East England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_North_East_England"},{"link_name":"North West England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_North_West_England"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Current_Westminster_constituencies_in_Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_Scotland_by_Holding_Party"},{"link_name":"South East England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_South_East_England"},{"link_name":"South West England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_South_West_England"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_Wales"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_the_West_Midlands"},{"link_name":"Yorkshire and the Humber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Constituencies_in_Yorkshire_and_the_Humber"},{"link_name":"dissolution of parliament on 30 May 2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"general election on 4 July 2024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_UK_general_election"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q988435#identifiers"},{"link_name":"UK Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.parliament.uk/D3hz39Y3"}],"text":"F. W. S. Craig, British Parliamentary Election Results 1832 - 1885\nF. W. S. Craig, British Parliamentary Election Results 1885 - 1918\nElection results, 1950 - 2005\nRobert Beatson, A Chronological Register of Both Houses of Parliament (London: Longman, Hurst, Res & Orme, 1807) A Chronological Register of Both Houses of the British Parliament, from the Union in 1708, to the Third Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in 1807\nD. Brunton & D. H. Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954)\nCobbett's Parliamentary history of England, from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803 (London: Thomas Hansard, 1808) titles A-Z\nMichael Kinnear, The British Voter (London: BH Batsford, Ltd, 1968)\nLewis Namier & John Brooke, The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1754-1790 (London: HMSO, 1964)\nJ. E. Neale, The Elizabethan House of Commons (London: Jonathan Cape, 1949)\nT. H. B. Oldfield, The Representative History of Great Britain and Ireland (London: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, 1816)\nHenry Pelling, Social Geography of British Elections 1885-1910 (London: Macmillan, 1967)\nJ Holladay Philbin, Parliamentary Representation 1832 - England and Wales (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965)\nEdward Porritt and Annie G. Porritt, The Unreformed House of Commons (Cambridge University Press, 1903)\nWillis, Browne (1750). Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ... London. p. 1.\nFrederic A. Youngs Jr., Guide to the Local Administrative Units of England, Vol I (London: Royal Historical Society, 1979)vteConstituencies in South West England (55)Conservative (45)\nBournemouth East\nBournemouth West\nBridgwater and West Somerset\nCamborne and Redruth\nCentral Devon\nCheltenham\nChippenham\nChristchurch\nDevizes\nEast Devon\nFilton and Bradley Stoke\nForest of Dean\nGloucester\nMid Dorset and North Poole\nNewton Abbot\nNorth Cornwall\nNorth Devon\nNorth Dorset\nNorth East Somerset\nNorth Somerset\nNorth Wiltshire\nPlymouth Moor View\nPoole\nSalisbury\nSouth Dorset\nSouth East Cornwall\nSouth Swindon\nSouth West Devon\nSouth West Wiltshire\nSt Austell and Newquay\nSt Ives\nStroud\nSwindon North\nTaunton Deane\nTewkesbury\nThe Cotswolds\nThornbury and Yate\nTorbay\nTorridge and West Devon\nTotnes\nTruro and Falmouth\nWells\nWest Dorset\nWeston-super-Mare\nYeovil\nLabour (7)\nBristol East\nBristol North West\nBristol South\nBristol West\nExeter\nKingswood\nPlymouth Sutton and Devonport\nLiberal Democrats (3)\nBath\nSomerton and Frome\nTiverton and Honiton\nNot yet contested (17)\nBridgwater\nBristol Central\nBristol North East\nEast Wiltshire\nExmouth and Exeter East\nFrome and East Somerset\nGlastonbury and Somerton\nHoniton and Sidmouth\nMelksham and Devizes\nNorth Cotswolds\nNorth East Somerset and Hanham\nSouth Cotswolds\nSouth Devon\nTaunton and Wellington\nTiverton and Minehead\nTorridge and Tavistock\nWells and Mendip Hills\n\nEast Midlands\nEast of England\nLondon\nNorth East England\nNorth West England\nNorthern Ireland\nScotland\nSouth East England\nSouth West England\nWales\nWest Midlands\nYorkshire and the Humber\nParty affiliations are based on the situation as of the dissolution of parliament on 30 May 2024. Technically all seats are now vacant until the general election on 4 July 2024.Authority control databases: People \nUK Parliament","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"St Ives electoral history","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/St_Ives_electoral_history.png"},{"image_text":"Clifford Cory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c6/Clifford_Cory.jpg/150px-Clifford_Cory.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"Cornwall portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Cornwall"},{"title":"List of parliamentary constituencies in Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parliamentary_constituencies_in_Cornwall"}]
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[{"reference":"\"England Parliamentary electorates 2010-2018\". Boundary Commission for England. Retrieved 23 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/England-Parliamentary-electorates-for-2018.xlsx","url_text":"\"England Parliamentary electorates 2010-2018\""}]},{"reference":"Library, House of Commons (23 June 2017). \"GE2017: Marginal seats and turnout\".","urls":[{"url":"https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/insights/ge2017-marginal-seats-and-turnout/","url_text":"\"GE2017: Marginal seats and turnout\""}]},{"reference":"Samuel Lewis, ed. (1848). \"Ives, St. (parish of St Andrew)\". A Topographical Dictionary of England. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 21 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=51066","url_text":"\"Ives, St. (parish of St Andrew)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Order of Declaration in the 2001 Election\". demon.co.uk.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.election.demon.co.uk/declar2001.html","url_text":"\"Order of Declaration in the 2001 Election\""}]},{"reference":"\"Final recommendations for Parliamentary constituencies in the county of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly\". Boundary Commission for England. 9 January 2005. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved 1 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20091102212641/http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/review_areas/downloads/FR_NR_Cornwall_the_Isles_of_Scilly.doc","url_text":"\"Final recommendations for Parliamentary constituencies in the county of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_Commission_for_England","url_text":"Boundary Commission for England"},{"url":"http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/review_areas/downloads/FR_NR_Cornwall_the_Isles_of_Scilly.doc","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023\". Schedule 1 Part 7 South West region.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2023/1230/schedules/made","url_text":"\"The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023\""}]},{"reference":"Stooks Smith, Henry. (1973) [1844-1850]. Craig, F. W. S. (ed.). The Parliaments of England (2nd ed.). Chichester: Parliamentary Research Services. pp. 47–48. ISBN 0-900178-13-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._S._Craig","url_text":"Craig, F. W. S."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/parliamentsofeng0000smit/page/47","url_text":"The Parliaments of England"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/parliamentsofeng0000smit/page/47","url_text":"47–48"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-900178-13-2","url_text":"0-900178-13-2"}]},{"reference":"\"The General Election\". Morning Post. 13 July 1852. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 7 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18520713/003/0003","url_text":"\"The General Election\""}]},{"reference":"Kate Kennally (7 June 2024). \"STATEMENT OF PERSONS NOMINATED, NOTICE OF POLL AND SITUATION OF POLLING STATIONS - St Ives\" (PDF). Cornwall Council. Retrieved 8 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cornwall.gov.uk/media/b5znssx3/statement-of-persons-nominated-notice-of-poll-and-situation-of-polling-stations-st-ives.pdf","url_text":"\"STATEMENT OF PERSONS NOMINATED, NOTICE OF POLL AND SITUATION OF POLLING STATIONS - St Ives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall_Council","url_text":"Cornwall Council"}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives Parliamentary constituency\". BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000964","url_text":"\"St Ives Parliamentary constituency\""}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives parliamentary constituency\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000964","url_text":"\"St Ives parliamentary constituency\""}]},{"reference":"\"UK Polling Report\". ukpollingreport.co.uk.","urls":[{"url":"http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/2015guide/stives/","url_text":"\"UK Polling Report\""}]},{"reference":"\"Candidates (PPCs) for St Ives in the UK 2015 general election – YourNextMP.com\". YourNextMP. 14 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://yournextmp.com/constituency/65854/st-ives","url_text":"\"Candidates (PPCs) for St Ives in the UK 2015 general election – YourNextMP.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives\". BBC News. Retrieved 13 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000964","url_text":"\"St Ives\""}]},{"reference":"Lavery, Kevin (20 April 2010). \"St. Ives statement of persons nominated and notice of poll\" (PDF). Acting Returning Officer, Cornwall Council. Retrieved 20 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/idoc.ashx?docid=58bc53c2-e15f-4f18-ba41-bf6f0584ffb8&version=-1","url_text":"\"St. Ives statement of persons nominated and notice of poll\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC NEWS – Election 2010 – St Ives\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/election2010/results/constituency/e39.stm","url_text":"\"BBC NEWS – Election 2010 – St Ives\""}]},{"reference":"\"Politics Resources\". Election 1992. Politics Resources. 9 April 1992. Retrieved 6 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/ge92/ge92index.htm","url_text":"\"Politics Resources\""}]},{"reference":"\"UK General Election results June 1987\". Richard Kimber's Political Science Resource. Retrieved 5 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/constit/073.htm","url_text":"\"UK General Election results June 1987\""}]},{"reference":"\"UK General Election results June 1983\". Politics Resources. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/ge83/i17.htm","url_text":"\"UK General Election results June 1983\""}]},{"reference":"\"UK General Election results May 1979\". Politics Resources. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/ge79/i17.htm","url_text":"\"UK General Election results May 1979\""}]},{"reference":"The Times' Guide to the House of Commons. 1951.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The General Election\". Huddersfield Chronicle. 8 July 1886. p. 4. Retrieved 10 December 2017 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000167/18860708/021/0004","url_text":"\"The General Election\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives Election. Return Of Mr C C Ross\". The Cornishman. No. 144. 14 April 1881. p. 8.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Craig, F. W. S., ed. (1977). British Parliamentary Election Results 1832-1885 (e-book) (1st ed.). London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-1-349-02349-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._W._S._Craig","url_text":"Craig, F. W. S."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-02349-3","url_text":"978-1-349-02349-3"}]},{"reference":"\"The St Ives Election Petition\". Cornish Telegraph. 24 February 1875. p. 3. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001617/18750224/067/0003","url_text":"\"The St Ives Election Petition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives\". Western Morning News. 2 February 1874. p. 5. Retrieved 19 January 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/18740202/057/0005","url_text":"\"St Ives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Morning_News","url_text":"Western Morning News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"Candidates\". Western Morning News. 3 July 1865. p. 3. Retrieved 17 March 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000329/18650703/037/0003","url_text":"\"Candidates\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Morning_News","url_text":"Western Morning News"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"St Ives\". Royal Cornwall Gazette. 6 May 1859. p. 10. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000180/18590506/045/0010","url_text":"\"St Ives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"Borough of St. Ives\". Royal Cornwall Gazette. 16 July 1852. p. 7. Retrieved 7 July 2018 – via British Newspaper Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000180/18520716/026/0007","url_text":"\"Borough of St. Ives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"Election Intelligence\". Morning Chronicle. 12 July 1852. pp. 2–3. 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Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ... London. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browne_Willis","url_text":"Willis, Browne"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5V09AAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1","url_text":"Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ..."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5V09AAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false","url_text":"1"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ireland_(bishop)
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John Ireland (bishop)
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["1 History","2 Legacy","2.1 Colonization","2.2 Education","2.3 Relations with Eastern Catholics","3 Establishments","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
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Catholic archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota
The Most ReverendJohn IrelandArchbishop of Saint PaulArchdioceseSaint PaulDioceseSaint PaulAppointedJuly 28, 1875InstalledJuly 31, 1884Term endedSeptember 25, 1918PredecessorThomas GraceSuccessorAustin DowlingOrdersOrdinationDecember 21, 1861by Joseph CrétinConsecrationDecember 21, 1875by Thomas Grace, Michael Heiss, and Rupert SeidenbuschPersonal detailsBornunknown, baptized (1838-09-11)September 11, 1838IrelandDiedSeptember 25, 1918(1918-09-25) (aged 80)Saint Paul, Minnesota
John Ireland (baptized September 11, 1838 – September 25, 1918) was an American religious leader who was the third Roman Catholic bishop and first Roman Catholic archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota (1888–1918). He became both a religious as well as civic leader in Saint Paul during the turn of the 20th century. Ireland was known for his progressive stance on education, immigration and relations between church and state, as well as his opposition to saloons, alcoholism, political machines, and political corruption. He promoted the Americanization of Catholicism, especially through imposing the English only movement on Catholic parishes by force, a private war against the Eastern Catholic Churches, seeking to make Catholic schools identical to public schools through the Poughkeepsie plan, and through other progressive social ideas. He was widely considered the primary leader of the modernizing element in the Catholic Church in the United States during the Progressive Era, which brought him into open conflict over minority language rights and theology with both his suffragen Bishop Otto Zardetti and eventually with Pope Leo XIII, whose Apostolic letter Testem benevolentiae nostrae condemned Archbishop Ireland's ideas as the heresy of Americanism. He also created or helped to create many religious and educational institutions in Minnesota.
History
Styles ofJohn IrelandReference styleThe Most ReverendSpoken styleYour ExcellencyReligious styleMonsignor
John Ireland was born in Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ireland, and was baptized on September 11, 1838. He was the second of seven children born to Richard Ireland, a carpenter, and his second wife, Judith Naughton. His family immigrated to the United States in 1848 and eventually moved to Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1852. One year later Joseph Crétin, first bishop of Saint Paul, sent Ireland to the preparatory seminary of Meximieux in France. Ireland was consequently ordained in 1861 in Saint Paul. He served as a chaplain of the Fifth Minnesota Regiment in the Civil War until 1863 when ill health caused his resignation. Later, he was famous nationwide in the Grand Army of the Republic.
He was appointed pastor at Saint Paul's cathedral in 1867, a position which he held until 1875. In 1875, he was made coadjutor bishop of St. Paul and in 1884 he became bishop ordinary. In 1888 he became archbishop with the elevation of his diocese and the erection of the ecclesiastical province of Saint Paul. Ireland retained this title for 30 years until his death in 1918. Before Ireland died he burned all his personal papers.
Ireland was personal friends with Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. At a time when most Irish Catholics were staunch Democrats, Ireland was known for being close to the Republican party. Privately Ireland would tell people he was a member of the party. He opposed racial inequality and called for "equal rights and equal privileges, political, civil, and social."
Ireland's funeral was attended by eight archbishops, thirty bishops, twelve monsignors, seven hundred priests and two hundred seminarians.
He was awarded an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) by Yale University in October 1901, during celebrations for the bicentenary of the university.
A friend of James J. Hill, whose wife Mary was Catholic (even though Hill was not), Archbishop Ireland had his portrait painted in 1895 by the Swiss-born American portrait painter Adolfo Müller-Ury almost certainly on Hill's behalf, which was exhibited at M. Knoedler & Co., New York, January 1895 (lost) and again in 1897 (Archdiocesan Archives, Archdiocese of Saint Paul & Minneapolis).
Legacy
The influence of his personality made Archbishop Ireland a commanding figure in many important movements, especially those for total abstinence, for colonization in the Northwest, and modern education. Ireland became a leading civic and religious leader during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Saint Paul. He worked closely with non-Catholics and was recognized by them as a leader of the Modernist Catholics.
St. Augustine's Church in Washington, D.C., c. 1899. Here Ireland gave his 1890 sermon on racial equality.
Ireland called for racial equality at a time in the U.S. when the concept was considered extreme. On May 5, 1890, he gave a sermon at St. Augustine's Church, in Washington, D.C., the center of an African-American parish, to a congregation that included several public officials, Congressmen including the full Minnesota delegation, U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom, and Blanche Bruce, the second black U.S. Senator. Ireland's sermon on racial justice concluded with the statement, "The color line must go; the line will be drawn at personal merit." It was reported that "the bold and outspoken stand of the Archbishop on this occasion created somewhat of a sensation throughout America."
Colonization
Ireland as a young man
Disturbed by reports that Catholic immigrants in eastern cities were suffering from social and economic handicaps, Ireland and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding of the Diocese of Peoria, Illinois, founded the Irish Catholic Colonization Association. This organization bought land in rural areas to the west and south and helped resettle Irish Catholics from the urban slums.
Ireland helped establish many Irish Catholic colonies in Minnesota. The land had been cleared of its native Sioux following the Dakota War of 1862. He served as director of the National Colonization Association. From 1876 to 1881 Ireland organized and directed the most successful rural colonization program ever sponsored by the Catholic Church in the U.S. Working with the western railroads and with the Minnesota state government, he brought more than 4,000 Catholic families from the slums of eastern urban areas and settled them on more than 400,000 acres (1,600 km2) of farmland in rural Minnesota.
His partner in Ireland was John Sweetman, a wealthy brewer who helped set up the Irish-American Colonisation Company there.
In 1880 Ireland assisted several hundred people from Connemara in Ireland to emigrate to Minnesota. They arrived at the wrong time of the year and had to be assisted by local Freemasons, an organisation that the Catholic Church condemns on many points. In the public debate that followed, the immigrants, being Connaught Irish monoglot speakers, could not voice their opinions of Bishop Ireland's criticism of their acceptance of the Masons' support during a harsh winter. De Graff and Clontarf in Swift County, Adrian in Nobles County, Avoca, Iona and Fulda in Murray County, Graceville in Big Stone County and Ghent in Lyon County were all colonies established by Ireland.
Charlotte Grace O'Brien, philanthropist and activist for the protection of female emigrants, found that often the illiterate young women were being tricked into prostitution through spurious offers of employment. She proposed an information bureau at Castle Garden, the disembarkation point for immigrants arriving in New York; a temporary shelter to provide accommodation for immigrants, and a chapel, all to Archbishop Ireland, who she believed of all the American hierarchy would be most sympathetic. Ireland agreed to raise the matter at the May 1883 meeting of the Irish Catholic Association which endorsed the plan and voted to establish an information bureau at Castle Garden. The Irish Catholic Colonization Association was also instrumental in the establishment of the Mission of Our Lady of the Rosary for the Protection of Irish Immigrant Girls.
Education
A bust of Archbishop John Ireland in the Ireland Memorial Library at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota
Ireland advocated state support and inspection of Catholic schools. After several parochial schools were in danger of closing, Ireland sold them to the respective city's board of education. The schools continued to operate with nuns and priests teaching, but no religious teaching was allowed. This plan, the Faribault–Stillwater plan, or Poughkeepsie plan, created enough controversy that Ireland was forced to travel to Vatican City to defend it, and he succeeded in doing so. He also supported the English only movement, which he sought to enforce within American Catholic churches and parochial schools. The continued use of heritage languages was not uncommon at the time because of the recent large influx of immigrants to the U.S. from European countries. Ireland influenced American society by actively demanding the immediate adoption of the English language by German-Americans and other recent immigrants. He is the author of The Church and Modern Society (1897).
According his biographers Fr. Vincent A. Yzermans and Franz Xaver Wetzel, there is a great historical importance to the well documented clashes between Rt.-Rev. John Joseph Frederick Otto Zardetti while Bishop of St. Cloud, with Archbishop John Ireland and his supporters within the American hierarchy. These clashes were both over Zardetti's hostility to Archbishop Ireland's Modernist theology and Zardetti's belief that American patriotism was compatible with teaching and nurturing the German language in the United States and other heritage languages like it. Zardetti later played a major role, as an official of the Roman Curia, in pushing for the Apostolic letter Testem Benevolentiae, which was signed by Pope Leo XIII on 22 January, 1899. As a reward, Zardetti was promoted to assistant to the papal throne on 14 February 1899. In commenting on Zardetti's role in the letter, Fr. Yzermans has commented, "In this arena he might well have had seen his greatest impact on American Catholicism in the first half of the twentieth century in the United States."
Relations with Eastern Catholics
Saint Paul Seminary's Metropolitan Cross
In 1891, Ireland refused to accept the clerical credentials of Byzantine Rite, Ruthenian Catholic priest Alexis Toth, despite Toth's being a widower. Ireland then forbade Toth to minister to his own parishioners, despite the fact that Toth had jurisdiction from his own bishop and did not answer to Ireland. Ireland was also involved in efforts to expel all non-Latin Church Catholic clergy from the United States. Forced into an impasse, Toth went on to lead thousands of Ruthenian Catholics out of the Roman Communion and into what would eventually become the Orthodox Church in America. Because of this, Archbishop Ireland is sometimes referred to, ironically, as "The Father of the Orthodox Church in America". Marvin R. O'Connell, author of a biography of Ireland, summarizes the situation by stating that "if Ireland's advocacy of the blacks displayed him at his best, his belligerence toward the Uniates showed him at his bull-headed worst."
Establishments
Cathedral of Saint Paul, of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis
At the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore the establishment of a Catholic university was decided. In 1885 Ireland was appointed to a committee, along with, Bishop John Lancaster Spalding, Cardinal James Gibbons and then bishop John Joseph Keane dedicated to developing and establishing The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. Ireland retained an active interest in the University for the rest of his life.
He founded Saint Thomas Aquinas Seminary, progenitor of four institutions: University of Saint Thomas (Minnesota), the Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity, Nazareth Hall Preparatory Seminary, and Saint Thomas Academy. The Saint Paul Seminary was established with the help of Methodist James J. Hill, whose wife, Mary Mehegan, was a devout Catholic. Both institutions are located on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River. DeLaSalle High School located on Nicollet Island in Minneapolis was opened in October 1900 through a gift of $25,000 from Ireland. Fourteen years later Ireland purchased an adjacent property for the expanding Christian Brothers school.
In 1904 Ireland secured the land for the building of the current Cathedral of Saint Paul located atop Summit Hill, the highest point in downtown Saint Paul. At the same time, on Christmas Day 1903 he also commissioned the construction of the almost equally large Church of Saint Mary, for the Immaculate Conception parish in the neighboring city of Minneapolis. It became the Pro-Cathedral of Minneapolis and later became the Basilica of Saint Mary, the first basilica in the United States in 1926. Both were designed and built under the direction of the French architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray.
John Ireland Boulevard, a Saint Paul street that runs from the Cathedral of Saint Paul northeast to the Minnesota State Capitol, is named in his honor. It was so named in 1961 at the encouragement of the Ancient Order of Hibernians.
References
^ a b c d e
Shannon, J. P. "Ireland, John" New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 7. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003
^ Athans, Mary Christine (2002). To Work for the Whole People: John Ireland's Seminary in St. Paul. New York: Paulist Press.
^ a b M. Cheney, David (October 26, 2006). "Archbishop John Ireland". Retrieved August 17, 2007.
^ "Ireland, John" in Webster's American Biographies (1979), Springfield, MA: Merriam.
^ "Ireland, John", in Webster's American Biographies (1979), Springfield. MA: Merriam.
^ a b "Ireland, John, American Roman Catholic prelate". Bartleby. Archived from the original on March 14, 2005. Retrieved August 17, 2007.
^ "Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis (Mn.). Collection". University of Notre Dame Archives. Retrieved August 23, 2007.
^ Empson, The Streets Where You Live, 144
^ Farrell, John (October 1947). "Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 33 (3): 271-272.
^ "Ireland, John", in Webster's American Biographies (1979), Springfield, MA: Merriam.
^ Johnston, Minnesota's Irish, 80
^ "United States". The Times. No. 36594. London. October 24, 1901. p. 3.
^ Mail and Express, New York, Friday evening, January 11, 1895; Hill was charged by Knoedler's $92 for the frame in March 1895 (Receipt 560) (James J. Hill Library, St. Paul)
^ Hagg, Harold T. "Saint Paul". In Whitney, David C. (ed.). The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. S (1963 ed.). Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational Corporation. pp. 47–48. Library of Congress Catalog Number 63-7006. Archbishop John Ireland was a leading civic and religious leader in this largely Roman Catholic community in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He established settlers on thousands of acres in the archdiocese. The land was acquired by purchase and federal grant.
^ JoEllen McNergney Vinyard (1998). For Faith and Fortune: The Education of Catholic Immigrants in Detroit, 1805-1925. University of Illinois Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780252067075.
^ Butsch, Joseph (October 1917). "Catholics and the Negro". The Journal of Negro History. 2 (4). Lancaster, PA; Washington, DC: The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History: 393–410. doi:10.2307/2713397. JSTOR 2713397. S2CID 150180941. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
^ Riley, John Timon (1890). "Archbishop Ireland". Passing events in the life of Cardinal Gibbons. Martinsburg, WV: np. pp. 365–366. . Includes partial transcript of the sermon.
^ Storck, Thomas (Spring 1993). "Catholic Colony-Making in 19th Century America". Caelum Et Terra. Retrieved August 27, 2007.
^ "The Irish (in countries other than Ireland)". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. VIII. Robert Appleton Company. 1910.
^ List of Sweetman family papers at the National Library of Ireland, compiled 2010
^ Shannon, J. P. "Bishop Ireland's Connemara Experiment"; Minnesota Historical Society Press, Vol. 35, 1957
^ http://conamara.org/index.php?page=graceville Note on the conamara.org site, 2011
^ Regan, Irish in Minnesota, 19–20.
^ Miller, Chandra. "'Tumbling Into the Fight' Charlotte Grace O'Brien (1845–1909); The Emigrant’s Advocate", History Ireland, Vol. 4, Issue 4 (Winter 1996)
^ (May 16, 1892), The "Faribault" System", The New York Times
^ (May 11, 1892), Archbishop Ireland's Plans upheld by the Vatican, The New York Times
^ *The Church and Modern Society on Internet Archive
^ Vincent A. Yzermans (1988), Frontier Bishop of Saint Cloud, Park Press, Waite Park, Minnesota. Pages 175-176.
^ Grigassy, Daniel P. (April 2004). "The Eastern Catholic Churches in America". Contemporary Review. pp. 5 and 6. Archived from the original on July 8, 2012.
^ "Greek Catholic Union". Epiphany Byzantine Catholic Church. Archived from the original on September 11, 2007. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
^ Faulk, Edward (2007). 101 Questions & Answers on Eastern Catholic Churches. New York: Paulist Press, p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8091-4441-9.
^ "Orthodox Christians in North America 1794 - 1994". Orthodox Christian Publications Center. Retrieved August 22, 2007.
^ O'Connell (1988), p. 271
^ a b Broe, Emily (November 15, 2002). "The Heritage of CUA". The Catholic University of America. p. 1. Archived from the original on July 19, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
^ a b Empson, The Streets Where You Live, 143
^ "DeLaSalle ~ A Brief History". DeLaSalle High School. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved September 12, 2007.
^ "History". Cathedral of Saint Paul. 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2018.
^ "The decision makers". Parish History. The Basilica of Saint Mary. 2018. Retrieved January 31, 2018.
Further reading
Wikiquote has quotations related to John Ireland (bishop).
Blossom, Mary C. (April 1901). "Archbishop John Ireland". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. I: 644–647. Retrieved July 9, 2009.
Brunk, Timothy. “American Exceptionalism in the Thought of John Ireland.” American Catholic Studies 119, no. 1 (2008): 43–62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44195141.
Dordevic, Mihailo. “Archbishop Ireland and the Church-State Controversy in France in 1892.” Minnesota History 42, no. 2 (1970): 63–67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20178085.
Farrell, John T. “Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny.” The Catholic Historical Review 33, no. 3 (1947): 269–301. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25014801.
Johnston, Patricia Condon (1984). Minnesota's Irish. Afton, Minnesota: Johnston Pub. Inc. ISBN 0-942934-07-5.
L. Empson, Donald (2006). The Street Where You Live. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4729-1. ISBN 978-0-8166-4729-3. Pages 143-144
O'Connell, Marvin Richard (1988). John Ireland and the American Catholic Church. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-230-8.
Moynihan, James H. “The Pastoral Message of Archbishop Ireland.” The Furrow 3, no. 12 (1952): 639–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27656120.
O’Neill, Daniel P. “The Development of an American Priesthood: Archbishop John Ireland and the Saint Paul Diocesan Clergy, 1884-1918.” Journal of American Ethnic History 4, no. 2 (1985): 33–52. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500378.
Regan, Ann (2002). Irish in Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-419-X.
Rippley, La Vern J. “Archbishop Ireland and the School Language Controversy.” U.S. Catholic Historian 1, no. 1 (1980): 1–16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25153638.
Shannon, James P. “Archbishop Ireland’s Experiences as a Civil War Chaplain.” The Catholic Historical Review 39, no. 3 (1953): 298–305. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015610.
Storch, Neil T. “John Ireland’s Americanism after 1899: The Argument from History.” Church History 51, no. 4 (1982): 434–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/3166194.
Storch, Neil T. “John Ireland and the Modernist Controversy.” Church History 54, no. 3 (1985): 353–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/3165660.
Wangler, Thomas E. “John Ireland and the Origins of Liberal Catholicism in the United States.” The Catholic Historical Review 56, no. 4 (1971): 617–29. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25018691.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Ireland (archbishop).
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about John Ireland (bishop).
Works by John Ireland at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about John Ireland at Internet Archive
Bio
Ireland, John (1838–1918), MNopedia.
"John Ireland". Find a Grave. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
Bishop Ireland's Connemara Experiment: Minnesota Historical Society
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Preceded byThomas Grace
Bishop of St. Paul 1884–1888
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Archbishop of St. Paul 1888–1918
Succeeded byAustin Dowling
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Catholic archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Saint_Paul_and_Minneapolis"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"church and state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state"},{"link_name":"alcoholism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism"},{"link_name":"political machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_machine"},{"link_name":"political corruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_corruption"},{"link_name":"Americanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanism_(heresy)"},{"link_name":"English only movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_only_movement"},{"link_name":"Eastern Catholic Churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches"},{"link_name":"Catholic schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_school"},{"link_name":"Poughkeepsie plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poughkeepsie_plan"},{"link_name":"modernizing element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Progressive Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era"},{"link_name":"minority language rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_rights"},{"link_name":"Otto Zardetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Joseph_Frederick_Otto_Zardetti"},{"link_name":"Pope Leo XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII"},{"link_name":"Testem benevolentiae nostrae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testem_benevolentiae_nostrae"},{"link_name":"heresy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Americanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americanism_(heresy)"}],"text":"John Ireland (baptized September 11, 1838 – September 25, 1918) was an American religious leader who was the third Roman Catholic bishop and first Roman Catholic archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota (1888–1918). He became both a religious as well as civic leader in Saint Paul during the turn of the 20th century. Ireland was known for his progressive stance on education, immigration and relations between church and state, as well as his opposition to saloons, alcoholism, political machines, and political corruption. He promoted the Americanization of Catholicism, especially through imposing the English only movement on Catholic parishes by force, a private war against the Eastern Catholic Churches, seeking to make Catholic schools identical to public schools through the Poughkeepsie plan, and through other progressive social ideas. He was widely considered the primary leader of the modernizing element in the Catholic Church in the United States during the Progressive Era, which brought him into open conflict over minority language rights and theology with both his suffragen Bishop Otto Zardetti and eventually with Pope Leo XIII, whose Apostolic letter Testem benevolentiae nostrae condemned Archbishop Ireland's ideas as the heresy of Americanism. He also created or helped to create many religious and educational institutions in Minnesota.","title":"John Ireland (bishop)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"County Kilkenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kilkenny"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-athans-2"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Joseph Crétin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Cr%C3%A9tin"},{"link_name":"Meximieux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meximieux"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dates-3"},{"link_name":"Fifth Minnesota Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5th_Minnesota_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-1"},{"link_name":"Grand Army of the Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bartleby-6"},{"link_name":"coadjutor bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dates-3"},{"link_name":"archbishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UND-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-page_144-8"},{"link_name":"William McKinley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McKinley"},{"link_name":"Theodore Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bartleby-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"racial inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_inequality"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"honorary doctorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_doctorate"},{"link_name":"LL.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL.D."},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"James J. Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Hill"},{"link_name":"Adolfo Müller-Ury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolfo_M%C3%BCller-Ury"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"John Ireland was born in Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ireland, and was baptized on September 11, 1838.[1] He was the second of seven children born to Richard Ireland, a carpenter, and his second wife, Judith Naughton.[2] His family immigrated to the United States in 1848 and eventually moved to Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1852. One year later Joseph Crétin, first bishop of Saint Paul, sent Ireland to the preparatory seminary of Meximieux in France. Ireland was consequently ordained in 1861 in Saint Paul.[3] He served as a chaplain of the Fifth Minnesota Regiment in the Civil War until 1863 when ill health[4] caused his resignation.[1] Later, he was famous nationwide in the Grand Army of the Republic.[5]He was appointed pastor at Saint Paul's cathedral in 1867, a position which he held until 1875.[6] In 1875, he was made coadjutor bishop of St. Paul and in 1884 he became bishop ordinary.[3] In 1888 he became archbishop with the elevation of his diocese and the erection of the ecclesiastical province of Saint Paul.[7] Ireland retained this title for 30 years until his death in 1918. Before Ireland died he burned all his personal papers.[8]Ireland was personal friends with Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. At a time when most Irish Catholics were staunch Democrats, Ireland was known for being close to the Republican party.[6] Privately Ireland would tell people he was a member of the party.[9] He opposed racial inequality and called for \"equal rights and equal privileges, political, civil, and social.\"[10] \nIreland's funeral was attended by eight archbishops, thirty bishops, twelve monsignors, seven hundred priests and two hundred seminarians.[11]He was awarded an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) by Yale University in October 1901, during celebrations for the bicentenary of the university.[12]A friend of James J. Hill, whose wife Mary was Catholic (even though Hill was not), Archbishop Ireland had his portrait painted in 1895 by the Swiss-born American portrait painter Adolfo Müller-Ury almost certainly on Hill's behalf, which was exhibited at M. Knoedler & Co., New York, January 1895 (lost)[13] and again in 1897 (Archdiocesan Archives, Archdiocese of Saint Paul & Minneapolis).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"total abstinence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teetotalism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Modernist Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St._Augustine_Church,_Washington,_D.C._c._1899.tif"},{"link_name":"St. Augustine's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Augustine%27s_Church,_Washington,_D.C.&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"William Windom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Windom"},{"link_name":"Blanche Bruce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanche_Bruce"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The influence of his personality made Archbishop Ireland a commanding figure in many important movements, especially those for total abstinence, for colonization in the Northwest, and modern education. Ireland became a leading civic and religious leader during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Saint Paul.[14] He worked closely with non-Catholics and was recognized by them as a leader of the Modernist Catholics.[15]St. Augustine's Church in Washington, D.C., c. 1899. Here Ireland gave his 1890 sermon on racial equality.Ireland called for racial equality at a time in the U.S. when the concept was considered extreme. On May 5, 1890, he gave a sermon at St. Augustine's Church, in Washington, D.C., the center of an African-American parish, to a congregation that included several public officials, Congressmen including the full Minnesota delegation, U.S. Treasury Secretary William Windom, and Blanche Bruce, the second black U.S. Senator. Ireland's sermon on racial justice concluded with the statement, \"The color line must go; the line will be drawn at personal merit.\" It was reported that \"the bold and outspoken stand of the Archbishop on this occasion created somewhat of a sensation throughout America.\"[16][17]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bishop_John_Ireland_of_Minnesota_as_a_young_man.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop"},{"link_name":"John Lancaster Spalding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lancaster_Spalding"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Peoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Peoria"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Colony-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-Irish-19"},{"link_name":"Sioux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioux"},{"link_name":"Dakota War of 1862","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Connemara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connemara"},{"link_name":"Freemasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemason"},{"link_name":"Connaught Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connaught_Irish"},{"link_name":"monoglot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoglot"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"De Graff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Graff,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Clontarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clontarf,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Swift County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_County,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Adrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Nobles County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobles_County,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Avoca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoca,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Iona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iona,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Fulda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulda,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Murray County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_County,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Graceville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graceville,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Big Stone County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Stone_County,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Ghent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Lyon County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon_County,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Grace O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Grace_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"Castle Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Mission of Our Lady of the Rosary for the Protection of Irish Immigrant Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson_House"}],"sub_title":"Colonization","text":"Ireland as a young manDisturbed by reports that Catholic immigrants in eastern cities were suffering from social and economic handicaps, Ireland and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding of the Diocese of Peoria, Illinois, founded the Irish Catholic Colonization Association. This organization bought land in rural areas to the west and south and helped resettle Irish Catholics from the urban slums.[18]\nIreland helped establish many Irish Catholic colonies in Minnesota.[19] The land had been cleared of its native Sioux following the Dakota War of 1862. He served as director of the National Colonization Association. From 1876 to 1881 Ireland organized and directed the most successful rural colonization program ever sponsored by the Catholic Church in the U.S.[1] Working with the western railroads and with the Minnesota state government, he brought more than 4,000 Catholic families from the slums of eastern urban areas and settled them on more than 400,000 acres (1,600 km2) of farmland in rural Minnesota.[1]His partner in Ireland was John Sweetman, a wealthy brewer who helped set up the Irish-American Colonisation Company there.[20]In 1880 Ireland assisted several hundred people from Connemara in Ireland to emigrate to Minnesota. They arrived at the wrong time of the year and had to be assisted by local Freemasons, an organisation that the Catholic Church condemns on many points. In the public debate that followed, the immigrants, being Connaught Irish monoglot speakers, could not voice their opinions of Bishop Ireland's criticism of their acceptance of the Masons' support during a harsh winter.[21][22] De Graff and Clontarf in Swift County, Adrian in Nobles County, Avoca, Iona and Fulda in Murray County, Graceville in Big Stone County and Ghent in Lyon County were all colonies established by Ireland.[23]Charlotte Grace O'Brien, philanthropist and activist for the protection of female emigrants, found that often the illiterate young women were being tricked into prostitution through spurious offers of employment. She proposed an information bureau at Castle Garden, the disembarkation point for immigrants arriving in New York; a temporary shelter to provide accommodation for immigrants, and a chapel, all to Archbishop Ireland,[24] who she believed of all the American hierarchy would be most sympathetic. Ireland agreed to raise the matter at the May 1883 meeting of the Irish Catholic Association which endorsed the plan and voted to establish an information bureau at Castle Garden. The Irish Catholic Colonization Association was also instrumental in the establishment of the Mission of Our Lady of the Rosary for the Protection of Irish Immigrant Girls.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archbishop_John_Ireland_Bust.jpg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Poughkeepsie plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poughkeepsie_plan"},{"link_name":"Vatican City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"English only movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_only_movement"},{"link_name":"parochial schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parochial_school"},{"link_name":"heritage languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_language"},{"link_name":"German-Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German-Americans"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"John Joseph Frederick Otto Zardetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Joseph_Frederick_Otto_Zardetti"},{"link_name":"Bishop of St. Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Saint_Cloud"},{"link_name":"Modernist theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"American patriotism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_patriotism"},{"link_name":"German language in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"heritage languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_language"},{"link_name":"Roman Curia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Curia"},{"link_name":"Apostolic letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_letter#Letters_of_the_popes_in_modern_times"},{"link_name":"Testem Benevolentiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testem_Benevolentiae"},{"link_name":"Pope Leo XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII"},{"link_name":"assistant to the papal throne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_to_the_papal_throne"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Education","text":"A bust of Archbishop John Ireland in the Ireland Memorial Library at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, MinnesotaIreland advocated state support and inspection of Catholic schools. After several parochial schools were in danger of closing, Ireland sold them to the respective city's board of education. The schools continued to operate with nuns and priests teaching, but no religious teaching was allowed.[25] This plan, the Faribault–Stillwater plan, or Poughkeepsie plan, created enough controversy that Ireland was forced to travel to Vatican City to defend it, and he succeeded in doing so.[26] He also supported the English only movement, which he sought to enforce within American Catholic churches and parochial schools. The continued use of heritage languages was not uncommon at the time because of the recent large influx of immigrants to the U.S. from European countries. Ireland influenced American society by actively demanding the immediate adoption of the English language by German-Americans and other recent immigrants. He is the author of The Church and Modern Society (1897).[27]According his biographers Fr. Vincent A. Yzermans and Franz Xaver Wetzel, there is a great historical importance to the well documented clashes between Rt.-Rev. John Joseph Frederick Otto Zardetti while Bishop of St. Cloud, with Archbishop John Ireland and his supporters within the American hierarchy. These clashes were both over Zardetti's hostility to Archbishop Ireland's Modernist theology and Zardetti's belief that American patriotism was compatible with teaching and nurturing the German language in the United States and other heritage languages like it. Zardetti later played a major role, as an official of the Roman Curia, in pushing for the Apostolic letter Testem Benevolentiae, which was signed by Pope Leo XIII on 22 January, 1899. As a reward, Zardetti was promoted to assistant to the papal throne on 14 February 1899. In commenting on Zardetti's role in the letter, Fr. Yzermans has commented, \"In this arena he might well have had seen his greatest impact on American Catholicism in the first half of the twentieth century in the United States.\"[28]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPSSOD_Metro_cross.jpg"},{"link_name":"credentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credential"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Rite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Rite"},{"link_name":"Ruthenian Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenian_Greek_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"priest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest"},{"link_name":"Alexis Toth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Toth"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toth-30"},{"link_name":"non-Latin Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Church in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Church_in_America"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OCA-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Relations with Eastern Catholics","text":"Saint Paul Seminary's Metropolitan CrossIn 1891, Ireland refused to accept the clerical credentials of Byzantine Rite, Ruthenian Catholic priest Alexis Toth,[29] despite Toth's being a widower. Ireland then forbade Toth to minister to his own parishioners,[30] despite the fact that Toth had jurisdiction from his own bishop and did not answer to Ireland. Ireland was also involved in efforts to expel all non-Latin Church Catholic clergy from the United States.[31] Forced into an impasse, Toth went on to lead thousands of Ruthenian Catholics out of the Roman Communion and into what would eventually become the Orthodox Church in America.[32] Because of this, Archbishop Ireland is sometimes referred to, ironically, as \"The Father of the Orthodox Church in America\". Marvin R. O'Connell, author of a biography of Ireland, summarizes the situation by stating that \"if Ireland's advocacy of the blacks displayed him at his best, his belligerence toward the Uniates showed him at his bull-headed worst.\"[33]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CathedralofStPaul.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Saint Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Paul,_National_Shrine_of_the_Apostle_Paul"},{"link_name":"Third Plenary Council of Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Plenary_Council_of_Baltimore"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CUA-34"},{"link_name":"John Lancaster Spalding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lancaster_Spalding"},{"link_name":"James Gibbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gibbons"},{"link_name":"John Joseph Keane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Joseph_Keane"},{"link_name":"The Catholic University of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_America"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CUA-34"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CE-1"},{"link_name":"University of Saint Thomas (Minnesota)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Saint_Thomas_(Minnesota)"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul_Seminary_School_of_Divinity"},{"link_name":"Saint Thomas Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Academy"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul_Seminary_School_of_Divinity"},{"link_name":"James J. Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Hill"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-page_143-35"},{"link_name":"Mississippi River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River"},{"link_name":"DeLaSalle High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeLaSalle_High_School_(Minneapolis)"},{"link_name":"Nicollet Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicollet_Island"},{"link_name":"Christian Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_the_Brothers_of_the_Christian_Schools"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Cathedral of Saint Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Paul_(Minnesota)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Church of Saint Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Mary_(Minneapolis)"},{"link_name":"Basilica of Saint Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Mary_(Minneapolis)"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Louis Masqueray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Louis_Masqueray"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Basilica-38"},{"link_name":"Minnesota State Capitol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_State_Capitol"},{"link_name":"Ancient Order of Hibernians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Order_of_Hibernians"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-page_143-35"}],"text":"Cathedral of Saint Paul, of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and MinneapolisAt the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore the establishment of a Catholic university was decided.[34] In 1885 Ireland was appointed to a committee, along with, Bishop John Lancaster Spalding, Cardinal James Gibbons and then bishop John Joseph Keane dedicated to developing and establishing The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C.[34] Ireland retained an active interest in the University for the rest of his life.[1]He founded Saint Thomas Aquinas Seminary, progenitor of four institutions: University of Saint Thomas (Minnesota), the Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity, Nazareth Hall Preparatory Seminary, and Saint Thomas Academy. The Saint Paul Seminary was established with the help of Methodist James J. Hill, whose wife, Mary Mehegan, was a devout Catholic.[35] Both institutions are located on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River. DeLaSalle High School located on Nicollet Island in Minneapolis was opened in October 1900 through a gift of $25,000 from Ireland. Fourteen years later Ireland purchased an adjacent property for the expanding Christian Brothers school.[36]In 1904 Ireland secured the land for the building of the current Cathedral of Saint Paul located atop Summit Hill, the highest point in downtown Saint Paul.[37] At the same time, on Christmas Day 1903 he also commissioned the construction of the almost equally large Church of Saint Mary, for the Immaculate Conception parish in the neighboring city of Minneapolis. It became the Pro-Cathedral of Minneapolis and later became the Basilica of Saint Mary, the first basilica in the United States in 1926. Both were designed and built under the direction of the French architect Emmanuel Louis Masqueray.[38]John Ireland Boulevard, a Saint Paul street that runs from the Cathedral of Saint Paul northeast to the Minnesota State Capitol, is named in his honor. It was so named in 1961 at the encouragement of the Ancient Order of Hibernians.[35]","title":"Establishments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Ireland (bishop)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/John_Ireland_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"\"Archbishop John Ireland\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=688YPNQ5HNwC&pg=PA644"},{"link_name":"The World's Work: A History of Our Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Work"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/44195141","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/44195141"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/20178085","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/20178085"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25014801","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/25014801"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-942934-07-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942934-07-5"},{"link_name":"The Street Where You Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/streetwhereyouli0000emps"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8166-4729-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-4729-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8166-4729-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-4729-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87351-230-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87351-230-8"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27656120","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/27656120"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500378","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/27500378"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87351-419-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87351-419-X"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25153638","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/25153638"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015610","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/25015610"},{"link_name":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3166194","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307/3166194"},{"link_name":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3165660","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307/3165660"},{"link_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25018691","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/25018691"}],"text":"Wikiquote has quotations related to John Ireland (bishop).Blossom, Mary C. (April 1901). \"Archbishop John Ireland\". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. I: 644–647. Retrieved July 9, 2009.\nBrunk, Timothy. “American Exceptionalism in the Thought of John Ireland.” American Catholic Studies 119, no. 1 (2008): 43–62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44195141.\nDordevic, Mihailo. “Archbishop Ireland and the Church-State Controversy in France in 1892.” Minnesota History 42, no. 2 (1970): 63–67. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20178085.\nFarrell, John T. “Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny.” The Catholic Historical Review 33, no. 3 (1947): 269–301. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25014801.\nJohnston, Patricia Condon (1984). Minnesota's Irish. Afton, Minnesota: Johnston Pub. Inc. ISBN 0-942934-07-5.\nL. Empson, Donald (2006). The Street Where You Live. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4729-1. ISBN 978-0-8166-4729-3. Pages 143-144\nO'Connell, Marvin Richard (1988). John Ireland and the American Catholic Church. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-230-8.\nMoynihan, James H. “The Pastoral Message of Archbishop Ireland.” The Furrow 3, no. 12 (1952): 639–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27656120.\nO’Neill, Daniel P. “The Development of an American Priesthood: Archbishop John Ireland and the Saint Paul Diocesan Clergy, 1884-1918.” Journal of American Ethnic History 4, no. 2 (1985): 33–52. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500378.\nRegan, Ann (2002). Irish in Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-419-X.\nRippley, La Vern J. “Archbishop Ireland and the School Language Controversy.” U.S. Catholic Historian 1, no. 1 (1980): 1–16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25153638.\nShannon, James P. “Archbishop Ireland’s Experiences as a Civil War Chaplain.” The Catholic Historical Review 39, no. 3 (1953): 298–305. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015610.\nStorch, Neil T. “John Ireland’s Americanism after 1899: The Argument from History.” Church History 51, no. 4 (1982): 434–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/3166194.\nStorch, Neil T. “John Ireland and the Modernist Controversy.” Church History 54, no. 3 (1985): 353–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/3165660.\nWangler, Thomas E. “John Ireland and the Origins of Liberal Catholicism in the United States.” The Catholic Historical Review 56, no. 4 (1971): 617–29. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25018691.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"St. Augustine's Church in Washington, D.C., c. 1899. Here Ireland gave his 1890 sermon on racial equality.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/St._Augustine_Church%2C_Washington%2C_D.C._c._1899.tif/lossy-page1-220px-St._Augustine_Church%2C_Washington%2C_D.C._c._1899.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ireland as a young man","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bishop_John_Ireland_of_Minnesota_as_a_young_man.jpg/170px-Bishop_John_Ireland_of_Minnesota_as_a_young_man.jpg"},{"image_text":"A bust of Archbishop John Ireland in the Ireland Memorial Library at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Archbishop_John_Ireland_Bust.jpg/220px-Archbishop_John_Ireland_Bust.jpg"},{"image_text":"Saint Paul Seminary's Metropolitan Cross","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/SPSSOD_Metro_cross.jpg/140px-SPSSOD_Metro_cross.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cathedral of Saint Paul, of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/CathedralofStPaul.jpg/200px-CathedralofStPaul.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Saint_Paul_and_Minneapolis.svg/100px-Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Saint_Paul_and_Minneapolis.svg.png"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Athans, Mary Christine (2002). To Work for the Whole People: John Ireland's Seminary in St. Paul. New York: Paulist Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WIspuqbMkVAC","url_text":"To Work for the Whole People: John Ireland's Seminary in St. Paul"}]},{"reference":"M. Cheney, David (October 26, 2006). \"Archbishop John Ireland\". Retrieved August 17, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bireland.html","url_text":"\"Archbishop John Ireland\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ireland, John, American Roman Catholic prelate\". Bartleby. Archived from the original on March 14, 2005. Retrieved August 17, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050314001224/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Ireland1.html","url_text":"\"Ireland, John, American Roman Catholic prelate\""},{"url":"http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Ireland1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis (Mn.). Collection\". University of Notre Dame Archives. Retrieved August 23, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://archives.nd.edu/findaids/ead/html/ASM.htm","url_text":"\"Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis (Mn.). Collection\""}]},{"reference":"Farrell, John (October 1947). \"Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny\". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 33 (3): 271-272.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506454","url_text":"\"Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny\""}]},{"reference":"\"United States\". The Times. No. 36594. London. October 24, 1901. p. 3.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hagg, Harold T. \"Saint Paul\". In Whitney, David C. (ed.). The World Book Encyclopedia. Vol. S (1963 ed.). Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational Corporation. pp. 47–48. Library of Congress Catalog Number 63-7006. Archbishop John Ireland was a leading civic and religious leader in this largely Roman Catholic community in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He established settlers on thousands of acres in the archdiocese. The land was acquired by purchase and federal grant.","urls":[]},{"reference":"JoEllen McNergney Vinyard (1998). For Faith and Fortune: The Education of Catholic Immigrants in Detroit, 1805-1925. University of Illinois Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780252067075.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rSeB6bokYx8C&pg=PA93","url_text":"For Faith and Fortune: The Education of Catholic Immigrants in Detroit, 1805-1925"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780252067075","url_text":"9780252067075"}]},{"reference":"Butsch, Joseph (October 1917). \"Catholics and the Negro\". The Journal of Negro History. 2 (4). Lancaster, PA; Washington, DC: The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History: 393–410. doi:10.2307/2713397. JSTOR 2713397. S2CID 150180941. Retrieved January 29, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/butsch/butsch.html","url_text":"\"Catholics and the Negro\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Negro_History","url_text":"The Journal of Negro History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster,_PA","url_text":"Lancaster, PA"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC","url_text":"Washington, DC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Association_for_the_Study_of_Negro_Life_and_History","url_text":"The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713397","url_text":"10.2307/2713397"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713397","url_text":"2713397"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150180941","url_text":"150180941"}]},{"reference":"Riley, John Timon (1890). \"Archbishop Ireland\". Passing events in the life of Cardinal Gibbons. Martinsburg, WV: np. pp. 365–366.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Storck, Thomas (Spring 1993). \"Catholic Colony-Making in 19th Century America\". Caelum Et Terra. Retrieved August 27, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.caelumetterra.com/cet_backissues/article.cfm?ID=17","url_text":"\"Catholic Colony-Making in 19th Century America\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Irish (in countries other than Ireland)\". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. VIII. Robert Appleton Company. 1910.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08132b.htm","url_text":"\"The Irish (in countries other than Ireland)\""}]},{"reference":"Grigassy, Daniel P. (April 2004). \"The Eastern Catholic Churches in America\". Contemporary Review. pp. 5 and 6. Archived from the original on July 8, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120708003608/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1659_284/ai_n6141910/pg_1","url_text":"\"The Eastern Catholic Churches in America\""},{"url":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1659_284/ai_n6141910/pg_1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Greek Catholic Union\". Epiphany Byzantine Catholic Church. Archived from the original on September 11, 2007. Retrieved August 22, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070911220804/http://www.byzantines.net/epiphany/gcu.htm","url_text":"\"Greek Catholic Union\""},{"url":"http://www.byzantines.net/epiphany/gcu.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Faulk, Edward (2007). 101 Questions & Answers on Eastern Catholic Churches. New York: Paulist Press, p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8091-4441-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-4441-9","url_text":"978-0-8091-4441-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Orthodox Christians in North America 1794 - 1994\". Orthodox Christian Publications Center. Retrieved August 22, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oca.org/MVorthchristiansnamerica.asp?SID=1&Chap=CH2","url_text":"\"Orthodox Christians in North America 1794 - 1994\""}]},{"reference":"Broe, Emily (November 15, 2002). \"The Heritage of CUA\". The Catholic University of America. p. 1. Archived from the original on July 19, 2007. Retrieved August 19, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070719071918/http://tour.cua.edu/heritage/history/founding/catholic.cfm","url_text":"\"The Heritage of CUA\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_America","url_text":"The Catholic University of America"},{"url":"http://tour.cua.edu/heritage/history/founding/catholic.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"DeLaSalle ~ A Brief History\". DeLaSalle High School. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved September 12, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071015153538/http://delasalle.com/web/NDLSHistory.html","url_text":"\"DeLaSalle ~ A Brief History\""},{"url":"http://www.delasalle.com/web/NDLSHistory.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Cathedral of Saint Paul. 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cathedralsaintpaul.org/history","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_Saint_Paul_(Minnesota)","url_text":"Cathedral of Saint Paul"}]},{"reference":"\"The decision makers\". Parish History. The Basilica of Saint Mary. 2018. Retrieved January 31, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mary.org/who-we-are/our-history/parish-history","url_text":"\"The decision makers\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Mary_(Minneapolis)","url_text":"The Basilica of Saint Mary"}]},{"reference":"Blossom, Mary C. (April 1901). \"Archbishop John Ireland\". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. I: 644–647. Retrieved July 9, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=688YPNQ5HNwC&pg=PA644","url_text":"\"Archbishop John Ireland\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Work","url_text":"The World's Work: A History of Our Time"}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Patricia Condon (1984). Minnesota's Irish. Afton, Minnesota: Johnston Pub. Inc. ISBN 0-942934-07-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942934-07-5","url_text":"0-942934-07-5"}]},{"reference":"L. Empson, Donald (2006). The Street Where You Live. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4729-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/streetwhereyouli0000emps","url_text":"The Street Where You Live"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-4729-1","url_text":"0-8166-4729-1"}]},{"reference":"O'Connell, Marvin Richard (1988). John Ireland and the American Catholic Church. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-230-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87351-230-8","url_text":"0-87351-230-8"}]},{"reference":"Regan, Ann (2002). Irish in Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-419-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87351-419-X","url_text":"0-87351-419-X"}]},{"reference":"\"John Ireland\". Find a Grave. Retrieved November 5, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/6314","url_text":"\"John Ireland\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Find_a_Grave","url_text":"Find a Grave"}]}]
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[{"Link":"https://www.stthomas.edu/libraries/ireland/about/johnireland/","external_links_name":"Shannon, J. P. \"Ireland, John\" New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 7. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2003"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WIspuqbMkVAC","external_links_name":"To Work for the Whole People: John Ireland's Seminary in St. Paul"},{"Link":"http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bireland.html","external_links_name":"\"Archbishop John Ireland\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050314001224/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Ireland1.html","external_links_name":"\"Ireland, John, American Roman Catholic prelate\""},{"Link":"http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Ireland1.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://archives.nd.edu/findaids/ead/html/ASM.htm","external_links_name":"\"Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis (Mn.). Collection\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506454","external_links_name":"\"Archbishop Ireland and Manifest Destiny\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rSeB6bokYx8C&pg=PA93","external_links_name":"For Faith and Fortune: The Education of Catholic Immigrants in Detroit, 1805-1925"},{"Link":"http://docsouth.unc.edu/church/butsch/butsch.html","external_links_name":"\"Catholics and the Negro\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713397","external_links_name":"10.2307/2713397"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713397","external_links_name":"2713397"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150180941","external_links_name":"150180941"},{"Link":"http://www.caelumetterra.com/cet_backissues/article.cfm?ID=17","external_links_name":"\"Catholic Colony-Making in 19th Century America\""},{"Link":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08132b.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Irish (in countries other than Ireland)\""},{"Link":"http://www.nli.ie/pdfs/mss%20lists/156_SweetmanPapers.pdf","external_links_name":"List of Sweetman family papers at the National Library of Ireland, compiled 2010"},{"Link":"http://conamara.org/index.php?page=graceville","external_links_name":"http://conamara.org/index.php?page=graceville"},{"Link":"http://www.historyireland.com/20th-century-contemporary-history/tumbling-into-the-fight-charlotte-grace-obrien-1845-1909-the-emigrants-advocate/","external_links_name":"Miller, Chandra. \"'Tumbling Into the Fight' Charlotte Grace O'Brien (1845–1909); The Emigrant’s Advocate\", History Ireland, Vol. 4, Issue 4 (Winter 1996)"},{"Link":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/05/16/106808854.pdf","external_links_name":"The \"Faribault\" System\""},{"Link":"https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1892/05/11/104129843.pdf","external_links_name":"Archbishop Ireland's Plans upheld by the Vatican"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/churchandmodern00irelgoog","external_links_name":"The Church and Modern Society"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20120708003608/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1659_284/ai_n6141910/pg_1","external_links_name":"\"The Eastern Catholic Churches in America\""},{"Link":"http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1659_284/ai_n6141910/pg_1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070911220804/http://www.byzantines.net/epiphany/gcu.htm","external_links_name":"\"Greek Catholic Union\""},{"Link":"http://www.byzantines.net/epiphany/gcu.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.oca.org/MVorthchristiansnamerica.asp?SID=1&Chap=CH2","external_links_name":"\"Orthodox Christians in North America 1794 - 1994\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jjDXq2UKxTkC&q=John+Ireland+orthodox&pg=PP1","external_links_name":"O'Connell (1988), p. 271"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070719071918/http://tour.cua.edu/heritage/history/founding/catholic.cfm","external_links_name":"\"The Heritage of CUA\""},{"Link":"http://tour.cua.edu/heritage/history/founding/catholic.cfm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071015153538/http://delasalle.com/web/NDLSHistory.html","external_links_name":"\"DeLaSalle ~ A Brief History\""},{"Link":"http://www.delasalle.com/web/NDLSHistory.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.cathedralsaintpaul.org/history","external_links_name":"\"History\""},{"Link":"http://www.mary.org/who-we-are/our-history/parish-history","external_links_name":"\"The decision makers\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=688YPNQ5HNwC&pg=PA644","external_links_name":"\"Archbishop John Ireland\""},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/44195141","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/44195141"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/20178085","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/20178085"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25014801","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25014801"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/streetwhereyouli0000emps","external_links_name":"The Street Where You Live"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27656120","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27656120"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500378","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/27500378"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25153638","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25153638"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015610","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25015610"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3166194","external_links_name":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3166194"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3165660","external_links_name":"https://doi.org/10.2307/3165660"},{"Link":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25018691","external_links_name":"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25018691"},{"Link":"https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Ireland,+John","external_links_name":"Works by John Ireland"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Ireland%2C%20John%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22John%20Ireland%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ireland%2C%20John%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22John%20Ireland%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ireland%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22John%20Ireland%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ireland%2C%20John%22%20OR%20description%3A%22John%20Ireland%22%29%20OR%20%28%221838-1918%22%20AND%20Ireland%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29","external_links_name":"Works by or about John Ireland"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/worldswork01gard#page/644/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Bio"},{"Link":"http://www.mnopedia.org/person/ireland-john-1838-1918","external_links_name":"Ireland, John (1838–1918)"},{"Link":"https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/6314","external_links_name":"\"John Ireland\""},{"Link":"http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/35/v35i05p205-213.pdf","external_links_name":"Bishop Ireland's Connemara Experiment:"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/129849/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000109273847","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/95302560","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfhbkc6tHbQbtBDXKVHmd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121566253","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb121566253","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/118775596","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBNV055582","external_links_name":"Italy"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007276858205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14081581","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n84028028","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p071066918","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810690395905606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/116670","external_links_name":"Vatican"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3318/dib.004213.v1","external_links_name":"Ireland"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118775596.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6nv9m06","external_links_name":"SNAC"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/083288880","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_Netherlands
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List of prime ministers of the Netherlands
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["1 List of prime ministers","2 Graphical timeline","3 See also"]
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Five former officeholders (Wim Kok, Dries van Agt, Piet de Jong, Ruud Lubbers and Jan Peter Balkenende) with Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in July 2011
The following is a list of prime ministers of the Netherlands since the inception of that office as a result of a revision of the Constitution of the Netherlands in 1848. The prime minister is the chairman of the Council of Ministers; since 1945 he has held the Dutch title of minister-president van Nederland, also referred to as premier.
Mark Rutte is currently serving as the 42nd prime minister of the Netherlands, having been appointed to the office for the first time on 14 October 2010. Rutte resigned on 8 July 2023 and will be in charge of a caretaker (i.e. ad interim or acting government) until the 2023 Dutch general election.
List of prime ministers
Political parties:
Independent
Christian democratic
ARP
RKSP/KVP
CHU
CDA
Liberal
LU
VDB
VVD
Social democratic
PvdA
Portrait
Name(born and died)
Term of office
Political party
Election
Cabinet
Monarch(reign)
Took office
Left office
Tenure
Name
Composition
Gerrit Schimmelpenninck(1794–1863)
25 March 1848
17 May 1848
53 days
IndependentLiberal
—
Schimmelpenninck
Conservative
Willem II(1840–1849)
Jacob de Kempenaer(1793–1870)
21 November 1848
1 November 1849
345 days
1848
De Kempenaer—Donker Curtius
Liberal
Johan Rudolph Thorbecke(1798–1872)
1 November 1849
19 April 1853
3 years, 169 days
18501852
Thorbecke I
Willem III(1849–1890)
Floris Adriaan van Hall(1791–1866)
19 April 1853
1 July 1856
3 years, 73 days
1853
Van Hall—Donker Curtius
Conservative
Justinus van der Brugghen(1804–1863)
1 July 1856
18 March 1858
1 year, 260 days
IndependentAntirevolutionary
1856
Van der Brugghen
Jan Jacob Rochussen(1797–1871)
18 March 1858
23 February 1860
1 year, 342 days
IndependentConservative
1858
Rochussen
Liberal–Conservative
Floris Adriaan van Hall(1791–1866)
23 February 1860
14 March 1861
1 year, 19 days
IndependentLiberal
1860
Van Hall—Van Heemstra
Jacob van Zuylen van Nijevelt(1816–1890)
14 March 1861
10 November 1861
241 days
—
Van Zuylen van Nijevelt—Van Heemstra
Schelto van Heemstra(1807–1864)
10 November 1861
1 February 1862
83 days
Johan Rudolph Thorbecke(1798–1872)
1 February 1862
10 February 1866
4 years, 9 days
1862
Thorbecke II
Liberal
Isaäc Dignus Fransen van de Putte(1822–1902)
10 February 1866
1 June 1866
111 days
—
Fransen van de Putte
Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt(1819–1894)
1 June 1866
4 June 1868
2 years, 3 days
IndependentConservative
Jun.1866Oct.1866
Van Zuylen van Nijevelt
Conservative
Pieter Philip van Bosse(1809–1879)
4 June 1868
4 January 1871
2 years, 214 days
IndependentLiberal
18681869
Van Bosse—Fock
Liberal
Johan Rudolph Thorbecke(1798–1872)
4 January 1871
4 June 1872 (died)
1 year, 152 days
1871
Thorbecke III
Gerrit de Vries(1818–1900)
4 June 1872
27 August 1874
2 years, 84 days
1873
De Vries—Fransen van de Putte
Jan Heemskerk(1818–1897)
27 August 1874
3 November 1877
3 years, 68 days
IndependentConservative
1875
Heemskerk—Van Lynden van Sandenburg
Conservative
Jan Kappeyne van de Coppello(1822–1895)
3 November 1877
20 August 1879
1 year, 290 days
IndependentLiberal
1877
Kappeyne van de Coppello
Liberal
Theo van Lynden van Sandenburg(1826–1885)
20 August 1879
23 April 1883
3 years, 246 days
IndependentAntirevolutionary
1879
Van Lynden van Sandenburg
Liberal–Conservative
Jan Heemskerk(1818–1897)
23 April 1883
21 April 1888
4 years, 363 days
IndependentConservative
1883188418861887
J. Heemskerk
Aeneas Mackay(1838–1909)
21 April 1888
21 August 1891
3 years, 123 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1888
Mackay
Coalition
Gijsbert van Tienhoven(1841–1914)
21 August 1891
9 May 1894
2 years, 261 days
IndependentLiberal
1891
Van Tienhoven
Liberal
Wilhelmina(1890–1948)
Joan Röell(1844–1914)
9 May 1894
27 July 1897
3 years, 79 days
1894
Röell
Nicolaas Pierson(1839–1909)
27 July 1897
1 August 1901
4 years, 5 days
Liberal Union
1897
Pierson
Liberal
Abraham Kuyper(1837–1920)
1 August 1901
17 August 1905
4 years, 16 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1901
Kuyper
Coalition
Theo de Meester(1851–1919)
17 August 1905
12 February 1908
2 years, 179 days
Liberal Union
1905
De Meester
Liberal
Theo Heemskerk(1852–1932)
12 February 1908
29 August 1913
5 years, 198 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1909
T. Heemskerk
Coalition
Pieter Cort van der Linden(1846–1935)
29 August 1913
9 September 1918
5 years, 11 days
IndependentLiberal
19131917
Cort van der Linden
Liberal
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck(1873–1936)
9 September 1918
18 September 1922
6 years, 329 days
Roman Catholic (RKSP)
1918
Ruijs de B. I
RKSP – ARP – CHU
18 September 1922
4 August 1925
1922
Ruijs de B. II
Hendrikus Colijn(1869–1944)
4 August 1925
8 March 1926
216 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1925
Colijn I
Dirk Jan de Geer(1870–1960)
8 March 1926
10 August 1929
3 years, 155 days
Christian Historical (CHU)
—
De Geer I
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck(1873–1936)
10 August 1929
26 May 1933
3 years, 289 days
Roman Catholic (RKSP)
1929
Ruijs de B. III
Hendrikus Colijn(1869–1944)
26 May 1933
31 July 1935
6 years, 76 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1933
Colijn II
RKSP – ARP – CHU – LSP – VDB
31 July 1935
24 June 1937
—
Colijn III
24 June 1937
25 July 1939
1937
Colijn IV
RKSP – ARP – CHU
25 July 1939
10 August 1939
—
Colijn V
ARP – CHU – LSP
Dirk Jan de Geer(1870–1960)
10 August 1939
3 September 1940
1 year, 24 days
Christian Historical (CHU)
—
De Geer II
RKSP – SDAP – ARP –CHU – VDB
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy(1885–1961)
3 September 1940
28 July 1941
4 years, 295 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
—
Gerbrandy I
28 July 1941
23 February 1945
—
Gerbrandy II
RKSP – SDAP – ARP – CHU – LSP – VDB
23 February 1945
25 June 1945
—
Gerbrandy III
RKSP – ARP – VDB
Willem Schermerhorn(1894–1977)
25 June 1945
3 July 1946
1 year, 8 days
Free-thinking Democratic (VDB)until 1946
—
Schermerhorn—Drees
VDB – SDAP – KVP – ARP
Labour (PvdA)from 1946
Louis Beel(1902–1977)
3 July 1946
7 August 1948
2 years, 35 days
Catholic People's (KVP)
1946
Beel I
KVP – PvdA
Willem Drees(1886–1988)
7 August 1948
15 March 1951
10 years, 137 days
Labour (PvdA)
1948
Drees—Van Schaik
PvdA – KVP – CHU – VVD
Juliana(1948–1980)
15 March 1951
2 September 1952
—
Drees I (II)
2 September 1952
13 October 1956
1952
Drees II (III)
PvdA – KVP – ARP – CHU
13 October 1956
22 December 1958
1956
Drees III (IV)
Louis Beel(1902–1977)
22 December 1958
19 May 1959
148 days
Catholic People's (KVP)
—
Beel II
KVP – ARP – CHU
Jan de Quay(1901–1985)
19 May 1959
24 July 1963
4 years, 66 days
1959
De Quay
KVP – ARP – CHU – VVD
Victor Marijnen(1917–1975)
24 July 1963
14 April 1965
1 year, 264 days
1963
Marijnen
Jo Cals(1914–1971)
14 April 1965
22 November 1966
1 year, 222 days
—
Cals
KVP – ARP – PvdA
Jelle Zijlstra(1918–2001)
22 November 1966
5 April 1967
134 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
—
Zijlstra
ARP – KVP
Piet de Jong(1915–2016)
5 April 1967
6 July 1971
4 years, 92 days
Catholic People's (KVP)
1967
De Jong
KVP – ARP – CHU – VVD
Barend Biesheuvel(1920–2001)
6 July 1971
9 August 1972
1 year, 309 days
Anti-Revolutionary (ARP)
1971
Biesheuvel I
ARP – KVP – CHU – VVD – DS70
9 August 1972
11 May 1973
—
Biesheuvel II
ARP – KVP – CHU – VVD
Joop den Uyl(1919–1987)
11 May 1973
19 December 1977
4 years, 222 days
Labour (PvdA)
1972
Den Uyl
PvdA – KVP – ARP – D66 – PPR
Dries van Agt(1931–2024)
19 December 1977
11 September 1981
4 years, 320 days
Catholic People's (KVP)until 1980;Christian Democratic (CDA)
1977
Van Agt I
CDA – VVD
11 September 1981
29 May 1982
1981
Van Agt II
CDA – PvdA – D66
Beatrix(1980–2013)
29 May 1982
4 November 1982
—
Van Agt III
CDA – D66
Ruud Lubbers(1939–2018)
4 November 1982
14 July 1986
11 years, 291 days
Christian Democratic (CDA)
1982
Lubbers I
CDA – VVD
14 July 1986
7 November 1989
1986
Lubbers II
7 November 1989
22 August 1994
1989
Lubbers III
CDA – PvdA
Wim Kok(1938–2018)
22 August 1994
3 August 1998
7 years, 334 days
Labour (PvdA)
1994
Kok I
PvdA – VVD – D66
3 August 1998
22 July 2002
1998
Kok II
Jan Peter Balkenende(born 1956)
22 July 2002
27 May 2003
8 years, 84 days
Christian Democratic (CDA)
2002
Balkenende I
CDA – LPF – VVD
27 May 2003
7 July 2006
2003
Balkenende II
CDA – VVD – D66
7 July 2006
22 February 2007
—
Balkenende III
CDA – VVD
22 February 2007
14 October 2010
2006
Balkenende IV
CDA – PvdA – CU
Mark Rutte(born 1967)
14 October 2010
5 November 2012
13 years, 248 days
People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD)
2010
Rutte I
VVD – CDA
5 November 2012
26 October 2017
2012
Rutte II
VVD – PvdA
Willem-Alexander(2013–present)
26 October 2017
10 January 2022
2017
Rutte III
VVD – CDA – D66 – CU
10 January 2022
Incumbent
2021
Rutte IV
Graphical timeline
See also
Historical rankings of prime ministers of the Netherlands
List of prime ministers of the Netherlands by education
Religious affiliations of prime ministers of the Netherlands
vtePrime ministers of the Netherlands
Schimmelpenninck
De Kempenaer
Thorbecke
Van Hall
Van der Brugghen
Rochussen
Van Hall
Ja. Van Zuylen van Nijevelt
Van Heemstra
Thorbecke
Fransen van de Putte
Ju. Van Zuylen van Nijevelt
Van Bosse
Thorbecke
De Vries
J. Heemskerk
Kappeyne van de Coppello
Van Lynden van Sandenburg
J. Heemskerk
Mackay
Van Tienhoven
Roëll
Pierson
Kuyper
De Meester
T. Heemskerk
Cort van der Linden
Ruijs de Beerenbrouck
Colijn
De Geer
Ruijs de Beerenbrouck
Colijn
De Geer
Gerbrandy
Schermerhorn
Beel
Drees
Beel
De Quay
Marijnen
Cals
Zijlstra
De Jong
Biesheuvel
Den Uyl
Van Agt
Lubbers
Kok
Balkenende
Rutte
List (age ◌ education ◌ religion)
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[{"image_text":"Five former officeholders (Wim Kok, Dries van Agt, Piet de Jong, Ruud Lubbers and Jan Peter Balkenende) with Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in July 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kok_VanAgt_DeJong_Rutte_Lubbers_Balkenende.jpg/220px-Kok_VanAgt_DeJong_Rutte_Lubbers_Balkenende.jpg"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Grey
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Lady Jane Grey
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["1 Early life and education","2 Contracts for marriage","3 Claim to the throne and accession","4 Trial and execution","5 Legacy","6 Family tree","7 References","8 Bibliography","9 External links"]
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Claimant to the English throne in 1553
"Jane Grey" redirects here. For other uses, see Jane Grey (disambiguation).
Lady Jane GreyThe Streatham portrait, discovered at the beginning of the 21st century, is believed to be based on a contemporary woodcut.Queen of England and Ireland (more...)(disputed) Reign10 July 1553 – 19 July 1553PredecessorEdward VISuccessorMary IBorn1536 or 1537Possibly London or Bradgate Park, Leicestershire, EnglandDied12 February 1554 (aged 16 or 17)Tower of London, London, EnglandBurialChurch of St Peter ad Vincula, Tower of LondonSpouse
Lord Guildford Dudley
(m. 1553; died 1554)HouseGreyFatherHenry Grey, 1st Duke of SuffolkMotherLady Frances BrandonReligionProtestantismSignature
Lady Jane Grey (c. 1537 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage and as the "Nine Days' Queen", was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.
Jane was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a great-niece of King Henry VIII, and a cousin to Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Under the will of Henry VIII, Jane was in line to the throne after her cousins. She had a humanist education; and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day. In May 1553, she was married to Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their lawful claims under the Third Succession Act. Through Northumberland, Edward's letters patent in favour of Jane was signed by the entire privy council, bishops, and other notables.
After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew rapidly and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.
Mary initially spared her life, but Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.
Early life and education
Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk, Jane's parents
Lady Margaret Wotton, Lady Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, Jane's paternal and maternal grandparents
Lady Jane Grey was the eldest daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Frances Brandon. The traditional view is that she was born at Bradgate Park in Leicestershire in October 1537, while more recent research indicates that she was born somewhat earlier, possibly in London, sometime before May 1537 or between May 1536 and February 1537. This would coincide with the fact that she was noted as being in her seventeenth year at the time of her execution. Frances was the eldest daughter of Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary. Jane had two younger sisters: Lady Katherine and Lady Mary. Through their mother, the three sisters were great-granddaughters of Henry VII; great-nieces of Henry VIII; and first cousins once removed of the future Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.
Jane received a humanist education from John Aylmer, speaking Latin and Greek from an early age, also studying Hebrew with Aylmer, and Italian with Michelangelo Florio. She was particularly fond, throughout her life, of writing letters in Latin and Greek. Through the influence of her father and her tutors, she became a committed Protestant and also corresponded with the Zürich reformer Heinrich Bullinger.
She preferred academic studies rather than activities such as hunting parties and allegedly regarded her strict upbringing, which was typical of the time, as harsh. To the visiting scholar Roger Ascham, who found her reading Plato, she is said to have complained:
For when I am in the presence either of father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yea presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways (which I will not name for the honour I bear them) ... that I think myself in hell.
Around February 1547, Jane was sent to live in the household of Edward VI's uncle, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, who soon married Henry VIII's widow, Katherine Parr. After moving there, Jane was able to receive educational opportunities available in court circles. Jane lived with the couple at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire as an attendant to Katherine, until Katherine died in childbirth in September 1548. About eleven years old at the time, Jane was chief mourner at Katherine's funeral. After Thomas Seymour's arrest for treason, Jane returned to Bradgate and continued her studies.
Contracts for marriage
16th century portrait of a lady in the collection of Audley End House, labelled as Jane Grey, copy of the original at Syon House. Based on a portrait type identified as Lady Katherine Grey or Elizabeth I, it is believed that the Syon Portrait was created by William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, with the help of his grandfather, Lady Katherine Grey's widower, who had also known Lady Jane Grey, tweaking the portrait type into a genuine resemblance of her.
Lady Jane acted as chief mourner at Katherine Parr's funeral; Thomas Seymour showed continued interest to keep her in his household, and she returned there for about two months before he was arrested at the end of 1548. Seymour's brother, the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young King Edward. Among other things, Thomas Seymour was charged with proposing Jane as a bride for the king.
In the course of Thomas Seymour's following attainder and execution, Jane's father was lucky to stay largely out of trouble. After his fourth interrogation by the King's Council, he proposed his daughter Jane as a bride for the Protector's eldest son, Lord Hertford. Nothing came of this, however, and Jane was not engaged until 25 May 1553, her bridegroom being Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland. The Duke, Lord President of the King's Council from late 1549, was then the most powerful man in the country. On 25 May 1553, the couple were married at Durham House in a triple wedding, in which Jane's sister Katherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Herbert, and another Katherine, Lord Guildford's sister, with Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir.
Claim to the throne and accession
See also: Third Succession Act
"My devise for the Succession" by Edward VI. The draft will was the basis for the letters patent, which declared Lady Jane Grey successor to the Crown. Edward's autograph shows his alteration of his text, from "L Janes heires masles" to "L Jane and her heires masles". Inner Temple Library, London.
The Third Succession Act of 1544 restored Henry VIII's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession, although they were still regarded as illegitimate. Furthermore, this Act authorised Henry VIII to alter the succession by his will. Henry's will reinforced the succession of his three children, and then declared that, should none of them leave descendants, the throne would pass to heirs of his younger sister, Mary, which included Jane. For reasons unknown, Henry excluded Jane's mother, Frances Brandon, from the succession, and also bypassed the claims of the descendants of his elder sister, Margaret, who had married into the Scottish royal house and nobility.
Both Mary and Elizabeth had been named illegitimate by statute during the reign of Henry VIII after his marriages to Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had been declared void. When the 15-year-old Edward VI lay dying in early summer 1553, his Catholic half-sister Mary was still his heir presumptive. Edward, in a draft will ("My devise for the Succession") composed earlier in 1553, had first restricted the succession to (non-existent) male descendants of Jane's mother and her daughters, before he named his Protestant cousin "Lady Jane and her heirs male" as his successors, probably in June 1553; the intent was to ensure his Protestant legacy, thereby bypassing Mary, a Roman Catholic. However, his advisors told him that he could not disinherit just one of his half-sisters: he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, although she was also a Protestant like her half-brother. Possibly instigated by Northumberland, Edward decided to disinherit both Mary and Elizabeth, thus contravening the Succession Act of 1544, and choose Jane Gray as his heir.
Edward VI personally supervised the copying of his will which was finally issued as letters patent on 21 June and signed by 102 notables, among them the whole Privy Council, peers, bishops, judges, and London aldermen. Edward also announced to have his "declaration" passed in parliament in September, and the necessary writs were prepared.
The King died on 6 July 1553, but his death was not announced until four days later. On 9 July, Jane was informed that she was now queen, and according to her own later claims, accepted the crown only with reluctance. On 10 July, she was officially proclaimed Queen of England, France and Ireland after she had taken up secure residence in the Tower of London, where English monarchs customarily resided from the time of accession until coronation. Jane refused to name her husband Dudley as king, because that would require an Act of Parliament.
Aware of her half-brother's dying condition, Mary Tudor had a few days before Edward's death, moved to East Anglia, where she was one of the largest landowners.
To claim her right to the throne, Mary began assembling her supporters in East Anglia. On 9 July, from Kenninghall, Norfolk, sent a letter saying that she was now Queen and demanding the obedience of the Council. The letter arrived on 10 July, the same day as Jane's proclamation in London. That same night, during dinner, the Duchess of Suffolk, Jane's mother, and the Duchess of Northumberland broke into tears, due to the arrival of Mary's letter, as the duchesses knew that they could be left in a vulnerable position if Mary triumphed and acceded to the throne. Dudley interpreted the letter as a threat, although at that time he had not yet decided to take concrete action against Mary, since he needed at least a week to try to build up a larger force. He was in a dilemma over who should lead the troops. He was the most experienced general in the Kingdom, but he did not want to leave the government in the hands of his colleagues, in some of whom he had little confidence. Jane decided the issue by demanding that her father should remain with her and the Council.
On 12 July, Mary and her supporters had assembled a large military force at Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, to eventually confront the forces led by Dudley.
On 14 July Northumberland headed for Cambridge with 1,500 troops and some artillery, having reminded his colleagues of the gravity of the cause, "what chance of variance soever might grow amongst you in my absence".
After marching to Cambridge, the Northumberland army spent a week practically without action, until on 20 July, the Duke learned that the previous day the Council in London had declared for Mary. Supported by the gentry and nobility of East Anglia and the Thames Valley, Mary's support grew daily and, through luck, came into possession of powerful artillery from the Royal navy. Given the circumstances and the fact that the Council had switched allegiance, the Duke considered launching a final campaign against Mary to be a counterproductive and desperate measure. Northumberland proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the marketplace and was arrested the next morning. The Council switched their allegiance and proclaimed Mary queen in London, on 19 July. A majority of the councilors moved out of the Tower before switching their allegiance. Becoming aware of his colleagues' change of mind, Jane's father abandoned his command of the fortress and proclaimed Mary I on nearby Tower Hill. The historical consensus assumes that this was in recognition of overwhelming support of the population for Mary. However, there is no clear evidence for that outside Norfolk and Suffolk, where Northumberland had put down Kett's Rebellion, hence where princess Mary sought refuge. Rather, it seems that Catholic Henry FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, together with William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke orchestrated a coup d'état in the Privy Council in Northumberland's absence. Arundel, one of the leaders of the Conservative faction within the Council and a staunch opponent of the reformist religious policies of both the King and Northumberland, had been imprisoned twice by Dudley for having sided with the previous Protector, Somerset; but it is not clear why Pembroke participated in the coup, especially since his son and heir Henry had married Jane's sister, Katherine, the same day as Jane and Guildford Dudley's wedding. On 19 July, the Council met at Baynard's Castle, Pembroke's property, to end the claim of Lady Jane Grey to the throne and proclaim Mary as Queen of England. That same day, a few hours before Queen Mary's proclamation in London, the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners' children took place. Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child's name to be Guildford. The Bishop of Winchester, Stephen Gardiner, who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years, took great offence at this fact as he heard of it.
Mary rode triumphantly into London on 3 August, on a wave of popular support. She was accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth and a procession of over 800 nobles and gentlemen.
The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, by the French painter Paul Delaroche, 1833. National Gallery
Jane is often called the Nine-Day Queen, although if her reign is dated from the moment of Edward's death on 6 July 1553, her reign could have been a few days longer. On 19 July 1553, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower's Gentleman Gaoler's apartments, and Guildford was imprisoned in the Bell Tower. There he was soon joined by his brother, Robert. His remaining brothers were imprisoned in other towers, as was Northumberland, who was for the moment the only prominent person to go to the scaffold. The Duke was executed on 22 August 1553. The day before his execution, Dudley renounced Protestantism and returned to the Catholic faith, much to the indignation of Jane, who was a fervent Protestant. In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful successor and denounced and revoked Jane's proclamation as that of a usurper.
Trial and execution
Referred to by the court as Jane Dudley, wife of Guildford, Jane was charged with high treason, as were her husband, two of his brothers, and the former archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Their trial, by a special commission, took place on 13 November 1553, at Guildhall in the City of London. The commission was chaired by Sir Thomas White, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Other members included Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, and John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath. As was to be expected, all defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jane's guilt, of having treacherously assumed the title and the power of the monarch, was evidenced by a number of documents she had signed as "Jane the Quene". Her sentence was to "be burned alive on Tower Hill or beheaded as the Queen pleases" (burning was the traditional English punishment for treason committed by women). The imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her life was to be spared.
Jane submitted a letter of explanation to the Queen, "asking forgiveness ... for the sin she was accused of, informing her majesty about the truth of events." In this account, she spoke of herself as "a wife who loves her husband".
In December, Jane was allowed to walk freely in the Queen's Garden. Lord Robert and Lord Guildford had to be content with taking the air on the leads of the Bell Tower. Jane and Guildford may have had some contact with each other, and at some point Guildford wrote a message to his father-in-law in Jane's prayer book:
Your loving and obedient son wishes unto your grace long life in this world with as much joy and comfort as ever I wish to myself, and in the world to come joy everlasting. Your humble son to his death, G. Dudley
Official letter of Lady Jane Grey signing herself as "Jane the Quene". Inner Temple Library, London
Mary initially spared the lives of Jane and Guildford, believing that they had been mere pawns in a much larger political game designed and orchestrated by Northumberland, and the Duke he was executed on 22 August 1553, a month after Mary's accession. However, the Wyatt's Rebellion in January 1554 against Queen Mary's marriage plans with Philip of Spain sealed Jane's fate. Jane's father along with Robert and Henry Dudley, Guildford's brothers, joined the rebellion, so the Government decided to go ahead with the verdict against Jane and her husband. It troubled Mary to let her cousin die, but she accepted the Privy Council's advice. Bishop and Lord Chancellor Gardiner pressed for the young couple's execution in a court sermon, and the Imperial ambassador Simon Renard was happy to report that "Jane of Suffolk and her husband are to lose their heads." Their execution was first scheduled for 9 February 1554, but was then postponed for three days to give Jane a chance to convert to the Catholic faith. Mary sent her chaplain John Feckenham to Jane, who was initially not pleased about this. Though she would not give in to his efforts "to save her soul", she became friends with him and allowed him to accompany her to the scaffold.
The day before their executions, Lord Guildford asked Jane to have one last meeting, which she refused, explaining it "would only ... increase their misery and pain, it was better to put it off ... as they would meet shortly elsewhere, and live bound by indissoluble ties."
On the morning of 12 February 1554, the authorities took Guildford from his rooms at the Tower of London to the public execution place at Tower Hill, where he was beheaded. A horse and cart brought his remains back to the Tower, past the rooms where Jane was staying. Seeing her husband's corpse return, Jane is reported to have exclaimed: "Oh, Guildford, Guildford." She was then taken out to Tower Green, inside the Tower, to be beheaded. According to the account of her execution given in the anonymous Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary, which formed the basis for Raphael Holinshed's depiction, Jane gave a speech upon ascending the scaffold:
Good people, I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned to the same. The fact, indeed, against the Queen's highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me: but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency, before God, and the face of you, good Christian people, this day.
While admitting to action considered unlawful, she declared that "I do wash my hands thereof in innocence". Jane then recited Psalm 51 (Have mercy upon me, O God) in English, and handed her gloves and handkerchief to her maid. The executioner asked her for forgiveness, which she granted him, pleading: "I pray you dispatch me quickly." Referring to her head, she asked, "Will you take it off before I lay me down?", and the axeman answered, "No, madam." She then blindfolded herself. Jane then failed to find the block with her hands, and cried, "What shall I do? Where is it?" Probably Sir Thomas Brydges, the Deputy Lieutenant of the Tower, helped her find her way. With her head on the block, Jane spoke the last words of Jesus as recounted in the Gospel of Luke: "Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!"
Grave of Lady Jane Grey, St Peter ad Vincula
Jane and Guildford are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. No memorial stone was erected at their grave. Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days after Jane, on 23 February 1554. Her mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, married her Master of the Horse and chamberlain, Adrian Stokes, in March 1555. She maintained good relations with Mary who allowed her to live at Richmond and employed the Duchess's surviving daughters as maids of honour. She died in 1559.
Legacy
Main article: Cultural depictions of Lady Jane Grey
In 1911, the British historian Albert Pollard called Jane "the traitor-heroine of the Reformation". During the Marian persecutions and its aftermath, Jane became viewed as a Protestant martyr, featuring prominently in the several editions of Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes) by John Foxe. The story of Jane's life grew to legendary proportions in popular culture, producing romantic biographies, novels, plays, operas, paintings, and films, such as Lady Jane in 1986.
Family tree
Jane's relationship to the House of Tudor and other claimants to the English throne
Italics indicate people who predeceased Edward VI;Arabic numerals (1–5) indicate Edward VI's line of succession at his death according to Henry VIII's will; andRoman numerals (I–III) indicate Edward VI's line of succession at his death according to Edward's will.
Henry VIIElizabeth of York
Henry VIIIMargaret TudorMary TudorCharles Brandon
Edward VIMary I(1)Elizabeth I(2)James V of ScotlandFrances BrandonHenry Grey
Mary, Queen of ScotsJane Grey(3, I)Katherine Grey(4, II)Mary Grey(5, III)
References
^ Williamson, David (2010). Kings & Queens. National Portrait Gallery Publications. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-85514-432-3
^ Ives 2009, p. 36; Florio 1607, p. 68
^ a b c d e f Plowden, Alison (2004). "Grey, Lady Jane (1537–1554), noblewoman and claimant to the English throne". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8154. ISBN 0-19-861362-8. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
^ "Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
^ a b Potter, Philip J. (2014). Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens. McFarland. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9780786491032.
^ Ives 2009, p. 2
^ Ascham 1863, p. 213
^ de Lisle 2008, pp. 5–8
^ a b Ives 2009, pp. 36, 299
^ Edwards, J. Stephan. "On the Date of Birth of Lady Jane Grey Dudley". Some Grey Matter. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
^ Florio 1607, p. 68
^ Ives 2009, pp. 51, 65, Morrill 2021
^ "Page: A cyclopaedia of female biography.djvu/369" – via Wikisource, the free online library.
^ Ives 2009, pp. 63–67
^ Ives 2009, p. 51
^ Ives 2009, p. 53
^ Ives 2009, p. 52
^ Ives 2009, pp. 42–45
^ Dent, Emma (1877). Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley. Sudeley Castle: J Murray. p. 186.
^ "Early Portrait Of Elizabeth I Sells For $158,661 At Butterscotch". Antiques and the Arts Weekly. November 2021.
^ "Children of England: The Heirs of King Henry VIII/The Children of Henry VIII (1996)". Alison Weir. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
^ "Lady Jane Grey Revealed - The Syon Portrait". J. Stephan Edwards. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
^ Edwards, J. Stephan (2015). A Queen of a New Invention – Portraits of Lady Jane Grey, England's 'Nine Days Queen'. Palm Springs, California: Old John Publishing. pp. 168–176. ISBN 978-0-9863873-0-2.
^ Ives 2009, pp. 45–47
^ Ives 2009, pp. 47–49
^ Ives 2009, p. 47
^ Loades 1996, pp. 238–239
^ Loades 1996, p. 179
^ de Lisle 2008, pp. 93, 304; Ives 2009, p. 321.
^ Ives 2009, p. 137
^ a b Alford 2002, pp. 171–172
^ Ives 2009, p. 35
^ A Constitutional History of Secession. Pelican. p. 38. ISBN 9781455602889.
^ Lindsay, Thomas Martin (1882). The Reformation. T. & T. Clark. p. 149.
^ Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.
^ Loades 1996, p. 240; Alford 2014, pp. 75–56; Loach 2002, pp. 163–164
^ a b Dale Hoak: "Edward VI (1537–1553)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004, online edn. January 2008, Retrieved 4 April 2010 (subscription required)
^ Ives 2009, pp. 145, 165–166
^ Ives 2009, p. 189
^ Loades 1996 pp. 257–258; Loach 2002 p. 170
^ Chapman 1962 p. 122
^ Loades 1996 pp. 259–261
^ Chapman 1962 p. 122
^ Chapman 1962 p. 122
^ Loades 1996 pp. 258–261
^ a b Loades 1996 p. 261
^ Ives 2009 p. 198
^ Porter p. 203; Waller 2006 p. 52
^ Ives 2009 pp. 209–212; Loach 2002 p. 172
^ Ives 2009 pp. 246, 241–242, 243–244
^ Ives 2009 p. 214
^ Chisholm 1911, p. 707.
^ Ives 2009, pp. 222–223, 225–227, 233–236
^ Stow, John. "Of Towers and Castels." A Survey of London. Reprinted From the Text of 1603. Ed. C L Kingsford. Oxford: Clarendon, 1908. 44-71. British History Online. Web. 17 March 2023. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/survey-of-london-stow/1603/pp44-71.
^ Ives 2009 p. 215
^ Ives 2009 pp. 184, 241
^ Waller 2006, pp. 57–59
^ Ives 2009, p. 1
^ Ives 2009 p. 249; Wilson 1981 p. 59
^ Ives 2009 p. 249
^ Potter, Philip J. (2014). Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens. McFarland. pp. 88–89. ISBN 9780786491032.
^ a b Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.
^ Ives 2009, pp. 251–252, 334; Bellamy 1979, p. 54
^ Ives 2009 p. 18
^ Ives 2009 p. 186
^ Ives 2009 pp. 252, 355
^ Nichols 1850 p. 33
^ Ives 2009 p. 252; Wilson 1981 p. 59
^ Ives p. 185
^ Porter 2007 p. 302
^ Ives 2009 p. 268
^ Chapman 1962 p. 190
^ Ives 2009, pp. 267, 268
^ Ives 2009, pp. 268–270
^ Ives 2009 p. 274
^ Ives 2009, pp. 274–275
^ Ives, Eric (2011). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444354263 – via Google Books.
^ a b Anonymous (1997) . "1554, The Execution of Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley". In Nichols, John Gough (ed.). Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary. The Camden Society; Marilee Hanson.
^ de Lisle 2008, p. 138
^ Ives, Eric (2011). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444354263 – via Google Books.
^ Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.
^ Cokayne, George (1982). The complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct, or dormant. Vol. 2. Gloucester: A. Sutton. p. 421. ISBN 0904387828.
^ Ives 2009, p. 38
^ Warnicke, Retha M. (2008). "Grey , Frances , duchess of Suffolk". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/65987. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
^ Pollard, Albert J. (1911). The History of England. London: Longmans, Green. p. 111. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
^ Marsden, Jean I. (2002). "Sex, Politics, and She-Tragedy: Reconfiguring Lady Jane Grey". Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900. 42 (3): 501–522. ISSN 0039-3657. JSTOR 1556177.
^ "Lady Jane". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
^ Ives 2009, Figures 1–5
Bibliography
Alford, Stephen (2002). Kingship and Politics in the Reign of Edward VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-03971-0.
Alford, Stephen (2014). Edward VI: The Last Boy King. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0141-97691-4.
Ascham, Roger (1863). Mayor, John E. B. (ed.). The Scholemaster (1863 ed.). London: Bell and Daldy. OCLC 251212421.
Bellamy, John (1979). The Tudor Law of Treason. Toronto: Routlegde, Kegan & Paul. ISBN 0-7100-8729-2.
Bindoff, Stanley T. (1953) "A Kingdom at Stake, 1553." History Today 3.9 (1953): 642–28.
de Lisle, Leanda (2008). The Sisters Who Would Be Queen: Mary, Katherine and Lady Jane Grey. A Tudor Tragedy. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-49135-0.
Florio, Michelangelo (1607). Historia de la vita e dela morte de l'Illustriss. Signora Giovanna Graia. Riccardo Pittore di Venezia.
Harris, Nicolas (1825). The Literary Remains of Lady Jane Grey with a Memoir of Her Life. London: Harding, Triphook, and Lepard.
Hoak, Dale. (2015) "The Succession Crisis of 1553 and Mary’s Rise to Power", in Catholic Renewal and Protestant Resistance in Marian England ed. by E. Evenden and V. Westbrook (Aldershot, 2015), pp. 17–42.
Ives, Eric (2009). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. Malden MA; Oxford UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9413-6.
Kewes, Paulina. (2017) "The 1553 Succession Crisis Reconsidered." Historical Research (2017). doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12178
Loach, Jennifer (2002). Edward VI. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30009409-4.
Loades, David (1996). John Dudley Duke of Northumberland 1504–1553. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-820193-1.
Morrill, John S (2021). "Lady Jane Grey". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
Waller, Maureen (2006). Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-33801-5. OL 9516816M.
Weir, Alison (2007). Innocent Traitor. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345495341.
External links
Wikisource has original works on the topic: House of Tudor
Media related to Lady Jane Grey at Wikimedia Commons
Lee, Sidney (1888). "Dudley, Jane" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 16. pp. 105–107.
"Grey, Lady Jane" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 590–591.
Lady Jane Grey at the official website of the British monarchy
Edwards, J. Stephan. "Somegreymatter.com".
Works by Lady Jane Grey at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Portraits of Lady Jane Grey at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Lady Jane Grey House of GreyBorn: 1537 Died: 12 February 1554
Regnal titles
Preceded byEdward VIas undisputed king
— DISPUTED —Queen of England and Ireland10–19 July 1553Disputed by Mary I
Succeeded byMary Ias undisputed queen
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For other uses, see Jane Grey (disambiguation).Lady Jane Grey (c. 1537 – 12 February 1554), also known as Lady Jane Dudley after her marriage[3] and as the \"Nine Days' Queen\",[6] was an English noblewoman who claimed the throne of England and Ireland from 10 to 19 July 1553.Jane was the great-granddaughter of King Henry VII through his daughter, Mary Tudor, and was therefore a great-niece of King Henry VIII, and a cousin to Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Under the will of Henry VIII, Jane was in line to the throne after her cousins. She had a humanist education; and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day.[7] In May 1553, she was married to Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward VI's chief minister John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England, whose foundation Edward laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their lawful claims under the Third Succession Act. Through Northumberland, Edward's letters patent in favour of Jane was signed by the entire privy council, bishops, and other notables.After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July 1553, and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew rapidly and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. The Privy Council of England suddenly changed sides, and proclaimed Mary as queen on 19 July 1553, deposing Jane. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason, and executed less than a month later. Jane was held prisoner in the Tower, and in November 1553 was also convicted of treason, which carried a sentence of death.Mary initially spared her life, but Jane soon became viewed as a threat to the Crown when her father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, became involved with Wyatt's rebellion against Queen Mary's intention to marry Philip of Spain. Jane and her husband were executed on 12 February 1554. At the time of her execution, Jane was either 16 or 17 years old.","title":"Lady Jane Grey"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:British_School,_16th_century_-_Portrait_of_a_Woman_-_RCIN_402655_-_Royal_Collection.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Grey,_Duke_of_Suffolk,_by_Johannes_Corvus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lady Frances Brandon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Grey,_Duchess_of_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Grey,_1st_Duke_of_Suffolk"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Holbein_the_Younger_-_Margaret,_Marchioness_of_Dorset_RL_12209.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary_Tudor_and_Charles_Brandon2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lady Margaret Wotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Wotton,_Marchioness_of_Dorset"},{"link_name":"Lady Mary Tudor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Tudor,_Queen_of_France"},{"link_name":"Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Brandon,_1st_Duke_of_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Grey,_1st_Duke_of_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Frances Brandon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Grey,_Duchess_of_Suffolk"},{"link_name":"Bradgate Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradgate_Park"},{"link_name":"Leicestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicestershire"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ives_2009_36,_299-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ives_2009_36,_299-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII"},{"link_name":"Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Tudor,_Queen_of_France"},{"link_name":"Lady Katherine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Katherine_Grey"},{"link_name":"Lady Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Mary_Grey"},{"link_name":"Henry VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England"},{"link_name":"Edward VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VI"},{"link_name":"Mary I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_I"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I"},{"link_name":"John Aylmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Aylmer_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo Florio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo_Florio"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Zürich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Bullinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Roger Ascham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ascham"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Seymour,_1st_Baron_Seymour_of_Sudeley"},{"link_name":"Katherine Parr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Parr"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-3"},{"link_name":"Sudeley Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudeley_Castle"},{"link_name":"Gloucestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloucestershire"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-3"}],"text":"Lady Frances Brandon and Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk, Jane's parentsLady Margaret Wotton, Lady Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, Jane's paternal and maternal grandparentsLady Jane Grey was the eldest daughter of Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Frances Brandon. The traditional view is that she was born at Bradgate Park in Leicestershire in October 1537, while more recent research indicates that she was born somewhat earlier, possibly in London, sometime before May 1537[8][9] or between May 1536 and February 1537.[10] This would coincide with the fact that she was noted as being in her seventeenth year at the time of her execution.[9][11] Frances was the eldest daughter of Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary. Jane had two younger sisters: Lady Katherine and Lady Mary. Through their mother, the three sisters were great-granddaughters of Henry VII; great-nieces of Henry VIII; and first cousins once removed of the future Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.Jane received a humanist education from John Aylmer, speaking Latin and Greek from an early age, also studying Hebrew with Aylmer, and Italian with Michelangelo Florio.[12] She was particularly fond, throughout her life, of writing letters in Latin and Greek.[13] Through the influence of her father and her tutors, she became a committed Protestant and also corresponded with the Zürich reformer Heinrich Bullinger.[14]She preferred academic studies rather than activities such as hunting parties[15] and allegedly regarded her strict upbringing, which was typical of the time,[16] as harsh. To the visiting scholar Roger Ascham, who found her reading Plato, she is said to have complained:For when I am in the presence either of father or mother, whether I speak, keep silence, sit, stand or go, eat, drink, be merry or sad, be sewing, playing, dancing, or doing anything else, I must do it as it were in such weight, measure and number, even so perfectly as God made the world; or else I am so sharply taunted, so cruelly threatened, yea presently sometimes with pinches, nips and bobs and other ways (which I will not name for the honour I bear them) ... that I think myself in hell.[17]Around February 1547, Jane was sent to live in the household of Edward VI's uncle, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, who soon married Henry VIII's widow, Katherine Parr. After moving there, Jane was able to receive educational opportunities available in court circles.[3] Jane lived with the couple at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire as an attendant to Katherine, until Katherine died in childbirth in September 1548.[18][19] About eleven years old at the time, Jane was chief mourner at Katherine's funeral.[3] After Thomas Seymour's arrest for treason, Jane returned to Bradgate and continued her studies.[3]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Jane_Grey_Painting.jpg"},{"link_name":"Audley End House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audley_End_House"},{"link_name":"Syon House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syon_House"},{"link_name":"William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Seymour,_2nd_Duke_of_Somerset"},{"link_name":"his grandfather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Earl_of_Hertford"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:42-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Lord Protector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Protector"},{"link_name":"Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Duke_of_Somerset"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"attainder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attainder"},{"link_name":"King's Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_England"},{"link_name":"Lord Hertford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Seymour,_1st_Earl_of_Hertford"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Lord Guildford Dudley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Guildford_Dudley"},{"link_name":"John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dudley,_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Lord President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Council"},{"link_name":"King's Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_council"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Durham House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham_House_(London)"},{"link_name":"Katherine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Katherine_Grey"},{"link_name":"Earl of Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(1551_creation)"},{"link_name":"Lord Herbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Herbert,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke"},{"link_name":"Katherine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Hastings,_Countess_of_Huntingdon"},{"link_name":"Henry Hastings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hastings,_3rd_Earl_of_Huntingdon"},{"link_name":"Earl of Huntingdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Hastings,_2nd_Earl_of_Huntingdon"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"16th century portrait of a lady in the collection of Audley End House, labelled as Jane Grey, copy of the original at Syon House. Based on a portrait type identified as Lady Katherine Grey or Elizabeth I, it is believed that the Syon Portrait was created by William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, with the help of his grandfather, Lady Katherine Grey's widower, who had also known Lady Jane Grey, tweaking the portrait type into a genuine resemblance of her.[20][21][22][23]Lady Jane acted as chief mourner at Katherine Parr's funeral; Thomas Seymour showed continued interest to keep her in his household, and she returned there for about two months before he was arrested at the end of 1548.[24] Seymour's brother, the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, felt threatened by Thomas' popularity with the young King Edward. Among other things, Thomas Seymour was charged with proposing Jane as a bride for the king.[25]In the course of Thomas Seymour's following attainder and execution, Jane's father was lucky to stay largely out of trouble. After his fourth interrogation by the King's Council, he proposed his daughter Jane as a bride for the Protector's eldest son, Lord Hertford.[26] Nothing came of this, however, and Jane was not engaged until 25 May 1553, her bridegroom being Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland.[27] The Duke, Lord President of the King's Council from late 1549, was then the most powerful man in the country.[28] On 25 May 1553, the couple were married at Durham House in a triple wedding, in which Jane's sister Katherine was matched with the heir of the Earl of Pembroke, Lord Herbert, and another Katherine, Lord Guildford's sister, with Henry Hastings, the Earl of Huntingdon's heir.[29]","title":"Contracts for marriage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Third Succession Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Succession_Act"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_VI%27s_%27devise_for_the_succession%27.png"},{"link_name":"Edward VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_VI"},{"link_name":"letters patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_patent"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"autograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autograph"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alford_2002_171%E2%80%93172-31"},{"link_name":"Inner Temple Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Temple_Library"},{"link_name":"Third Succession Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Succession_Act"},{"link_name":"Frances Brandon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Brandon"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Margaret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Tudor"},{"link_name":"Katherine of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Anne Boleyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Boleyn"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alford_2002_171%E2%80%93172-31"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-37"},{"link_name":"Privy Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council"},{"link_name":"London aldermen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Aldermen"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England"},{"link_name":"writs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writs"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-37"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-5"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"},{"link_name":"Act of Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"East Anglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Kenninghall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenninghall"},{"link_name":"Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loades_1996_p._261-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Framlingham Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framlingham_Castle"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loades_1996_p._261-46"},{"link_name":"Thames Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Valley"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Tower Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Hill"},{"link_name":"Kett's Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kett%27s_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Henry FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_FitzAlan,_12th_Earl_of_Arundel"},{"link_name":"William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(died_1570)"},{"link_name":"coup d'état","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911707-52"},{"link_name":"Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Herbert,_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke"},{"link_name":"Katherine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Katherine_Grey"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Baynard's Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baynard%27s_Castle"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Gentlemen Pensioners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentlemen_Pensioners"},{"link_name":"godmother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godparent"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ives_p._215-55"},{"link_name":"Stephen Gardiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gardiner"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PAUL_DELAROCHE_-_Ejecuci%C3%B3n_de_Lady_Jane_Grey_(National_Gallery_de_Londres,_1834).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Execution of Lady Jane Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Execution_of_Lady_Jane_Grey"},{"link_name":"Paul Delaroche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Delaroche"},{"link_name":"National Gallery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dudley,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"scaffold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decapitation"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ives_p._249-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"text":"See also: Third Succession Act\"My devise for the Succession\" by Edward VI. The draft will was the basis for the letters patent, which declared Lady Jane Grey successor to the Crown.[30] Edward's autograph shows his alteration of his text, from \"L Janes heires masles\" to \"L Jane and her heires masles\".[31] Inner Temple Library, London.The Third Succession Act of 1544 restored Henry VIII's daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, to the line of succession, although they were still regarded as illegitimate. Furthermore, this Act authorised Henry VIII to alter the succession by his will. Henry's will reinforced the succession of his three children, and then declared that, should none of them leave descendants, the throne would pass to heirs of his younger sister, Mary, which included Jane. For reasons unknown, Henry excluded Jane's mother, Frances Brandon, from the succession,[32] and also bypassed the claims of the descendants of his elder sister, Margaret, who had married into the Scottish royal house and nobility.Both Mary and Elizabeth had been named illegitimate by statute during the reign of Henry VIII after his marriages to Katherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn had been declared void.[33] When the 15-year-old Edward VI lay dying in early summer 1553, his Catholic half-sister Mary was still his heir presumptive. Edward, in a draft will (\"My devise for the Succession\") composed earlier in 1553, had first restricted the succession to (non-existent) male descendants of Jane's mother and her daughters, before he named his Protestant cousin \"Lady Jane and her heirs male\" as his successors, probably in June 1553; the intent was to ensure his Protestant legacy, thereby bypassing Mary, a Roman Catholic.[31][34][35] However, his advisors told him that he could not disinherit just one of his half-sisters: he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well, although she was also a Protestant like her half-brother. Possibly instigated by Northumberland, Edward decided to disinherit both Mary and Elizabeth, thus contravening the Succession Act of 1544, and choose Jane Gray as his heir.[36][37]Edward VI personally supervised the copying of his will which was finally issued as letters patent on 21 June and signed by 102 notables, among them the whole Privy Council, peers, bishops, judges, and London aldermen.[38] Edward also announced to have his \"declaration\" passed in parliament in September, and the necessary writs were prepared.[37]\nThe King died on 6 July 1553, but his death was not announced until four days later.[5] On 9 July, Jane was informed that she was now queen, and according to her own later claims, accepted the crown only with reluctance. On 10 July, she was officially proclaimed Queen of England, France and Ireland after she had taken up secure residence in the Tower of London, where English monarchs customarily resided from the time of accession until coronation. Jane refused to name her husband Dudley as king, because that would require an Act of Parliament.[39]Aware of her half-brother's dying condition, Mary Tudor had a few days before Edward's death, moved to East Anglia, where she was one of the largest landowners.[40]To claim her right to the throne, Mary began assembling her supporters in East Anglia. On 9 July, from Kenninghall, Norfolk, sent a letter saying that she was now Queen and demanding the obedience of the Council.[41][42] The letter arrived on 10 July, the same day as Jane's proclamation in London.[43] That same night, during dinner, the Duchess of Suffolk, Jane's mother, and the Duchess of Northumberland broke into tears, due to the arrival of Mary's letter, as the duchesses knew that they could be left in a vulnerable position if Mary triumphed and acceded to the throne.[44] Dudley interpreted the letter as a threat, although at that time he had not yet decided to take concrete action against Mary, since he needed at least a week to try to build up a larger force.[45] He was in a dilemma over who should lead the troops. He was the most experienced general in the Kingdom, but he did not want to leave the government in the hands of his colleagues, in some of whom he had little confidence.[46] Jane decided the issue by demanding that her father should remain with her and the Council.[47]On 12 July, Mary and her supporters had assembled a large military force at Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, to eventually confront the forces led by Dudley.[48]On 14 July Northumberland headed for Cambridge with 1,500 troops and some artillery, having reminded his colleagues of the gravity of the cause, \"what chance of variance soever might grow amongst you in my absence\".[46]After marching to Cambridge, the Northumberland army spent a week practically without action, until on 20 July, the Duke learned that the previous day the Council in London had declared for Mary. Supported by the gentry and nobility of East Anglia and the Thames Valley, Mary's support grew daily and, through luck, came into possession of powerful artillery from the Royal navy. Given the circumstances and the fact that the Council had switched allegiance, the Duke considered launching a final campaign against Mary to be a counterproductive and desperate measure.[49] Northumberland proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the marketplace and was arrested the next morning.[50] The Council switched their allegiance and proclaimed Mary queen in London, on 19 July. A majority of the councilors moved out of the Tower before switching their allegiance.[51] Becoming aware of his colleagues' change of mind, Jane's father abandoned his command of the fortress and proclaimed Mary I on nearby Tower Hill. The historical consensus assumes that this was in recognition of overwhelming support of the population for Mary. However, there is no clear evidence for that outside Norfolk and Suffolk, where Northumberland had put down Kett's Rebellion, hence where princess Mary sought refuge. Rather, it seems that Catholic Henry FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel, together with William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke orchestrated a coup d'état in the Privy Council in Northumberland's absence. Arundel, one of the leaders of the Conservative faction within the Council and a staunch opponent of the reformist religious policies of both the King and Northumberland,[52] had been imprisoned twice by Dudley for having sided with the previous Protector, Somerset; but it is not clear why Pembroke participated in the coup, especially since his son and heir Henry had married Jane's sister, Katherine, the same day as Jane and Guildford Dudley's wedding.[53] On 19 July, the Council met at Baynard's Castle, Pembroke's property, to end the claim of Lady Jane Grey to the throne and proclaim Mary as Queen of England.[54] That same day, a few hours before Queen Mary's proclamation in London, the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners' children took place. Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child's name to be Guildford.[55] The Bishop of Winchester, Stephen Gardiner, who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years, took great offence at this fact as he heard of it.[56]Mary rode triumphantly into London on 3 August, on a wave of popular support. She was accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth and a procession of over 800 nobles and gentlemen.[57]The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, by the French painter Paul Delaroche, 1833. National GalleryJane is often called the Nine-Day Queen, although if her reign is dated from the moment of Edward's death on 6 July 1553, her reign could have been a few days longer.[58] On 19 July 1553, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower's Gentleman Gaoler's apartments, and Guildford was imprisoned in the Bell Tower. There he was soon joined by his brother, Robert.[59] His remaining brothers were imprisoned in other towers, as was Northumberland, who was for the moment the only prominent person to go to the scaffold. The Duke was executed on 22 August 1553. The day before his execution, Dudley renounced Protestantism and returned to the Catholic faith, much to the indignation of Jane, who was a fervent Protestant.[60] In September, Parliament declared Mary the rightful successor and denounced and revoked Jane's proclamation as that of a usurper.[61]","title":"Claim to the throne and accession"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high treason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_treason"},{"link_name":"archbishop of Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cranmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-62"},{"link_name":"Guildhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildhall,_London"},{"link_name":"City of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London"},{"link_name":"Sir Thomas White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_White_(merchant)"},{"link_name":"Lord Mayor of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London"},{"link_name":"Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Howard,_3rd_Duke_of_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Stanley,_3rd_Earl_of_Derby"},{"link_name":"John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bourchier,_2nd_Earl_of_Bath"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-62"},{"link_name":"Tower Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Hill"},{"link_name":"burning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_by_burning#Historical_usage"},{"link_name":"traditional English punishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_of_women_in_England"},{"link_name":"treason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treason"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"imperial ambassador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire_to_England"},{"link_name":"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-3"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Jane_Grey_letter_as_Queen.JPG"},{"link_name":"Inner Temple Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Temple_Library"},{"link_name":"Wyatt's Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyatt%27s_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Queen Mary's marriage plans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_of_Mary_I_of_England_and_Philip_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Philip of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Lord Chancellor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Chancellor"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ives_p._268-71"},{"link_name":"Simon Renard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Renard"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"John Feckenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Feckenham"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"execution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Tower Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Green"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Raphael Holinshed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Holinshed"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ladyjane-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Psalm 51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalm_51"},{"link_name":"Sir Thomas Brydges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brydges"},{"link_name":"Gospel of Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ladyjane-78"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Lady_Jane_Gray.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Peter ad Vincula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Peter_ad_Vincula"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CP-82"},{"link_name":"chamberlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamberlain_(office)"},{"link_name":"Adrian Stokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Stokes_(Master_of_Horse)"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"text":"Referred to by the court as Jane Dudley, wife of Guildford, Jane was charged with high treason, as were her husband, two of his brothers, and the former archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer.[62] Their trial, by a special commission, took place on 13 November 1553, at Guildhall in the City of London. The commission was chaired by Sir Thomas White, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. Other members included Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, and John Bourchier, 2nd Earl of Bath. As was to be expected, all defendants were found guilty and sentenced to death. Jane's guilt, of having treacherously assumed the title and the power of the monarch, was evidenced by a number of documents she had signed as \"Jane the Quene\".[62] Her sentence was to \"be burned alive on Tower Hill or beheaded as the Queen pleases\" (burning was the traditional English punishment for treason committed by women).[63] The imperial ambassador reported to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that her life was to be spared.[3]Jane submitted a letter of explanation to the Queen, \"asking forgiveness ... for the sin she was accused of, informing her majesty about the truth of events.\"[64] In this account, she spoke of herself as \"a wife who loves her husband\".[65]In December, Jane was allowed to walk freely in the Queen's Garden.[66] Lord Robert and Lord Guildford had to be content with taking the air on the leads of the Bell Tower.[67] Jane and Guildford may have had some contact with each other,[68] and at some point Guildford wrote a message to his father-in-law in Jane's prayer book:Your loving and obedient son wishes unto your grace long life in this world with as much joy and comfort as ever I wish to myself, and in the world to come joy everlasting. Your humble son to his death, G. Dudley[69]Official letter of Lady Jane Grey signing herself as \"Jane the Quene\". Inner Temple Library, LondonMary initially spared the lives of Jane and Guildford, believing that they had been mere pawns in a much larger political game designed and orchestrated by Northumberland, and the Duke he was executed on 22 August 1553, a month after Mary's accession. However, the Wyatt's Rebellion in January 1554 against Queen Mary's marriage plans with Philip of Spain sealed Jane's fate. Jane's father along with Robert and Henry Dudley, Guildford's brothers, joined the rebellion, so the Government decided to go ahead with the verdict against Jane and her husband. It troubled Mary to let her cousin die, but she accepted the Privy Council's advice.[70] Bishop and Lord Chancellor Gardiner pressed for the young couple's execution in a court sermon,[71] and the Imperial ambassador Simon Renard was happy to report that \"Jane of Suffolk and her husband are to lose their heads.\"[72] Their execution was first scheduled for 9 February 1554, but was then postponed for three days to give Jane a chance to convert to the Catholic faith. Mary sent her chaplain John Feckenham to Jane, who was initially not pleased about this.[73] Though she would not give in to his efforts \"to save her soul\", she became friends with him and allowed him to accompany her to the scaffold.[74]The day before their executions, Lord Guildford asked Jane to have one last meeting, which she refused, explaining it \"would only ... increase their misery and pain, it was better to put it off ... as they would meet shortly elsewhere, and live bound by indissoluble ties.\"[75]On the morning of 12 February 1554, the authorities took Guildford from his rooms at the Tower of London to the public execution place at Tower Hill, where he was beheaded. A horse and cart brought his remains back to the Tower, past the rooms where Jane was staying. Seeing her husband's corpse return, Jane is reported to have exclaimed: \"Oh, Guildford, Guildford.\"[76] She was then taken out to Tower Green, inside the Tower, to be beheaded.[77] According to the account of her execution given in the anonymous Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary, which formed the basis for Raphael Holinshed's depiction, Jane gave a speech upon ascending the scaffold:Good people, I am come hither to die, and by a law I am condemned to the same. The fact, indeed, against the Queen's highness was unlawful, and the consenting thereunto by me: but touching the procurement and desire thereof by me or on my behalf, I do wash my hands thereof in innocency, before God, and the face of you, good Christian people, this day.[78]While admitting to action considered unlawful, she declared that \"I do wash my hands thereof in innocence\".[79][80] Jane then recited Psalm 51 (Have mercy upon me, O God) in English, and handed her gloves and handkerchief to her maid. The executioner asked her for forgiveness, which she granted him, pleading: \"I pray you dispatch me quickly.\" Referring to her head, she asked, \"Will you take it off before I lay me down?\", and the axeman answered, \"No, madam.\" She then blindfolded herself. Jane then failed to find the block with her hands, and cried, \"What shall I do? Where is it?\" Probably Sir Thomas Brydges, the Deputy Lieutenant of the Tower, helped her find her way. With her head on the block, Jane spoke the last words of Jesus as recounted in the Gospel of Luke: \"Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!\"[78]Grave of Lady Jane Grey, St Peter ad VinculaJane and Guildford are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green. No memorial stone was erected at their grave.[81] Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, was executed 11 days after Jane, on 23 February 1554.[82] Her mother, the Duchess of Suffolk, married her Master of the Horse and chamberlain, Adrian Stokes, in March 1555.[83] She maintained good relations with Mary who allowed her to live at Richmond and employed the Duchess's surviving daughters as maids of honour. She died in 1559.[84]","title":"Trial and execution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert Pollard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Pollard"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Marian persecutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Protestant_martyrs_of_the_English_Reformation"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Foxe's Book of Martyrs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxe%27s_Book_of_Martyrs"},{"link_name":"John Foxe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Foxe"},{"link_name":"Lady Jane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Jane_(1986_film)"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"text":"In 1911, the British historian Albert Pollard called Jane \"the traitor-heroine of the Reformation\".[85] During the Marian persecutions and its aftermath, Jane became viewed as a Protestant martyr,[86] featuring prominently in the several editions of Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Dayes) by John Foxe. The story of Jane's life grew to legendary proportions in popular culture, producing romantic biographies, novels, plays, operas, paintings, and films, such as Lady Jane in 1986.[87]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Family tree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-03971-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03971-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0141-97691-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141-97691-4"},{"link_name":"Mayor, John E. B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eyton_Bickersteth_Mayor"},{"link_name":"The Scholemaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/scholemasterorp00aschgoog"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"251212421","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/251212421"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7100-8729-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8729-2"},{"link_name":"The Sisters Who Would Be Queen: Mary, Katherine and Lady Jane Grey. A Tudor Tragedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sisterswhowouldb00deli_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-345-49135-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-49135-0"},{"link_name":"The Literary Remains of Lady Jane Grey with a Memoir of Her Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=KE4uAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Ives, Eric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Ives"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4051-9413-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9413-6"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/1468-2281.12178","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-2281.12178"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-30009409-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-30009409-4"},{"link_name":"Loades, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Loades"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-820193-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820193-1"},{"link_name":"\"Lady Jane Grey\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.britannica.com/biography/Lady-Jane-Grey"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-33801-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-33801-5"},{"link_name":"OL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9516816M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//openlibrary.org/books/OL9516816M"},{"link_name":"Weir, Alison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Weir"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0345495341","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0345495341"}],"text":"Alford, Stephen (2002). Kingship and Politics in the Reign of Edward VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-03971-0.\nAlford, Stephen (2014). Edward VI: The Last Boy King. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0141-97691-4.\nAscham, Roger (1863). Mayor, John E. B. (ed.). The Scholemaster (1863 ed.). London: Bell and Daldy. OCLC 251212421.\nBellamy, John (1979). The Tudor Law of Treason. Toronto: Routlegde, Kegan & Paul. ISBN 0-7100-8729-2.\nBindoff, Stanley T. (1953) \"A Kingdom at Stake, 1553.\" History Today 3.9 (1953): 642–28.\nde Lisle, Leanda (2008). The Sisters Who Would Be Queen: Mary, Katherine and Lady Jane Grey. A Tudor Tragedy. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-49135-0.\nFlorio, Michelangelo (1607). Historia de la vita e dela morte de l'Illustriss. Signora Giovanna Graia. Riccardo Pittore di Venezia.\nHarris, Nicolas (1825). The Literary Remains of Lady Jane Grey with a Memoir of Her Life. London: Harding, Triphook, and Lepard.\nHoak, Dale. (2015) \"The Succession Crisis of 1553 and Mary’s Rise to Power\", in Catholic Renewal and Protestant Resistance in Marian England ed. by E. Evenden and V. Westbrook (Aldershot, 2015), pp. 17–42.\nIves, Eric (2009). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. Malden MA; Oxford UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9413-6.\nKewes, Paulina. (2017) \"The 1553 Succession Crisis Reconsidered.\" Historical Research (2017). doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12178\nLoach, Jennifer (2002). Edward VI. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30009409-4.\nLoades, David (1996). John Dudley Duke of Northumberland 1504–1553. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-820193-1.\nMorrill, John S (2021). \"Lady Jane Grey\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.\nWaller, Maureen (2006). Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-33801-5. OL 9516816M.\nWeir, Alison (2007). Innocent Traitor. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345495341.","title":"Bibliography"}]
|
[{"image_text":"16th century portrait of a lady in the collection of Audley End House, labelled as Jane Grey, copy of the original at Syon House. Based on a portrait type identified as Lady Katherine Grey or Elizabeth I, it is believed that the Syon Portrait was created by William Seymour, 2nd Duke of Somerset, with the help of his grandfather, Lady Katherine Grey's widower, who had also known Lady Jane Grey, tweaking the portrait type into a genuine resemblance of her.[20][21][22][23]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Lady_Jane_Grey_Painting.jpg/220px-Lady_Jane_Grey_Painting.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"My devise for the Succession\" by Edward VI. The draft will was the basis for the letters patent, which declared Lady Jane Grey successor to the Crown.[30] Edward's autograph shows his alteration of his text, from \"L Janes heires masles\" to \"L Jane and her heires masles\".[31] Inner Temple Library, London.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Edward_VI%27s_%27devise_for_the_succession%27.png/300px-Edward_VI%27s_%27devise_for_the_succession%27.png"},{"image_text":"The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, by the French painter Paul Delaroche, 1833. National Gallery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/PAUL_DELAROCHE_-_Ejecuci%C3%B3n_de_Lady_Jane_Grey_%28National_Gallery_de_Londres%2C_1834%29.jpg/220px-PAUL_DELAROCHE_-_Ejecuci%C3%B3n_de_Lady_Jane_Grey_%28National_Gallery_de_Londres%2C_1834%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Official letter of Lady Jane Grey signing herself as \"Jane the Quene\". Inner Temple Library, London","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Lady_Jane_Grey_letter_as_Queen.JPG/170px-Lady_Jane_Grey_letter_as_Queen.JPG"},{"image_text":"Grave of Lady Jane Grey, St Peter ad Vincula","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Tomb_of_Lady_Jane_Gray.jpg/220px-Tomb_of_Lady_Jane_Gray.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Plowden, Alison (2004). \"Grey, Lady Jane (1537–1554), noblewoman and claimant to the English throne\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8154. ISBN 0-19-861362-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Plowden","url_text":"Plowden, Alison"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford","url_text":"Oxford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8154","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/8154"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861362-8","url_text":"0-19-861362-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 10 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lady-Jane-Grey","url_text":"\"Lady Jane Grey | Biography, Facts, & Execution\""}]},{"reference":"Potter, Philip J. (2014). Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens. McFarland. pp. 83–84. ISBN 9780786491032.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=39hKrtqiDcIC&pg=PA84","url_text":"Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786491032","url_text":"9780786491032"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, J. Stephan. \"On the Date of Birth of Lady Jane Grey Dudley\". Some Grey Matter. Retrieved 15 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://somegreymatter.com/date.htm","url_text":"\"On the Date of Birth of Lady Jane Grey Dudley\""}]},{"reference":"\"Page: A cyclopaedia of female biography.djvu/369\" – via Wikisource, the free online library.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_cyclopaedia_of_female_biography.djvu/369","url_text":"\"Page: A cyclopaedia of female biography.djvu/369\""}]},{"reference":"Dent, Emma (1877). Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley. Sudeley Castle: J Murray. p. 186.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rLYLAAAAYAAJ&q=Lady+Jane+grey+Sudeley+castle&pg=PA186","url_text":"Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley"}]},{"reference":"\"Early Portrait Of Elizabeth I Sells For $158,661 At Butterscotch\". Antiques and the Arts Weekly. November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.antiquesandthearts.com/early-portrait-of-elizabeth-i-sells-for-158661-at-butterscotch/","url_text":"\"Early Portrait Of Elizabeth I Sells For $158,661 At Butterscotch\""}]},{"reference":"\"Children of England: The Heirs of King Henry VIII/The Children of Henry VIII (1996)\". Alison Weir. Retrieved 8 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://alisonweir.org.uk/books/bookpages/more-children-of-england.php","url_text":"\"Children of England: The Heirs of King Henry VIII/The Children of Henry VIII (1996)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lady Jane Grey Revealed - The Syon Portrait\". J. Stephan Edwards. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120213031113/http://www.somegreymatter.com/syonportrait.htm","url_text":"\"Lady Jane Grey Revealed - The Syon Portrait\""},{"url":"http://www.somegreymatter.com/syonportrait.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, J. Stephan (2015). A Queen of a New Invention – Portraits of Lady Jane Grey, England's 'Nine Days Queen'. Palm Springs, California: Old John Publishing. pp. 168–176. ISBN 978-0-9863873-0-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9863873-0-2","url_text":"978-0-9863873-0-2"}]},{"reference":"A Constitutional History of Secession. Pelican. p. 38. ISBN 9781455602889.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Gah0RdbHKmYC&pg=PA38","url_text":"A Constitutional History of Secession"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781455602889","url_text":"9781455602889"}]},{"reference":"Lindsay, Thomas Martin (1882). The Reformation. T. & T. Clark. p. 149.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/reformation22lind","url_text":"The Reformation"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/reformation22lind/page/149","url_text":"149"}]},{"reference":"Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B5P-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT121","url_text":"Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681772875","url_text":"9781681772875"}]},{"reference":"Potter, Philip J. (2014). Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens. McFarland. pp. 88–89. ISBN 9780786491032.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=39hKrtqiDcIC&pg=PA84","url_text":"Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780786491032","url_text":"9780786491032"}]},{"reference":"Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B5P-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT172","url_text":"Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681772875","url_text":"9781681772875"}]},{"reference":"Ives, Eric (2011). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444354263 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMGgJzO2IC&pg=PA233","url_text":"Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444354263","url_text":"9781444354263"}]},{"reference":"Anonymous (1997) [1850]. \"1554, The Execution of Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley\". In Nichols, John Gough (ed.). Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary. The Camden Society; Marilee Hanson.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gough_Nichols","url_text":"Nichols, John Gough"},{"url":"http://englishhistory.net/tudor/executions-of-lady-jane-grey-lord-guildford-dudley/","url_text":"Chronicle of Queen Jane and of Two Years of Queen Mary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Camden_Society","url_text":"The Camden Society"}]},{"reference":"Ives, Eric (2011). Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444354263 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMGgJzO2IC&pg=PA22","url_text":"Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444354263","url_text":"9781444354263"}]},{"reference":"Tallis, Nicola (2016). Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681772875 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B5P-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT214","url_text":"Crown of Blood: The Deadly Inheritance of Lady Jane Grey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681772875","url_text":"9781681772875"}]},{"reference":"Cokayne, George (1982). The complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct, or dormant. Vol. 2. Gloucester: A. Sutton. p. 421. ISBN 0904387828.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0904387828","url_text":"0904387828"}]},{"reference":"Warnicke, Retha M. (2008). \"Grey [other married name Stokes], Frances [née Lady Frances Brandon], duchess of Suffolk\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/65987.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F65987","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/65987"}]},{"reference":"Pollard, Albert J. (1911). The History of England. London: Longmans, Green. p. 111. Archived from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 2 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Pollard","url_text":"Pollard, Albert J."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090430113831/http://www.questia.com/read/58544100","url_text":"The History of England"},{"url":"https://www.questia.com/read/58544100","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Marsden, Jean I. (2002). \"Sex, Politics, and She-Tragedy: Reconfiguring Lady Jane Grey\". Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900. 42 (3): 501–522. ISSN 0039-3657. JSTOR 1556177.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1556177","url_text":"\"Sex, Politics, and She-Tragedy: Reconfiguring Lady Jane Grey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3657","url_text":"0039-3657"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1556177","url_text":"1556177"}]},{"reference":"\"Lady Jane\". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 30 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/lady_jane","url_text":"\"Lady Jane\""}]},{"reference":"Alford, Stephen (2002). Kingship and Politics in the Reign of Edward VI. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-03971-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03971-0","url_text":"978-0-521-03971-0"}]},{"reference":"Alford, Stephen (2014). Edward VI: The Last Boy King. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0141-97691-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0141-97691-4","url_text":"978-0141-97691-4"}]},{"reference":"Ascham, Roger (1863). Mayor, John E. B. (ed.). The Scholemaster (1863 ed.). London: Bell and Daldy. OCLC 251212421.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eyton_Bickersteth_Mayor","url_text":"Mayor, John E. 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OL 9516816M.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-33801-5","url_text":"0-312-33801-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL9516816M","url_text":"9516816M"}]},{"reference":"Weir, Alison (2007). Innocent Traitor. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345495341.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Weir","url_text":"Weir, Alison"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0345495341","url_text":"978-0345495341"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Sidney (1888). \"Dudley, Jane\" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 16. pp. 105–107.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Lee","url_text":"Lee, Sidney"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Dudley,_Jane","url_text":"\"Dudley, Jane\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"\"Grey, Lady Jane\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 590–591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Grey,_Lady_Jane","url_text":"\"Grey, Lady Jane\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, J. Stephan. \"Somegreymatter.com\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.somegreymatter.com/index.html","url_text":"\"Somegreymatter.com\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima
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Tanegashima
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["1 Geography","2 History","2.1 Introduction of firearms into Japan","2.2 Knife industry","3 Tanegashima Space Center","4 Climate","5 Sporting events","6 Notable people","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]
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Coordinates: 30°34′26″N 130°58′52″E / 30.57389°N 130.98111°E / 30.57389; 130.98111For the Japanese matchlock, see Tanegashima (gun).
Island within Ōsumi Islands
TanegashimaNative name: 種子島NASA photo of TanegashimaTanegashima is the easternmost of the Ōsumi Islands, just south of the major island of KyushuGeographyLocationEast China SeaCoordinates30°34′26″N 130°58′52″E / 30.57389°N 130.98111°E / 30.57389; 130.98111ArchipelagoŌsumi IslandsArea444.99 km2 (171.81 sq mi)Length57.2 km (35.54 mi)Coastline186 km (115.6 mi)Highest elevation282 m (925 ft)AdministrationJapanKagoshima PrefectureDemographicsPopulation33,000 (2010)Pop. density74.15/km2 (192.05/sq mi)Ethnic groupsJapanese
Tanegashima (種子島) is one of the Ōsumi Islands belonging to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 444.99 km2 in area, is the second largest of the Ōsumi Islands, and has a population of 33,000 people. Access to the island is by ferry, or by air to New Tanegashima Airport. Administratively, the island is divided into the city, Nishinoomote, and the two towns, Nakatane and Minamitane. The towns belong to Kumage District.
Geography
Tanegashima is the easternmost and the second largest (after Yakushima) of the Ōsumi Islands. It is located approximately 43 kilometres (23 nmi) south of the southern tip of Ōsumi Peninsula in southern Kyushu, or 115 kilometres (62 nmi) south of Kagoshima. The Vincennes Strait (Yakushima Kaikyō) separates it from Yakushima.
The island is of volcanic origin; however, unlike neighboring Yakushima, it presents a flat appearance, with its highest elevation at only 282 metres (925 ft) above sea level. The island has a length of 57 kilometres (31 nmi) and a width ranging from 5 kilometres (2.7 nmi) to 10 kilometres (5.4 nmi).
The climate is subtropical. The island, along with neighbouring Yakushima, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because they support populations of Japanese wood pigeons, Ryukyu green pigeons and Ryukyu robins.
Gallery
In the vicinity of Inu Castle Coast, Daikoya District
Town area of Nakatane (中種子町), Kagoshima, Japan
Weathered rocks near Mt. Iwasaki
Chikura Caverns
Cape Kadokura
Ōsumi islands map
History
Tanegashima has a long history of Kofun. Other burials on Tanegashima, namely the Yokomine and Hirota sites, attest to a uniquely well-developed Yayoi period culture at the end of the 4th century AD. The artifacts include magatama, an engraved pendant, and emblems with apparent writing.
During the Nara period, the embryo state of Japan began to make contact with Tanegashima. According to the Nihonshoki, the imperial court hosted a banquet for the islanders of Tanegashima in 677. In 679, the court sent a mission to the island who returned in 681. Other missions to the island mentioned in the book were in 683 and 695. According to the Shoku Nihongi, people from Tane, Yaku, Amami and Dokan (possibly Tokunoshima) came to the imperial court to pay tribute in 699. These activities resulted in the establishment of Tane Province on the island in 702. Tane Province lasted until 824 and was merged into Ōsumi Province.
Sometime around 1140, the whole island of Tanegashima became part of the Shimazu Estate, the largest medieval shōen of Japan. In the early Kamakura period, the positions of the land steward of the Shimazu Estate and the military governor of Ōsumi Province were given to the Shimazu clan. However, the clan lost these positions to the Hōjō clan, the de facto ruler of the shogunate. The Hōjō clan sent the Higo clan as deputy governors. A branch line of the Higo clan made itself autonomous on Tanegashima after the Hōjō clan was annihilated and began to claim the clan name of Tanegashima.
The Tanegashima clan ruled the island until the Meiji restoration. The Tanegashima clan enjoyed a high degree of autonomy until Shimazu unified southern Kyūshū in the late 16th century, and after that, served as a top-ranking retainer to the Satsuma domain. Following the Meiji restoration, the island has been administered as part of Kagoshima Prefecture.
Introduction of firearms into Japan
A "Tanegashima" gun
See also: Firearms of Japan
Tanegashima is traditionally known as the site of the introduction of European firearms to Japan in 1543. Until modern times, firearms were colloquially known in Japan as "Tanegashima", due to the belief that they were introduced by the Portuguese on board the first Portuguese ship.
In his memoirs published in 1614, Portuguese adventurer turned author, Fernão Mendes Pinto placed himself in the first landing party, although this claim has since been roundly discredited and in fact contradicts his claims to have been in Burma at the time. The two Portuguese traders, António Mota and Francisco Zeimoto, should actually be credited as the first Europeans to introduce firearms. However, Mendes Pinto does appear to have visited Tanegashima soon thereafter. The Europeans had arrived to trade, not only guns, but also soap, tobacco and other goods unknown in medieval Japan, for Japanese goods.
During the Muromachi period, Tanegashima functioned as a relay station for one of the main routes of Chinese trade that connected Sakai to Ningbo. The Tanegashima clan cooperated with the Hosokawa clan, one of two powers who controlled Chinese trade. The clan also maintained a firm connection with the Honnō-ji Temple of Kyoto. These account for the rapid spread of firearms from Tanegashima to central Japan.
Gallery
Portuguese escudo commemorating the Portuguese arrival at Tanegashima
First Westerners in Japan in 1542
Knife industry
Edge tools (particularly knives and scissors) made in Tanegashima are famous traditional handicrafts in Japan. Craftsmen in Tanegashima have kept alive traditional techniques for forging and sharpening iron tools. Tanegashima is also famous as the center of iron sand production. The technique has been around since about 1185 when the Taira clan were exiled here from Kyoto by Minamoto no Yoritomo, taking with them craftsmen and chefs from Kyoto. The people of the island speak with a Kyoto accent even now, rather than a Kyūshū or Kagoshima accent, despite its proximity to Kyūshū. These craftsmen were the original users of the distinct techniques used for forging and sharpening. The technique is unique in the world, and produces such tools as "Tanegashima Hōchō" (Tanegashima knives), used by chefs, and "Tane-basami" (Tanegashima scissors), preferred by many for the art of Bonsai. Nevertheless the local population has fallen from over fifty thousand in 1970 to just twenty-eight thousand today, in spite of tourism and space industries, putting traditional crafts at risk.
Gallery
Nishinoomote City on Tanegashima
Tanegashima government building
Nishinoomote Minato Ward from "New Satsuma" (mid December 2012)
Tanegashima Space Center
Main article: Tanegashima Space Center
The Tanegashima Space Center is Japan's largest space development center. It is run by JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and is located at the southeastern end of Tanegashima. It was established in 1969 when the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) was formed. Activities include assembly, testing, launching and tracking satellites, as well as rocket engine firing tests. Activity includes orbital launches of the H-IIA rockets from the Yoshinobu Launch Complex.
The Space Science and Technology Museum is near the TSC. It offers an intricate view of rocket history and technology in Japan. Though most of the displays are in Japanese, there are English tour pamphlets available.
Gallery
Full view of the Yoshinobu Launch Complex during roll out of the H-IIA rocket in February 2014
Overlooking the Osaki Range, surrounded by green mountains and the sea of coral reefs.
Space Science and Technology Museum
The H-IIA F11 launch vehicle lifting off from Tanegashima Space Center
A Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) H-IIA rocket at TSC
Climate
Tanegashima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Precipitation is high throughout the year, but is highest in the months of May, June and September.
Climate data for Tanegashima (1991−2020 normals, extremes 1948−present)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
24.4(75.9)
25.6(78.1)
26.9(80.4)
28.1(82.6)
30.6(87.1)
32.7(90.9)
34.9(94.8)
35.9(96.6)
34.1(93.4)
31.3(88.3)
28.8(83.8)
27.2(81.0)
35.9(96.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
14.2(57.6)
15.2(59.4)
17.6(63.7)
21.0(69.8)
24.1(75.4)
26.8(80.2)
30.4(86.7)
31.0(87.8)
29.1(84.4)
25.1(77.2)
21.1(70.0)
16.7(62.1)
22.7(72.9)
Daily mean °C (°F)
11.7(53.1)
12.3(54.1)
14.5(58.1)
17.8(64.0)
21.2(70.2)
24.0(75.2)
27.5(81.5)
28.1(82.6)
26.2(79.2)
22.3(72.1)
18.1(64.6)
13.8(56.8)
19.8(67.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
8.5(47.3)
9.0(48.2)
11.1(52.0)
14.5(58.1)
18.1(64.6)
21.3(70.3)
25.1(77.2)
25.7(78.3)
23.6(74.5)
19.5(67.1)
14.9(58.8)
10.5(50.9)
16.8(62.3)
Record low °C (°F)
0.0(32.0)
−0.6(30.9)
2.1(35.8)
4.5(40.1)
10.0(50.0)
15.2(59.4)
17.5(63.5)
20.6(69.1)
14.9(58.8)
10.3(50.5)
4.5(40.1)
2.6(36.7)
−0.6(30.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
96.5(3.80)
122.5(4.82)
160.4(6.31)
198.0(7.80)
233.3(9.19)
556.4(21.91)
261.7(10.30)
188.7(7.43)
293.2(11.54)
194.5(7.66)
134.8(5.31)
92.7(3.65)
2,532.5(99.70)
Average rainy days
9.5
10.3
12.6
10.8
11.1
17.0
9.6
11.0
11.6
9.3
9.2
8.2
130.2
Average relative humidity (%)
65
66
69
71
76
84
83
81
79
73
69
65
73
Mean monthly sunshine hours
107.1
114.9
140.1
163.1
158.5
114.7
222.7
222.8
166.6
157.9
129.7
119.4
1,822
Source 1: JMA
Source 2: JMA
Sporting events
The Tanegashima "Rocket Marathon" takes place in March each year.
Notable people
Japan portalIslands portalGeography portal
Miyu Uehara – gravure idol and TV personality
Kōbō Kenichi – sumo wrestler
Wakashimazu Mutsuo – sumo wrestler
References
^ "Yakushima and Tanegashima islands". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
^ "Hirota". archaeology.jp. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
^ "Ancient Japanese writing symbols ｜Special Exhibitions｜Exhibitions｜National Museum of Japanese History". Archived from the original on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
^ Suzuki Yasutami 鈴木靖民 (1997). "Nantō-jin no raichō wo meguru kisoteki kōsatsu 南島人の来朝をめぐる基礎的考察". Higashi Ajia to Nihon 東アジアと日本 (in Japanese). pp. 347–398.
^ Kamiyaku-chō kyōdoshi henshū-iinkai 上屋久町郷土誌編集委員会, ed. (1984). Kamiyaku-chō kyōdoshi 上屋久町郷土誌. Kamiyaku-chō Kyōiku-iinkai 上屋久町教育委員会.
^ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 0804705259.
^ Yara Ken'ichirō 屋良健一郎 (2012). "Chūsei kōki no Tanegashima-shi to minami Kyūshū kaiiki 中世後期の種子島氏と南九州海域". Shigaku-zasshi 史学雑誌. 121 (11): 1–36.
^ 観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値）. JMA. Retrieved February 18, 2022.
^ 気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値）. JMA. Retrieved February 18, 2022.
^ JAXA March 2005 News
Sources
Lidon, Olof. Tanegashima: The Arrival of Europe in Japan, NIAS Press (2002) ISBN 8791114128
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tanegashima.
Tanegashima travel guide from Wikivoyage
Geographic data related to Tanegashima at OpenStreetMap
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tanegashima (gun)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima_(gun)"},{"link_name":"Ōsumi Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csumi_Islands"},{"link_name":"Kagoshima Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"New Tanegashima Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Tanegashima_Airport"},{"link_name":"city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Nishinoomote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishinoomote,_Kagoshima"},{"link_name":"towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Towns_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Nakatane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakatane,_Kagoshima"},{"link_name":"Minamitane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamitane,_Kagoshima"},{"link_name":"Kumage District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumage_District,_Kagoshima"}],"text":"For the Japanese matchlock, see Tanegashima (gun).Island within Ōsumi IslandsTanegashima (種子島) is one of the Ōsumi Islands belonging to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 444.99 km2 in area, is the second largest of the Ōsumi Islands, and has a population of 33,000 people. Access to the island is by ferry, or by air to New Tanegashima Airport. Administratively, the island is divided into the city, Nishinoomote, and the two towns, Nakatane and Minamitane. The towns belong to Kumage District.","title":"Tanegashima"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ōsumi Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csumi_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Kagoshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima,_Kagoshima"},{"link_name":"Yakushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakushima"},{"link_name":"Important Bird Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Important_Bird_Area"},{"link_name":"BirdLife International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BirdLife_International"},{"link_name":"Japanese wood pigeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_wood_pigeon"},{"link_name":"Ryukyu green pigeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryukyu_green_pigeon"},{"link_name":"Ryukyu robins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryukyu_robin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bli-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E7%8A%AC%E5%9F%8EIMGP1389.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nakatane_town.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E9%A6%AC%E7%AB%8BIMGP1382.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%8D%83%E5%BA%A7%E3%81%AE%E5%B2%A9%E5%B1%8B.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kadokuramisaki.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osumi_Islands_Map_Japan.png"}],"text":"Tanegashima is the easternmost and the second largest (after Yakushima) of the Ōsumi Islands. It is located approximately 43 kilometres (23 nmi) south of the southern tip of Ōsumi Peninsula in southern Kyushu, or 115 kilometres (62 nmi) south of Kagoshima. The Vincennes Strait (Yakushima Kaikyō) separates it from Yakushima.The island is of volcanic origin; however, unlike neighboring Yakushima, it presents a flat appearance, with its highest elevation at only 282 metres (925 ft) above sea level. The island has a length of 57 kilometres (31 nmi) and a width ranging from 5 kilometres (2.7 nmi) to 10 kilometres (5.4 nmi).\nThe climate is subtropical. The island, along with neighbouring Yakushima, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because they support populations of Japanese wood pigeons, Ryukyu green pigeons and Ryukyu robins.[1]Gallery\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIn the vicinity of Inu Castle Coast, Daikoya District\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTown area of Nakatane (中種子町), Kagoshima, Japan\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWeathered rocks near Mt. Iwasaki\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tChikura Caverns\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCape Kadokura\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tŌsumi islands map","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kofun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofun"},{"link_name":"Yokomine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokomine_Site"},{"link_name":"Hirota sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirota_Site"},{"link_name":"Yayoi period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_period"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"magatama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magatama"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Nara period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_period"},{"link_name":"Nihonshoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihonshoki"},{"link_name":"Shoku Nihongi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoku_Nihongi"},{"link_name":"Amami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amami_Island"},{"link_name":"Tokunoshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokunoshima"},{"link_name":"Tane Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tane_Province"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suzuki1987-4"},{"link_name":"Ōsumi Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Csumi_Province"},{"link_name":"Shimazu Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimazu_Estate"},{"link_name":"shōen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Den"},{"link_name":"Kamakura period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura_period"},{"link_name":"Shimazu clan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimazu_clan"},{"link_name":"Hōjō clan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dj%C5%8D_clan"},{"link_name":"Higo clan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higo_clan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"clan name of Tanegashima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima_clan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kamiyaku-5"},{"link_name":"Meiji restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_restoration"},{"link_name":"Satsuma domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satsuma_domain"},{"link_name":"Meiji restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_restoration"}],"text":"Tanegashima has a long history of Kofun. Other burials on Tanegashima, namely the Yokomine and Hirota sites, attest to a uniquely well-developed Yayoi period culture at the end of the 4th century AD.[2] The artifacts include magatama, an engraved pendant, and emblems with apparent writing.[3]During the Nara period, the embryo state of Japan began to make contact with Tanegashima. According to the Nihonshoki, the imperial court hosted a banquet for the islanders of Tanegashima in 677. In 679, the court sent a mission to the island who returned in 681. Other missions to the island mentioned in the book were in 683 and 695. According to the Shoku Nihongi, people from Tane, Yaku, Amami and Dokan (possibly Tokunoshima) came to the imperial court to pay tribute in 699. These activities resulted in the establishment of Tane Province on the island in 702.[4] Tane Province lasted until 824 and was merged into Ōsumi Province.Sometime around 1140, the whole island of Tanegashima became part of the Shimazu Estate, the largest medieval shōen of Japan. In the early Kamakura period, the positions of the land steward of the Shimazu Estate and the military governor of Ōsumi Province were given to the Shimazu clan. However, the clan lost these positions to the Hōjō clan, the de facto ruler of the shogunate. The Hōjō clan sent the Higo clan as deputy governors. A branch line of the Higo clan made itself autonomous on Tanegashima after the Hōjō clan was annihilated and began to claim the clan name of Tanegashima.[5]The Tanegashima clan ruled the island until the Meiji restoration. The Tanegashima clan enjoyed a high degree of autonomy until Shimazu unified southern Kyūshū in the late 16th century, and after that, served as a top-ranking retainer to the Satsuma domain. Following the Meiji restoration, the island has been administered as part of Kagoshima Prefecture.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TanegashimaGun.jpg"},{"link_name":"Firearms of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearms_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"firearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"},{"link_name":"Tanegashima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima_(Japanese_matchlock)"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sansom2-6"},{"link_name":"Fernão Mendes Pinto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Mendes_Pinto"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"António Mota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Mota"},{"link_name":"Europeans had arrived to trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanban_trade"},{"link_name":"soap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap"},{"link_name":"tobacco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco"},{"link_name":"medieval Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Japan"},{"link_name":"Muromachi period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muromachi_period"},{"link_name":"Sakai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakai,_Osaka"},{"link_name":"Ningbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningbo"},{"link_name":"Hosokawa clan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosokawa_clan"},{"link_name":"Honnō-ji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honn%C5%8D-ji"},{"link_name":"Kyoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yara2012-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200_escudos_1543-1993_Tanegashima.png"},{"link_name":"Portuguese escudo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_escudo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hokusai_1817_First_Guns_in_Japan.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Introduction of firearms into Japan","text":"A \"Tanegashima\" gunSee also: Firearms of JapanTanegashima is traditionally known as the site of the introduction of European firearms to Japan in 1543. Until modern times, firearms were colloquially known in Japan as \"Tanegashima\", due to the belief that they were introduced by the Portuguese on board the first Portuguese ship.[6]In his memoirs published in 1614, Portuguese adventurer turned author, Fernão Mendes Pinto placed himself in the first landing party, although this claim has since been roundly discredited and in fact contradicts his claims to have been in Burma at the time. The two Portuguese traders, António Mota and Francisco Zeimoto, should actually be credited as the first Europeans to introduce firearms. However, Mendes Pinto does appear to have visited Tanegashima soon thereafter. The Europeans had arrived to trade, not only guns, but also soap, tobacco and other goods unknown in medieval Japan, for Japanese goods.During the Muromachi period, Tanegashima functioned as a relay station for one of the main routes of Chinese trade that connected Sakai to Ningbo. The Tanegashima clan cooperated with the Hosokawa clan, one of two powers who controlled Chinese trade. The clan also maintained a firm connection with the Honnō-ji Temple of Kyoto. These account for the rapid spread of firearms from Tanegashima to central Japan.[7]Gallery\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPortuguese escudo commemorating the Portuguese arrival at Tanegashima\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFirst Westerners in Japan in 1542","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edge tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cutlery"},{"link_name":"Taira clan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taira_clan"},{"link_name":"Minamoto no Yoritomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoritomo"},{"link_name":"Kyūshū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"Kagoshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bonsai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonsai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nishinoomote06122301.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tanegashima_Godochosya.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2012%E5%B9%B412%E6%9C%88%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E3%83%95%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%81%8B%E3%82%89%E8%A6%8B%E3%81%9F%E6%B1%A0%E7%94%B0%E6%B8%AF.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Knife industry","text":"Edge tools (particularly knives and scissors) made in Tanegashima are famous traditional handicrafts in Japan. Craftsmen in Tanegashima have kept alive traditional techniques for forging and sharpening iron tools. Tanegashima is also famous as the center of iron sand production. The technique has been around since about 1185 when the Taira clan were exiled here from Kyoto by Minamoto no Yoritomo, taking with them craftsmen and chefs from Kyoto. The people of the island speak with a Kyoto accent even now, rather than a Kyūshū or Kagoshima accent, despite its proximity to Kyūshū.[citation needed] These craftsmen were the original users of the distinct techniques used for forging and sharpening. The technique is unique in the world, and produces such tools as \"Tanegashima Hōchō\" (Tanegashima knives), used by chefs, and \"Tane-basami\" (Tanegashima scissors), preferred by many for the art of Bonsai. Nevertheless the local population has fallen from over fifty thousand in 1970 to just twenty-eight thousand today, in spite of tourism and space industries, putting traditional crafts at risk.Gallery\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNishinoomote City on Tanegashima\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTanegashima government building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNishinoomote Minato Ward from \"New Satsuma\" (mid December 2012)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tanegashima Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanegashima_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"JAXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA"},{"link_name":"Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Aerospace_Exploration_Agency"},{"link_name":"H-IIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-IIA"},{"link_name":"Yoshinobu Launch Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshinobu_Launch_Complex"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Precipitation_Measurement_(GPM)_Mission_(12812960063).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osaki_Range.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E9%A4%A8.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:H2A11001.jpg"},{"link_name":"H-IIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-IIA"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Precipitation_Measurement_(GPM)_Mission_(12858254354).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi Heavy Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries"},{"link_name":"H-IIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-IIA"}],"text":"The Tanegashima Space Center is Japan's largest space development center. It is run by JAXA, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and is located at the southeastern end of Tanegashima. It was established in 1969 when the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) was formed. Activities include assembly, testing, launching and tracking satellites, as well as rocket engine firing tests. Activity includes orbital launches of the H-IIA rockets from the Yoshinobu Launch Complex.The Space Science and Technology Museum is near the TSC. It offers an intricate view of rocket history and technology in Japan. Though most of the displays are in Japanese, there are English tour pamphlets available.Gallery\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFull view of the Yoshinobu Launch Complex during roll out of the H-IIA rocket in February 2014\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOverlooking the Osaki Range, surrounded by green mountains and the sea of coral reefs.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSpace Science and Technology Museum\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe H-IIA F11 launch vehicle lifting off from Tanegashima Space Center\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) H-IIA rocket at TSC","title":"Tanegashima Space Center"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"humid subtropical climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"relative humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity"},{"link_name":"sunshine hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"JMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"JMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Tanegashima has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot, humid summers and mild winters. Precipitation is high throughout the year, but is highest in the months of May, June and September.Climate data for Tanegashima (1991−2020 normals, extremes 1948−present)\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nRecord high °C (°F)\n\n24.4(75.9)\n\n25.6(78.1)\n\n26.9(80.4)\n\n28.1(82.6)\n\n30.6(87.1)\n\n32.7(90.9)\n\n34.9(94.8)\n\n35.9(96.6)\n\n34.1(93.4)\n\n31.3(88.3)\n\n28.8(83.8)\n\n27.2(81.0)\n\n35.9(96.6)\n\n\nMean daily maximum °C (°F)\n\n14.2(57.6)\n\n15.2(59.4)\n\n17.6(63.7)\n\n21.0(69.8)\n\n24.1(75.4)\n\n26.8(80.2)\n\n30.4(86.7)\n\n31.0(87.8)\n\n29.1(84.4)\n\n25.1(77.2)\n\n21.1(70.0)\n\n16.7(62.1)\n\n22.7(72.9)\n\n\nDaily mean °C (°F)\n\n11.7(53.1)\n\n12.3(54.1)\n\n14.5(58.1)\n\n17.8(64.0)\n\n21.2(70.2)\n\n24.0(75.2)\n\n27.5(81.5)\n\n28.1(82.6)\n\n26.2(79.2)\n\n22.3(72.1)\n\n18.1(64.6)\n\n13.8(56.8)\n\n19.8(67.6)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °C (°F)\n\n8.5(47.3)\n\n9.0(48.2)\n\n11.1(52.0)\n\n14.5(58.1)\n\n18.1(64.6)\n\n21.3(70.3)\n\n25.1(77.2)\n\n25.7(78.3)\n\n23.6(74.5)\n\n19.5(67.1)\n\n14.9(58.8)\n\n10.5(50.9)\n\n16.8(62.3)\n\n\nRecord low °C (°F)\n\n0.0(32.0)\n\n−0.6(30.9)\n\n2.1(35.8)\n\n4.5(40.1)\n\n10.0(50.0)\n\n15.2(59.4)\n\n17.5(63.5)\n\n20.6(69.1)\n\n14.9(58.8)\n\n10.3(50.5)\n\n4.5(40.1)\n\n2.6(36.7)\n\n−0.6(30.9)\n\n\nAverage precipitation mm (inches)\n\n96.5(3.80)\n\n122.5(4.82)\n\n160.4(6.31)\n\n198.0(7.80)\n\n233.3(9.19)\n\n556.4(21.91)\n\n261.7(10.30)\n\n188.7(7.43)\n\n293.2(11.54)\n\n194.5(7.66)\n\n134.8(5.31)\n\n92.7(3.65)\n\n2,532.5(99.70)\n\n\nAverage rainy days\n\n9.5\n\n10.3\n\n12.6\n\n10.8\n\n11.1\n\n17.0\n\n9.6\n\n11.0\n\n11.6\n\n9.3\n\n9.2\n\n8.2\n\n130.2\n\n\nAverage relative humidity (%)\n\n65\n\n66\n\n69\n\n71\n\n76\n\n84\n\n83\n\n81\n\n79\n\n73\n\n69\n\n65\n\n73\n\n\nMean monthly sunshine hours\n\n107.1\n\n114.9\n\n140.1\n\n163.1\n\n158.5\n\n114.7\n\n222.7\n\n222.8\n\n166.6\n\n157.9\n\n129.7\n\n119.4\n\n1,822\n\n\nSource 1: JMA[8]\n\n\nSource 2: JMA[9]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Tanegashima \"Rocket Marathon\" takes place in March each year.[10]","title":"Sporting events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ic%C3%B4ne_Ile.svg"},{"link_name":"Islands portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Islands"},{"link_name":"Geography portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Geography"},{"link_name":"Miyu Uehara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyu_Uehara"},{"link_name":"Kōbō Kenichi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Db%C5%8D_Kenichi"},{"link_name":"Wakashimazu Mutsuo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakashimazu_Mutsuo"}],"text":"Japan portalIslands portalGeography portalMiyu Uehara – gravure idol and TV personality\nKōbō Kenichi – sumo wrestler\nWakashimazu Mutsuo – sumo wrestler","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8791114128","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8791114128"}],"text":"Lidon, Olof. Tanegashima: The Arrival of Europe in Japan, NIAS Press (2002) ISBN 8791114128","title":"Sources"}]
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[{"image_text":"A \"Tanegashima\" gun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/TanegashimaGun.jpg/220px-TanegashimaGun.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Yakushima and Tanegashima islands\". BirdLife Data Zone. BirdLife International. 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/yakushima-and-tanegashima-islands-iba-japan","url_text":"\"Yakushima and Tanegashima islands\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hirota\". archaeology.jp. Retrieved 2018-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://archaeology.jp/sites/2008/hirota.htm","url_text":"\"Hirota\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ancient Japanese writing symbols [From the Golden Stamp to Documents from the Shoso-in]｜Special Exhibitions｜Exhibitions｜National Museum of Japanese History\". Archived from the original on 2013-07-29. Retrieved 2013-09-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130729153203/http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/english/exhibitions/project/o020319.html","url_text":"\"Ancient Japanese writing symbols [From the Golden Stamp to Documents from the Shoso-in]｜Special Exhibitions｜Exhibitions｜National Museum of Japanese History\""},{"url":"http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/english/exhibitions/project/o020319.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Suzuki Yasutami 鈴木靖民 (1997). \"Nantō-jin no raichō wo meguru kisoteki kōsatsu 南島人の来朝をめぐる基礎的考察\". Higashi Ajia to Nihon 東アジアと日本 (in Japanese). pp. 347–398.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kamiyaku-chō kyōdoshi henshū-iinkai 上屋久町郷土誌編集委員会, ed. (1984). Kamiyaku-chō kyōdoshi 上屋久町郷土誌. Kamiyaku-chō Kyōiku-iinkai 上屋久町教育委員会.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan, 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 0804705259.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804705259","url_text":"0804705259"}]},{"reference":"Yara Ken'ichirō 屋良健一郎 (2012). \"Chūsei kōki no Tanegashima-shi to minami Kyūshū kaiiki 中世後期の種子島氏と南九州海域\". Shigaku-zasshi 史学雑誌. 121 (11): 1–36.","urls":[]},{"reference":"観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値）. JMA. Retrieved February 18, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/rank_s.php?prec_no=88&block_no=47837&year=&month=&day=&view=","url_text":"観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値）"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency","url_text":"JMA"}]},{"reference":"気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値）. JMA. Retrieved February 18, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=88&block_no=47837&year=&month=&day=&view=","url_text":"気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値）"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Meteorological_Agency","url_text":"JMA"}]}]
|
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tanegashima¶ms=30_34_26_N_130_58_52_E_region:JP-46_type:isle","external_links_name":"30°34′26″N 130°58′52″E / 30.57389°N 130.98111°E / 30.57389; 130.98111"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tanegashima¶ms=30_34_26_N_130_58_52_E_region:JP-46_type:isle","external_links_name":"30°34′26″N 130°58′52″E / 30.57389°N 130.98111°E / 30.57389; 130.98111"},{"Link":"http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/yakushima-and-tanegashima-islands-iba-japan","external_links_name":"\"Yakushima and Tanegashima islands\""},{"Link":"http://archaeology.jp/sites/2008/hirota.htm","external_links_name":"\"Hirota\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130729153203/http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/english/exhibitions/project/o020319.html","external_links_name":"\"Ancient Japanese writing symbols [From the Golden Stamp to Documents from the Shoso-in]｜Special Exhibitions｜Exhibitions｜National Museum of Japanese History\""},{"Link":"http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/english/exhibitions/project/o020319.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/rank_s.php?prec_no=88&block_no=47837&year=&month=&day=&view=","external_links_name":"観測史上1～10位の値（年間を通じての値）"},{"Link":"https://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/etrn/view/nml_sfc_ym.php?prec_no=88&block_no=47837&year=&month=&day=&view=","external_links_name":"気象庁 / 平年値（年・月ごとの値）"},{"Link":"http://www.jaxa.jp/topics/2005/03_e.html","external_links_name":"March 2005 News"},{"Link":"https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/4098981","external_links_name":"Tanegashima"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/234348281","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4726377-5","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00636503","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_historical_regions
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Polish historical regions
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["1 Historical regions within the current Polish state","2 Historical regions of former Polish states, currently entirely outside current Polish borders","3 Bibliography","4 See also","5 References"]
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Regions that were related to a former Polish state
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maps of the history of Poland.
Polish historic regions are regions that were related to a former Polish state, or are within present-day Poland, with or without being identified in its administrative divisions.
There are several historic and cultural regions in Poland that are called ethnographic regions. Their exact borders cannot be drawn, as the regions are not official political or administrative units. They are delimited by culture, such as country traditions, traditional lifestyle, songs, tales, etc. To some extent, the regions correspond to the zones of Polish language dialects. The correspondence, however, is by no means strict.
Historical lands of Poland against the background of modern administrative borders (names in Polish)
Historical regions within the current Polish state
Main article: Regions of Poland
The following historic regions within Poland's modern borders belonged to the Polish state during most of its existence, inhabited by a majority or a sizeable Polish- or Cashubian-speaking population, thus forming the core Polish territory:
Coat of arms of Greater Poland and the Kalisz Land
Greater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska, Latin: Polonia Maior), the nucleus of Polish statehood, during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was in Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region
Kalisz Land (Polish: Ziemia kaliska), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was in the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region
Pałuki (Polish: Pałuki), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw,֪ after its dissolution a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region
Krajna (Polish: Krajna), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw,֪ after its dissolution a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region
Coat of arms of Kuyavia
Kuyavia (Polish: Kujawy, Latin: Cuiavia), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region
Inowrocław Land
Brześć Land
Dobrzyń Land (Polish: Ziemia dobrzyńska)
Łęczyca-Sieradz Land (Polish: Ziemia łęczycko-sieradzka), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution part of Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia
Łęczyca Land (Polish: Ziemia łęczycka)
Sieradz Land (Polish: Ziemia sieradzka)
Wieluń Land (Polish: Ziemia wieluńska)
Coat of arms of Mazovia
Masovia (Polish: Mazowsze, Latin: Mazovia), during the Partitions of Poland the northern part renamed together with Greater Poland, Kuyavia, and Łęczyca-Sieradz Land as South Prussia, while the southern part was a part of Russia, the entire region later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution part of Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia
Kurpie (Polish: Kurpie)
Płock Land (Polish: Ziemia płocka)
Rawa Land (Polish: Ziemia rawska)
Zawkrze
Coats of arms of the Kraków, Lublin and Sandomierz lands, divisions of Lesser Poland
Lesser Poland (Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor), centre of Polish statehood during late Middle Ages, during the Partitions of Poland renamed Western Galicia with Duchy of Oświęcim, Duchy of Zator and the Grand Duchy of Cracow, forming part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria
Kraków Land (Polish: Ziemia krakowska)
Siewierz Land (New Silesia)
Oświęcim Land
Zator Land
Dąbrowa Basin (Polish: Zagłębie Dąbrowskie)
Podhale (Polish: Podhale)
Spisz (Polish: Spisz, only partially in modern Poland, also a Slovakian and a Hungarian historical region)
Orawa (Polish: Orawa, only partially in modern Poland, also a Slovakian and a Hungarian historical region)
Sandomierz Land (Polish: Ziemia sandomierska)
Lublin Land (Polish: Ziemia lubelska)
Polesia (Polish: Polesie, Latin: Polesia, also a historical region of Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Russia, only minor part remains in modern Poland)
Cherven Cities (Polish: Grody Czerwieńskie, Ukrainian: Червенські городи), also a historical region of Ukraine, only partially in modern Poland), also known as Red Ruthenia (Polish: Ruś Czerwona, Latin: Ruthenia Rubra), also known as Halychyna, Halych Ruthenia or Halych Rus’, also a historical region of Ukraine and Hungary; during the Partitions of Poland partially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria and Hungary, while the northern part was in Congress Poland, later renamed Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia
Chełm Land (Polish: Ziemia chełmska), including the Zamość Region (Polish: Zamojszczyzna), during the Partitions of Poland partially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria, while the other part was in Congress Poland, later renamed Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia
Przemyśl Land (Polish: Ziemia przemyska),
Bełz Land (Polish: Ziemia bełska), only partially in modern Poland, while the other part including its capital is in Ukraine, during the Partitions of Poland a part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria,
notably without the Lwów Land and its capital city of Lwów, currently entirely in Ukraine, before World War II a city with absolute Polish-majority population, and one of the principal administrative, economic, educational, scientific, cultural and religious hubs of Poland; earlier, the nucleus and principal center of Polish national movement struggling to regain the independence of the country after the Partitions
Pomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Gdańskie, German: Pommerellen, Latin: Pomerania), later part of the historical Polish province of Royal Prussia, also a Danish historical region; during Partitions of Poland made a part of the province of West Prussia (Polish: Prusy Zachodnie, German: Westpreußen outside the German Confederation, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus being a German historical region)
Kashubia (Polish: Kaszuby, Kashubian: Kaszëbë, German: Kaschubien, Latin: Cassubia)
Kociewie (Polish: Kociewie, German: Kociewie)
Tuchola Forest (Polish: Bory Tucholskie, German: Tucheler Heide, part of it known also as Polish: Kosznajderia, German: Koschneiderei)
Chełmno Land (Polish: Ziemia Chełmińska, German: Culmerland, Latin: Terra Culmensis
Coat of arms of Podlachia
Podlachia (Polish: Podlasie or Podlasze, Latin: Podlachia, mostly in modern Poland, also a Belarusian and Lithuanian historical region), during the Partitions of Poland part of Russia
Drohiczyn Land
Mielnik Land
Southern Podlasie (Polish: Podlasie Południowe)
Suwałki Region (Polish: Suwalszczyzna, Lithuanian: Suvalkija, Latin: Sudovia - the latter term may, however, also refer to the earlier Yotvingia, only part in modern Poland, also a Lithuanian historical region)
Another group of territories constituted (either directly or as a fief) a part of the Polish state for varying amounts of time, ranging from an episode in the Middle Ages (e.g. Kłodzko Land, Lusatia) to several hundreds of years in the case of some, like Silesia and Warmia. Among them, only Warmia, Powiśle, southern Masuria, as well as Upper, Cieszyn and Eastern Lower Silesia retained sizeable Polish-speaking populations into the beginning of 20th century.
Masuria (Polish: Mazury, German: Masuren, Latin: Mazuria), also known as Lower Prussia (Polish: Prusy Dolne, German: Niederland), part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen, a German historical region)
Galindia (Polish: Galindia, German: Gau Galinden, Latin: Galindia),
Sasna (Polish: Ziemia Sasinów, German: Sassen, Latin: Sasna)
Bartia (Polish: Barcja, German: Gau Barten Latin: Bartia)
Natangia (Polish: Natangia, German: Natangen, Latin: Natangia)
Lithuania Minor (Polish: Litwa Mniejsza, Lithuanian: Mažoji Lietuva, German: Kleinlitauen, Russian: Máлая Литвá) or Prussian Lithuania (Polish: Litwa Pruska, Lithuanian: Prūsų Lietuva, German: Preußisch-Litauen), the southern outskirts of Lithuania Minor overlap northern Masuria; also a historical Lithuanian land and a German historical region, its bulk is currently located in the Kaliningrad Oblast)
Nadruvia
Coat of arms of Warmia
Warmia (Polish: Warmia, German: Ermland, Latin: Varmia, part of the historical Polish province of Royal Prussia, during Partitions of Poland a part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen) outside the German Confederation, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus being a German historical region)
Powiśle (Polish: Powiśle, roughly English: Lower Vistula Plains), with its northern part forming the Malbork Land (Polish: Ziemia malborska) otherwise known as the Vistula fens (Polish: Żuławy Wiślane); two whole region otherwise referred to as Upper Prussia (Polish: Prusy Górne, German: Oberland), part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen, a German historical region)
Pomesania (Polish: Pomezania German: Pomesanien, Latin: Pomesania)
Pogesania (Polish: Pogezania German: Pogesanien, Latin: Pogesania)
Lubusz Land (Polish: Ziemia lubuska, German: Land Lebus), only partially in modern Poland - during the high Middle Ages absorbed into the region of New March (Polish: Nowa Marchia, German: Neumark), also a Czech and German historical region
Coats of arms of Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia
Lusatia (Polish: Łużyce, German: Lausitz, Latin: Lusatia, only partially in modern Poland, also a Czech, Austrian, and German historical region)
Upper Lusatia (Polish: Łużyce Górne, German: Oberlausitz, Latin: Lusatia Superioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)
Lower Lusatia (Polish: Łużyce Dolne, German: Niederlausitz, Latin: Lusatia Inferioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)
Pomerania understood as excluding Pomerelia (Polish: Pomorze Zachodnie, German: Pommern, Latin: Pomerania), mostly in modern Poland, also a Danish, Swedish and German historical region)
Farther Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Tylne, German: Hinterpommern, see Pomerania, also a German historical region)
Western Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Przednie, German: Vorpommern, see Pomerania, also a Swedish, Danish and German historical region, only partially in modern Poland)
Coat of arms of Silesia and Lower Silesia
Silesia (Polish: Śląsk, Silesian: Ślōnsk, German: Schlesien, Czech: Slezsko, Latin: Silesia), mostly in Poland, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region
Upper Silesia (Polish: Górny Śląsk, German: Oberschlesien, Latin: Silesia Superioris, also a Czech, Austrian, and German historical region)
Cieszyn Silesia (Polish: Śląsk Cieszyński, Czech: Těšínské Slezsko, German: Teschener Schlesien, also a Czech and Austrian historical region; only partially in modern Poland, the other part called Trans-Olza (Polish: Zaolzie) is in the Czech Republic
Lower Silesia (Polish: Dolny Śląsk, German: Niederschlesien, Latin: Silesia Inferioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)
Coat of arms of Kłodzko Land
Kłodzko Land (Polish: Ziemia kłodzka, Czech: Kladsko, German: Glatzer Land, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)
Historical regions of former Polish states, currently entirely outside current Polish borders
Outside Poland are several historic regions which were once part of medieval Poland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth or the Second Polish Republic. While these regions are important for Polish history, calling them Polish is in some cases controversial, as most of them, with the exceptions of Vilnius Region (Polish: Wileńszczyzna) in Dzūkija, as well as Grodno Region (Polish: Grodzieńszczyzna) in Dzūkija or Black Ruthenia, were either never or centuries ago predominantly populated by ethnic Poles and now lie beyond the borders of Poland. They are:
Coats of arms of Livonia and Samogitia during Polish rule
Livonia (Polish: Inflanty, Latin: Livonia), in modern Latvia and Estonia, also a historical German, Swedish and Russian region
Courland (Polish: Kurlandia, Latvian: Kurzeme), now in Latvia
Latgalia (Polish: Łatgalia, Latvian: Latgale), now in Latvia
Semigallia (Polish: Semigallia, Latvian: Zemgale), now in Latvia
Samogitia, Lithuania (Polish: Żmudź, Latin: Samogitia), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia
Aukštaitija, Lithuania (Polish: Auksztota), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia
Dzūkija, Lithuania and Belarus (Polish: Dżukia), partially overlapping with Black Ruthenia, during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia
Vilnius Region (Polish: Wileńszczyzna)
Black Ruthenia, Belarus (Polish: Ruś Czarna, Latin: Ruthenia Nigra), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia, also a historical regions of Lithuania and Mongolia
Grodno Region (Polish: Grodzieńszczyzna)
White Ruthenia (Polish: Ruś Biała, Latin: Ruthenia Alba), present-day central, northern and eastern Belarus, and western outskirts of modern Russia with Smolensk, during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia, also a historical region of Lithuania
Novgorod Land and Pskov Land, Russia, also historical regions of Lithuania and Mongolia
Coats of arms of Podolia and Volhynia during Polish rule
Podolia, Ukraine (Polish: Podole, Latin: Podolia), during the Partitions of Poland western portion was also a part of Galicia, also a historical region of Hungary, Austria, Turkey and Mongolia
Volhynia, Ukraine (Polish: Wołyń, Latin: Volhynia), also known as Lodomeria, also a historical region of Hungary, Austria and Mongolia
Pokuttia (Polish: Pokucie), currently in Ukraine
Ukraine (Polish: Ukraina, Latin: Ucraina), now known as Dnieper Ukraine, also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia
Right-bank Ukraine (Polish: Ukraina Prawobrzeżna), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia
Left-bank Ukraine (Polish: Ukraina Lewobrzeżna), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia
Zaporizhzhia (Polish: Zaporoże), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia
Moldavia, currently in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine Polish: Mołdawia, also a historical region of Hungary, Russia, Turkey and Mongolia
Vallachia, currently in Romania, also a historical region of Hungary and Turkey
Moravia (Polish: Morawy), currently the Czech Republic, also historical region of Hungary and Austria
Slovakia as a whole, also historical region of Hungary and Austria
colonies of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, at the time a Polish-Lithuanian fief, formerly Terra Mariana, a historical German region, later known as Livonia, currently in Latvia and Estonia
Gambia, also a historical region of Portugal, France, the United Kingdom and Senegal
Tobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago, also a historical region of Spain, Malta (Sovereign Military Order of Malta), the Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom
a settlement near modern Toco on Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago., also a historical region of Spain, Malta (Sovereign Military Order of Malta), the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom
Further information: Curonian colonisation
Bibliography
Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1: The Origins to 1795; vol. 2: 1795 to the Present, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-19-925339-0, ISBN 0-19-925340-4. Chapter two: "The Polish Land", pp. 23–52.
See also
Administrative division of Poland
Historical regions of Central Europe
Prowincja
Territorial changes of Poland
Voivodeships of Poland
References
^ Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom I (in Polish). Warszawa. 1880. p. 193.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz. Mówią wieki. "CZY RZECZPOSPOLITA MIAŁA KOLONIE W AFRYCE I AMERYCE?". (in Polish)
vtePolish terms for administrative divisionsCurrent
Regional:
voivodeship
Subregional
powiat
Local
gmina
Auxiliary:
dzielnica
osiedle
sołectwo
Historical
cyrkuł
departament
dystrykt
gromada
gubernia
kasztelania
jurydyka
księstwo
księstwo biskupie
namiestnictwo
obwód
okręg
opole
prowincja
rejencja
rejon
starostwo
ziemia
żupa
See also
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
vtePast administrative divisions of Poland
Kingdom of Poland
Crown of the Polish Kingdom
Partitions
Duchy of Warsaw
Congress Poland
Privislinsky Krai
Second Polish Republic
World War II
People's Republic of Poland
|
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Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania_Minor"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Kaliningrad Oblast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast"},{"link_name":"Nadruvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadruvia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_Ksi%C4%99stwo_warmi%C5%84skie_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Warmia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmia"},{"link_name":"Warmia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warmia"},{"link_name":"Royal Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"East Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"German 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Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Pomesania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomesania"},{"link_name":"Pogesania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogesania"},{"link_name":"Lubusz Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubusz_Land"},{"link_name":"New March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neumark"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lusatia_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Upper Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Lusatia"},{"link_name":"Lower Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Lusatia"},{"link_name":"Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusatia"},{"link_name":"Upper Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Lusatia"},{"link_name":"Lower Lusatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Lusatia"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Pomerelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerelia"},{"link_name":"Farther Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farther_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Western Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomerania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesia"},{"link_name":"Lower Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesia"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Silesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesian_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_lands"},{"link_name":"Upper Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Cieszyn Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cieszyn_Silesia"},{"link_name":"Trans-Olza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Olza"},{"link_name":"Lower Silesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Silesia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_Hrabstwo_k%C5%82odzkie_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Kłodzko Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%82odzko_Land"},{"link_name":"Kłodzko Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%82odzko_Land"}],"text":"The following historic regions within Poland's modern borders belonged to the Polish state during most of its existence, inhabited by a majority or a sizeable Polish- or Cashubian-speaking population, thus forming the core Polish territory:Coat of arms of Greater Poland and the Kalisz LandGreater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska, Latin: Polonia Maior), the nucleus of Polish statehood, during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was in Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region\nKalisz Land (Polish: Ziemia kaliska), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was in the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region\nPałuki (Polish: Pałuki), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw,֪ after its dissolution a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region\nKrajna (Polish: Krajna), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw,֪ after its dissolution a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical regionCoat of arms of KuyaviaKuyavia (Polish: Kujawy, Latin: Cuiavia), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with rest of Greater Poland, Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution partially in Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia, while the other part was a part of the Hohenzollern-ruled Grand Duchy of Posen outside the German Confederation, later renamed Province of Posen, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus forming a German historical region\nInowrocław Land\nBrześć Land\nDobrzyń Land (Polish: Ziemia dobrzyńska)\nŁęczyca-Sieradz Land (Polish: Ziemia łęczycko-sieradzka), during the Partitions of Poland renamed together with Kuyavia, Łęczyca-Sieradz Land and northern part of Mazovia as South Prussia, later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution part of Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia\nŁęczyca Land (Polish: Ziemia łęczycka)\nSieradz Land (Polish: Ziemia sieradzka)\nWieluń Land (Polish: Ziemia wieluńska)Coat of arms of MazoviaMasovia (Polish: Mazowsze, Latin: Mazovia), during the Partitions of Poland the northern part renamed together with Greater Poland, Kuyavia, and Łęczyca-Sieradz Land as South Prussia, while the southern part was a part of Russia, the entire region later made a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw, after its dissolution part of Congress Poland, later Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia\nKurpie (Polish: Kurpie)\nPłock Land (Polish: Ziemia płocka)\nRawa Land (Polish: Ziemia rawska)\nZawkrzeCoats of arms of the Kraków, Lublin and Sandomierz lands, divisions of Lesser PolandLesser Poland (Polish: Małopolska, Latin: Polonia Minor), centre of Polish statehood during late Middle Ages, during the Partitions of Poland renamed Western Galicia with Duchy of Oświęcim, Duchy of Zator and the Grand Duchy of Cracow, forming part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria\nKraków Land (Polish: Ziemia krakowska)\nSiewierz Land (New Silesia)\nOświęcim Land\nZator Land\nDąbrowa Basin (Polish: Zagłębie Dąbrowskie)\nPodhale (Polish: Podhale)\nSpisz (Polish: Spisz, only partially in modern Poland, also a Slovakian and a Hungarian historical region)\nOrawa (Polish: Orawa, only partially in modern Poland, also a Slovakian and a Hungarian historical region)\nSandomierz Land (Polish: Ziemia sandomierska)\nLublin Land (Polish: Ziemia lubelska)\nPolesia (Polish: Polesie, Latin: Polesia, also a historical region of Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Russia, only minor part remains in modern Poland)\nCherven Cities (Polish: Grody Czerwieńskie, Ukrainian: Червенські городи), also a historical region of Ukraine, only partially in modern Poland), also known as Red Ruthenia (Polish: Ruś Czerwona, Latin: Ruthenia Rubra), also known as Halychyna, Halych Ruthenia or Halych Rus’, also a historical region of Ukraine and Hungary; during the Partitions of Poland partially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria and Hungary, while the northern part was in Congress Poland, later renamed Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia\nChełm Land (Polish: Ziemia chełmska), including the Zamość Region (Polish: Zamojszczyzna), during the Partitions of Poland partially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria, while the other part was in Congress Poland, later renamed Vistula Land, a historical region of Russia\nPrzemyśl Land (Polish: Ziemia przemyska),\nBełz Land (Polish: Ziemia bełska), only partially in modern Poland, while the other part including its capital is in Ukraine, during the Partitions of Poland a part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a historical region of Austria,\nnotably without the Lwów Land and its capital city of Lwów, currently entirely in Ukraine, before World War II a city with absolute Polish-majority population, and one of the principal administrative, economic, educational, scientific, cultural and religious hubs of Poland; earlier, the nucleus and principal center of Polish national movement struggling to regain the independence of the country after the Partitions\nPomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Gdańskie, German: Pommerellen, Latin: Pomerania), later part of the historical Polish province of Royal Prussia, also a Danish historical region; during Partitions of Poland made a part of the province of West Prussia (Polish: Prusy Zachodnie, German: Westpreußen outside the German Confederation, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus being a German historical region)\nKashubia (Polish: Kaszuby, Kashubian: Kaszëbë, German: Kaschubien, Latin: Cassubia)\nKociewie (Polish: Kociewie, German: Kociewie)\nTuchola Forest (Polish: Bory Tucholskie, German: Tucheler Heide, part of it known also as Polish: Kosznajderia, German: Koschneiderei)\nChełmno Land (Polish: Ziemia Chełmińska, German: Culmerland, Latin: Terra CulmensisCoat of arms of PodlachiaPodlachia (Polish: Podlasie or Podlasze, Latin: Podlachia, mostly in modern Poland, also a Belarusian and Lithuanian historical region), during the Partitions of Poland part of Russia\nDrohiczyn Land\nMielnik Land\nSouthern Podlasie (Polish: Podlasie Południowe)\nSuwałki Region (Polish: Suwalszczyzna, Lithuanian: Suvalkija, Latin: Sudovia - the latter term may, however, also refer to the earlier Yotvingia, only part in modern Poland, also a Lithuanian historical region)Another group of territories constituted (either directly or as a fief) a part of the Polish state for varying amounts of time, ranging from an episode in the Middle Ages (e.g. Kłodzko Land, Lusatia) to several hundreds of years in the case of some, like Silesia and Warmia. Among them, only Warmia, Powiśle, southern Masuria, as well as Upper, Cieszyn and Eastern Lower Silesia retained sizeable Polish-speaking populations into the beginning of 20th century.Masuria (Polish: Mazury, German: Masuren, Latin: Mazuria), also known as Lower Prussia (Polish: Prusy Dolne, German: Niederland), part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen, a German historical region)\nGalindia (Polish: Galindia, German: Gau Galinden, Latin: Galindia),\nSasna (Polish: Ziemia Sasinów, German: Sassen, Latin: Sasna)\nBartia (Polish: Barcja, German: Gau Barten Latin: Bartia)\nNatangia (Polish: Natangia, German: Natangen, Latin: Natangia)\nLithuania Minor (Polish: Litwa Mniejsza, Lithuanian: Mažoji Lietuva, German: Kleinlitauen, Russian: Máлая Литвá) or Prussian Lithuania (Polish: Litwa Pruska, Lithuanian: Prūsų Lietuva, German: Preußisch-Litauen), the southern outskirts of Lithuania Minor overlap northern Masuria; also a historical Lithuanian land and a German historical region, its bulk is currently located in the Kaliningrad Oblast)\nNadruviaCoat of arms of WarmiaWarmia (Polish: Warmia, German: Ermland, Latin: Varmia, part of the historical Polish province of Royal Prussia, during Partitions of Poland a part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen) outside the German Confederation, finally annexed upon the establishment of North German Confederation by Germany, thus being a German historical region)\nPowiśle (Polish: Powiśle, roughly English: Lower Vistula Plains), with its northern part forming the Malbork Land (Polish: Ziemia malborska) otherwise known as the Vistula fens (Polish: Żuławy Wiślane); two whole region otherwise referred to as Upper Prussia (Polish: Prusy Górne, German: Oberland), part of the province of East Prussia (Polish: Prusy Wschodnie, German: Ostpreußen, a German historical region)\nPomesania (Polish: Pomezania German: Pomesanien, Latin: Pomesania)\nPogesania (Polish: Pogezania German: Pogesanien, Latin: Pogesania)\nLubusz Land (Polish: Ziemia lubuska, German: Land Lebus), only partially in modern Poland - during the high Middle Ages absorbed into the region of New March (Polish: Nowa Marchia, German: Neumark), also a Czech and German historical regionCoats of arms of Upper Lusatia and Lower LusatiaLusatia (Polish: Łużyce, German: Lausitz, Latin: Lusatia, only partially in modern Poland, also a Czech, Austrian, and German historical region)\nUpper Lusatia (Polish: Łużyce Górne, German: Oberlausitz, Latin: Lusatia Superioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)\nLower Lusatia (Polish: Łużyce Dolne, German: Niederlausitz, Latin: Lusatia Inferioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)\nPomerania understood as excluding Pomerelia (Polish: Pomorze Zachodnie, German: Pommern, Latin: Pomerania), mostly in modern Poland, also a Danish, Swedish and German historical region)\nFarther Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Tylne, German: Hinterpommern, see Pomerania, also a German historical region)\nWestern Pomerania (Polish: Pomorze Przednie, German: Vorpommern, see Pomerania, also a Swedish, Danish and German historical region, only partially in modern Poland)Coat of arms of Silesia and Lower SilesiaSilesia (Polish: Śląsk, Silesian: Ślōnsk, German: Schlesien, Czech: Slezsko, Latin: Silesia), mostly in Poland, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region\nUpper Silesia (Polish: Górny Śląsk, German: Oberschlesien, Latin: Silesia Superioris, also a Czech, Austrian, and German historical region)\nCieszyn Silesia (Polish: Śląsk Cieszyński, Czech: Těšínské Slezsko, German: Teschener Schlesien, also a Czech and Austrian historical region; only partially in modern Poland, the other part called Trans-Olza (Polish: Zaolzie) is in the Czech Republic\nLower Silesia (Polish: Dolny Śląsk, German: Niederschlesien, Latin: Silesia Inferioris, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)Coat of arms of Kłodzko LandKłodzko Land (Polish: Ziemia kłodzka, Czech: Kladsko, German: Glatzer Land, also a Czech, Austrian and German historical region)","title":"Historical regions within the current Polish state"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"Second Polish Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic"},{"link_name":"Vilnius Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_Region"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Dzūkija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dz%C5%ABkija"},{"link_name":"Grodno Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grodno_Region"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Dzūkija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dz%C5%ABkija"},{"link_name":"Black Ruthenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Ruthenia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_Inflanty_IRP_COA.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_%C5%BCmudzkie_IRP_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Livonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonia"},{"link_name":"Samogitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samogitia"},{"link_name":"Livonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonia"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"Courland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courland"},{"link_name":"Latvian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_language"},{"link_name":"Latgalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latgalia"},{"link_name":"Semigallia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semigallia"},{"link_name":"Samogitia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samogitia"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Aukštaitija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auk%C5%A1taitija"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Dzūkija","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dz%C5%ABkija"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Black Ruthenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Ruthenia"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Vilnius Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius_Region"},{"link_name":"Black Ruthenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Ruthenia"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Grodno Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grodno_Region"},{"link_name":"White Ruthenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Ruthenia"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Smolensk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smolensk"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Novgorod Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Land"},{"link_name":"Pskov Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pskov_Land"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_podolskie_IRP_COA.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_wo%C5%82y%C5%84skie_II_RP_COA.svg"},{"link_name":"Podolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolia"},{"link_name":"Volhynia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volhynia"},{"link_name":"Podolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolia"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Partitions of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)"},{"link_name":"Volhynia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volhynia"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Lodomeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodomeria"},{"link_name":"Pokuttia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokuttia"},{"link_name":"Dnieper Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieper_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Right-bank Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-bank_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Left-bank Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Zaporizhzhia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_(region)"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Vallachia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallachia"},{"link_name":"Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravia"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Courland and Semigallia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia"},{"link_name":"Terra Mariana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_Mariana"},{"link_name":"Livonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonia"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"},{"link_name":"Gambia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambia"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Senegal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal"},{"link_name":"Tobago Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobago_Island"},{"link_name":"Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Sovereign Military Order of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Toco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toco"},{"link_name":"Trinidad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad"},{"link_name":"Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KolMowWiek-2"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Sovereign Military Order of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Curonian colonisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curonian_colonisation"}],"text":"Outside Poland are several historic regions which were once part of medieval Poland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth or the Second Polish Republic. While these regions are important for Polish history, calling them Polish is in some cases controversial, as most of them, with the exceptions of Vilnius Region (Polish: Wileńszczyzna) in Dzūkija, as well as Grodno Region (Polish: Grodzieńszczyzna) in Dzūkija or Black Ruthenia, were either never or centuries ago predominantly populated by ethnic Poles and now lie beyond the borders of Poland. They are:Coats of arms of Livonia and Samogitia during Polish ruleLivonia (Polish: Inflanty, Latin: Livonia), in modern Latvia and Estonia, also a historical German, Swedish and Russian region\nCourland (Polish: Kurlandia, Latvian: Kurzeme), now in Latvia\nLatgalia (Polish: Łatgalia, Latvian: Latgale), now in Latvia\nSemigallia (Polish: Semigallia, Latvian: Zemgale), now in Latvia\nSamogitia, Lithuania (Polish: Żmudź, Latin: Samogitia), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia\nAukštaitija, Lithuania (Polish: Auksztota), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia\nDzūkija, Lithuania and Belarus (Polish: Dżukia), partially overlapping with Black Ruthenia, during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia\nVilnius Region (Polish: Wileńszczyzna)\nBlack Ruthenia, Belarus (Polish: Ruś Czarna, Latin: Ruthenia Nigra), during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia, also a historical regions of Lithuania and Mongolia\nGrodno Region (Polish: Grodzieńszczyzna)\nWhite Ruthenia (Polish: Ruś Biała, Latin: Ruthenia Alba), present-day central, northern and eastern Belarus, and western outskirts of modern Russia with Smolensk,[1] during Partitions of Poland a part of Russia, also a historical region of Lithuania\nNovgorod Land and Pskov Land, Russia, also historical regions of Lithuania and MongoliaCoats of arms of Podolia and Volhynia during Polish rulePodolia, Ukraine (Polish: Podole, Latin: Podolia), during the Partitions of Poland western portion was also a part of Galicia, also a historical region of Hungary, Austria, Turkey and Mongolia\nVolhynia, Ukraine (Polish: Wołyń, Latin: Volhynia), also known as Lodomeria, also a historical region of Hungary, Austria and Mongolia\nPokuttia (Polish: Pokucie), currently in Ukraine\nUkraine (Polish: Ukraina, Latin: Ucraina), now known as Dnieper Ukraine, also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia\nRight-bank Ukraine (Polish: Ukraina Prawobrzeżna), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia\nLeft-bank Ukraine (Polish: Ukraina Lewobrzeżna), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia\nZaporizhzhia (Polish: Zaporoże), also a historical region of Ukraine and Russia\nMoldavia, currently in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine Polish: Mołdawia, also a historical region of Hungary, Russia, Turkey and Mongolia\nVallachia, currently in Romania, also a historical region of Hungary and Turkey\nMoravia (Polish: Morawy), currently the Czech Republic, also historical region of Hungary and Austria\nSlovakia as a whole, also historical region of Hungary and Austria\ncolonies of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, at the time a Polish-Lithuanian fief, formerly Terra Mariana, a historical German region, later known as Livonia, currently in Latvia and Estonia\nGambia, also a historical region of Portugal, France, the United Kingdom and Senegal\nTobago Island, Trinidad and Tobago, also a historical region of Spain, Malta (Sovereign Military Order of Malta), the Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom\na settlement[when?] near modern Toco on Trinidad, Trinidad and Tobago.,[2] also a historical region of Spain, Malta (Sovereign Military Order of Malta), the Netherlands, France, and the United KingdomFurther information: Curonian colonisation","title":"Historical regions of former Polish states, currently entirely outside current Polish borders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norman Davies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Davies"},{"link_name":"God's Playground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%27s_Playground"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-925339-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925339-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-925340-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-925340-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA26"}],"text":"Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1: The Origins to 1795; vol. 2: 1795 to the Present, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-19-925339-0, ISBN 0-19-925340-4. [1] Chapter two: \"The Polish Land\", pp. 23–52.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"image_text":"Historical lands of Poland against the background of modern administrative borders (names in Polish)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Krainy-historyczne-Polski.png/750px-Krainy-historyczne-Polski.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Greater Poland and the Kalisz Land","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_kaliskie_IRP_COA.svg/110px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_kaliskie_IRP_COA.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Kuyavia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_brzeskokujawskie_IRP_COA_alt.svg/110px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_brzeskokujawskie_IRP_COA_alt.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Mazovia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_mazowieckie_IRP_COA.svg/110px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_mazowieckie_IRP_COA.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Podlachia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_podlaskie_IRP_COA_alt.svg/110px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_podlaskie_IRP_COA_alt.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Warmia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/POL_Ksi%C4%99stwo_warmi%C5%84skie_COA.svg/110px-POL_Ksi%C4%99stwo_warmi%C5%84skie_COA.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coats of arms of Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Lusatia_COA.svg/220px-Lusatia_COA.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Silesia and Lower Silesia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg/110px-POL_wojew%C3%B3dztwo_dolno%C5%9Bl%C4%85skie_COA.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of Kłodzko Land","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/POL_Hrabstwo_k%C5%82odzkie_COA.svg/110px-POL_Hrabstwo_k%C5%82odzkie_COA.svg.png"}]
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[{"title":"Administrative division of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_division_of_Poland"},{"title":"Historical regions of Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_regions_of_Central_Europe"},{"title":"Prowincja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prowincja"},{"title":"Territorial changes of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_changes_of_Poland"},{"title":"Voivodeships of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voivodeships_of_Poland"}]
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[{"reference":"Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom I (in Polish). Warszawa. 1880. p. 193.","urls":[]}]
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[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA26","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://niniwa22.cba.pl/kolodziejczyk_kolonie_w_afryce.htm","external_links_name":"\"CZY RZECZPOSPOLITA MIAŁA KOLONIE W AFRYCE I AMERYCE?\""}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSPB_Titchwell_Marsh
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Titchwell Marsh
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["1 History","1.1 Before 1972","1.2 RSPB era","2 Access and facilities","3 Fauna and flora","3.1 Birds","3.2 Other animals and plants","4 Recreation","5 Threats","6 References","7 Cited texts","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 52°57′46″N 0°36′14″E / 52.9628°N 0.603893°E / 52.9628; 0.603893Nature reserve in the United Kingdom
Titchwell MarshFreshwater lagoon seen from west bank, with Island Hide in the foreground, and the Parrinder wall and hides further backTitchwell Marsh shown within NorfolkLocationNorfolk, East of England, EnglandCoordinates52°57′46″N 0°36′14″E / 52.9628°N 0.603893°E / 52.9628; 0.603893Area171 hectares (420 acres)Websitewww.rspb.org.uk/titchwell
Titchwell Marsh is an English nature reserve owned and managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Located on the north coast of the county of Norfolk, between the villages of Titchwell and Thornham, about 8 km (5.0 mi) east of the seaside resort of Hunstanton, its 171 hectares (420 acres) include reed beds, saltmarshes, a freshwater lagoon and sandy beach, with a small woodland area near the car park. This internationally important reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and is also protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings.
The reserve is important for some scarce breeding birds, such as pied avocets on the islands, and western marsh harriers, Eurasian bitterns and bearded reedlings in the reeds. To encourage bitterns to breed, the reed beds have been improved to make them wetter, and the lagoon has been stocked with the common rudd. Typical wetland birds such as the water rail, reed warbler and sedge warbler also appear, and little egrets are common. The reserve has regularly attracted rarities, as its location is important for migrating birds. Ducks and geese winter at Titchwell in considerable numbers, and the reserve shelters the endangered European water vole.
Facilities include three bird hides, a seawatching platform, two nature trails, and a visitor centre. Because of concerns about climate change, a major project in 2010 and 2011 brought improvements to the banks around the freshwater lagoon and the conversion of the brackish lagoon to tidal saltmarsh, a more effective barrier to encroachment by the sea.
Titchwell Marsh is archaeologically significant, with artefacts dating back to the Upper Paleolithic, and has remains of military constructions from both world wars. These include brickwork from a First World War military hospital and 1940s artillery targets for armoured fighting vehicles and warplanes in the Second World War.
History
Before 1972
Remains of Second World War coastal defences
Titchwell has a long history of human occupation. Populations of both Modern and Neanderthal people were present in Norfolk before the last glaciation between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, and returned as the ice retreated north. The archaeological record is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly due to the prevailing conditions, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present, so that many sites are now under the sea. Early Mesolithic flint tools with characteristic blades up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long found on the present-day coast at Titchwell date from a time when it was 60–70 km (37–43 mi) from the sea. Other flint tools have been found dating from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic, the sea level rose, filling what is now the North Sea, and bringing the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line; the remains of submerged forests can still be detected at low tide. By 11,000 BC, the makers of the long blades had gone, and peat marshes had formed behind an offshore barrier island or spit. A layer of peat formed between 1920 and 1680 BC and another between 1020 and 830 BC, indicating marshy conditions; polished Neolithic axes found in those layers were blackened by exposure to the peat.
Two possible timber platforms were identified within the peat at Titchwell, and may be prehistoric. Similar Bronze Age structures are rare, and they may be significant in providing information about early timber construction methods. Medieval and later pottery has been found at Titchwell, and the peat and silts which overlay the sediments deposited by the retreating glaciers have signs of post-medieval ploughing.
The draining of Norfolk's coastal marshes commenced in the late 17th and 18th centuries, and sea defences including the "Old Lord's Bank" at Titchwell were shown in maps from 1786 and 1797. For the next 170 years or so, the reclaimed marsh was arable, producing crops and beef cattle. A huge influx of Pallas's sandgrouse into Britain in 1853 led to several arrivals at Titchwell, including mated pairs. The last bird seen was on the saltmarsh, and the rest were on the dunes or in marram grass; many were shot.
The wreck of the SS Vina, seen in 2010.
Thornham Marsh, immediately west of Titchwell, was used between 1914 and 1918 by the Royal Flying Corps as a bombing range. Some brickwork on Titchwell Marsh is all that remains of a military hospital dating from that period. A First World War concrete building along the west bank was let as holiday accommodation until the British Army returned in 1942.
During the Second World War, military defences were constructed at Titchwell. The drainage of farmland behind the banks was stopped, reflooding the former marshland; zigzag ditches were dug, and pillboxes built into Old Lord's Bank. Between 1942 and 1945, the marsh was used by the Royal Tank Regiment; an armoured fighting vehicle gunnery range was established and new banks were constructed for firing practice, with targets set at 900 m (980 yd) intervals. Some of the still extant islands were built to hold "pop-up" targets, operated by cables from winches in a building whose foundations lie below Island Hide. Remains of the triangular concrete track used by the tanks also survive. Military activities continued after the war, with the Royal Air Force returning to Thornham Marsh between 1950 and 1959. Bombing practice was supervised from a control tower, which was demolished in 1962, leaving only a concrete structure opposite the end of Titchwell's west bank. The remains of two Second World War Covenanter tanks, probably used as targets, are sometimes exposed at low tide.
The wreck of the SS Vina, a cargo steamer built in 1894, can be seen at low tide. In 1944, she was anchored offshore for use as an RAF target when a gale dragged her to her present location and sank her. After the war, some of the wreck was salvaged as scrap. The remains of the Vina are accessible at low tide, but visiting them is potentially hazardous as the wreck is quickly cut off and submerged by the incoming tide. A warning sign on the wreck advises anyone reaching it to return to the beach immediately.
Behind the sea wall, the marshes were drained after the war, and reverted to farmland, but the bank was breached in the North Sea flood of 1953, returning the whole area to tidal saltmarsh dominated by sea aster. The construction of a new sea wall across the reserve created a shallow freshwater lagoon, with a reed bed on its northern side and a vegetation-free brackish marsh.
RSPB era
The avocet features on the RSPB's logo.
Between 1970 and 1972, a pair of Montagu's harriers, Britain's rarest breeding birds of prey, nested in the reed bed. The RSPB bought the reserve in 1973 for £53,000 (£810,000 in 2024). The Montagu's harriers did not return, but marsh harriers did, and the RSPB commenced improving the habitat and facilities, including embanking the lagoons and building a car park and visitor centre. Avocets, then still very rare in the UK, first bred here in 1984. The visitor centre facilities were improved between 1987 and 1989 to cope with the numbers of visitors.
In 1991, the sea broke through the dunes at the eastern end of the beach near the former Tern Hide, and the dunes started to erode. The remains of the Second World War tanks first appeared around this time. In the following year the boardwalk at the beach end of the west bank was constructed to protect the dunes, and the seawatching platform was added at its northern end. 12 hectares (30 acres) of land to the east of the reserve was bought in 1993; much of this was formerly part of the firing range, and large amounts of barbed wire caused problems when the area was being converted to reed bed and wet grazing meadow. Over the winter, an old hide on the West Bank was demolished and replaced with the current Island Hide. Storms in February 1996 removed most of the dunes east of the boardwalk, and eroded those to the west. The Tern Hide, now cut off at high tide, was dismantled. Developments at the end of the 20th century included the 1997 extension of the visitor centre, which included building a cafe, and the erection of Fen Hide in 1999, together with a boardwalk path to the hide, and a dragonfly pond.
The reserve covers 171 hectares (420 acres), and is of international importance for its breeding and wintering birds. It was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1973, and in 1986 it was subsumed into the 7,700 hectares (19,000 acres) North Norfolk Coast SSSI. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). This is the RSPB's most visited reserve, with about 92,000 visitors annually.
Access and facilities
Titchwell Marsh is next to the A149 road and buses stop outside the reserve. The main track to the beach is a public right-of-way, and the only part of the reserve where dogs are permitted. The reserve is open all year, and access is free, although non-members are charged for using the car park. The main part of the reserve is accessed from the visitor centre using the 1 km (1,050 yd) West Bank footpath. After leaving the woodland around the visitor centre, there are two short paths running from the main path; the 200 m (220 yd) Fen Trail to a hide overlooking the reed bed, and the 100 m (110 yd) Meadow Trail boardwalk loop through wet marsh and past the dragonfly pond. The main footpath continues north past the reedbed to the freshwater lagoon and the Island Hide, then reaches a bank running across the reserve. The new Parrinder hides are placed along this wall. The footpath continues past a tidal lagoon, and over another bank to a saltmarsh, formerly ending at a raised wooden seawatching platform on the dunes by the beach.
The visitor centre and shop are open daily except Christmas Day and Boxing Day. Most of the reserve and its facilities are wheelchair accessible, but the last part of the path to the beach is rough, and accessed via a steep bank.
Fauna and flora
Birds
Sedge warblers breed in the marsh.
The key breeding species are reed bed specialists such as the marsh harrier, Eurasian bittern and bearded reedling, together with the avocet, the RSPB's symbolic bird. Bitterns stopped breeding on the reserve in 1989 due to inadequate habitat and a lack of sufficient large food fish; although European eels, a favoured food, are present, the numbers are too low. These problems were addressed by managing water levels and excavating some of the reed bed to create open, reed-fringed pools, and stocking the lagoon with the common rudd; breeding recommenced in 2004. In 2011, there were 80 avocet nests, two pairs of Eurasian bitterns, and four pairs of marsh harriers, the latter successfully fledging seven young.
Other breeding birds include ringed plovers and Eurasian oystercatchers in the sand dunes, and water rails in the reed bed. Sedge, reed and Cetti's warblers all nest in the wetland, and little egrets are now common on the reserve. In early summer, scarcer migrants like the little gull, black tern, Eurasian spoonbills and garganey may pass through on their way to breed elsewhere.
In the autumn, species arrive from the north, some, such as black-tailed godwits, curlew sandpipers and little stints just passing through, pausing for a few days to refuel, others staying for the winter. This is also a good time to see bearded reedlings. Offshore, great and Arctic skuas, northern gannets and black-legged kittiwakes may pass close by in favourable winds.
Black-tailed godwits of the Icelandic subspecies pass through on migration.
Large numbers of ducks winter on the reserve, including many Eurasian wigeons, Eurasian teals, mallards and gadwalls, and smaller counts of goldeneyes and northern pintails. Offshore, there may be large "rafts" of common scoters, and smaller numbers of common eiders, long-tailed ducks, velvet scoters and red-throated divers. Brent geese feed on sea lettuce and other green algae, and hundreds of European golden plovers may roost on the reserve at high tide. In the evenings, large flocks of pink-footed geese fly over Titchwell on their way to roost, and barn owls and hen harriers quarter the marshes. This is the season for flocks of lesser redpolls, sometimes accompanied by a rarer common redpoll, and snow buntings are to be found on the beach.
The reserve's location means that migrants may be found, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right, sometimes including vagrant rarities. Major rarities in recent years include a Pacific golden plover and a great knot in 2016, and a slender-billed gull and a penduline tit in 2014.
Other animals and plants
Saltmarsh behind the beach
Water voles are an endangered species in the UK, with a huge decline in numbers, mainly due to predation by the introduced American mink. They are still common at Titchwell, which is one of a number of East Anglian sites now of national importance for this species. Both common and grey seals can be seen off the beach. Other vertebrates include European eels, common toads and three-spined sticklebacks.
In summer, the dragonfly pond can hold up to ten species of dragonflies and damselflies. The nationally scarce moth flame wainscot has bred at Titchwell since 1996; other Lepidoptera may include migrants such as the painted lady, the diamondback moth, and especially the silver Y, which can occur in huge numbers; 90,000 were recorded on the reserve in July 2010, feeding on sea lavender.
The saltmarsh contains glassworts and common cord grass in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with sea purslane in the creeks and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants. The drier areas contain maritime grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass. The reedbeds are dominated by common reed with saltmarsh rush, brackish water crowfoot, sea clubrush and common bulrush also common in the various wetland habitats.
Recreation
Birdwatching visitors help to support the local economy.
As the RSPB's busiest reserve, Titchwell Marsh has a significant economic impact on its locality. A 2002 survey reported that an estimated 137,700 visitors spent £1.8 million locally in 1998. The tiny village of Titchwell has two three-star hotels and a shop selling telescopes and binoculars, although it does not have a general store or a public house.
A 2005 survey at Titchwell and five other North Norfolk coastal sites found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit. The 7.7 million day visitors and 5.5 million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122 million, and created the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs.
Threats
The soft rocks of the North Norfolk coast have been attacked by the sea for centuries; at Titchwell Marsh, the beach and sand dunes protecting the northern edge of the reserve have been eroded, and climate change has increased the likelihood of damage to the freshwater areas of the reserve. The predicted increasingly stormy weather could damage the dune system and expose the soft earth banks to wave damage, or the sea could just over-top the defences, as it did in the 1953 floods. Either way, the conservation value of the reserve would be adversely affected, especially through the potential loss of the bitterns. Rather than reinforce the outer bank, it was decided to undertake a managed realignment. Between 2010 and 2011, the banks on the east and west of the reserve were reinforced, and the sea wall to the north of the fresh marsh was rebuilt on the line of the old Parrinder bank. The old Parrinder Hide was replaced by a pair of modern hides, retaining the original name. Designed by HaysomWardMiller, these hides won an award from RIBA for their architectural style. The former brackish marsh north of the new wall has been modified by creating a breach in the east bank. This will allow tidal flooding and the eventual establishment of saltmarsh on what is now named Volunteer Marsh. The new saltmarsh will protect the rebuilt Parrinder wall, slowing erosion. Nevertheless, it is estimated that by 2060 the beach may have advanced halfway across the new tidal area. Other improvements were made to the reed beds and islands in the freshwater lagoon, and a new sluice was installed. New reedbeds were created east of Fen Hide, which can be accessed by trails opened in 2012. The first part of the trail is open all year, but the "autumn trail", running up from the woodland in the southeastern corner of the reserve, is accessible only from August to October.
References
^ a b c d Robertson (2005) pp. 9–10.
^ Murphy (2009) p. 14.
^ Murphy (2009) p. 32.
^ Robertson (2005) p. 152.
^ a b c d Robertson (2005) pp. 15–16.
^ Robertson (2005) p. 149.
^ Robinson (1986) p. 28.
^ Dodman, M; Dodman, W (1853). "Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk". The Zoologist. XXI: 8686.
^ Stevenson, Henry (1854). "Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk". The Zoologist. XXII: 8957.
^ a b c d Titchwell Marsh before the RSPB. RSPB information sheet.
^ a b c "Archaeology and history". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
^ Dowse, Julian. "SS Vina (+1944)". Wreck Site. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Semmens, Donna (11 August 2011). "Hunstanton lifeboat crew warns of Brancaster wreck danger". Eastern Daily Press. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
^ Shaw, John (15 August 2000). "Deadly peril of a treacherous tide". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
^ Dowse, Julian. "TF7846 : SS Vina – Safety warning sign". Geograph Britain and Ireland. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
^ a b c d Hammomd (1984) pp. 167–168.
^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
^ a b The RSPB and Titchwell Marsh. RSPB information sheet.
^ a b "North Norfolk Coast" (PDF). SSSI citations. Natural England. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
^ "Titchwell Marsh". Reserve guide. RSPB. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
^ "Other Conservation Designations within the AONB December 2009" (PDF). Norfolk Coast AONB Management Plan 2009–14. Norfolk Coast partnership. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
^ "Fact File" (PDF). Reserves. RSPB. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ "How to get here". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
^ a b "Finding your way around" (PDF). Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
^ "About Titchwell Marsh". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
^ "Facilities". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
^ "Accessibility". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
^ "Star species". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
^ a b Gurney, Mark (2007). "Introduction of rudd Scardinius erythropthalmus as food for bitterns Botaurus stellaris at Titchwell Marsh RSPB reserve, Norfolk, England". Conservation Evidence. 4: 4–5.
^ "Wetland habitat improvements at Titchwell Marsh". RSK Habitat Management. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
^ Self, M (2005). "A review of management for fish and bitterns, Botaurus stellaris, in wetland reserves". Fisheries Management and Ecology. 12 (6): 387–394. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00462.x.
^ Eele, Paul. "Titchwell Marsh". RSPB West Norfolk Local Group. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
^ a b c d Harrup (2010) pp. 246–248.
^ a b c d "Seasonal highlights". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
^ Newton (2010) pp. 114–115.
^ a b c d e Taylor (2009) pp. 136–137.
^ Summers, Ronald W (1990). "The exploitation of beds of green algae by brent geese". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 31 (1): 107–112. Bibcode:1990ECSS...31..107S. doi:10.1016/0272-7714(90)90031-L.
^ Elkins (1988) pp. 136–137.
^ Newton (2010) pp. 97–98.
^ Newton (2010) p. 50.
^ Holt, Chas and the Rarities Committee (2017). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2016". British Birds. 110 (10): 562–631.
^ Hudson, Nigel and the Rarities Committee (2015). "Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2014". British Birds. 108 (10): 565–633.
^ Gill, Victoria. "Extinction: Quarter of UK mammals 'under threat'". BBC News. Retrieved 30 July 2020. Familiar animals - the red squirrel and the water vole - have been put in the second most urgent category of Endangered.
^ "Water voles in the North Pennines" (PDF). North Pennines AONB Partnership. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
^ Cadbury, James (2001). "Lepidoptera recording at RSPB reserves, 1999 and 2000". Lepidoptera Conservation Bulletin. 2: 4.
^ Clifton, Jon. "Species List for Titchwell RSPB, Norfolk" (PDF). Jon Clifton Entomological Surveys. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ "Migrant insect review – End of July 2010". Migrant insect summaries. Atropos. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Shiel (2002) pp. 6–16.
^ Titchwell Manor Titchwell Manor. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
^ Briarfields Briarfields Hotel. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
^ In Focus In Focus. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
^ Liley (2008) p. 6.
^ "Long term planning: North Norfolk coast". Adaptation planning. Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 16 December 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
^ "Titchwell Marsh (UK)" (PDF). Climateproof areas. Interreg IVB North Sea Region Programme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.Retrieved 11 November 2011.
^ a b c "Coastal Change Project". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
^ "East winners 2011". Winners 2011. Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Archived from the original on 7 November 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
^ Titchwell Marsh Climate Change Project. RSPB information sheet.
Cited texts
Elkins, Norman (1988). Weather and Bird Behaviour. Waterhouses, Staffordshire: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-051-8.
Hammomd, Nicholas, ed. (1984). RSPB Nature Reserves. Sandy, Beds: RSPB. ISBN 0-903138-12-3.
Harrup, Simon; Redman, Nigel (2010). Where to watch birds in Britain. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-1059-1.
Liley, D (2008). Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access (PDF). Wareham, Dorset: Footprint Ecology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
Murphy, Peter (2009). The English Coast: a history and a prospect. London: Continuum International Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84725-143-5.
Newton, Ian (2010). Bird Migration: Collins New Naturalist Library (113). London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-730732-6.
Robertson, David; Crawley, Peter; Barker, Adam; Whitmore, Sandrine (2005). Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey (PDF). Norwich: Norfolk Archaeological Unit.
Robinson, Bruce (1986). The Peddars Way and Norfolk Coast Path: Issue 13 of Long distance route guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-701191-6.
Shiel, Anna; Rayment, Matthew; Burton, Graham (2002). RSPB Reserves and Local Economies (PDF). Sandy, Beds: RSPB.
Taylor, Marianne; Holden, Peter (2009). RSPB where to discover nature in Britain and Northern Ireland. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-0864-2.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Titchwell Marsh.
Official website
Eastern Daily Press article about the tank remains
Hard choices at Titchwell RSPB. 2005 Birdguides article with aerial view, map, and video interview with Rob Coleman, the reserve's manager
RSPB video on the climate change project narrated by Chris Packham
vteNorth Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific InterestNature reserves
Blakeney Point
Cley Marshes
Holkham National Nature Reserve
Holme Bird Observatory
Holme Dunes
Kelling Quags
Salthouse Marshes
Scolt Head Island
Stiffkey Fen
Titchwell Marsh
List of nature reserves in the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest
Authority control databases: National
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*"},{"link_name":"nature reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_reserve"},{"link_name":"Royal Society for the Protection of Birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Birds"},{"link_name":"Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Titchwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titchwell"},{"link_name":"Thornham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornham,_Norfolk"},{"link_name":"Hunstanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunstanton"},{"link_name":"reed beds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_bed"},{"link_name":"saltmarshes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marsh"},{"link_name":"lagoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon"},{"link_name":"Site of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"},{"link_name":"Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_Coast_AONB"},{"link_name":"Natura 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000"},{"link_name":"Special Protection Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Protection_Area"},{"link_name":"Ramsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_Convention"},{"link_name":"pied avocets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied_avocet"},{"link_name":"western marsh harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_marsh_harrier"},{"link_name":"Eurasian bitterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_bittern"},{"link_name":"bearded reedlings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearded_reedling"},{"link_name":"common rudd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_rudd"},{"link_name":"water rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_rail"},{"link_name":"reed warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_reed_warbler"},{"link_name":"sedge warbler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedge_warbler"},{"link_name":"little egrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_egret"},{"link_name":"migrating birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"European water vole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_water_vole"},{"link_name":"bird hides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_hide"},{"link_name":"seawatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawatching"},{"link_name":"visitor centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visitor_center"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"brackish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_water"},{"link_name":"archaeologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology"},{"link_name":"Upper Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"armoured fighting vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"Nature reserve in the United KingdomTitchwell Marsh is an English nature reserve owned and managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). Located on the north coast of the county of Norfolk, between the villages of Titchwell and Thornham, about 8 km (5.0 mi) east of the seaside resort of Hunstanton, its 171 hectares (420 acres) include reed beds, saltmarshes, a freshwater lagoon and sandy beach, with a small woodland area near the car park. This internationally important reserve is part of the North Norfolk Coast Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), and is also protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings.The reserve is important for some scarce breeding birds, such as pied avocets on the islands, and western marsh harriers, Eurasian bitterns and bearded reedlings in the reeds. To encourage bitterns to breed, the reed beds have been improved to make them wetter, and the lagoon has been stocked with the common rudd. Typical wetland birds such as the water rail, reed warbler and sedge warbler also appear, and little egrets are common. The reserve has regularly attracted rarities, as its location is important for migrating birds. Ducks and geese winter at Titchwell in considerable numbers, and the reserve shelters the endangered European water vole.Facilities include three bird hides, a seawatching platform, two nature trails, and a visitor centre. Because of concerns about climate change, a major project in 2010 and 2011 brought improvements to the banks around the freshwater lagoon and the conversion of the brackish lagoon to tidal saltmarsh, a more effective barrier to encroachment by the sea.Titchwell Marsh is archaeologically significant, with artefacts dating back to the Upper Paleolithic, and has remains of military constructions from both world wars. These include brickwork from a First World War military hospital and 1940s artillery targets for armoured fighting vehicles and warplanes in the Second World War.","title":"Titchwell Marsh"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coastal_defence_at_Titchwell,_Norfolk._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164972.jpg"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans"},{"link_name":"Neanderthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal"},{"link_name":"glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_period"},{"link_name":"archaeological record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_record"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE9-1"},{"link_name":"Mesolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic"},{"link_name":"flint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint"},{"link_name":"blades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-murphy14-2"},{"link_name":"Upper Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"North Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE9-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-murphy32-3"},{"link_name":"barrier island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_island"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE9-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE152-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE15-5"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE149-6"},{"link_name":"Medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval"},{"link_name":"silts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silt"},{"link_name":"sediments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment"},{"link_name":"glaciers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE15-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE9-1"},{"link_name":"arable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Robinson-7"},{"link_name":"Pallas's sandgrouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas%27s_sandgrouse"},{"link_name":"marram grass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammophila_(Poaceae)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zool21-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zool22-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SS_Vina,_The_Brancaster_Wreck.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Flying Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps"},{"link_name":"bombing range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_range"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beforerspb-10"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbarch-11"},{"link_name":"pillboxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_hardened_field_defences_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE15-5"},{"link_name":"Royal Tank Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Tank_Regiment"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beforerspb-10"},{"link_name":"armoured fighting vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beforerspb-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbarch-11"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAE15-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beforerspb-10"},{"link_name":"Covenanter tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenanter_tank"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbarch-11"},{"link_name":"target","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_ship"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"North Sea flood of 1953","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea_flood_of_1953"},{"link_name":"sea aster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aster_tripolium"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hammond-16"},{"link_name":"reed bed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_bed"},{"link_name":"brackish marsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_marsh"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hammond-16"}],"sub_title":"Before 1972","text":"Remains of Second World War coastal defencesTitchwell has a long history of human occupation. Populations of both Modern and Neanderthal people were present in Norfolk before the last glaciation between 100,000 and 10,000 years ago, and returned as the ice retreated north. The archaeological record is poor until about 20,000 years ago, partly due to the prevailing conditions, but also because the coastline was much further north than at present, so that many sites are now under the sea.[1] Early Mesolithic flint tools with characteristic blades up to 15 cm (5.9 in)[2] long found on the present-day coast at Titchwell date from a time when it was 60–70 km (37–43 mi) from the sea. Other flint tools have been found dating from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic. As the ice retreated during the Mesolithic, the sea level rose, filling what is now the North Sea, and bringing the Norfolk coastline much closer to its present line;[1] the remains of submerged forests can still be detected at low tide.[3] By 11,000 BC, the makers of the long blades had gone, and peat marshes had formed behind an offshore barrier island or spit.[1] A layer of peat formed between 1920 and 1680 BC and another between 1020 and 830 BC, indicating marshy conditions;[4] polished Neolithic axes found in those layers were blackened by exposure to the peat.[5]Two possible timber platforms were identified within the peat at Titchwell, and may be prehistoric. Similar Bronze Age structures are rare, and they may be significant in providing information about early timber construction methods.[6] Medieval and later pottery has been found at Titchwell, and the peat and silts which overlay the sediments deposited by the retreating glaciers have signs of post-medieval ploughing.[5]The draining of Norfolk's coastal marshes commenced in the late 17th and 18th centuries, and sea defences including the \"Old Lord's Bank\" at Titchwell were shown in maps from 1786 and 1797.[1] For the next 170 years or so, the reclaimed marsh was arable, producing crops and beef cattle.[7] A huge influx of Pallas's sandgrouse into Britain in 1853 led to several arrivals at Titchwell, including mated pairs. The last bird seen was on the saltmarsh, and the rest were on the dunes or in marram grass; many were shot.[8][9]The wreck of the SS Vina, seen in 2010.Thornham Marsh, immediately west of Titchwell, was used between 1914 and 1918 by the Royal Flying Corps as a bombing range. Some brickwork on Titchwell Marsh is all that remains of a military hospital dating from that period. A First World War concrete building along the west bank was let as holiday accommodation until the British Army returned in 1942.[10]During the Second World War, military defences were constructed at Titchwell. The drainage of farmland behind the banks was stopped, reflooding the former marshland;[11] zigzag ditches were dug, and pillboxes built into Old Lord's Bank.[5] Between 1942 and 1945, the marsh was used by the Royal Tank Regiment;[10] an armoured fighting vehicle gunnery range was established and new banks were constructed for firing practice, with targets set at 900 m (980 yd) intervals. Some of the still extant islands were built to hold \"pop-up\" targets, operated by cables from winches in a building whose foundations lie below Island Hide. Remains of the triangular concrete track used by the tanks also survive.[10][11] Military activities continued after the war, with the Royal Air Force returning to Thornham Marsh between 1950 and 1959. Bombing practice was supervised from a control tower, which was demolished in 1962, leaving only a concrete structure opposite the end of Titchwell's west bank.[5][10] The remains of two Second World War Covenanter tanks, probably used as targets, are sometimes exposed at low tide.[11]The wreck of the SS Vina, a cargo steamer built in 1894, can be seen at low tide. In 1944, she was anchored offshore for use as an RAF target when a gale dragged her to her present location and sank her. After the war, some of the wreck was salvaged as scrap.[12] The remains of the Vina are accessible at low tide, but visiting them is potentially hazardous as the wreck is quickly cut off and submerged by the incoming tide.[13][14] A warning sign on the wreck advises anyone reaching it to return to the beach immediately.[15]Behind the sea wall, the marshes were drained after the war, and reverted to farmland, but the bank was breached in the North Sea flood of 1953, returning the whole area to tidal saltmarsh dominated by sea aster.[16] The construction of a new sea wall across the reserve created a shallow freshwater lagoon, with a reed bed on its northern side and a vegetation-free brackish marsh.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recurvirostra_avosetta_-Titchwell_Marsh,_Norfolk,_England_-swimming-8.jpg"},{"link_name":"avocet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied_avocet"},{"link_name":"Montagu's harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montagu%27s_harrier"},{"link_name":"birds of prey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_of_prey"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-UK-17"},{"link_name":"marsh harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_marsh_harrier"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afterrspb-18"},{"link_name":"erode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion"},{"link_name":"seawatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawatching"},{"link_name":"barbed wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbed_wire"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afterrspb-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hammond-16"},{"link_name":"Site of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"},{"link_name":"Natura 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000"},{"link_name":"Special Protection Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Protection_Area"},{"link_name":"Ramsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsar_Convention"},{"link_name":"Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_Coast_AONB"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encitation-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbmain-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aonb-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbfacts-22"}],"sub_title":"RSPB era","text":"The avocet features on the RSPB's logo.Between 1970 and 1972, a pair of Montagu's harriers, Britain's rarest breeding birds of prey, nested in the reed bed. The RSPB bought the reserve in 1973 for £53,000 (£810,000 in 2024).[17] The Montagu's harriers did not return, but marsh harriers did, and the RSPB commenced improving the habitat and facilities, including embanking the lagoons and building a car park and visitor centre. Avocets, then still very rare in the UK, first bred here in 1984. The visitor centre facilities were improved between 1987 and 1989 to cope with the numbers of visitors.[18]In 1991, the sea broke through the dunes at the eastern end of the beach near the former Tern Hide, and the dunes started to erode. The remains of the Second World War tanks first appeared around this time. In the following year the boardwalk at the beach end of the west bank was constructed to protect the dunes, and the seawatching platform was added at its northern end. 12 hectares (30 acres) of land to the east of the reserve was bought in 1993; much of this was formerly part of the firing range, and large amounts of barbed wire caused problems when the area was being converted to reed bed and wet grazing meadow. Over the winter, an old hide on the West Bank was demolished and replaced with the current Island Hide. Storms in February 1996 removed most of the dunes east of the boardwalk, and eroded those to the west. The Tern Hide, now cut off at high tide, was dismantled. Developments at the end of the 20th century included the 1997 extension of the visitor centre, which included building a cafe, and the erection of Fen Hide in 1999, together with a boardwalk path to the hide, and a dragonfly pond.[18]The reserve covers 171 hectares (420 acres),[16] and is of international importance for its breeding and wintering birds. It was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1973, and in 1986 it was subsumed into the 7,700 hectares (19,000 acres) North Norfolk Coast SSSI. The larger area is now additionally protected through Natura 2000, Special Protection Area (SPA) and Ramsar listings, and is part of the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).[19][20][21] This is the RSPB's most visited reserve, with about 92,000 visitors annually.[22]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A149 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A149_road"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbdirect-23"},{"link_name":"right-of-way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_way_(public_throughway)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbmap2015-24"},{"link_name":"Boxing Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_Day"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbabout-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbfac-26"},{"link_name":"wheelchair accessible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessibility"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbaccess-27"}],"text":"Titchwell Marsh is next to the A149 road and buses stop outside the reserve.[23] The main track to the beach is a public right-of-way, and the only part of the reserve where dogs are permitted. The reserve is open all year, and access is free, although non-members are charged for using the car park. The main part of the reserve is accessed from the visitor centre using the 1 km (1,050 yd) West Bank footpath. After leaving the woodland around the visitor centre, there are two short paths running from the main path; the 200 m (220 yd) Fen Trail to a hide overlooking the reed bed, and the 100 m (110 yd) Meadow Trail boardwalk loop through wet marsh and past the dragonfly pond. The main footpath continues north past the reedbed to the freshwater lagoon and the Island Hide, then reaches a bank running across the reserve. The new Parrinder hides are placed along this wall. The footpath continues past a tidal lagoon, and over another bank to a saltmarsh, formerly ending at a raised wooden seawatching platform on the dunes by the beach.[24]The visitor centre and shop are open daily except Christmas Day and Boxing Day.[25][26] Most of the reserve and its facilities are wheelchair accessible, but the last part of the path to the beach is rough, and accessed via a steep bank.[27]","title":"Access and facilities"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fauna and flora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acrocephalus_schoenobaenus_1948.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sedge warblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedge_warbler"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbspecies-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gurney-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"European eels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_eel"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Self-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gurney-29"},{"link_name":"fledging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fledge"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"ringed plovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ringed_plover"},{"link_name":"Eurasian oystercatchers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_oystercatcher"},{"link_name":"water rails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_rail"},{"link_name":"Sedge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedge_warbler"},{"link_name":"reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_reed_warbler"},{"link_name":"Cetti's warblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetti%27s_warbler"},{"link_name":"little egrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_egret"},{"link_name":"migrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"little gull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_gull"},{"link_name":"black tern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_tern"},{"link_name":"Eurasian spoonbills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_spoonbill"},{"link_name":"garganey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garganey"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harrup-33"},{"link_name":"black-tailed godwits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-tailed_godwit"},{"link_name":"curlew sandpipers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curlew_sandpiper"},{"link_name":"little stints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_stint"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbseas-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newton114-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor-36"},{"link_name":"great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_skua"},{"link_name":"Arctic skuas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_skua"},{"link_name":"northern gannets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_gannet"},{"link_name":"black-legged kittiwakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-legged_kittiwake"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harrup-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limosalimosaislandica_1979.jpg"},{"link_name":"Black-tailed godwits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-tailed_godwit"},{"link_name":"Eurasian wigeons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_wigeon"},{"link_name":"Eurasian teals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_teal"},{"link_name":"mallards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallard"},{"link_name":"gadwalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadwall"},{"link_name":"goldeneyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_goldeneye"},{"link_name":"northern pintails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_pintail"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbseas-34"},{"link_name":"common scoters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_scoter"},{"link_name":"common eiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_eider"},{"link_name":"long-tailed ducks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-tailed_duck"},{"link_name":"velvet scoters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_scoter"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor-36"},{"link_name":"red-throated divers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-throated_loon"},{"link_name":"Brent geese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brant_goose"},{"link_name":"sea lettuce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulva"},{"link_name":"green algae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_algae"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-summers-37"},{"link_name":"European golden plovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_golden_plover"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harrup-33"},{"link_name":"pink-footed geese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink-footed_goose"},{"link_name":"barn owls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barn_owl"},{"link_name":"hen harriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_harrier"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbseas-34"},{"link_name":"lesser redpolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser_redpoll"},{"link_name":"common redpoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_redpoll"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor-36"},{"link_name":"snow buntings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_bunting"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harrup-33"},{"link_name":"migrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"vagrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagrant_species"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Pacific golden plover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_golden_plover"},{"link_name":"great knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_knot"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BB110b-41"},{"link_name":"slender-billed gull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slender-billed_gull"},{"link_name":"penduline tit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penduline_tit"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BB108-42"}],"sub_title":"Birds","text":"Sedge warblers breed in the marsh.The key breeding species are reed bed specialists such as the marsh harrier, Eurasian bittern and bearded reedling, together with the avocet, the RSPB's symbolic bird.[28] Bitterns stopped breeding on the reserve in 1989 due to inadequate habitat and a lack of sufficient large food fish;[29][30] although European eels, a favoured food, are present, the numbers are too low.[31] These problems were addressed by managing water levels and excavating some of the reed bed to create open, reed-fringed pools, and stocking the lagoon with the common rudd; breeding recommenced in 2004.[29] In 2011, there were 80 avocet nests, two pairs of Eurasian bitterns, and four pairs of marsh harriers, the latter successfully fledging seven young.[32]Other breeding birds include ringed plovers and Eurasian oystercatchers in the sand dunes, and water rails in the reed bed. Sedge, reed and Cetti's warblers all nest in the wetland, and little egrets are now common on the reserve. In early summer, scarcer migrants like the little gull, black tern, Eurasian spoonbills and garganey may pass through on their way to breed elsewhere.[33]In the autumn, species arrive from the north, some, such as black-tailed godwits, curlew sandpipers and little stints just passing through, pausing for a few days to refuel, others staying for the winter.[34][35] This is also a good time to see bearded reedlings.[36] Offshore, great and Arctic skuas, northern gannets and black-legged kittiwakes may pass close by in favourable winds.[33]Black-tailed godwits of the Icelandic subspecies pass through on migration.Large numbers of ducks winter on the reserve, including many Eurasian wigeons, Eurasian teals, mallards and gadwalls, and smaller counts of goldeneyes and northern pintails.[34] Offshore, there may be large \"rafts\" of common scoters, and smaller numbers of common eiders, long-tailed ducks, velvet scoters[36] and red-throated divers. Brent geese feed on sea lettuce and other green algae,[37] and hundreds of European golden plovers may roost on the reserve at high tide.[33] In the evenings, large flocks of pink-footed geese fly over Titchwell on their way to roost, and barn owls and hen harriers quarter the marshes.[34] This is the season for flocks of lesser redpolls, sometimes accompanied by a rarer common redpoll,[36] and snow buntings are to be found on the beach.[33]The reserve's location means that migrants may be found, sometimes in huge numbers when the weather conditions are right,[38][39] sometimes including vagrant rarities.[40] Major rarities in recent years include a Pacific golden plover and a great knot in 2016,[41] and a slender-billed gull and a penduline tit in 2014.[42]","title":"Fauna and flora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titchwell_saltmarsh_-_geograph.org.uk_-_789979.jpg"},{"link_name":"Water voles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_water_vole"},{"link_name":"American mink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_mink"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"East Anglian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pennine-44"},{"link_name":"common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbour_seal"},{"link_name":"grey seals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_seal"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor-36"},{"link_name":"vertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"European eels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_eel"},{"link_name":"common toads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_toad"},{"link_name":"three-spined sticklebacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-spined_stickleback"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hammond-16"},{"link_name":"dragonflies and damselflies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odonata"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbseas-34"},{"link_name":"flame wainscot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senta_flammea"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cadbury-45"},{"link_name":"Lepidoptera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidoptera"},{"link_name":"painted lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_cardui"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor-36"},{"link_name":"diamondback moth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamondback_moth"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-angle-46"},{"link_name":"silver Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Y"},{"link_name":"sea lavender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium_binervosum"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atropos-47"},{"link_name":"glassworts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicornia"},{"link_name":"common cord grass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartina_anglica"},{"link_name":"sea purslane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halimione_portulacoides"},{"link_name":"sea plantain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantago_maritima"},{"link_name":"sea couch grass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agropyron_pungens"},{"link_name":"sea poa grass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puccinellia_maritima"},{"link_name":"common reed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phragmites"},{"link_name":"saltmarsh rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juncus_gerardii"},{"link_name":"brackish water crowfoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculus_peltatus"},{"link_name":"sea clubrush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolboschoenus_maritimus"},{"link_name":"common bulrush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typha_latifolia"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encitation-19"}],"sub_title":"Other animals and plants","text":"Saltmarsh behind the beachWater voles are an endangered species in the UK, with a huge decline in numbers, mainly due to predation by the introduced American mink.[43] They are still common at Titchwell, which is one of a number of East Anglian sites now of national importance for this species.[44] Both common and grey seals can be seen off the beach.[36] Other vertebrates include European eels, common toads and three-spined sticklebacks.[16]In summer, the dragonfly pond can hold up to ten species of dragonflies and damselflies.[34] The nationally scarce moth flame wainscot has bred at Titchwell since 1996;[45] other Lepidoptera may include migrants such as the painted lady,[36] the diamondback moth,[46] and especially the silver Y, which can occur in huge numbers; 90,000 were recorded on the reserve in July 2010, feeding on sea lavender.[47]The saltmarsh contains glassworts and common cord grass in the most exposed regions, with a succession of plants following on as the marsh becomes more established: first sea aster, then mainly sea lavender, with sea purslane in the creeks and smaller areas of sea plantain and other common marsh plants. The drier areas contain maritime grasses such as sea couch grass and sea poa grass. The reedbeds are dominated by common reed with saltmarsh rush, brackish water crowfoot, sea clubrush and common bulrush also common in the various wetland habitats.[19]","title":"Fauna and flora"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dune_edge_on_the_Norfolk_coast._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164964.jpg"},{"link_name":"Birdwatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwatching"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-economy-48"},{"link_name":"Titchwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titchwell"},{"link_name":"telescopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescope"},{"link_name":"binoculars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binoculars"},{"link_name":"public house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_house"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"birdwatching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwatching"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"Birdwatching visitors help to support the local economy.As the RSPB's busiest reserve, Titchwell Marsh has a significant economic impact on its locality. A 2002 survey reported that an estimated 137,700 visitors spent £1.8 million locally in 1998.[48] The tiny village of Titchwell has two three-star hotels and a shop selling telescopes and binoculars, although it does not have a general store or a public house.[49][50][51]A 2005 survey at Titchwell and five other North Norfolk coastal sites found that 39 per cent of visitors gave birdwatching as the main purpose of their visit. The 7.7 million day visitors and 5.5 million who made overnight stays in the area in 1999 are estimated to have spent £122 million, and created the equivalent of 2,325 full-time jobs.[52]","title":"Recreation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EA-53"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EU-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbclimate-55"},{"link_name":"RIBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIBA"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-riba-56"},{"link_name":"brackish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackish_water"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbclimate-55"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-climateinfoerspb-57"},{"link_name":"sluice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluice"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbclimate-55"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rspbmap2015-24"}],"text":"The soft rocks of the North Norfolk coast have been attacked by the sea for centuries;[53] at Titchwell Marsh, the beach and sand dunes protecting the northern edge of the reserve have been eroded, and climate change has increased the likelihood of damage to the freshwater areas of the reserve. The predicted increasingly stormy weather could damage the dune system and expose the soft earth banks to wave damage, or the sea could just over-top the defences, as it did in the 1953 floods. Either way, the conservation value of the reserve would be adversely affected, especially through the potential loss of the bitterns. Rather than reinforce the outer bank, it was decided to undertake a managed realignment.[54] Between 2010 and 2011, the banks on the east and west of the reserve were reinforced, and the sea wall to the north of the fresh marsh was rebuilt on the line of the old Parrinder bank.[55] The old Parrinder Hide was replaced by a pair of modern hides, retaining the original name. Designed by HaysomWardMiller, these hides won an award from RIBA for their architectural style.[56] The former brackish marsh north of the new wall has been modified by creating a breach in the east bank. This will allow tidal flooding and the eventual establishment of saltmarsh on what is now named Volunteer Marsh. The new saltmarsh will protect the rebuilt Parrinder wall, slowing erosion.[55] Nevertheless, it is estimated that by 2060 the beach may have advanced halfway across the new tidal area.[57] Other improvements were made to the reed beds and islands in the freshwater lagoon, and a new sluice was installed. New reedbeds were created east of Fen Hide, which can be accessed by trails opened in 2012.[55] The first part of the trail is open all year, but the \"autumn trail\", running up from the woodland in the southeastern corner of the reserve, is accessible only from August to October.[24]","title":"Threats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85661-051-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85661-051-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-903138-12-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-903138-12-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4081-1059-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-1059-1"},{"link_name":"Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120831135810/http://www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84725-143-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-143-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-00-730732-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-730732-6"},{"link_name":"Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/norfolk-rczas/naurpt1045coastalsurvey.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-11-701191-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-701191-6"},{"link_name":"RSPB Reserves and Local Economies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Reserves%20and%20Local%20Economies_tcm9-133069.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4081-0864-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-0864-2"}],"text":"Elkins, Norman (1988). Weather and Bird Behaviour. Waterhouses, Staffordshire: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-051-8.\nHammomd, Nicholas, ed. (1984). RSPB Nature Reserves. Sandy, Beds: RSPB. ISBN 0-903138-12-3.\nHarrup, Simon; Redman, Nigel (2010). Where to watch birds in Britain. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-1059-1.\nLiley, D (2008). Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access (PDF). Wareham, Dorset: Footprint Ecology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2011.\nMurphy, Peter (2009). The English Coast: a history and a prospect. London: Continuum International Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84725-143-5.\nNewton, Ian (2010). Bird Migration: Collins New Naturalist Library (113). London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-730732-6.\nRobertson, David; Crawley, Peter; Barker, Adam; Whitmore, Sandrine (2005). Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey (PDF). Norwich: Norfolk Archaeological Unit.\nRobinson, Bruce (1986). The Peddars Way and Norfolk Coast Path: Issue 13 of Long distance route guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-701191-6.\nShiel, Anna; Rayment, Matthew; Burton, Graham (2002). RSPB Reserves and Local Economies (PDF). Sandy, Beds: RSPB.\nTaylor, Marianne; Holden, Peter (2009). RSPB where to discover nature in Britain and Northern Ireland. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-0864-2.","title":"Cited texts"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Remains of Second World War coastal defences","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Coastal_defence_at_Titchwell%2C_Norfolk._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164972.jpg/220px-Coastal_defence_at_Titchwell%2C_Norfolk._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164972.jpg"},{"image_text":"The wreck of the SS Vina, seen in 2010.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/SS_Vina%2C_The_Brancaster_Wreck.jpg/220px-SS_Vina%2C_The_Brancaster_Wreck.jpg"},{"image_text":"The avocet features on the RSPB's logo.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Recurvirostra_avosetta_-Titchwell_Marsh%2C_Norfolk%2C_England_-swimming-8.jpg/220px-Recurvirostra_avosetta_-Titchwell_Marsh%2C_Norfolk%2C_England_-swimming-8.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sedge warblers breed in the marsh.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Acrocephalus_schoenobaenus_1948.jpg/220px-Acrocephalus_schoenobaenus_1948.jpg"},{"image_text":"Black-tailed godwits of the Icelandic subspecies pass through on migration.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Limosalimosaislandica_1979.jpg/220px-Limosalimosaislandica_1979.jpg"},{"image_text":"Saltmarsh behind the beach","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Titchwell_saltmarsh_-_geograph.org.uk_-_789979.jpg/220px-Titchwell_saltmarsh_-_geograph.org.uk_-_789979.jpg"},{"image_text":"Birdwatching visitors help to support the local economy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Dune_edge_on_the_Norfolk_coast._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164964.jpg/220px-Dune_edge_on_the_Norfolk_coast._-_geograph.org.uk_-_164964.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Dodman, M; Dodman, W (1853). \"Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk\". The Zoologist. XXI: 8686.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stevenson, Henry (1854). \"Pallas' Sand Grouse in Norfolk\". The Zoologist. XXII: 8957.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Archaeology and history\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/archaeology.aspx","url_text":"\"Archaeology and history\""}]},{"reference":"Dowse, Julian. \"SS Vina (+1944)\". Wreck Site. Retrieved 12 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?69922","url_text":"\"SS Vina (+1944)\""}]},{"reference":"Semmens, Donna (11 August 2011). \"Hunstanton lifeboat crew warns of Brancaster wreck danger\". Eastern Daily Press. Retrieved 14 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/hunstanton_lifeboat_crew_warns_of_brancaster_wreck_danger_1_991014","url_text":"\"Hunstanton lifeboat crew warns of Brancaster wreck danger\""}]},{"reference":"Shaw, John (15 August 2000). \"Deadly peril of a treacherous tide\". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 14 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1352827/Deadly-peril-of-a-treacherous-tide.html","url_text":"\"Deadly peril of a treacherous tide\""}]},{"reference":"Dowse, Julian. \"TF7846 : SS Vina – Safety warning sign\". Geograph Britain and Ireland. Retrieved 18 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2034303","url_text":"\"TF7846 : SS Vina – Safety warning sign\""}]},{"reference":"Clark, Gregory (2017). \"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/","url_text":"\"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeasuringWorth","url_text":"MeasuringWorth"}]},{"reference":"\"North Norfolk Coast\" (PDF). SSSI citations. Natural England. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140202212559/http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001342.pdf","url_text":"\"North Norfolk Coast\""},{"url":"http://www.english-nature.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1001342.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Titchwell Marsh\". Reserve guide. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/","url_text":"\"Titchwell Marsh\""}]},{"reference":"\"Other Conservation Designations within the AONB December 2009\" (PDF). Norfolk Coast AONB Management Plan 2009–14. Norfolk Coast partnership.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.norfolkcoastaonb.org.uk/mediaps/pdfuploads/pd001159.pdf","url_text":"\"Other Conservation Designations within the AONB December 2009\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fact File\" (PDF). Reserves. RSPB. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120719080254/http://west-norfolk.gov.uk/pdf/1390-42b%20Birdwatching2.pdf","url_text":"\"Fact File\""},{"url":"http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/pdf/1390-42b%20Birdwatching2.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"How to get here\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/directions.aspx","url_text":"\"How to get here\""}]},{"reference":"\"Finding your way around\" (PDF). Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/titchwellmarsh_tcm9-260976.pdf","url_text":"\"Finding your way around\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Titchwell Marsh\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/about.aspx","url_text":"\"About Titchwell Marsh\""}]},{"reference":"\"Facilities\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/facilities.aspx","url_text":"\"Facilities\""}]},{"reference":"\"Accessibility\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/accessibility.aspx","url_text":"\"Accessibility\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star species\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/star_species.aspx","url_text":"\"Star species\""}]},{"reference":"Gurney, Mark (2007). \"Introduction of rudd Scardinius erythropthalmus as food for bitterns Botaurus stellaris at Titchwell Marsh RSPB reserve, Norfolk, England\". Conservation Evidence. 4: 4–5.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Wetland habitat improvements at Titchwell Marsh\". RSK Habitat Management. Retrieved 18 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://rskhabitatmanagement.co.uk/projects/landscape-scale-wetland-habitat-improvements-at-titchwell-marsh/","url_text":"\"Wetland habitat improvements at Titchwell Marsh\""}]},{"reference":"Self, M (2005). \"A review of management for fish and bitterns, Botaurus stellaris, in wetland reserves\". Fisheries Management and Ecology. 12 (6): 387–394. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00462.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2400.2005.00462.x","url_text":"\"A review of management for fish and bitterns, Botaurus stellaris, in wetland reserves\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2400.2005.00462.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00462.x"}]},{"reference":"Eele, Paul. \"Titchwell Marsh\". RSPB West Norfolk Local Group. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425150952/http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html","url_text":"\"Titchwell Marsh\""},{"url":"http://www.rspb-westnorfolk.org/titchwell.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Seasonal highlights\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/seasonal_highlights.aspx","url_text":"\"Seasonal highlights\""}]},{"reference":"Summers, Ronald W (1990). \"The exploitation of beds of green algae by brent geese\". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 31 (1): 107–112. Bibcode:1990ECSS...31..107S. doi:10.1016/0272-7714(90)90031-L.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuarine,_Coastal_and_Shelf_Science","url_text":"Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990ECSS...31..107S","url_text":"1990ECSS...31..107S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0272-7714%2890%2990031-L","url_text":"10.1016/0272-7714(90)90031-L"}]},{"reference":"Holt, Chas and the Rarities Committee (2017). \"Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2016\". British Birds. 110 (10): 562–631.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hudson, Nigel and the Rarities Committee (2015). \"Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2014\". British Birds. 108 (10): 565–633.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gill, Victoria. \"Extinction: Quarter of UK mammals 'under threat'\". BBC News. Retrieved 30 July 2020. Familiar animals - the red squirrel and the water vole - have been put in the second most urgent category of Endangered.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-53585627","url_text":"\"Extinction: Quarter of UK mammals 'under threat'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Water voles in the North Pennines\" (PDF). North Pennines AONB Partnership. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140729202427/http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf","url_text":"\"Water voles in the North Pennines\""},{"url":"http://www.northpennines.org.uk/Lists/DocumentLibrary/Attachments/156//Watervoles.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cadbury, James (2001). \"Lepidoptera recording at RSPB reserves, 1999 and 2000\". Lepidoptera Conservation Bulletin. 2: 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Clifton, Jon. \"Species List for Titchwell RSPB, Norfolk\" (PDF). Jon Clifton Entomological Surveys.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.angleps.com/Species%20List%20for%20Titchwell%20RSPB.pdf","url_text":"\"Species List for Titchwell RSPB, Norfolk\""}]},{"reference":"\"Migrant insect review – End of July 2010\". Migrant insect summaries. Atropos. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425161047/http://www.atropos.info/news.html","url_text":"\"Migrant insect review – End of July 2010\""},{"url":"http://www.atropos.info/news.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Long term planning: North Norfolk coast\". Adaptation planning. Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 16 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121216153828/http://environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/108980.aspx","url_text":"\"Long term planning: North Norfolk coast\""},{"url":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/108980.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Titchwell Marsh (UK)\" (PDF). Climateproof areas. Interreg IVB North Sea Region Programme. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425155240/http://www.newsletter.climateproofareas.com/reports/end%20products/CPA-WP2%20brochure%20Titchwell_web.pdf","url_text":"\"Titchwell Marsh (UK)\""},{"url":"http://www.newsletter.climateproofareas.com/reports/end%20products/CPA-WP2%20brochure%20Titchwell_web.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Coastal Change Project\". Titchwell Marsh. RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/t/titchwellmarsh/coastalchange/index.aspx","url_text":"\"Coastal Change Project\""}]},{"reference":"\"East winners 2011\". Winners 2011. Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA). Archived from the original on 7 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111107152532/http://www.architecture.com/Awards/RIBAAwards/Winners2011/East/Eastwinners2011.aspx","url_text":"\"East winners 2011\""},{"url":"http://www.architecture.com/Awards/RIBAAwards/Winners2011/East/Eastwinners2011.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Elkins, Norman (1988). Weather and Bird Behaviour. Waterhouses, Staffordshire: Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-051-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85661-051-8","url_text":"0-85661-051-8"}]},{"reference":"Hammomd, Nicholas, ed. (1984). RSPB Nature Reserves. Sandy, Beds: RSPB. ISBN 0-903138-12-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-903138-12-3","url_text":"0-903138-12-3"}]},{"reference":"Harrup, Simon; Redman, Nigel (2010). Where to watch birds in Britain. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-1059-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-1059-1","url_text":"978-1-4081-1059-1"}]},{"reference":"Liley, D (2008). Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access (PDF). Wareham, Dorset: Footprint Ecology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120831135810/http://www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf","url_text":"Development and the north Norfolk coast. Scoping document on the issues relating to access"},{"url":"http://www.northnorfolk.org/ldf/documents/Development_and_the_North_Norfolk_Coast.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Peter (2009). The English Coast: a history and a prospect. London: Continuum International Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84725-143-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-143-5","url_text":"978-1-84725-143-5"}]},{"reference":"Newton, Ian (2010). Bird Migration: Collins New Naturalist Library (113). London: Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-730732-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00-730732-6","url_text":"978-0-00-730732-6"}]},{"reference":"Robertson, David; Crawley, Peter; Barker, Adam; Whitmore, Sandrine (2005). Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey (PDF). Norwich: Norfolk Archaeological Unit.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/norfolk-rczas/naurpt1045coastalsurvey.pdf","url_text":"Norfolk Archaeological Unit Report No. 1045: Norfolk Rapid Coastal Zone Archaeological Survey"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Bruce (1986). The Peddars Way and Norfolk Coast Path: Issue 13 of Long distance route guide. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-701191-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-701191-6","url_text":"0-11-701191-6"}]},{"reference":"Shiel, Anna; Rayment, Matthew; Burton, Graham (2002). RSPB Reserves and Local Economies (PDF). Sandy, Beds: RSPB.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Reserves%20and%20Local%20Economies_tcm9-133069.pdf","url_text":"RSPB Reserves and Local Economies"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Marianne; Holden, Peter (2009). RSPB where to discover nature in Britain and Northern Ireland. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-0864-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4081-0864-2","url_text":"978-1-4081-0864-2"}]}]
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Physical_Chemistry_A
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The Journal of Physical Chemistry A
|
["1 Editors-in-chief","2 Popular culture","3 See also","4 External links","5 References"]
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Academic journalThe Journal of Physical Chemistry AApril 2004 coverDisciplinePhysical chemistryLanguageEnglishEdited byJoan-Emma SheaPublication detailsHistory1896 to presentPublisherAmerican Chemical Society (United States)FrequencyWeeklyImpact factor2.944 (2021)Standard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4J. Phys. Chem. AIndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusCODENJPCAFHISSN1089-5639 (print)1520-5215 (web)Links
Journal homepage
The Journal of Physical Chemistry A is a scientific journal which reports research on the chemistry of molecules - including their dynamics, spectroscopy, kinetics, structure, bonding, and quantum chemistry. It is published weekly by the American Chemical Society.
Before 1997 the title was simply Journal of Physical Chemistry. Owing to the ever-growing amount of research in the area, in 1997 the journal was split into Journal of Physical Chemistry A (molecular theoretical and experimental physical chemistry) and The Journal of Physical Chemistry B (solid state, soft matter, liquids, etc.). Beginning in 2007, the latter underwent a further split, with The Journal of Physical Chemistry C now being dedicated to nanotechnology, molecular electronics, and related subjects.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had an impact factor of 2.944 for 2021.
Editors-in-chief
1896–1932 Wilder Dwight Bancroft, Joseph E. Trevor
1933–1951 S. C. Lind
1952–1964 William A. Noyes
1965–1969 F. T. Wall
1970–1980 Bryce Crawford
1980–2004 Mostafa El-Sayed
2005–2019 George C. Schatz
2020–present Joan-Emma Shea
Popular culture
Sheldon Cooper, a fictional physicist from the television series The Big Bang Theory, appeared on the cover of a fictional issue of the journal.
See also
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry A
Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry B
External links
Official website
References
^ "Phys.org - News and Articles on Science and Technology". phys.org. Retrieved 2022-11-03.
^ "The Journal of Physical Chemistry A". 2021 Journal Citation Reports. Web of Science (Science ed.). Thomson Reuters. 2022.
^ Schatz, George C. (2005). "New Editor-in-Chief for The Journal of Physical Chemistry A and B". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 109 (1): 1. Bibcode:2005JPCA..109....1S. doi:10.1021/jp040657x.
^ Shea, Joan-Emma (2020). "A New Editor-in-Chief for the Journal of Physical Chemistry". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 124 (1): 1. Bibcode:2020JPCA..124....1S. doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.9b11480. PMID 31914731. S2CID 210119694.
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Accounts of Chemical Research
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ACS Applied Polymer Materials
ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering
ACS Catalysis
ACS Central Science
ACS Chemical Biology
ACS Chemical Neuroscience
ACS Combinatorial Science
ACS Earth and Space Chemistry
ACS Energy Letters
ACS Infectious Diseases
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ACS Nano
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Analytical Chemistry
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Bioconjugate Chemistry
Biomacromolecules
Bulletin for the History of Chemistry
Biotechnology Progress
Chemical Research in Toxicology
Chemical Reviews
Chemistry of Materials
Crystal Growth & Design
Energy & Fuels
Environmental Science & Technology
Environmental Science & Technology Letters
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
Inorganic Chemistry
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
Journal of the American Chemical Society
Journal of Chemical Education
Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data
Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling
Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation
Journal of Medicinal Chemistry
Journal of Natural Products
Journal of Organic Chemistry
Journal of Physical Chemistry
A
B
C
Letters
Journal of Proteome Research
Langmuir
Macromolecules
Molecular Pharmaceutics
Nano Letters
Organic Letters
Organic Process Research & Development
Organometallics
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This article about a physical chemistry journal is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellecombe-Tarendol
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Bellecombe-Tarendol
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["1 Population","2 See also","3 References"]
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Coordinates: 44°21′09″N 5°21′14″E / 44.3525°N 5.3539°E / 44.3525; 5.3539
Commune in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, FranceBellecombe-TarendolCommuneLocation of Bellecombe-Tarendol
Bellecombe-TarendolShow map of FranceBellecombe-TarendolShow map of Auvergne-Rhône-AlpesCoordinates: 44°21′09″N 5°21′14″E / 44.3525°N 5.3539°E / 44.3525; 5.3539CountryFranceRegionAuvergne-Rhône-AlpesDepartmentDrômeArrondissementNyonsCantonNyons et BaronniesGovernment • Mayor (2020–2026) François GrossArea113.48 km2 (5.20 sq mi)Population (2021)69 • Density5.1/km2 (13/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+01:00 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+02:00 (CEST)INSEE/Postal code26046 /26110Elevation474–1,312 m (1,555–4,304 ft)1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km2 (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
Bellecombe-Tarendol is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.
Population
Historical populationYearPop.±% p.a.1968 97— 1975 81−2.54%1982 86+0.86%1990 85−0.15%1999 75−1.38%2009 98+2.71%2014 91−1.47%2020 65−5.45%Source: INSEE
See also
Communes of the Drôme department
References
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bellecombe-Tarendol.
^ "Répertoire national des élus: les maires" (in French). data.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises. 13 September 2022.
^ "Populations légales 2021" (in French). The National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies. 28 December 2023.
^ Population en historique depuis 1968, INSEE
vte Communes of the Drôme department
Aix-en-Diois
Albon
Aleyrac
Alixan
Allan
Allex
Ambonil
Ancône
Andancette
Anneyron
Aouste-sur-Sye
Arnayon
Arpavon
Arthémonay
Aubenasson
Aubres
Aucelon
Aulan
Aurel
Autichamp
Ballons
Barbières
Barcelonne
Barnave
Barret-de-Lioure
Barsac
Bathernay
La Bâtie-des-Fonds
La Bâtie-Rolland
La Baume-Cornillane
La Baume-de-Transit
La Baume-d'Hostun
Beaufort-sur-Gervanne
Beaumont-en-Diois
Beaumont-lès-Valence
Beaumont-Monteux
Beauregard-Baret
Beaurières
Beausemblant
Beauvallon
Beauvoisin
La Bégude-de-Mazenc
Bellecombe-Tarendol
Bellegarde-en-Diois
Bénivay-Ollon
Bésayes
Bésignan
Bézaudun-sur-Bîne
Bonlieu-sur-Roubion
Bouchet
Boulc
Bourdeaux
Bourg-de-Péage
Bourg-lès-Valence
Bouvante
Bouvières
Bren
Brette
Buis-les-Baronnies
Chabeuil
Chabrillan
Le Chaffal
Chalancon
Le Chalon
Chamaloc
Chamaret
Chanos-Curson
Chantemerle-les-Blés
Chantemerle-lès-Grignan
La Chapelle-en-Vercors
La Charce
Charens
Charmes-sur-l'Herbasse
Charols
Charpey
Chastel-Arnaud
Châteaudouble
Châteauneuf-de-Bordette
Châteauneuf-de-Galaure
Châteauneuf-du-Rhône
Châteauneuf-sur-Isère
Châtillon-en-Diois
Châtillon-Saint-Jean
Chatuzange-le-Goubet
Chaudebonne
La Chaudière
Chauvac-Laux-Montaux
Chavannes
Clansayes
Claveyson
Cléon-d'Andran
Clérieux
Cliousclat
Cobonne
Colonzelle
Combovin
Comps
Condillac
Condorcet
Cornillac
Cornillon-sur-l'Oule
La Coucourde
Crépol
Crest
Crozes-Hermitage
Crupies
Curnier
Diesubpr
Dieulefit
Divajeu
Donzère
Échevis
Épinouze
Érôme
Espeluche
Espenel
Establet
Étoile-sur-Rhône
Eurre
Eygalayes
Eygaliers
Eygluy-Escoulin
Eymeux
Eyroles
Eyzahut
Fay-le-Clos
Félines-sur-Rimandoule
Ferrassières
Francillon-sur-Roubion
La Garde-Adhémar
Génissieux
Gervans
Geyssans
Gigors-et-Lozeron
Glandage
Le Grand-Serre
Grane
Les Granges-Gontardes
Granges-les-Beaumont
Grignan
Gumiane
Hauterives
Hostun
Izon-la-Bruisse
Jaillans
Jonchères
Laborel
Lachau
Lapeyrouse-Mornay
Larnage
La Laupie
Laval-d'Aix
Laveyron
Lemps
Lens-Lestang
Léoncel
Lesches-en-Diois
Livron-sur-Drôme
Loriol-sur-Drôme
Luc-en-Diois
Lus-la-Croix-Haute
Malataverne
Malissard
Manas
Manthes
Marches
Margès
Marignac-en-Diois
Marsanne
Marsaz
Menglon
Mercurol-Veaunes
Mérindol-les-Oliviers
Mévouillon
Mirabel-aux-Baronnies
Mirabel-et-Blacons
Mirmande
Miscon
Molières-Glandaz
Mollans-sur-Ouvèze
Montauban-sur-l'Ouvèze
Montaulieu
Montboucher-sur-Jabron
Montbrison-sur-Lez
Montbrun-les-Bains
Montchenu
Montclar-sur-Gervanne
Montéléger
Montélier
Montélimar
Montferrand-la-Fare
Montfroc
Montguers
Montjoux
Montjoyer
Montlaur-en-Diois
Montmaur-en-Diois
Montmeyran
Montmiral
Montoison
Montréal-les-Sources
Montségur-sur-Lauzon
Montvendre
Moras-en-Valloire
Mornans
La Motte-Chalancon
La Motte-Fanjas
Mours-Saint-Eusèbe
Nyonssubpr
Omblèze
Orcinas
Oriol-en-Royans
Ourches
Parnans
Le Pègue
Pelonne
Pennes-le-Sec
La Penne-sur-l'Ouvèze
Peyrins
Peyrus
Piégon
Piégros-la-Clastre
Pierrelatte
Pierrelongue
Les Pilles
Plaisians
Plan-de-Baix
Le Poët-Célard
Le Poët-en-Percip
Le Poët-Laval
Le Poët-Sigillat
Pommerol
Ponet-et-Saint-Auban
Ponsas
Pontaix
Pont-de-Barret
Pont-de-l'Isère
Portes-en-Valdaine
Portes-lès-Valence
Poyols
Pradelle
Les Prés
Propiac
Puygiron
Puy-Saint-Martin
Ratières
Réauville
Recoubeau-Jansac
Reilhanette
Rémuzat
La Répara-Auriples
Rimon-et-Savel
Rioms
Rochebaudin
Rochebrune
Rochechinard
La Roche-de-Glun
Rochefort-en-Valdaine
Rochefort-Samson
Rochefourchat
Rochegude
Roche-Saint-Secret-Béconne
La Roche-sur-Grane
La Roche-sur-le-Buis
La Rochette-du-Buis
Romans-sur-Isère
Romeyer
Rottier
Roussas
Rousset-les-Vignes
Roussieux
Roynac
Sahune
Saillans
Saint-Agnan-en-Vercors
Saint-Andéol
Saint-Auban-sur-l'Ouvèze
Saint-Avit
Saint-Bardoux
Saint-Barthélemy-de-Vals
Saint-Benoit-en-Diois
Saint-Christophe-et-le-Laris
Saint-Dizier-en-Diois
Saint-Donat-sur-l'Herbasse
Sainte-Croix
Sainte-Eulalie-en-Royans
Sainte-Euphémie-sur-Ouvèze
Sainte-Jalle
Saint-Ferréol-Trente-Pas
Saint-Gervais-sur-Roubion
Saint-Jean-de-Galaure
Saint-Jean-en-Royans
Saint-Julien-en-Quint
Saint-Julien-en-Vercors
Saint-Laurent-d'Onay
Saint-Laurent-en-Royans
Saint-Marcel-lès-Sauzet
Saint-Marcel-lès-Valence
Saint-Martin-d'Août
Saint-Martin-en-Vercors
Saint-Martin-le-Colonel
Saint-Maurice-sur-Eygues
Saint-May
Saint-Michel-sur-Savasse
Saint-Nazaire-en-Royans
Saint-Nazaire-le-Désert
Saint-Pantaléon-les-Vignes
Saint-Paul-lès-Romans
Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux
Saint-Rambert-d'Albon
Saint-Restitut
Saint-Roman
Saint-Sauveur-en-Diois
Saint-Sauveur-Gouvernet
Saint-Sorlin-en-Valloire
Saint-Thomas-en-Royans
Saint-Uze
Saint-Vallier
Saint-Vincent-la-Commanderie
Salettes
Salles-sous-Bois
Saou
Saulce-sur-Rhône
Sauzet
Savasse
Séderon
Serves-sur-Rhône
Solérieux
Souspierre
Soyans
Suze
Suze-la-Rousse
Tain-l'Hermitage
Taulignan
Tersanne
Teyssières
Les Tonils
La Touche
Les Tourrettes
Triors
Truinas
Tulette
Upie
Vachères-en-Quint
Valaurie
Valdrôme
Valencepref
Valherbasse
Val-Maravel
Valouse
Vassieux-en-Vercors
Vaunaveys-la-Rochette
Venterol
Vercheny
Verclause
Vercoiran
Véronne
Vers-sur-Méouge
Vesc
Villebois-les-Pins
Villefranche-le-Château
Villeperdrix
Vinsobres
Volvent
pref: prefecture
subpr: subprefecture
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
This Drôme geographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_France"},{"link_name":"Drôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments_of_France"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"}],"text":"Commune in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, FranceBellecombe-Tarendol is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.","title":"Bellecombe-Tarendol"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Population"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Communes of the Drôme department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes_of_the_Dr%C3%B4me_department"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_Castle
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Leeds Castle
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["1 History","1.1 Medieval and Tudor","1.2 17th and 18th centuries","1.3 19th century","1.4 20th century","2 Tourism","3 Filming location","4 Castle interior","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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Coordinates: 51°14′56″N 0°37′48″E / 51.24889°N 0.63000°E / 51.24889; 0.63000Castle in Kent, England
For the ships, see HMS Leeds Castle.
Leeds CastleLeeds CastleKent, UKGeneral informationArchitectural styleCastleTown or cityLeeds, KentCountryUKCoordinates51°14′56″N 0°37′48″E / 51.24889°N 0.63000°E / 51.24889; 0.63000Construction started857Renovated1278OwnerLeeds Castle FoundationGroundsBuilt on islands in a lake formed by the River LenWebsitehttps://www.leeds-castle.com
Leeds Castle is a castle in Kent, England, 7 miles (11 km) southeast of Maidstone. It is built on islands in a lake formed by the River Len to the east of the village of Leeds. It is a historic Grade I listed estate.
A castle has existed on the site since 857. In the 13th century, it came into the hands of King Edward I, for whom it became a favourite residence; in the 16th century, Henry VIII used it as a dwelling for his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.
The present castle dates mostly from the early 19th century. Its last private owner, Olive, Lady Baillie, left the castle in trust to open it to the public. It has been open since 1976.
History
Medieval and Tudor
An aerial panorama of Leeds Castle
From 857, the site was owned by a Saxon chief called Led or Leed who built a wooden structure on two islands in the middle of the River Len. In 1119, Robert de Crevecoeur rebuilt it in stone as a Norman stronghold and Leeds Castle descended through the de Crevecoeur family until the 1260s. What form this Norman stronghold took is uncertain because it was rebuilt and transformed in the following centuries. Adrian Pettifer speculates that it may have been a motte and bailey.
In 1278, the castle was bought by King Edward I's Queen, Eleanor of Castile, through the purchase of the debt bond from Jewish moneylenders forced to sell at a considerable discount as a result of Edward's own excessive tax demands. As a favoured residence of Edward's, it saw considerable investment. The king enhanced its defences, and it was probably Edward who created the lake that surrounds the castle. A barbican spanning three islands was also built and a gloriette with apartments for the king and queen was added. In the Late Middle Ages, the growth of the royal household meant fewer residences could accommodate the monarchy when they visited. As a result, expenditure on royal residences in south east England generally decreased except for the Tower of London and Windsor Castle. The activity at Leeds Castle during the reign of Edward I was a notable exception to this pattern.
The castle was captured on 31 October 1321 by the forces of Edward II from Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere, wife of the castle's constable, Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere, who had left her in charge during his absence. The King had besieged Leeds after she had refused Edward's consort Isabella of France admittance in her husband's absence; when the latter sought to force an entry, Lady Badlesmere instructed her archers to shoot at Isabella and her party, six of whom were killed. Lady Badlesmere was kept prisoner in the Tower of London until November 1322. After Edward II died in 1327 his widow took over Leeds Castle as her primary residence.
Richard II's first wife, Anne of Bohemia, spent the winter of 1381 at the castle on her way to be married to the king. In 1395, Richard received the French chronicler Jean Froissart there, as described in Froissart's Chronicles.
Henry VIII transformed the castle in 1519 for his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. A painting commemorating his meeting with Francis I of France still hangs there. The glazier Galyon Hone reworked and restored the chapel windows in 1536.
In 1552 Leeds Castle was granted to Sir Anthony St Leger (d.1559) of Ulcombe, Kent, whose grandfather Ralph I St Leger (d.1470), of Ulcombe, Sheriff of Kent in 1467/8, had been Constable of Leeds Castle.
17th and 18th centuries
Doublet worn by Fairfax at the Battle of Maidstone in 1648Civil War cuirassier armour at Leeds c. 1640
The St Leger family continued to own the castle until Sir Warham St Leger sold it to Sir Richard Smythe in 1618. Smythe's daughters sold the castle to Sir Thomas Colepeper of Hollingbourne. An early embroidered silk quilt from Bengal dating from the 1620s, held by the Colonial Williamsburg museum, has an ownership label of Catherine Colepeper, connecting it to Leeds Castle and the Smythe and Colepeper families. Richard Smythe's brother Thomas Smythe was a founder and governor of the English East India Company.
The castle escaped destruction during the English Civil War because its owner, Sir Cheney Culpeper, sided with the Parliamentarians. The castle was used as both an arsenal and a prison during the war. Other members of the Culpeper family had sided with the Royalists, John Colepeper, 1st Baron Colepeper, having been granted more than 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km2) of land in Virginia in reward for assisting the escape of the king's son, Charles, the Prince of Wales. This legacy was to prove vital for the castle's fortunes.
Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was born at the castle in 1693 and settled in North America to oversee the Culpeper estates, cementing an ongoing connection between the castle and America. There is a commemorative sundial at the castle telling the time in Belvoir, Virginia and a corresponding sundial in America.
Fairfax was the great-grandson of Thomas Fairfax who led the parliamentarian attack at the nearby Battle of Maidstone in 1648 and whose doublet worn during the battle is on display.
19th century
The new castle was completed in 1823 in the Tudor style.
Robert Fairfax owned the castle for 46 years until 1793 when it passed to the Wykeham Martins. Sale of the family estates in Virginia released a large sum of money that allowed extensive repair and the remodelling of the castle in a Tudor style, completed in 1823, that resulted in the appearance today.
20th century
French designer Armand-Albert Rateau added a spiral staircase in the style of the 16th century to the south side of the Fountain Court.
The Wykeham Martins were forced to sell the castle and estate in 1924, in order to meet death duties. The last private owner was the Hon. Olive, Lady Baillie, daughter of Almeric Paget, 1st Baron Queenborough and his first wife, Pauline Payne Whitney, an American heiress. Lady Baillie bought the castle in 1926 for £180,000 (equivalent to £10,524,500 in 2019). She redecorated the interior, first working with the French architect and designer Armand-Albert Rateau, who oversaw exterior alterations and added interior features such as a 16th-century-style carved-oak staircase, then with the Paris decorator Stéphane Boudin. In total she spent $2 million on the project over the years.
During the early part of World War II the castle was used as a hospital where Lady Baillie and her daughters hosted burned Commonwealth airmen as part of their recovery. Survivors remembered the experience with fondness. Upon her death in 1974, Lady Baillie left the castle to the Leeds Castle Foundation, a private charitable trust whose aim is to preserve the castle and grounds for the benefit of the public.
An estimated £1.4 million (equivalent to £14.7 million in 2023) was invested and a further £400,000 (£4.2 million in 2023) was retrieved from the sale of the furniture to make improvements to the Castle and attract paying corporate conferences. However, it was quickly understood that it could not support the ongoing costs of running the Estate, so in 1975 the gardens were opened to the public, and the following year the Castle was also made available to visitors.
On 17 July 1978, the castle was the site of a meeting between Egyptian Foreign Minister Muhammad Ibrahim Kamel, Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Dayan and US Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in preparation for the Camp David Accords. The castle also hosted the Northern Ireland peace talks held in September 2004 led by Tony Blair.
In October 2021, Leeds Castle Foundation was one of 142 recipients across England to receive part of a £35 million injection into the government's Culture Recovery Fund.
In 1952, the castle was named a Grade I listed building and recognised as an internationally important structure. The listing summary states: "Castle. Early-to-mid C12, with C13, C14, C15 and C16 alterations. Partly rebuilt 1822". The research records at Historic England state that the castle was also "extensively rebuilt in ... 1926".
A wide panoramic view of Leeds Castle from across the moat on the north west side
Leeds Castle and its moat from the rear
Tourism
The maze at Leeds Castle was made with 2,400 yew trees and opened in 1988.
An aviary was added in 1980 and by 2011 contained over 100 species, but closed in 2012 to save its £200,000 a year running cost. The replacement Birds of Prey Centre, includes hawks on display and free-flying falconry displays.
The castle and its grounds are a major leisure destination with a golf course and what may be the world's only museum of dog collars. There are two castle-themed children's adventure play areas targeted at the under sevens and the under fourteens. A maze opened in 1988, constructed of 2,400 yew trees with the general appearance of a topiary castle. The centre is on a raised viewpoint, which also contains an exit through a shell grotto. The castle also offers accommodations for tourists including rental rooms and a campsite area with luxury tents called Knight's Glamping.
In 1998, Leeds Castle was one of 57 heritage sites in England to receive more than 200,000 visitors. According to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 539,971 people visited the castle in 2019. Due to travel and other restrictions as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of visitors in 2020 had declined to 389,363 in that year.
Filming location
The castle was a location for the Ealing Comedy film Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949) as a stand-in for 'Chalfont', the ancestral home of the aristocratic d'Ascoyne family. It also appeared in the films The Moonraker (1958) and Waltz of the Toreadors (1962). It was used for filming of Purge of Kingdoms (2019) starring Armando Gutierrez and Angus Macfayden.
On the small screen, the castle and grounds provided all the filming locations for a Doctor Who serial, The Androids of Tara, in 1978. Cliff Richard performed a live concert at the location (released on DVD), with Leeds Castle as a backdrop, titled Castles in the Air.
A more recent source states that the castle has been used for The Hollow Crown (TV series), for a Bollywood action movie called Rustom (film) and for "Darkest Hour, Casanova, Classic Mary Berry (BBC1), Who Do You Think You Are special with Danny Dyer, Antiques Roadtrip (BBC1), What Would Your Kid Do? (ITV)".
Castle interior
Dining room
Banqueting hall
Library
Thorpe Hall drawing room
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
Grade I listed buildings in Maidstone
List of castles in England
References
Notes
^ a b c Illustrated London News, January 1975
^ a b Emery 2006, p. 304
^ a b Historic England, "Leeds Castle (418125)", Research records (formerly PastScape), retrieved 14 March 2012
^ Pettifer 1995, pp. 121–122
^ Hillaby & Hillaby 2013, p. 13.
^ Emery 2006, p. 268
^ Costain 1958, pp. 193–195
^ McKisack 1959, p. 64 note 3
^ Emery 2006, p. 305
^ Wayment, Hilary (1991). Starkey, David (ed.). Stained Glass in Henry VIII's palaces. London: Abbeville Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-1558592414. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ a b McCann 2002, p. 14.
^ Charles Wykeham-Martin, The History and Description of Leeds Castle (London, 1869), pp. 157–159.
^ Linda Baumgarten and Kimberly Smith Ivey, Four Centuries of Quilts: The Colonial Williamsburg Collection, (Yale, 2014), pp. 16–17.
^ McCann 2002, p. 75.
^ a b c d McCann 2002
^ McCann 2002, p. 77.
^ a b "Leeds Castle". Historic England. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^ "Leeds Castle, One Of Britain's Oldest, Reopened to Public". NY Times. 2 July 1976. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^ "LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION, registered charity no. 268354". Charity Commission for England and Wales.
^ "THE LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION". Leeds Castle Kent England. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
^ "Heritage and Craft Workers Across England Given a Helping Hand" Archived 23 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Historic England, 22 October 2021
^ a b Historic England, "Leeds Castle (1039919)", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 14 March 2012
^ "Frequently asked questions", Images of England, English Heritage, archived from the original on 11 November 2007, retrieved 14 March 2012
^ The Maze, Grotto and Turf Maze, Leeds Castle, retrieved 14 March 2012
^ Fisher & Loxton 2007, p. 68
^ "Leeds Castle to shut its aviary to save £200,000". BBC News. 12 October 2011. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
^ "Falconry at Leeds Castle". Leeds Castle. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022. birds from a variety of different species, from our smallest Burrowing Owl to our largest, a Russian Steppe Eagle.
^ "Things to do". Leeds Castle. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
^ McCann 2002, p. 87.
^ "Leeds Castle". The Telegraph. 3 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^ "Knight's Glamping". Visit Maidstone. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^ "Castle fires up tourists". BBC News. 30 August 1999. Archived from the original on 6 July 2004. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
^ "Visits Made in 2021 to Visitor Attractions in Membership with Alva". Association of Leading Visitor Attractions. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^ "openbuildings.com/". Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
^ Turner, Steve (2008). Cliff Richard: the Biography: 50th Anniversary Edition. Oxford: Lion Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7459-5279-6. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2022 – via Google Books.
^ "The Androids of Tara". Doctor Who Classic Episodes Guide. BBC. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020.
^ "FOCUS talks to Gemma Wright of film-friendly location Leeds Castle, exhibiting for the first time at FOCUS". TheLocationGuide. 20 January 2021. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
Bibliography
Costain, Thomas B (1958), The Three Edwards, The Pageant of England, New York: Doubleday and Company
Emery, Anthony (2006), "Southern England", Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales 1300-1500, vol. III, London: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-58132-5
Fisher, Adrian; Loxton, Howard (2007), Secrets of the maze: an interactive guide to the world's most amazing mazes, Barnes & Noble, ISBN 978-0-7607-9073-1 – via Internet Archive
Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013). The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History. Basingstok: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230278165.
McCann, Nick (2002), Leeds Castle, Great Houses of Britain, Kettering: Heritage House Group, ISBN 0-85101-374-0
McKisack, May (1959), The Fourteenth Century 1307-1399, Oxford History of England, London: Oxford University Press
Pettifer, Adrian (1995), English Castles: A Guide by Counties, Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, ISBN 0-85115-782-3
Further reading
Martin, Charles Wykeham (1869). The History and Description of Leeds Castle, Kent. Westminster: Nichols and Sons. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023 – via Google Books.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Leeds Castle.
Official site
vteTreasure Houses of England
Beaulieu
Blenheim Palace
Burghley House
Castle Howard
Chatsworth House
Harewood House
Hatfield House
Holkham Hall
Leeds Castle
Woburn Abbey
vteFairfax familyFirst generation
Thomas Fairfax, 1st Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Second generation
Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Henry Fairfax
Third generation
Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Henry Fairfax, 4th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Henry Fairfax
Fourth generation
Thomas Fairfax, 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Fifth generation
Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Robert Fairfax, 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
William Fairfax
Sixth generation
George William Fairfax
Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Seventh generation
Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Ferdinando Fairfax
Ninth generation
Donald McNeill Fairfax
Charles Snowdon Fairfax
John Fairfax, 11th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Tenth generation
Albert Fairfax, 12th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Eleventh generation
Thomas Fairfax, 13th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Twelfth generation
Nicholas Fairfax, 14th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Fairfax family residences
Ash Grove
Belvoir
Charlecote Park
Denton Hall
Gilling Castle
Greenway Court
Lee-Longsworth House
Leeds Castle
Leesylvania
Mount Eagle
Nunappleton
Oak Hill
Towlston Grange
Vaucluse
vteBroomfield and KingswoodLocations in the parish ofBroomfield and Kingswood
Broomfield
Kingswood
Buildings
Broomfield Church
Keepers Cottage Mill
Leeds Castle
Leeds Castle Mill
Le Mille
The Mille
Twin towns
Broomfield
Italics denotes building partly in Broomfield with Kingswood parish
vteLeeds in KentLocations inthe parish of Leeds
Ashbank
Buildings
Abbey Mill
Brandescombe Mill
Church
Leeds Castle
Leeds Castle Mill
Le Nethertoune Mill
Old Mill
Priory
Priory Mill
People
Anthony St Leger
Bartholomew de Badlesmere
George Oxenden
Richard Meredith
Roger de Leybourne
Roger Meredith
Thomas Fairfax
Olive Baillie
Warham St Leger
Italics denotes building in Broomfield and Kingswood civil parish.
vteBritish royal residencesOfficial
Buckingham Palace
Clarence House
Hillsborough Castle
Holyrood Palace
Kensington Palace
St James's Palace
Windsor Castle
Private
Balmoral Castle
Birkhall
Craigowan Lodge
Kensington Palace
Ivy Cottage
Nottingham Cottage
Wren House
Sandringham House
Anmer Hall
Wood Farm
Windsor
Adelaide Cottage
Bagshot Park
Frogmore Cottage
Royal Lodge
Gatcombe Park
Highgrove House
Llwynywermod
Tamarisk, Isles of Scilly
Thatched House Lodge
See also
Historic Royal Palaces
Former royal residences
Authority control databases International
VIAF
WorldCat
National
Germany
Israel
United States
Geographic
Structurae
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It is built on islands in a lake formed by the River Len to the east of the village of Leeds. It is a historic Grade I listed estate.A castle has existed on the site since 857.[1] In the 13th century, it came into the hands of King Edward I, for whom it became a favourite residence; in the 16th century, Henry VIII used it as a dwelling for his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.The present castle dates mostly from the early 19th century. Its last private owner, Olive, Lady Baillie, left the castle in trust to open it to the public. It has been open since 1976.","title":"Leeds Castle"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1_castle_leeds_panorama_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Illustrated_London_News-1"},{"link_name":"de Crevecoeur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamo_de_Crevecoeur"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pastscape-3"},{"link_name":"motte and bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motte_and_bailey"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Edward I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Eleanor of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"moneylenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moneylender"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillabyHillaby201313-5"},{"link_name":"barbican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbican"},{"link_name":"gloriette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloriette"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Emery_2006_304-2"},{"link_name":"Late Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"},{"link_name":"Windsor Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Castle"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Edward II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_de_Clare,_Baroness_Badlesmere"},{"link_name":"Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew_de_Badlesmere,_1st_Baron_Badlesmere"},{"link_name":"Isabella of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_of_France"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Richard II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Anne of Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Jean Froissart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Froissart"},{"link_name":"Froissart's Chronicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"Henry VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England"},{"link_name":"Catherine of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Francis I of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France"},{"link_name":"Galyon Hone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galyon_Hone"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Anthony St Leger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_St_Leger_(Lord_Deputy_of_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann200214-11"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pastscape-3"},{"link_name":"Ulcombe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulcombe"},{"link_name":"Ralph I St Leger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_I_St_Leger"},{"link_name":"Sheriff of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheriff_of_Kent"}],"sub_title":"Medieval and Tudor","text":"An aerial panorama of Leeds CastleFrom 857, the site was owned by a Saxon chief called Led or Leed who built a wooden structure on two islands in the middle of the River Len.[1] In 1119, Robert de Crevecoeur rebuilt it in stone as a Norman stronghold and Leeds Castle descended through the de Crevecoeur family until the 1260s.[3] What form this Norman stronghold took is uncertain because it was rebuilt and transformed in the following centuries. Adrian Pettifer speculates that it may have been a motte and bailey.[4]In 1278, the castle was bought by King Edward I's Queen, Eleanor of Castile, through the purchase of the debt bond from Jewish moneylenders forced to sell at a considerable discount as a result of Edward's own excessive tax demands.[5] As a favoured residence of Edward's, it saw considerable investment. The king enhanced its defences, and it was probably Edward who created the lake that surrounds the castle. A barbican spanning three islands was also built and a gloriette with apartments for the king and queen was added.[2] In the Late Middle Ages, the growth of the royal household meant fewer residences could accommodate the monarchy when they visited. As a result, expenditure on royal residences in south east England generally decreased except for the Tower of London and Windsor Castle. The activity at Leeds Castle during the reign of Edward I was a notable exception to this pattern.[6]The castle was captured on 31 October 1321 by the forces of Edward II from Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere, wife of the castle's constable, Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere, who had left her in charge during his absence. The King had besieged Leeds after she had refused Edward's consort Isabella of France admittance in her husband's absence; when the latter sought to force an entry, Lady Badlesmere instructed her archers to shoot at Isabella and her party, six of whom were killed.[7] Lady Badlesmere was kept prisoner in the Tower of London until November 1322.[8] After Edward II died in 1327 his widow took over Leeds Castle as her primary residence.[9]Richard II's first wife, Anne of Bohemia, spent the winter of 1381 at the castle on her way to be married to the king. In 1395, Richard received the French chronicler Jean Froissart there, as described in Froissart's Chronicles.Henry VIII transformed the castle in 1519 for his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. A painting commemorating his meeting with Francis I of France still hangs there. The glazier Galyon Hone reworked and restored the chapel windows in 1536.[10]In 1552 Leeds Castle was granted to Sir Anthony St Leger (d.1559)[11][3] of Ulcombe, Kent, whose grandfather Ralph I St Leger (d.1470), of Ulcombe, Sheriff of Kent in 1467/8, had been Constable of Leeds Castle.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Maidstone_Fairfax_Doublet_1648.jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Maidstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maidstone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Cuirassier_1640_civil_war_armour.jpg"},{"link_name":"cuirassier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuirassier"},{"link_name":"Richard Smythe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Smythe"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann200214-11"},{"link_name":"Hollingbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollingbourne"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"quilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quilt"},{"link_name":"Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal"},{"link_name":"Colonial Williamsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Williamsburg"},{"link_name":"Thomas Smythe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Smythe"},{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"English Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Cheney Culpeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheney_Culpeper"},{"link_name":"Parliamentarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundhead"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann200275-14"},{"link_name":"Royalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier"},{"link_name":"John Colepeper, 1st Baron Colepeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Colepeper,_1st_Baron_Colepeper"},{"link_name":"Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia"},{"link_name":"the Prince of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guidebook-15"},{"link_name":"Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fairfax,_6th_Lord_Fairfax_of_Cameron"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_America"},{"link_name":"Belvoir, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belvoir,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guidebook-15"},{"link_name":"Thomas Fairfax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fairfax,_3rd_Lord_Fairfax_of_Cameron"},{"link_name":"Battle of Maidstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maidstone"},{"link_name":"doublet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doublet_(clothing)"}],"sub_title":"17th and 18th centuries","text":"Doublet worn by Fairfax at the Battle of Maidstone in 1648Civil War cuirassier armour at Leeds c. 1640The St Leger family continued to own the castle until Sir Warham St Leger sold it to Sir Richard Smythe in 1618.[11] Smythe's daughters sold the castle to Sir Thomas Colepeper of Hollingbourne.[12] An early embroidered silk quilt from Bengal dating from the 1620s, held by the Colonial Williamsburg museum, has an ownership label of Catherine Colepeper, connecting it to Leeds Castle and the Smythe and Colepeper families. Richard Smythe's brother Thomas Smythe was a founder and governor of the English East India Company.[13]The castle escaped destruction during the English Civil War because its owner, Sir Cheney Culpeper, sided with the Parliamentarians.[14] The castle was used as both an arsenal and a prison during the war. Other members of the Culpeper family had sided with the Royalists, John Colepeper, 1st Baron Colepeper, having been granted more than 5,000,000 acres (20,000 km2) of land in Virginia in reward for assisting the escape of the king's son, Charles, the Prince of Wales.[15] This legacy was to prove vital for the castle's fortunes.Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was born at the castle in 1693 and settled in North America to oversee the Culpeper estates, cementing an ongoing connection between the castle and America. There is a commemorative sundial at the castle telling the time in Belvoir, Virginia and a corresponding sundial in America.[15]\nFairfax was the great-grandson of Thomas Fairfax who led the parliamentarian attack at the nearby Battle of Maidstone in 1648 and whose doublet worn during the battle is on display.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle_(2004a).jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guidebook-15"}],"sub_title":"19th century","text":"The new castle was completed in 1823 in the Tudor style.Robert Fairfax owned the castle for 46 years until 1793 when it passed to the Wykeham Martins. Sale of the family estates in Virginia released a large sum of money that allowed extensive repair and the remodelling of the castle in a Tudor style, completed in 1823, that resulted in the appearance today.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Staircase_in_Leeds_Castle,_2019.jpg"},{"link_name":"Armand-Albert Rateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand-Albert_Rateau"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann200277-16"},{"link_name":"Olive, Lady Baillie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive,_Lady_Baillie"},{"link_name":"Almeric Paget, 1st Baron Queenborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almeric_Paget,_1st_Baron_Queenborough"},{"link_name":"Pauline Payne Whitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Payne_Whitney"},{"link_name":"Armand-Albert Rateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand-Albert_Rateau"},{"link_name":"Stéphane Boudin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Boudin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricEnglandGatewayListing-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ibrahim Kamel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ibrahim_Kamel"},{"link_name":"Moshe Dayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan"},{"link_name":"Cyrus Vance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Vance"},{"link_name":"Camp David Accords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David_Accords"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guidebook-15"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Tony Blair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Blair"},{"link_name":"Culture Recovery Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_Recovery_Fund"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"listed building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricEnglandListing-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricEnglandListing-22"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoricEnglandGatewayListing-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle,_Kent,_England_1_-_May_09.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle,_Kent,_England_1_-_May_09.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle,_Kent,_England_3_-_May_09.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle,_Kent,_England_3_-_May_09.jpg"},{"link_name":"moat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moat"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"French designer Armand-Albert Rateau added a spiral staircase in the style of the 16th century to the south side of the Fountain Court.The Wykeham Martins were forced to sell the castle and estate in 1924, in order to meet death duties.[16] The last private owner was the Hon. Olive, Lady Baillie, daughter of Almeric Paget, 1st Baron Queenborough and his first wife, Pauline Payne Whitney, an American heiress. Lady Baillie bought the castle in 1926 for £180,000 (equivalent to £10,524,500 in 2019). She redecorated the interior, first working with the French architect and designer Armand-Albert Rateau, who oversaw exterior alterations and added interior features such as a 16th-century-style carved-oak staircase, then with the Paris decorator Stéphane Boudin. In total she spent $2 million on the project over the years.[17][18]During the early part of World War II the castle was used as a hospital where Lady Baillie and her daughters hosted burned Commonwealth airmen as part of their recovery. Survivors remembered the experience with fondness. Upon her death in 1974, Lady Baillie left the castle to the Leeds Castle Foundation, a private charitable trust whose aim is to preserve the castle and grounds for the benefit of the public.[19]An estimated £1.4 million (equivalent to £14.7 million in 2023) was invested and a further £400,000 (£4.2 million in 2023) was retrieved from the sale of the furniture to make improvements to the Castle and attract paying corporate conferences. However, it was quickly understood that it could not support the ongoing costs of running the Estate, so in 1975 the gardens were opened to the public, and the following year the Castle was also made available to visitors.[20]On 17 July 1978, the castle was the site of a meeting between Egyptian Foreign Minister Muhammad Ibrahim Kamel, Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Dayan and US Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in preparation for the Camp David Accords.[15] The castle also hosted the Northern Ireland peace talks held in September 2004 led by Tony Blair.In October 2021, Leeds Castle Foundation was one of 142 recipients across England to receive part of a £35 million injection into the government's Culture Recovery Fund.[21]In 1952, the castle was named a Grade I listed building and recognised as an internationally important structure.[22][23] The listing summary states: \"Castle. Early-to-mid C12, with C13, C14, C15 and C16 alterations. Partly rebuilt 1822\".[22] The research records at Historic England state that the castle was also \"extensively rebuilt in ... 1926\".[17]A wide panoramic view of Leeds Castle from across the moat on the north west sideLeeds Castle and its moat from the rear","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_castle_maze.JPG"},{"link_name":"yew trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yew_trees"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"aviary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviary"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"falconry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falconry"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"dog collars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_collar"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"maze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maze"},{"link_name":"yew trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yew_tree"},{"link_name":"topiary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topiary"},{"link_name":"shell grotto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grotto#Garden_grotto_history_and_design"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCann200287-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALVA_2019_visitor_numbers-33"}],"text":"The maze at Leeds Castle was made with 2,400 yew trees and opened in 1988.[24][25]An aviary was added in 1980 and by 2011 contained over 100 species, but closed in 2012 to save its £200,000 a year running cost.[26] The replacement Birds of Prey Centre, includes hawks on display and free-flying falconry displays.[27]The castle and its grounds are a major leisure destination with a golf course and what may be the world's only museum of dog collars. There are two castle-themed children's adventure play areas targeted at the under sevens and the under fourteens.[28] A maze opened in 1988, constructed of 2,400 yew trees with the general appearance of a topiary castle. The centre is on a raised viewpoint, which also contains an exit through a shell grotto.[29] The castle also offers accommodations for tourists including rental rooms[30] and a campsite area with luxury tents called Knight's Glamping.[31]In 1998, Leeds Castle was one of 57 heritage sites in England to receive more than 200,000 visitors.[32] According to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 539,971 people visited the castle in 2019. Due to travel and other restrictions as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of visitors in 2020 had declined to 389,363 in that year.[33]","title":"Tourism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ealing Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ealing_Comedy"},{"link_name":"Kind Hearts and Coronets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kind_Hearts_and_Coronets"},{"link_name":"The Moonraker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moonraker"},{"link_name":"Waltz of the Toreadors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltz_of_the_Toreadors_(film)"},{"link_name":"Doctor Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who"},{"link_name":"The Androids of Tara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Androids_of_Tara"},{"link_name":"Cliff Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Richard"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"The Hollow Crown (TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollow_Crown_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Rustom (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustom_(film)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"The castle was a location for the Ealing Comedy film Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949) as a stand-in for 'Chalfont', the ancestral home of the aristocratic d'Ascoyne family. It also appeared in the films The Moonraker (1958) and Waltz of the Toreadors (1962). It was used for filming of Purge of Kingdoms (2019) starring Armando Gutierrez and Angus Macfayden.On the small screen, the castle and grounds provided all the filming locations for a Doctor Who serial, The Androids of Tara, in 1978. Cliff Richard performed a live concert at the location (released on DVD), with Leeds Castle as a backdrop, titled Castles in the Air.[34][35][36]A more recent source states that the castle has been used for The Hollow Crown (TV series), for a Bollywood action movie called Rustom (film) and for \"Darkest Hour, Casanova, Classic Mary Berry (BBC1), Who Do You Think You Are special with Danny Dyer, Antiques Roadtrip (BBC1), What Would Your Kid Do? (ITV)\".[37]","title":"Filming location"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_castle_room.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_castle_dining_hall.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle_Reading_Room_-_May_09.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leeds_Castle_2014_06_19.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thorpe Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorpe_Hall_(Peterborough)"}],"text":"Dining room\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBanqueting hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLibrary\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThorpe Hall drawing room","title":"Castle interior"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Martin, Charles Wykeham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wykeham_Martin"},{"link_name":"The History and Description of Leeds Castle, Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ElQ-AQAAIAAJ"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20230208013843/https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_History_and_Description_of_Leeds_Cas.html?id=ElQ-AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=GB&ovdme=1&redir_esc=y"}],"text":"Martin, Charles Wykeham (1869). The History and Description of Leeds Castle, Kent. Westminster: Nichols and Sons. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023 – via Google Books.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"An aerial panorama of Leeds Castle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/1_castle_leeds_panorama_2017.jpg/220px-1_castle_leeds_panorama_2017.jpg"},{"image_text":"The new castle was completed in 1823 in the Tudor style.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Leeds_Castle_%282004a%29.jpg/220px-Leeds_Castle_%282004a%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"French designer Armand-Albert Rateau added a spiral staircase in the style of the 16th century to the south side of the Fountain Court.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Staircase_in_Leeds_Castle%2C_2019.jpg/220px-Staircase_in_Leeds_Castle%2C_2019.jpg"},{"image_text":"The maze at Leeds Castle was made with 2,400 yew trees and opened in 1988.[24][25]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Leeds_castle_maze.JPG/220px-Leeds_castle_maze.JPG"}]
|
[{"title":"Castles in Great Britain and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castles_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"title":"Grade I listed buildings in Maidstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_I_listed_buildings_in_Maidstone"},{"title":"List of castles in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_castles_in_England"}]
|
[{"reference":"Illustrated London News, January 1975","urls":[]},{"reference":"Historic England, \"Leeds Castle (418125)\", Research records (formerly PastScape), retrieved 14 March 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=418125&resourceID=19191","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle (418125)\""}]},{"reference":"Wayment, Hilary (1991). Starkey, David (ed.). Stained Glass in Henry VIII's palaces. London: Abbeville Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-1558592414.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Wayment","url_text":"Wayment, Hilary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Starkey","url_text":"Starkey, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1558592414","url_text":"978-1558592414"}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds Castle\". Historic England. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=418125&resourceID=19191","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230208002629/https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=418125&resourceID=19191","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds Castle, One Of Britain's Oldest, Reopened to Public\". NY Times. 2 July 1976. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/02/archives/leeds-castle-one-of-britains-oldest-reopened-to-public.html","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle, One Of Britain's Oldest, Reopened to Public\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220907191458/https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/02/archives/leeds-castle-one-of-britains-oldest-reopened-to-public.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION, registered charity no. 268354\". Charity Commission for England and Wales.","urls":[{"url":"https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-details/?regId=268354&subId=0","url_text":"\"LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION, registered charity no. 268354\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_Commission_for_England_and_Wales","url_text":"Charity Commission for England and Wales"}]},{"reference":"\"THE LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION\". Leeds Castle Kent England. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.leeds-castle.com/History/The+Leeds+Castle+Foundation","url_text":"\"THE LEEDS CASTLE FOUNDATION\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190430105818/https://www.leeds-castle.com/History/The%2BLeeds%2BCastle%2BFoundation","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Historic England, \"Leeds Castle (1039919)\", National Heritage List for England, retrieved 14 March 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1039919","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle (1039919)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"\"Frequently asked questions\", Images of England, English Heritage, archived from the original on 11 November 2007, retrieved 14 March 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071111223206/http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Faqs/default.aspx?topic=4#25","url_text":"\"Frequently asked questions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Images_of_England","url_text":"Images of England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage","url_text":"English Heritage"},{"url":"http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Faqs/default.aspx?topic=4#25","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"The Maze, Grotto and Turf Maze, Leeds Castle, retrieved 14 March 2012","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leeds-castle.com/goto.php?sess=+A5C5E47535956+F1D42131744505D1D1D58+E+C57+9+95B58415C47581B125014+543&id=96","url_text":"The Maze, Grotto and Turf Maze"}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds Castle to shut its aviary to save £200,000\". BBC News. 12 October 2011. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-15270302","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle to shut its aviary to save £200,000\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111230021615/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-15270302","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Falconry at Leeds Castle\". Leeds Castle. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022. birds from a variety of different species, from our smallest Burrowing Owl to our largest, a Russian Steppe Eagle.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.leeds-castle.com/Visit/Attractions/Falconry/","url_text":"\"Falconry at Leeds Castle\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220907181012/https://www.leeds-castle.com/Visit/Attractions/Falconry/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Things to do\". Leeds Castle. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://leeds-castle.com/visit/things-to-do/","url_text":"\"Things to do\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221115141110/https://leeds-castle.com/visit/things-to-do/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds Castle\". The Telegraph. 3 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/kent/hotels/leeds-castle-hotel/","url_text":"\"Leeds Castle\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220907183358/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/kent/hotels/leeds-castle-hotel/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Knight's Glamping\". Visit Maidstone. Archived from the original on 7 September 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.visitmaidstone.com/accommodation/knights-glamping-at-leeds-castle-p204731","url_text":"\"Knight's Glamping\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220907183537/https://www.visitmaidstone.com/accommodation/knights-glamping-at-leeds-castle-p204731","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Castle fires up tourists\". BBC News. 30 August 1999. Archived from the original on 6 July 2004. Retrieved 14 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/433171.stm","url_text":"\"Castle fires up tourists\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040706161713/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/433171.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Visits Made in 2021 to Visitor Attractions in Membership with Alva\". Association of Leading Visitor Attractions. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.alva.org.uk/details.cfm?p=423","url_text":"\"Visits Made in 2021 to Visitor Attractions in Membership with Alva\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120307140834/https://www.alva.org.uk/details.cfm?p=423","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"openbuildings.com/\". Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200126123430/https://clippings.com/?utm_campaign=openbuildings_eol&utm_term=buildings%2Fleeds-castle-profile-6474","url_text":"\"openbuildings.com/\""},{"url":"http://openbuildings.com/buildings/leeds-castle-profile-6474?_show_description=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Turner, Steve (2008). Cliff Richard: the Biography: 50th Anniversary Edition. Oxford: Lion Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-7459-5279-6. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2022 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=He0S6tFOGPUC&pg=PA16","url_text":"Cliff Richard: the Biography: 50th Anniversary Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-5279-6","url_text":"978-0-7459-5279-6"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230208002636/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cliff_Richard_the_Biography/He0S6tFOGPUC?hl=en&pg=PA16&gbpv=1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Androids of Tara\". Doctor Who Classic Episodes Guide. BBC. Archived from the original on 20 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200220063510/http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/classic/episodeguide/androidsoftara/detail.shtml","url_text":"\"The Androids of Tara\""},{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/classic/episodeguide/androidsoftara/detail.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FOCUS talks to Gemma Wright of film-friendly location Leeds Castle, exhibiting for the first time at FOCUS\". TheLocationGuide. 20 January 2021. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thelocationguide.com/focus18_interviews_leedscastle/","url_text":"\"FOCUS talks to Gemma Wright of film-friendly location Leeds Castle, exhibiting for the first time at FOCUS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210122090913/https://www.thelocationguide.com/focus18_interviews_leedscastle/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Costain, Thomas B (1958), The Three Edwards, The Pageant of England, New York: Doubleday and Company","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_B._Costain","url_text":"Costain, Thomas B"}]},{"reference":"Emery, Anthony (2006), \"Southern England\", Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales 1300-1500, vol. III, London: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-58132-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58132-5","url_text":"978-0-521-58132-5"}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Adrian; Loxton, Howard (2007), Secrets of the maze: an interactive guide to the world's most amazing mazes, Barnes & Noble, ISBN 978-0-7607-9073-1 – via Internet Archive","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/secretsofmazeint0000fish_e4v2","url_text":"Secrets of the maze: an interactive guide to the world's most amazing mazes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7607-9073-1","url_text":"978-0-7607-9073-1"}]},{"reference":"Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013). The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History. Basingstok: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230278165.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0230278165","url_text":"978-0230278165"}]},{"reference":"McCann, Nick (2002), Leeds Castle, Great Houses of Britain, Kettering: Heritage House Group, ISBN 0-85101-374-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85101-374-0","url_text":"0-85101-374-0"}]},{"reference":"McKisack, May (1959), The Fourteenth Century 1307-1399, Oxford History of England, London: Oxford University Press","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_McKisack","url_text":"McKisack, May"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_History_of_England","url_text":"Oxford History of England"}]},{"reference":"Pettifer, Adrian (1995), English Castles: A Guide by Counties, Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, ISBN 0-85115-782-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-782-3","url_text":"0-85115-782-3"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Charles Wykeham (1869). The History and Description of Leeds Castle, Kent. Westminster: Nichols and Sons. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 8 February 2023 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wykeham_Martin","url_text":"Martin, Charles Wykeham"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ElQ-AQAAIAAJ","url_text":"The History and Description of Leeds Castle, Kent"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230208013843/https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_History_and_Description_of_Leeds_Cas.html?id=ElQ-AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_entity&hl=en&gl=GB&ovdme=1&redir_esc=y","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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FOUNDATION\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190430105818/https://www.leeds-castle.com/History/The%2BLeeds%2BCastle%2BFoundation","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/whats-new/news/heritage-and-craft-workers-across-england-given-a-helping-hand/","external_links_name":"\"Heritage and Craft Workers Across England Given a Helping Hand\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211023092706/https://historicengland.org.uk/whats-new/news/heritage-and-craft-workers-across-england-given-a-helping-hand/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1039919","external_links_name":"\"Leeds Castle (1039919)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071111223206/http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Faqs/default.aspx?topic=4#25","external_links_name":"\"Frequently asked questions\""},{"Link":"http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/Faqs/default.aspx?topic=4#25","external_links_name":"the 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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSV_(file_format)
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Comma-separated values
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["1 Applications","2 Specification","3 History","4 General functionality","5 Standardization","5.1 RFC 4180 and MIME standards","5.2 OKF frictionless tabular data package","5.3 W3C tabular data standard","6 Basic rules","7 Example","8 Application support","8.1 Software and row limits","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading"]
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File format used to store data
Comma-separated valuesA simple CSV file listing three people and the companies they work forFilename extension.csvInternet media typetext/csvUniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.comma-separated-values-textUTI conformationpublic.delimited-values-textType of formatmulti-platform, serial data streamsContainer fordatabase information organized as field separated listsStandardRFC 4180
Comma-separated values (CSV) is a text file format that uses commas to separate values, and newlines to separate records. A CSV file stores tabular data (numbers and text) in plain text, where each line of the file typically represents one data record. Each record consists of the same number of fields, and these are separated by commas in the CSV file. If the field delimiter itself may appear within a field, fields can be surrounded with quotation marks.
The CSV file format is one type of delimiter-separated file format. Delimiters frequently used include the comma, tab, space, and semicolon. Delimiter-separated files are often given a ".csv" extension even when the field separator is not a comma. Many applications or libraries that consume or produce CSV files have options to specify an alternative delimiter.
The lack of adherence to the CSV standard RFC 4180 necessitates the support for a variety of CSV formats in data input software. Despite this drawback, CSV remains widespread in data applications and is widely supported by a variety of software, including common spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Excel. Benefits cited in favor of CSV include human readability and the simplicity of the format.
Applications
CSV is a common data exchange format that is widely supported by consumer, business, and scientific applications. Among its most common uses is moving tabular data between programs that natively operate on incompatible (often proprietary or undocumented) formats. For example, a user may need to transfer information from a database program that stores data in a proprietary format, to a spreadsheet that uses a completely different format. Most database programs can export data as CSV. Most spreadsheet programs can read CSV data, allowing CSV to be used as an intermediate format when transferring data from a database to a spreadsheet.
CSV is also used for storing data. Common data science tools such as Pandas include the option to export data to CSV for long-term storage. Benefits of CSV for data storage include the simplicity of CSV makes parsing and creating CSV files easy to implement and fast compared to other data formats, human readability making editing or fixing data simpler, and high compressibility leading to smaller data files. Alternatively, CSV does not support more complex data relations and makes no distinction between null and empty values, and in applications where these features are needed other formats are preferred.
Specification
RFC 4180 proposes a specification for the CSV format; however, actual practice often does not follow the RFC and the term "CSV" might refer to any file that:
is plain text using a character encoding such as ASCII, various Unicode character encodings (e.g. UTF-8), EBCDIC, or Shift JIS,
consists of records (typically one record per line),
with the records divided into fields separated by delimiters (typically a single reserved character such as comma, semicolon, or tab; sometimes the delimiter may include optional spaces),
where every record has the same sequence of fields.
Within these general constraints, many variations are in use. Therefore, without additional information (such as whether RFC 4180 is honored), a file claimed simply to be in "CSV" format is not fully specified. As a result, some applications supporting CSV files have text import wizards that allow users to preview the first few lines of the file and then specify the delimiter character(s), quoting rules, and field trimming.
History
Comma-separated values is a data format that predates personal computers by more than a decade: the IBM Fortran (level H extended) compiler under OS/360 supported CSV in 1972. List-directed ("free form") input/output was defined in FORTRAN 77, approved in 1978. List-directed input used commas or spaces for delimiters, so unquoted character strings could not contain commas or spaces.
The term "comma-separated value" and the "CSV" abbreviation were in use by 1983. The manual for the Osborne Executive computer, which bundled the SuperCalc spreadsheet, documents the CSV quoting convention that allows strings to contain embedded commas, but the manual does not specify a convention for embedding quotation marks within quoted strings.
Comma-separated value lists are easier to type (for example into punched cards) than fixed-column-aligned data, and they were less prone to producing incorrect results if a value was punched one column off from its intended location.
Comma separated files are used for the interchange of database information between machines of two different architectures. The plain-text character of CSV files largely avoids incompatibilities such as byte-order and word size. The files are largely human-readable, so it is easier to deal with them in the absence of perfect documentation or communication.
The main standardization initiative—transforming "de facto fuzzy definition" into a more precise and de jure one—was in 2005, with RFC 4180, defining CSV as a MIME Content Type. Later, in 2013, some of RFC 4180's deficiencies were tackled by a W3C recommendation.
In 2014 IETF published RFC 7111 describing the application of URI fragments to CSV documents. RFC 7111 specifies how row, column, and cell ranges can be selected from a CSV document using position indexes.
In 2015 W3C, in an attempt to enhance CSV with formal semantics, publicized the first drafts of recommendations for CSV metadata standards, which began as recommendations in December of the same year.
General functionality
CSV formats are best used to represent sets or sequences of records in which each record has an identical list of fields. This corresponds to a single relation in a relational database, or to data (though not calculations) in a typical spreadsheet.
The format dates back to the early days of business computing and is widely used to pass data between computers with different internal word sizes, data formatting needs, and so forth. For this reason, CSV files are common on all computer platforms.
CSV is a delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values (many implementations of CSV import/export tools allow other separators to be used; for example, the use of a "Sep=^" row as the first row in the *.csv file will cause Excel to open the file expecting caret "^" to be the separator instead of comma ","). Simple CSV implementations may prohibit field values that contain a comma or other special characters such as newlines. More sophisticated CSV implementations permit them, often by requiring " (double quote) characters around values that contain reserved characters (such as commas, double quotes, or less commonly, newlines). Embedded double quote characters may then be represented by a pair of consecutive double quotes, or by prefixing a double quote with an escape character such as a backslash (for example in Sybase Central).
CSV formats are not limited to a particular character set. They work just as well with Unicode character sets (such as UTF-8 or UTF-16) as with ASCII (although particular programs that support CSV may have their own limitations). CSV files normally will even survive naïve translation from one character set to another (unlike nearly all proprietary data formats). CSV does not, however, provide any way to indicate what character set is in use, so that must be communicated separately, or determined at the receiving end (if possible).
Databases that include multiple relations cannot be exported as a single CSV file. Similarly, CSV cannot naturally represent hierarchical or object-oriented data. This is because every CSV record is expected to have the same structure. CSV is therefore rarely appropriate for documents created with HTML, XML, or other markup or word-processing technologies.
Statistical databases in various fields often have a generally relation-like structure, but with some repeatable groups of fields. For example, health databases such as the Demographic and Health Survey typically repeat some questions for each child of a given parent (perhaps up to a fixed maximum number of children). Statistical analysis systems often include utilities that can "rotate" such data; for example, a "parent" record that includes information about five children can be split into five separate records, each containing (a) the information on one child, and (b) a copy of all the non-child-specific information. CSV can represent either the "vertical" or "horizontal" form of such data.
In a relational database, similar issues are readily handled by creating a separate relation for each such group, and connecting "child" records to the related "parent" records using a foreign key (such as an ID number or name for the parent). In markup languages such as XML, such groups are typically enclosed within a parent element and repeated as necessary (for example, multiple <child> nodes within a single <parent> node). With CSV there is no widely accepted single-file solution.
Standardization
The name "CSV" indicates the use of the comma to separate data fields. Nevertheless, the term "CSV" is widely used to refer to a large family of formats that differ in many ways. Some implementations allow or require single or double quotation marks around some or all fields; and some reserve the first record as a header containing a list of field names. The character set being used is undefined: some applications require a Unicode byte order mark (BOM) to enforce Unicode interpretation (sometimes even a UTF-8 BOM). Files that use the tab character instead of comma can be more precisely referred to as "TSV" for tab-separated values.
Other implementation differences include the handling of more commonplace field separators (such as space or semicolon) and newline characters inside text fields. One more subtlety is the interpretation of a blank line: it can equally be the result of writing a record of zero fields, or a record of one field of zero length; thus decoding it is ambiguous.
RFC 4180 and MIME standards
The 2005 technical standard RFC 4180 formalizes the CSV file format and defines the MIME type "text/csv" for the handling of text-based fields. However, the interpretation of the text of each field is still application-specific. Files that follow the RFC 4180 standard can simplify CSV exchange and should be widely portable. Among its requirements:
MS-DOS-style lines that end with (CR/LF) characters (optional for the last line).
An optional header record (there is no sure way to detect whether it is present, so care is required when importing).
Each record should contain the same number of comma-separated fields.
Any field may be quoted (with double quotes).
Fields containing a line-break, double-quote or commas should be quoted. (If they are not, the file will likely be impossible to process correctly.)
If double-quotes are used to enclose fields, then a double-quote in a field must be represented by two double-quote characters.
The format can be processed by most programs that claim to read CSV files. The exceptions are (a) programs may not support line-breaks within quoted fields, (b) programs may confuse the optional header with data or interpret the first data line as an optional header, and (c) double-quotes in a field may not be parsed correctly automatically.
OKF frictionless tabular data package
In 2011 Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) and various partners created a data protocols working group, which later evolved into the Frictionless Data initiative. One of the main formats they released was the Tabular Data Package. Tabular Data package was heavily based on CSV, using it as the main data transport format and adding basic type and schema metadata (CSV lacks any type information to distinguish the string "1" from the number 1).
The Frictionless Data Initiative has also provided a standard CSV Dialect Description Format for describing different dialects of CSV, for example specifying the field separator or quoting rules.
W3C tabular data standard
In 2013 the W3C "CSV on the Web" working group began to specify technologies providing higher interoperability for web applications using CSV or similar formats. The working group completed its work in February 2016 and is officially closed in March 2016 with the release of a set of documents and W3C recommendations
for modeling "Tabular Data", and enhancing CSV with metadata and semantics.
Basic rules
Many informal documents exist that describe "CSV" formats.
IETF RFC 4180 (summarized above) defines the format for the "text/csv" MIME type registered with the IANA.
Rules typical of these and other "CSV" specifications and implementations are as follows:
CSV is a delimited data format that has fields/columns separated by the comma character and records/rows terminated by newlines.A CSV file does not require a specific character encoding, byte order, or line terminator format (some software do not support all line-end variations).A record ends at a line terminator. However, line terminators can be embedded as data within fields, so software must recognize quoted line-separators (see below) in order to correctly assemble an entire record from perhaps multiple lines.All records should have the same number of fields, in the same order.Data within fields is interpreted as a sequence of characters, not as a sequence of bits or bytes (see RFC 2046, section 4.1). For example, the numeric quantity 65535 may be represented as the 5 ASCII characters "65535" (or perhaps other forms such as "0xFFFF", "000065535.000E+00", etc.); but not as a sequence of 2 bytes intended to be treated as a single binary integer rather than as two characters (e.g. the numbers 11264–11519 have a comma as their high order byte: ord(',')*256..ord(',')*256+255). If this "plain text" convention is not followed, then the CSV file no longer contains sufficient information to interpret it correctly, the CSV file will not likely survive transmission across differing computer architectures, and will not conform to the text/csv MIME type.Adjacent fields must be separated by a single comma. However, "CSV" formats vary greatly in this choice of separator character. In particular, in locales where the comma is used as a decimal separator, a semicolon, TAB, or other character is used instead.
1997,Ford,E350Any field may be quoted (that is, enclosed within double-quote characters), while some fields must be quoted, as specified in the following rules and examples:
"1997","Ford","E350"Fields with embedded commas or double-quote characters must be quoted.
1997,Ford,E350,"Super, luxurious truck"Each of the embedded double-quote characters must be represented by a pair of double-quote characters.
1997,Ford,E350,"Super, ""luxurious"" truck"Fields with embedded line breaks must be quoted (however, many CSV implementations do not support embedded line breaks).
1997,Ford,E350,"Go get one now
they are going fast"
In some CSV implementations, leading and trailing spaces and tabs are trimmed (ignored). Such trimming is forbidden by RFC 4180, which states "Spaces are considered part of a field and should not be ignored."
1997, Ford, E350
not same as
1997,Ford,E350
According to RFC 4180, spaces outside quotes in a field are not allowed; however, the RFC also says that "Spaces are considered part of a field and should not be ignored." and "Implementers should 'be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others' (RFC 793, section 2.10) when processing CSV files."
1997, "Ford" ,E350In CSV implementations that do trim leading or trailing spaces, fields with such spaces as meaningful data must be quoted.
1997,Ford,E350," Super luxurious truck "Double quote processing need only apply if the field starts with a double quote. Note, however, that double quotes are not allowed in unquoted fields according to RFC 4180.
Los Angeles,34°03′N,118°15′W
New York City,40°42′46″N,74°00′21″W
Paris,48°51′24″N,2°21′03″E
The first record may be a "header", which contains column names in each of the fields (there is no reliable way to tell whether a file does this or not; however, it is uncommon to use characters other than letters, digits, and underscores in such column names).
Year,Make,Model
1997,Ford,E350
2000,Mercury,Cougar
Example
Year
Make
Model
Description
Price
1997
Ford
E350
ac, abs, moon
3000.00
1999
Chevy
Venture "Extended Edition"
4900.00
1999
Chevy
Venture "Extended Edition, Very Large"
5000.00
1996
Jeep
Grand Cherokee
MUST SELL!air, moon roof, loaded
4799.00
The above table of data may be represented in CSV format as follows:
Year,Make,Model,Description,Price
1997,Ford,E350,"ac, abs, moon",3000.00
1999,Chevy,"Venture ""Extended Edition""","",4900.00
1999,Chevy,"Venture ""Extended Edition, Very Large""","",5000.00
1996,Jeep,Grand Cherokee,"MUST SELL!
air, moon roof, loaded",4799.00
Example of a USA/UK CSV file (where the decimal separator is a period/full stop and the value separator is a comma):
Year,Make,Model,Length
1997,Ford,E350,2.35
2000,Mercury,Cougar,2.38
Example of an analogous European CSV/DSV file (where the decimal separator is a comma and the value separator is a semicolon):
Year;Make;Model;Length
1997;Ford;E350;2,35
2000;Mercury;Cougar;2,38
The latter format is not RFC 4180 compliant. Compliance could be achieved by the use of a comma instead of a semicolon as a separator and either the international notation for the representation of the decimal mark or the practice of quoting all numbers that have a decimal mark.
Application support
Some applications use CSV as a data interchange format to enhance its interoperability, exporting and importing CSV. Others use CSV as an internal format.
As a data interchange format: the CSV file format is supported by almost all spreadsheets and database management systems,
Spreadsheets including Apple Numbers, LibreOffice Calc, and Apache OpenOffice Calc. Microsoft Excel also supports a dialect of CSV with restrictions in comparison to other spreadsheet software (e.g., as of 2019 Excel still cannot export CSV files in the commonly used UTF-8 character encoding, and separator is not enforced to be the comma). LibreOffice Calc CSV importer is actually a more generic delimited text importer, supporting multiple separators at the same time as well as field trimming.
Various Relational databases support saving query results to a CSV file. PostgreSQL provides COPY command, which allows for both saving and loading data to and from a file. COPY (SELECT * FROM articles) TO '/home/wikipedia/file.csv' (FORMAT csv) saves the content of a table articles to a file called /home/wikipedia/file.csv.
Many utility programs on Unix-style systems (such as cut, paste, join, sort, uniq, awk) can split files on a comma delimiter, and can therefore process simple CSV files. However, this method does not correctly handle commas or new lines within quoted strings.
As (main or optional) internal representation. Can be native or foreign, but differ from interchange format ("export/import only") because it is not necessary to create a copy in another format:
Some Spreadsheets including LibreOffice Calc offers this option, without enforcing user to adopt another format.
Some relational databases, when using standard SQL, offer foreign-data wrapper (FDW). For example, PostgreSQL offers the CREATE FOREIGN TABLE and CREATE EXTENSION file_fdw to configure any variant of CSV.
Databases like Apache Hive offer the option to express CSV or .csv.gz as an internal table format.
The emacs editor can operate on CSV files using csv-nav mode.
CSV format is supported by libraries available for many programming languages. Most provide some way to specify the field delimiter, decimal separator, character encoding, quoting conventions, date format, etc.
Software and row limits
Programs that work with CSV may have limits on the maximum number of rows CSV files can have.
Below is a list of common software and its limitations:
Microsoft Excel: 1,048,576 row limit;
Apple Numbers: 1,000,000 row limit;
Google Sheets: 5,000,000 cell limit (the product of columns and rows);
OpenOffice and LibreOffice: 1,048,576 row limit;
Text Editors (such as WordPad, TextEdit, Vim, etc.): no row or cell limit;
Databases (COPY command and FDW): no row or cell limit.
See also
Tab-separated values
Comparison of data-serialization formats
Delimiter-separated values
Delimiter collision
Flat-file database
Simple Data Format
Substitute character, Null character, invisible comma U+2063
References
^ a b c d e Shafranovich, Y. (October 2005). Common Format and MIME Type for CSV Files. IETF. p. 1. doi:10.17487/RFC4180. RFC 4180.
^ a b "commaSeparatedText". Apple Developer Documentation: Uniform Type Identifiers. Apple Inc.
^ "CSV Comma Separated Value File Format - How To - Creativyst - Explored,Designed,Delivered.(sm)". Creativyst Software. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
^ IBM DB2 Administration Guide. IBM.
^ "Which are the available formats". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
^ "Import or export text (.txt or .csv) files". Microsoft Support. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
^ "CSV - Comma Separated Values". Retrieved 2017-12-02.
^ "CSV Files". Retrieved June 4, 2014.
^ "pandas.DataFrame.to_csv — pandas 2.0.3 documentation". pandas.pydata.org. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
^ "CSV Format: History, Advantages and Why It Is Still Popular". ByteScout. 2021-09-15. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
^ "Comparison of different file formats in Big Data". www.adaltas.com. 2020-07-23. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
^ "Comma Separated Values (CSV) Standard File Format". Edoceo, Inc. Retrieved June 4, 2014.
^ IBM FORTRAN Program Products for OS and the CMS Component of VM/370 General Information (PDF) (first ed.), July 1972, p. 17, GC28-6884-0, retrieved February 5, 2016, For users familiar with the predecessor FORTRAN IV G and H processors, these are the major new language capabilities
^ "List-Directed I/O", Fortran 77 Language Reference, Oracle
^ "SuperCalc², spreadsheet package for IBM, CP/M". Retrieved December 11, 2017.
^ "Comma-Separated-Value Format File Structure". 1983. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
^ "CSV, Comma Separated Values (RFC 4180)". Retrieved June 4, 2014.
^ RFC 4180: Common Format and MIME Type for Comma-Separated Values (CSV) Files. doi:10.17487/RFC4180. RFC 4180. Retrieved December 22, 2020.
^ See sparql11-results-csv-tsv, the first W3C recommendation scoped in CSV and filling some of RFC 4180's deficiencies.
^ RFC 7111: URI Fragment Identifiers for the text/csv Media Type. doi:10.17487/RFC7111. RFC 7111. Retrieved December 22, 2020.
^ "Model for Tabular Data and Metadata on the Web – W3C Recommendation 17 December 2015". Retrieved March 23, 2016.
^ *Creativyst (2010), How To: The Comma Separated Value (CSV) File Format, creativyst.com, retrieved May 24, 2010
^ "Tabular Data Package". Frictionless Data Specs.
^ "CSV Dialect". Frictionless Data Specs.
^ "CSV on the Web Working Group". W3C CSV WG. 2013. Retrieved 2015-04-22.
^ CSV on the Web Repository (on GitHub)
^ Model for Tabular Data and Metadata on the Web (W3C Recommendation)
^ Shafranovich (2005) states, "Within the header and each record, there may be one or more fields, separated by commas."
^ "Documentation: 14: COPY". PostgreSQL. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
^ "Documentation: 14: F.35. postgres_fdw". PostgreSQL. 2022-02-10. Retrieved 2022-03-04.
^ "Documentation: 14: F.14. file_fdw". PostgreSQL. 2022-02-10. Retrieved 2022-03-04.
^ "EmacsWiki: Csv Nav". www.emacswiki.org.
^ "Understanding CSV and row limits". Retrieved Feb 28, 2021.
Further reading
"IBM DB2 Administration Guide - LOAD, IMPORT, and EXPORT File Formats". IBM. Archived from the original on 2016-12-13. Retrieved 2016-12-12. (Has file descriptions of delimited ASCII (.DEL) (including comma- and semicolon-separated) and non-delimited ASCII (.ASC) files for data transfer.)
vteData exchange formatsHuman readable
Atom
CSV
EDIFACT
JSON
Web Encryption
Web Token
Web Signature
Property list
RDF
Rebol
TOML
XML
YAML
Binary
AMF
ASN.1
SMI
Avro
Base32
Base64
BSON
UBJSON
Cap'n Proto
CBOR
FlatBuffers
MessagePack
Property list
Protocol Buffers
Thrift
Cyphal DSDL
XDR
uuencode
yEnc
Comparison of data-serialization formats
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"text file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_file"},{"link_name":"commas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma"},{"link_name":"newlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newline"},{"link_name":"tabular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_(information)"},{"link_name":"plain text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_text"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"delimiter-separated file format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter-separated_values"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"tab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tab-separated_values"},{"link_name":"extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename_extension"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Comma-separated values (CSV) is a text file format that uses commas to separate values, and newlines to separate records. A CSV file stores tabular data (numbers and text) in plain text, where each line of the file typically represents one data record. Each record consists of the same number of fields, and these are separated by commas in the CSV file. If the field delimiter itself may appear within a field, fields can be surrounded with quotation marks.[3]The CSV file format is one type of delimiter-separated file format.[4] Delimiters frequently used include the comma, tab, space, and semicolon. Delimiter-separated files are often given a \".csv\" extension even when the field separator is not a comma. Many applications or libraries that consume or produce CSV files have options to specify an alternative delimiter.[5]The lack of adherence to the CSV standard RFC 4180 necessitates the support for a variety of CSV formats in data input software. Despite this drawback, CSV remains widespread in data applications and is widely supported by a variety of software, including common spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Excel.[6] Benefits cited in favor of CSV include human readability and the simplicity of the format.[citation needed]","title":"Comma-separated values"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_format"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc4180-1"},{"link_name":"spreadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"database programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"Pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandas_(software)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"CSV is a common data exchange format that is widely supported by consumer, business, and scientific applications. Among its most common uses is moving tabular data[7][8] between programs that natively operate on incompatible (often proprietary or undocumented) formats.[1] For example, a user may need to transfer information from a database program that stores data in a proprietary format, to a spreadsheet that uses a completely different format. Most database programs can export data as CSV. Most spreadsheet programs can read CSV data, allowing CSV to be used as an intermediate format when transferring data from a database to a spreadsheet.CSV is also used for storing data. Common data science tools such as Pandas include the option to export data to CSV for long-term storage.[9] Benefits of CSV for data storage include the simplicity of CSV makes parsing and creating CSV files easy to implement and fast compared to other data formats, human readability making editing or fixing data simpler,[10] and high compressibility leading to smaller data files.[11] Alternatively, CSV does not support more complex data relations and makes no distinction between null and empty values, and in applications where these features are needed other formats are preferred.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180"},{"link_name":"specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification_(technical_standard)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc4180-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"plain text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_text"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"UTF-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8"},{"link_name":"EBCDIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBCDIC"},{"link_name":"Shift JIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_JIS"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"delimiters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter"}],"text":"RFC 4180 proposes a specification for the CSV format; however, actual practice often does not follow the RFC and the term \"CSV\" might refer to any file that:[1][12]is plain text using a character encoding such as ASCII, various Unicode character encodings (e.g. UTF-8), EBCDIC, or Shift JIS,\nconsists of records (typically one record per line),\nwith the records divided into fields separated by delimiters (typically a single reserved character such as comma, semicolon, or tab; sometimes the delimiter may include optional spaces),\nwhere every record has the same sequence of fields.Within these general constraints, many variations are in use. Therefore, without additional information (such as whether RFC 4180 is honored), a file claimed simply to be in \"CSV\" format is not fully specified. As a result, some applications supporting CSV files have text import wizards that allow users to preview the first few lines of the file and then specify the delimiter character(s), quoting rules, and field trimming.","title":"Specification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"OS/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/360"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"FORTRAN 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FORTRAN_77"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Osborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osborne_Computer_Corporation"},{"link_name":"SuperCalc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperCalc"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"byte-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"word size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_size"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"de jure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180"},{"link_name":"MIME Content Type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME_content_type"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"IETF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IETF"},{"link_name":"7111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7111"},{"link_name":"URI fragments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URI_fragment"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"W3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C"},{"link_name":"formal semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Comma-separated values is a data format that predates personal computers by more than a decade: the IBM Fortran (level H extended) compiler under OS/360 supported CSV in 1972.[13] List-directed (\"free form\") input/output was defined in FORTRAN 77, approved in 1978. List-directed input used commas or spaces for delimiters, so unquoted character strings could not contain commas or spaces.[14]The term \"comma-separated value\" and the \"CSV\" abbreviation were in use by 1983.[15] The manual for the Osborne Executive computer, which bundled the SuperCalc spreadsheet, documents the CSV quoting convention that allows strings to contain embedded commas, but the manual does not specify a convention for embedding quotation marks within quoted strings.[16]Comma-separated value lists are easier to type (for example into punched cards) than fixed-column-aligned data, and they were less prone to producing incorrect results if a value was punched one column off from its intended location.Comma separated files are used for the interchange of database information between machines of two different architectures. The plain-text character of CSV files largely avoids incompatibilities such as byte-order and word size. The files are largely human-readable, so it is easier to deal with them in the absence of perfect documentation or communication.[17]The main standardization initiative—transforming \"de facto fuzzy definition\" into a more precise and de jure one—was in 2005, with RFC 4180, defining CSV as a MIME Content Type.[18] Later, in 2013, some of RFC 4180's deficiencies were tackled by a W3C recommendation.[19]In 2014 IETF published RFC 7111 describing the application of URI fragments to CSV documents. RFC 7111 specifies how row, column, and cell ranges can be selected from a CSV document using position indexes.[20]In 2015 W3C, in an attempt to enhance CSV with formal semantics, publicized the first drafts of recommendations for CSV metadata standards, which began as recommendations in December of the same year.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(database)"},{"link_name":"relational database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_database"},{"link_name":"delimited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter-separated_values"},{"link_name":"comma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"caret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caret_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"double quote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_quote"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"escape character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_character"},{"link_name":"backslash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backslash"},{"link_name":"Sybase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sybase"},{"link_name":"character set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_set"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc4180-1"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"UTF-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8"},{"link_name":"UTF-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-16"},{"link_name":"relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(database)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"hierarchical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical"},{"link_name":"object-oriented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented"},{"link_name":"documents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documents"},{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"Statistical databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_database"},{"link_name":"Demographic and Health Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_and_Health_Survey"},{"link_name":"Statistical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_analysis"},{"link_name":"foreign key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_key"}],"text":"CSV formats are best used to represent sets or sequences of records in which each record has an identical list of fields. This corresponds to a single relation in a relational database, or to data (though not calculations) in a typical spreadsheet.The format dates back to the early days of business computing and is widely used to pass data between computers with different internal word sizes, data formatting needs, and so forth. For this reason, CSV files are common on all computer platforms.CSV is a delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values (many implementations of CSV import/export tools allow other separators to be used; for example, the use of a \"Sep=^\" row as the first row in the *.csv file will cause Excel to open the file expecting caret \"^\" to be the separator instead of comma \",\"). Simple CSV implementations may prohibit field values that contain a comma or other special characters such as newlines. More sophisticated CSV implementations permit them, often by requiring \" (double quote) characters around values that contain reserved characters (such as commas, double quotes, or less commonly, newlines). Embedded double quote characters may then be represented by a pair of consecutive double quotes,[22] or by prefixing a double quote with an escape character such as a backslash (for example in Sybase Central).CSV formats are not limited to a particular character set.[1] They work just as well with Unicode character sets (such as UTF-8 or UTF-16) as with ASCII (although particular programs that support CSV may have their own limitations). CSV files normally will even survive naïve translation from one character set to another (unlike nearly all proprietary data formats). CSV does not, however, provide any way to indicate what character set is in use, so that must be communicated separately, or determined at the receiving end (if possible).Databases that include multiple relations cannot be exported as a single CSV file[citation needed]. Similarly, CSV cannot naturally represent hierarchical or object-oriented data. This is because every CSV record is expected to have the same structure. CSV is therefore rarely appropriate for documents created with HTML, XML, or other markup or word-processing technologies.Statistical databases in various fields often have a generally relation-like structure, but with some repeatable groups of fields. For example, health databases such as the Demographic and Health Survey typically repeat some questions for each child of a given parent (perhaps up to a fixed maximum number of children). Statistical analysis systems often include utilities that can \"rotate\" such data; for example, a \"parent\" record that includes information about five children can be split into five separate records, each containing (a) the information on one child, and (b) a copy of all the non-child-specific information. CSV can represent either the \"vertical\" or \"horizontal\" form of such data.In a relational database, similar issues are readily handled by creating a separate relation for each such group, and connecting \"child\" records to the related \"parent\" records using a foreign key (such as an ID number or name for the parent). In markup languages such as XML, such groups are typically enclosed within a parent element and repeated as necessary (for example, multiple <child> nodes within a single <parent> node). With CSV there is no widely accepted single-file solution.","title":"General functionality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"byte order mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_order_mark"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rfc4180-1"}],"text":"The name \"CSV\" indicates the use of the comma to separate data fields. Nevertheless, the term \"CSV\" is widely used to refer to a large family of formats that differ in many ways. Some implementations allow or require single or double quotation marks around some or all fields; and some reserve the first record as a header containing a list of field names. The character set being used is undefined: some applications require a Unicode byte order mark (BOM) to enforce Unicode interpretation (sometimes even a UTF-8 BOM).[1] Files that use the tab character instead of comma can be more precisely referred to as \"TSV\" for tab-separated values.Other implementation differences include the handling of more commonplace field separators (such as space or semicolon) and newline characters inside text fields. One more subtlety is the interpretation of a blank line: it can equally be the result of writing a record of zero fields, or a record of one field of zero length; thus decoding it is ambiguous.","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MIME type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME_type"}],"sub_title":"RFC 4180 and MIME standards","text":"The 2005 technical standard RFC 4180 formalizes the CSV file format and defines the MIME type \"text/csv\" for the handling of text-based fields. However, the interpretation of the text of each field is still application-specific. Files that follow the RFC 4180 standard can simplify CSV exchange and should be widely portable. Among its requirements:MS-DOS-style lines that end with (CR/LF) characters (optional for the last line).\nAn optional header record (there is no sure way to detect whether it is present, so care is required when importing).\nEach record should contain the same number of comma-separated fields.\nAny field may be quoted (with double quotes).\nFields containing a line-break, double-quote or commas should be quoted. (If they are not, the file will likely be impossible to process correctly.)\nIf double-quotes are used to enclose fields, then a double-quote in a field must be represented by two double-quote characters.The format can be processed by most programs that claim to read CSV files. The exceptions are (a) programs may not support line-breaks within quoted fields, (b) programs may confuse the optional header with data or interpret the first data line as an optional header, and (c) double-quotes in a field may not be parsed correctly automatically.","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Open Knowledge Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Knowledge_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"OKF frictionless tabular data package","text":"In 2011 Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) and various partners created a data protocols working group, which later evolved into the Frictionless Data initiative. One of the main formats they released was the Tabular Data Package. Tabular Data package was heavily based on CSV, using it as the main data transport format and adding basic type and schema metadata (CSV lacks any type information to distinguish the string \"1\" from the number 1).[23]The Frictionless Data Initiative has also provided a standard CSV Dialect Description Format for describing different dialects of CSV, for example specifying the field separator or quoting rules.[24]","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"W3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"metadata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata"},{"link_name":"semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web"}],"sub_title":"W3C tabular data standard","text":"In 2013 the W3C \"CSV on the Web\" working group began to specify technologies providing higher interoperability for web applications using CSV or similar formats.[25] The working group completed its work in February 2016 and is officially closed in March 2016 with the release of a set of documents and W3C recommendations[26]\nfor modeling \"Tabular Data\",[27] and enhancing CSV with metadata and semantics.","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IETF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IETF"},{"link_name":"MIME type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME_type"},{"link_name":"IANA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority"},{"link_name":"delimited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimited"},{"link_name":"fields/columns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"comma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme"},{"link_name":"records/rows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_(database)"},{"link_name":"character encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding"},{"link_name":"byte order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_order"},{"link_name":"characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(computing)"},{"link_name":"locales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locale_(computer_software)"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"text":"Many informal documents exist that describe \"CSV\" formats.\nIETF RFC 4180 (summarized above) defines the format for the \"text/csv\" MIME type registered with the IANA.Rules typical of these and other \"CSV\" specifications and implementations are as follows:CSV is a delimited data format that has fields/columns separated by the comma character and records/rows terminated by newlines.A CSV file does not require a specific character encoding, byte order, or line terminator format (some software do not support all line-end variations).A record ends at a line terminator. However, line terminators can be embedded as data within fields, so software must recognize quoted line-separators (see below) in order to correctly assemble an entire record from perhaps multiple lines.All records should have the same number of fields, in the same order.Data within fields is interpreted as a sequence of characters, not as a sequence of bits or bytes (see RFC 2046, section 4.1). For example, the numeric quantity 65535 may be represented as the 5 ASCII characters \"65535\" (or perhaps other forms such as \"0xFFFF\", \"000065535.000E+00\", etc.); but not as a sequence of 2 bytes intended to be treated as a single binary integer rather than as two characters (e.g. the numbers 11264–11519 have a comma as their high order byte: ord(',')*256..ord(',')*256+255). If this \"plain text\" convention is not followed, then the CSV file no longer contains sufficient information to interpret it correctly, the CSV file will not likely survive transmission across differing computer architectures, and will not conform to the text/csv MIME type.Adjacent fields must be separated by a single comma. However, \"CSV\" formats vary greatly in this choice of separator character. In particular, in locales where the comma is used as a decimal separator, a semicolon, TAB, or other character is used instead.\n1997,Ford,E350Any field may be quoted (that is, enclosed within double-quote characters), while some fields must be quoted, as specified in the following rules and examples:\n\"1997\",\"Ford\",\"E350\"Fields with embedded commas or double-quote characters must be quoted.\n1997,Ford,E350,\"Super, luxurious truck\"Each of the embedded double-quote characters must be represented by a pair of double-quote characters.\n1997,Ford,E350,\"Super, \"\"luxurious\"\" truck\"Fields with embedded line breaks must be quoted (however, many CSV implementations do not support embedded line breaks).\n1997,Ford,E350,\"Go get one now\nthey are going fast\"\nIn some CSV implementations[which?], leading and trailing spaces and tabs are trimmed (ignored). Such trimming is forbidden by RFC 4180, which states \"Spaces are considered part of a field and should not be ignored.\"\n1997, Ford, E350\nnot same as\n1997,Ford,E350\nAccording to RFC 4180, spaces outside quotes in a field are not allowed[failed verification]; however, the RFC also says that \"Spaces are considered part of a field and should not be ignored.\" and \"Implementers should 'be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others' (RFC 793, section 2.10) when processing CSV files.\"\n1997, \"Ford\" ,E350In CSV implementations that do trim leading or trailing spaces, fields with such spaces as meaningful data must be quoted.\n1997,Ford,E350,\" Super luxurious truck \"Double quote processing need only apply if the field starts with a double quote. Note, however, that double quotes are not allowed in unquoted fields according to RFC 4180.\nLos Angeles,34°03′N,118°15′W\nNew York City,40°42′46″N,74°00′21″W\nParis,48°51′24″N,2°21′03″E\nThe first record may be a \"header\", which contains column names in each of the fields (there is no reliable way to tell whether a file does this or not; however, it is uncommon to use characters other than letters, digits, and underscores in such column names).\nYear,Make,Model\n1997,Ford,E350\n2000,Mercury,Cougar","title":"Basic rules"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter-separated_values"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"decimal mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_mark#Influence_of_calculators_and_computers"}],"text":"The above table of data may be represented in CSV format as follows:Year,Make,Model,Description,Price\n1997,Ford,E350,\"ac, abs, moon\",3000.00\n1999,Chevy,\"Venture \"\"Extended Edition\"\"\",\"\",4900.00\n1999,Chevy,\"Venture \"\"Extended Edition, Very Large\"\"\",\"\",5000.00\n1996,Jeep,Grand Cherokee,\"MUST SELL!\nair, moon roof, loaded\",4799.00Example of a USA/UK CSV file (where the decimal separator is a period/full stop and the value separator is a comma):Year,Make,Model,Length\n1997,Ford,E350,2.35\n2000,Mercury,Cougar,2.38Example of an analogous European CSV/DSV file (where the decimal separator is a comma and the value separator is a semicolon):Year;Make;Model;Length\n1997;Ford;E350;2,35\n2000;Mercury;Cougar;2,38The latter format is not RFC 4180 compliant.[28] Compliance could be achieved by the use of a comma instead of a semicolon as a separator and either the international notation for the representation of the decimal mark or the practice of quoting all numbers that have a decimal mark.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data interchange format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"interoperability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperability"},{"link_name":"Spreadsheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"Numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbers_(spreadsheet)"},{"link_name":"LibreOffice Calc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibreOffice_Calc"},{"link_name":"Apache OpenOffice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_OpenOffice"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comma-separated_values&action=edit"},{"link_name":"LibreOffice Calc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibreOffice_Calc"},{"link_name":"Relational databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_databases"},{"link_name":"PostgreSQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"cut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"paste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"join","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Join_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"sort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sort_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"uniq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniq"},{"link_name":"awk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AWK"},{"link_name":"native or foreign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_and_foreign_format"},{"link_name":"Spreadsheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"LibreOffice Calc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibreOffice_Calc"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Apache Hive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Hive"},{"link_name":".csv.gz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gzip"},{"link_name":"emacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emacs"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"decimal separator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_separator"}],"text":"Some applications use CSV as a data interchange format to enhance its interoperability, exporting and importing CSV. Others use CSV as an internal format.As a data interchange format: the CSV file format is supported by almost all spreadsheets and database management systems,Spreadsheets including Apple Numbers, LibreOffice Calc, and Apache OpenOffice Calc. Microsoft Excel also supports a dialect of CSV with restrictions in comparison to other spreadsheet software (e.g., as of 2019[update] Excel still cannot export CSV files in the commonly used UTF-8 character encoding, and separator is not enforced to be the comma). LibreOffice Calc CSV importer is actually a more generic delimited text importer, supporting multiple separators at the same time as well as field trimming.\nVarious Relational databases support saving query results to a CSV file. PostgreSQL provides COPY command, which allows for both saving and loading data to and from a file. COPY (SELECT * FROM articles) TO '/home/wikipedia/file.csv' (FORMAT csv) saves the content of a table articles to a file called /home/wikipedia/file.csv.[29]\nMany utility programs on Unix-style systems (such as cut, paste, join, sort, uniq, awk) can split files on a comma delimiter, and can therefore process simple CSV files. However, this method does not correctly handle commas or new lines within quoted strings.As (main or optional) internal representation. Can be native or foreign, but differ from interchange format (\"export/import only\") because it is not necessary to create a copy in another format:Some Spreadsheets including LibreOffice Calc offers this option, without enforcing user to adopt another format.\nSome relational databases, when using standard SQL, offer foreign-data wrapper (FDW). For example, PostgreSQL offers the CREATE FOREIGN TABLE[30] and CREATE EXTENSION file_fdw[31] to configure any variant of CSV.\nDatabases like Apache Hive offer the option to express CSV or .csv.gz as an internal table format.\nThe emacs editor can operate on CSV files using csv-nav mode.[32]CSV format is supported by libraries available for many programming languages. Most provide some way to specify the field delimiter, decimal separator, character encoding, quoting conventions, date format, etc.","title":"Application support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"WordPad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WordPad"},{"link_name":"TextEdit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TextEdit"},{"link_name":"Vim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vim_(text_editor)"}],"sub_title":"Software and row limits","text":"Programs that work with CSV may have limits on the maximum number of rows CSV files can have.\nBelow is a list of common software and its limitations:[33]Microsoft Excel: 1,048,576 row limit;\nApple Numbers: 1,000,000 row limit;\nGoogle Sheets: 5,000,000 cell limit (the product of columns and rows);\nOpenOffice and LibreOffice: 1,048,576 row limit;\nText Editors (such as WordPad, TextEdit, Vim, etc.): no row or cell limit;\nDatabases (COPY command and FDW): no row or cell limit.","title":"Application support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"IBM DB2 Administration Guide - LOAD, IMPORT, and EXPORT File Formats\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.columbia.edu/sec/acis/db2/db2d0/db2d053.htm"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161213014111/https://www.columbia.edu/sec/acis/db2/db2d0/db2d053.htm"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"Data exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_exchange"},{"link_name":"Human readable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-readable_medium_and_data"},{"link_name":"Atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_(standard)"},{"link_name":"CSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"EDIFACT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDIFACT"},{"link_name":"JSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON"},{"link_name":"Web Encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON_Web_Encryption"},{"link_name":"Web Token","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON_Web_Token"},{"link_name":"Web Signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON_Web_Signature"},{"link_name":"Property list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_list"},{"link_name":"RDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Description_Framework"},{"link_name":"Rebol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebol"},{"link_name":"TOML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOML"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"},{"link_name":"Binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_file"},{"link_name":"AMF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Message_Format"},{"link_name":"ASN.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASN.1"},{"link_name":"SMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_Management_Information"},{"link_name":"Avro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Avro"},{"link_name":"Base32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32"},{"link_name":"Base64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64"},{"link_name":"BSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSON"},{"link_name":"UBJSON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBJSON"},{"link_name":"Cap'n Proto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap%27n_Proto"},{"link_name":"CBOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBOR"},{"link_name":"FlatBuffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FlatBuffers"},{"link_name":"MessagePack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MessagePack"},{"link_name":"Property list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_list"},{"link_name":"Protocol Buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_Buffers"},{"link_name":"Thrift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Thrift"},{"link_name":"Cyphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyphal"},{"link_name":"XDR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_Data_Representation"},{"link_name":"uuencode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uuencoding"},{"link_name":"yEnc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YEnc"},{"link_name":"Comparison of data-serialization formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_data-serialization_formats"}],"text":"\"IBM DB2 Administration Guide - LOAD, IMPORT, and EXPORT File Formats\". IBM. Archived from the original on 2016-12-13. Retrieved 2016-12-12. (Has file descriptions of delimited ASCII (.DEL) (including comma- and semicolon-separated) and non-delimited ASCII (.ASC) files for data transfer.)vteData exchange formatsHuman readable\nAtom\nCSV\nEDIFACT\nJSON\nWeb Encryption\nWeb Token\nWeb Signature\nProperty list\nRDF\nRebol\nTOML\nXML\nYAML\nBinary\nAMF\nASN.1\nSMI\nAvro\nBase32\nBase64\nBSON\nUBJSON\nCap'n Proto\nCBOR\nFlatBuffers\nMessagePack\nProperty list\nProtocol Buffers\nThrift\nCyphal DSDL\nXDR\nuuencode\nyEnc\nComparison of data-serialization formats","title":"Further reading"}]
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[]
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[{"title":"Tab-separated values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tab-separated_values"},{"title":"Comparison of data-serialization formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_data-serialization_formats"},{"title":"Delimiter-separated values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter-separated_values"},{"title":"Delimiter collision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter_collision"},{"title":"Flat-file database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat-file_database"},{"title":"Simple Data Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Data_Format"},{"title":"Substitute character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitute_character"},{"title":"Null character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character"},{"title":"invisible comma U+2063","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Punctuation#Block"}]
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[{"reference":"Shafranovich, Y. (October 2005). Common Format and MIME Type for CSV Files. IETF. p. 1. doi:10.17487/RFC4180. RFC 4180.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180#page-1","url_text":"Common Format and MIME Type for CSV Files"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"IETF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC4180","url_text":"10.17487/RFC4180"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180","url_text":"4180"}]},{"reference":"\"commaSeparatedText\". Apple Developer Documentation: Uniform Type Identifiers. Apple Inc.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.apple.com/documentation/uniformtypeidentifiers/uttype/3551477-commaseparatedtext","url_text":"\"commaSeparatedText\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc","url_text":"Apple Inc"}]},{"reference":"\"CSV Comma Separated Value File Format - How To - Creativyst - Explored,Designed,Delivered.(sm)\". Creativyst Software. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.creativyst.com/Doc/Articles/CSV/CSV01.shtml","url_text":"\"CSV Comma Separated Value File Format - How To - Creativyst - Explored,Designed,Delivered.(sm)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210401084212/http://www.creativyst.com/Doc/Articles/CSV/CSV01.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"IBM DB2 Administration Guide. IBM.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.columbia.edu/sec/acis/db2/db2d0/db2d053.htm","url_text":"IBM DB2 Administration Guide"}]},{"reference":"\"Which are the available formats\". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://wikis.ec.europa.eu/display/EUROSTATHELP/Which+are+the+available+formats","url_text":"\"Which are the available formats\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230726193851/https://wikis.ec.europa.eu/display/EUROSTATHELP/Which+are+the+available+formats","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Import or export text (.txt or .csv) files\". Microsoft Support. Retrieved 2023-08-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://support.microsoft.com/en-au/office/import-or-export-text-txt-or-csv-files-5250ac4c-663c-47ce-937b-339e391393ba","url_text":"\"Import or export text (.txt or .csv) files\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSV - Comma Separated Values\". Retrieved 2017-12-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://datahub.io/docs/data-packages/csv","url_text":"\"CSV - Comma Separated Values\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSV Files\". Retrieved June 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csvreader.com/csv_format.php","url_text":"\"CSV Files\""}]},{"reference":"\"pandas.DataFrame.to_csv — pandas 2.0.3 documentation\". pandas.pydata.org. Retrieved 2023-08-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://pandas.pydata.org/docs/reference/api/pandas.DataFrame.to_csv.html","url_text":"\"pandas.DataFrame.to_csv — pandas 2.0.3 documentation\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSV Format: History, Advantages and Why It Is Still Popular\". ByteScout. 2021-09-15. Retrieved 2023-08-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://bytescout.com/blog/csv-format-history-advantages.html","url_text":"\"CSV Format: History, Advantages and Why It Is Still Popular\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comparison of different file formats in Big Data\". www.adaltas.com. 2020-07-23. Retrieved 2023-08-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.adaltas.com/en/2020/07/23/benchmark-study-of-different-file-format/","url_text":"\"Comparison of different file formats in Big Data\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comma Separated Values (CSV) Standard File Format\". Edoceo, Inc. Retrieved June 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://edoceo.com/utilitas/csv-file-format","url_text":"\"Comma Separated Values (CSV) Standard File Format\""}]},{"reference":"IBM FORTRAN Program Products for OS and the CMS Component of VM/370 General Information (PDF) (first ed.), July 1972, p. 17, GC28-6884-0, retrieved February 5, 2016, For users familiar with the predecessor FORTRAN IV G and H processors, these are the major new language capabilities","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/ibm/370/fortran/GC28-6884-0_IBM_FORTRAN_Program_Products_for_OS_and_CMS_General_Information_Jul72.pdf","url_text":"IBM FORTRAN Program Products for OS and the CMS Component of VM/370 General Information"}]},{"reference":"\"List-Directed I/O\", Fortran 77 Language Reference, Oracle","urls":[{"url":"http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957-01/805-4939/6j4m0vnc5/index.html","url_text":"\"List-Directed I/O\""}]},{"reference":"\"SuperCalc², spreadsheet package for IBM, CP/M\". Retrieved December 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/Infoworld-1983-09-12#page/n39/mode/2up/search/%22comma-separated+value%22","url_text":"\"SuperCalc², spreadsheet package for IBM, CP/M\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comma-Separated-Value Format File Structure\". 1983. Retrieved December 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_osborneexeutiveRef1983_16634758/3F00186-00_ExecutiveRef_1983#page/n143/mode/2up/search/%22comma-separated+value%22","url_text":"\"Comma-Separated-Value Format File Structure\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSV, Comma Separated Values (RFC 4180)\". Retrieved June 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/formats/fdd/fdd000323.shtml","url_text":"\"CSV, Comma Separated Values (RFC 4180)\""}]},{"reference":"RFC 4180: Common Format and MIME Type for Comma-Separated Values (CSV) Files. doi:10.17487/RFC4180. RFC 4180. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedal_piano
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Pedal piano
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["1 History","2 Performers","3 Compositions for pedal piano","3.1 19th century","3.2 21st century","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
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An upright pedal piano
Another view
The pedal piano (or piano-pédalier or pédalier,) is a kind of piano that includes a pedalboard, enabling bass register notes to be played with the feet, as is standard on the organ.
There are two broad types of pedal pianos: either the pedal board may be an integral part of the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the manual keyboard (e.g. the 19th century Érard pedal grand piano and Pleyel upright pedal piano), or it may consist of two independent pianos (each with its separate mechanics and strings) which are placed one above the other, either a regular piano played by the hands and a bass-register piano played by the feet (e.g. the 18th century pedal piano owned by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the 21st century Doppio Borgato made by Luigi Borgato), or two standard pianos of which the lower one is played from a pedalboard which acts on its (manual) keyboard through a special mechanism (e.g. the 21st century Pinchi Pedalpiano System).
History
See also: Innovations in the piano § The pedal piano redux, and Piano pedals § Pedal piano
The origins of the pedal piano are found in the pedal clavichord and pedal harpsichord, of which an original of the former survives while only descriptions and modern reproductions of the latter remain. The first citation of a clavichord with pedalboard appeared around 1460 in a section dedicated to musical instruments in an encyclopedic treatise written by the scholar Paulus Paulirinus (1413-1471). Organists would use these instruments for practice when no-one was available to work the bellows for a church organ or, in the wintertime, to avoid having to practice in an unheated church. Johann Sebastian Bach owned a pedal harpsichord, and his organ trio sonatas BWV 525–530, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582, and other works can be played on the instrument.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart owned a fortepiano with independent pedals, built for him in 1785 by Anton Walter. His father refers to this in a letter to his daughter on March 12, 1785. The autograph manuscript of the Concerto in D minor K 466, composed the same year, shows a series of chords for the left hand plus bass notes an octave lower, covering about 2 1/2 measures. Some believe that the bass notes were intended for the pedal, but there is disagreement about this interpretation. The low bass notes could be an earlier version of the left hand part which Mozart neglected to cross out when he decided to replace them with chords.
Louis Schone made a pedalflügel for Robert Schumann in 1843, when he was in Dresden. Schumann preferred an upright pedal piano, and his pedal keyboard had 29 notes and was connected with an action placed at the back of the piano where a special soundboard, covered with 29 strings, was built into the case. Schumann wrote much music for the pedal piano and was so enthusiastic about the instrument that he convinced Felix Mendelssohn, who owned a grand pedal piano, to form a class devoted to it in the Leipzig Conservatory. Charles-Valentin Alkan owned an Erard pedal piano made in 1853 and now in the Musée de la Musique, the historic instrument collection of the Conservatoire de Paris. Alkan composed a number of works for it, in the virtuoso style to be found in his other piano music. Kevin Bowyer has revived some of this music in recent years, though he plays it on the organ.
Pinchi Pedalpiano System - detail
The instrument never became very popular in the 1900s, and it remains a rarity. It is mostly used to enable organists to practice at home, rather like the pedal harpsichord and clavichord were centuries ago, instead of being used to play the pedal piano repertoire. In the 2000s, pedal pianos are made in Italy by Luigi Borgato (who reinvented and patented it). This company makes the Doppio Borgato, an independent bass-register instrument connected to a pedal board, on which a concert grand can be placed. Borgato expanded the register of the bass piano to 37 notes, A0 to A3 (rather than the standard 30 or 32 on an organ). Pinchi Pedalpiano System with two Steinway D pianos On September 13, 2011 Italian pianist Roberto Prosseda presented the modern premiere of the Concerto for pedal piano and orchestra by Charles Gounod with Orchestra Toscanini di Parma conducted by Jan Latham Koenig.
On April 27, 2012, the Pinchi Pedalpiano System, designed by Claudio Pinchi and Roberto Prosseda, and built by the organ building enterprise Fratelli Pinchi Ars Organi, was presented in a public performance by Roberto Prosseda. It is a pedalboard which works with any two standard 88-key grand pianos. The Pinchi pedalboard has 37 pedals (from A to A three octaves up), but has a total range of five octaves, thanks to its 61 wooden "fingers", some of which can be seen in the adjacent picture, and which operate the lower 61 keys (A0 to A5) of the lower piano. These "fingers" are mapped to the 37 note pedalboard in three independent stops of three octaves each (A0-A3 for 16', A1-A4 for 8', and A2-A5 for 4').
Performers
In recent years, performance of works for the pedal piano on that instrument, as opposed to on organ, has increased. Recent performers on the pedal piano include the American organist and pianist Dana Robinson, Jean Dubé, Olivier Latry, the American organist Peter Sykes, the German organist Martin Schmeding, the Slovenian organist and harpsichordist Dalibor Miklavčič, the American pianist John Khouri, Jean Guillou, Cameron Carpenter, and Roberto Prosseda.
Mark Whitty of Australia built his own electric piano with 15 bass pedals in 1980. In the 1990s, he converted it for MIDI, controlling a Roland piano module running into a Yamaha 200w p/ch stereo mixer amplifier, with the keyboard panned left and right and the pedals panned center.
Compositions for pedal piano
An 1853 Érard upright piano pedalier, in the Musée de la musique, Paris
The Érard grand piano pedalier of Charles-Valentin Alkan, now in the Musée de la musique
(In addition to the following list of music that is specifically for pedal piano, music written for organ can often be played on the pedal piano by reading directly from the organ score.)
19th century
Alexandre Pierre François Boëly (1785–1858)
12 Pieces, Op. 18
Ernst Richter (1808–1879)
3 Preludes and Fugues, Op. 21
Robert Schumann (1810-1856)
Studien, Op. 56
Skizzen, Op. 58
6 Fugues on B-A-C-H, Op. 60
Franz Liszt (1811–1886)
Fantasie und Fuge über den Choral "Ad nos, ad salutarem undam" from Meyerbeer's "Prophet"
Charles Valentin Alkan (1813-1888)
12 Études pour les pieds seulement
Benedictus in D minor, Op. 54
13 Prières, Op. 64
11 Grands Préludes et une transcription du "Messiah" de Händel, Op. 66
Impromptu sur le choral de Luther "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott", Op. 69
Bombardo-Carillon for pedal-piano, four feet (or piano four hands)
Charles Gounod (1818-1893)
Fantasie sur l'hymne national russe for pedal-piano and orchestra
Suite Concertante for pedal-piano and orchestra
Danse Roumaine for pedal-piano and orchestra
Concerto in E flat major for pedal-piano and orchestra
Marcia Solenne for pedal-piano
Larghetto for violin, viola, cello and piano with pedalboard
Johann Georg Herzog (1822–1909)
6 Fugues, Op. 37
Passacaglia
Théodore Salomé (1834–1896)
10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Volume 1
10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Volume 2
12 Pièces nouvelles pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Op. 59
Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921)
Concerto for pedal piano and orchestra (First version of the 2nd Piano Concerto)
Théodore Dubois (1837–1924)
12 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier
12 Pièces nouvelles pour orgue ou piano-pédalier
Filippo Capocci (1840–1911)
10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier
Samuel-Alexandre Rousseau (1853–1904)
15 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier
Léon Boëllmann (1862–1897)
12 Pieces, Op. 16
Doppio Borgato
21st century
Cameron Carpenter
"Cameron Carpenter"
Franco Oppo (1935-2016)
"Freu dich sehr o meine Seele" (2000)
Jean Guillou (1930-2019)
"Epitases" (2002)
Charlemagne Palestine
Compositions for pedal piano (2005)
Ennio Morricone
Studio IV bis (2011)
Andrea Morricone
Omaggio a J.S.B. (2011)
Cristian Carrara
Magnificat for pedal piano and orchestra (2011)
Nimrod Borenstein
Fireworks, for pedal piano (2011)
Michael Glenn Williams
Tip-Tap (2011)
Francesco Trocchia
Trio Op. 15 n. 1 for pedal piano, cello and French horn (2013)
Diapositive di una metamorfosi for pedal piano, violin and cello (2014)
Michael Bakrnčev
Fünf Charakterstücke für Pedalflügel (Five Character Pieces for Pedal Piano) (2016) Dedicated to Italian pianist Roberto Prosseda.
Johannes Skudlik
"Johannes Skudlik transcriptions"
See also
Category: Pedal piano players
Category: Composers for pedal piano
References
^ Logue, Karl (1997). "Images notes". Logue Rhythm Productions. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
^ may be used in English as a short of form of piano-pédalier; in French however pédalier can only mean pedalboard
^ Belt, Philip (1997). The Piano. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 150. ISBN 0-393-30518-X.
^ this was the system used for pedal clavichords and pedal harpsichords
^ "Brief history about keyboard instruments with pedalboard", Borgato workshop website
^ Eddie, William Alexander (2007), Charles Valentin Alkan: his life and his music, Ashgate, pp. 143–156, 202, ISBN 978-1-84014-260-0
^ "Robert Prosseda resurrects the pedal piano", Classic FM website
^ The Fratelli Pinchi are siblings Andrea, Claudio and Barbara Pinchi. As of June 2013 the website of Fratelli Pinchi Ars Organi does not provide any information regarding the Pinchi Pedalpiano System.
^ The Pinchi system does not fit pianos with extended keyboards, like the Bösendorfer or the Stuart & Sons, which have keys going down to F0 or C0.
^ Actually in the picture only the row of 25 chromatic "fingers" which play the 25 black keys of the 5 octaves can be fully seen. Of the row of 36 diatonic "fingers" which play the 36 white keys of those 5 octaves and which is positioned underneath the row of chromatic "fingers" only the highest three "fingers" can be seen.
^ That is, one can play any combination of those stops. Besides the individual stops 16', 8', and 4', one can double in octaves with 16' + 8' and 8' + 4', double in fifteenths (double octaves) with 16' + 4', and treble in octaves with 16' + 8' + 4'
^ Wall Street Journal article on Roberto Prosseda and pedal-piano renaissance, The Wall Street Journal, April 20, 2012
^ "Pinzi Pedalpiano system" (PDF). Rivista.consaq.it. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
^ "Roberto Prosseda Rediscovering the Pedal Piano". Pizzicato.lu. 7 January 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
^ Schumann: Studies for the Pedal Piano, op. 56, retrieved 2022-07-03
^ Schumann: Four Sketches for the Pedal Piano, op. 58, retrieved 2022-07-03
^ a b "Cameron Carpenter - Stars & Stripes Forever (pedalpiano DOPPIO BORGATO)". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
^ Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1855. p. 828.
^ Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1863. p. 82.
^ Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1871. p. 225.
External links
Wall Street Journal article on Roberto Prosseda and pedal-piano renaissance
"Classic FM article about the pedal-piano renaissance"
Borgato website - makers of pedal pianos
Mendelssohn and Schumann's pedal pianos
Pianos weird and wonderful
Video reportage about pedal piano of Finnish TV SUUTO, Jan 17, 2013
Free scores featuring the pedal piano at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Authority control databases National
Germany
Other
MusicBrainz instrument
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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedal_Piano_3.JPG"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano"},{"link_name":"pedalboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedal_keyboard"},{"link_name":"organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_organ"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Érard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_%C3%89rard"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart"},{"link_name":"Doppio Borgato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppio_Borgato"},{"link_name":"Luigi Borgato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Borgato"}],"text":"Another viewThe pedal piano (or piano-pédalier[1] or pédalier,[2]) is a kind of piano that includes a pedalboard, enabling bass register notes to be played with the feet, as is standard on the organ.[3]There are two broad types of pedal pianos: either the pedal board may be an integral part of the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the manual keyboard (e.g. the 19th century Érard pedal grand piano and Pleyel upright pedal piano), or[4] it may consist of two independent pianos (each with its separate mechanics and strings) which are placed one above the other, either a regular piano played by the hands and a bass-register piano played by the feet (e.g. the 18th century pedal piano owned by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the 21st century Doppio Borgato made by Luigi Borgato), or two standard pianos of which the lower one is played from a pedalboard which acts on its (manual) keyboard through a special mechanism (e.g. the 21st century Pinchi Pedalpiano System).","title":"Pedal piano"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Innovations in the piano § The pedal piano redux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovations_in_the_piano#The_pedal_piano_redux"},{"link_name":"Piano pedals § Pedal piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_pedals#Pedal_piano"},{"link_name":"clavichord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavichord"},{"link_name":"harpsichord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichord"},{"link_name":"musical instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instruments"},{"link_name":"encyclopedic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedic"},{"link_name":"treatise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise"},{"link_name":"Paulus Paulirinus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paulus_Paulirinus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"bellows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows"},{"link_name":"church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)"},{"link_name":"Johann Sebastian Bach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach"},{"link_name":"organ trio sonatas BWV 525–530","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_Sonatas_(Bach)"},{"link_name":"Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BWV_582"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart"},{"link_name":"fortepiano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortepiano"},{"link_name":"1785","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1785_in_music"},{"link_name":"Anton Walter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Walter"},{"link_name":"father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Mozart"},{"link_name":"Louis Schone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_Schone&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Robert Schumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Schumann"},{"link_name":"1843","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843_in_music"},{"link_name":"Dresden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden"},{"link_name":"Felix Mendelssohn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn"},{"link_name":"Leipzig Conservatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig_Conservatory"},{"link_name":"Charles-Valentin Alkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan"},{"link_name":"Erard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastien_Erard"},{"link_name":"Musée de la Musique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Musique_(Paris)"},{"link_name":"Conservatoire de Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Kevin Bowyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Bowyer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pinchi-Pedalpiani-System_(detail).jpg"},{"link_name":"organists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organists"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Luigi Borgato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Borgato"},{"link_name":"Doppio Borgato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppio_Borgato"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pinchi-Pedalpiano-System_with_two_Steinway_D_pianos.jpg"},{"link_name":"Roberto Prosseda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Prosseda"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"See also: Innovations in the piano § The pedal piano redux, and Piano pedals § Pedal pianoThe origins of the pedal piano are found in the pedal clavichord and pedal harpsichord, of which an original of the former survives while only descriptions and modern reproductions of the latter remain. The first citation of a clavichord with pedalboard appeared around 1460 in a section dedicated to musical instruments in an encyclopedic treatise written by the scholar Paulus Paulirinus (1413-1471). Organists would use these instruments for practice when no-one was available to work the bellows for a church organ or, in the wintertime, to avoid having to practice in an unheated church. Johann Sebastian Bach owned a pedal harpsichord, and his organ trio sonatas BWV 525–530, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582, and other works can be played on the instrument.[5]Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart owned a fortepiano with independent pedals, built for him in 1785 by Anton Walter. His father refers to this in a letter to his daughter on March 12, 1785. The autograph manuscript of the Concerto in D minor K 466, composed the same year, shows a series of chords for the left hand plus bass notes an octave lower, covering about 2 1/2 measures. Some believe that the bass notes were intended for the pedal, but there is disagreement about this interpretation. The low bass notes could be an earlier version of the left hand part which Mozart neglected to cross out when he decided to replace them with chords.Louis Schone made a pedalflügel for Robert Schumann in 1843, when he was in Dresden. Schumann preferred an upright pedal piano, and his pedal keyboard had 29 notes and was connected with an action placed at the back of the piano where a special soundboard, covered with 29 strings, was built into the case. Schumann wrote much music for the pedal piano and was so enthusiastic about the instrument that he convinced Felix Mendelssohn, who owned a grand pedal piano, to form a class devoted to it in the Leipzig Conservatory. Charles-Valentin Alkan owned an Erard pedal piano made in 1853 and now in the Musée de la Musique, the historic instrument collection of the Conservatoire de Paris. Alkan composed a number of works for it, in the virtuoso style to be found in his other piano music.[6] Kevin Bowyer has revived some of this music in recent years, though he plays it on the organ.Pinchi Pedalpiano System - detailThe instrument never became very popular in the 1900s, and it remains a rarity. It is mostly used to enable organists to practice at home, rather like the pedal harpsichord and clavichord were centuries ago, instead of being used to play the pedal piano repertoire. In the 2000s, pedal pianos are made in Italy by Luigi Borgato (who reinvented and patented it). This company makes the Doppio Borgato, an independent bass-register instrument connected to a pedal board, on which a concert grand can be placed. Borgato expanded the register of the bass piano to 37 notes, A0 to A3 (rather than the standard 30 or 32 on an organ).Pinchi Pedalpiano System with two Steinway D pianosOn September 13, 2011 Italian pianist Roberto Prosseda presented the modern premiere of the Concerto for pedal piano and orchestra by Charles Gounod with Orchestra Toscanini di Parma conducted by Jan Latham Koenig.[7]On April 27, 2012, the Pinchi Pedalpiano System, designed by Claudio Pinchi and Roberto Prosseda, and built by the organ building enterprise Fratelli Pinchi Ars Organi,[8] was presented in a public performance by Roberto Prosseda. It is a pedalboard which works with any two standard 88-key grand pianos.[9] The Pinchi pedalboard has 37 pedals (from A to A three octaves up), but has a total range of five octaves, thanks to its 61 wooden \"fingers\", some of which can be seen in the adjacent picture,[10] and which operate the lower 61 keys (A0 to A5) of the lower piano. These \"fingers\" are mapped to the 37 note pedalboard in three independent stops of three octaves each[11] (A0-A3 for 16', A1-A4 for 8', and A2-A5 for 4').[12][13][14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Jean Dubé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Dub%C3%A9_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Olivier Latry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_Latry"},{"link_name":"Peter Sykes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Sykes_(organist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Martin Schmeding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Schmeding"},{"link_name":"Dalibor Miklavčič","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dalibor_Miklav%C4%8Di%C4%8D&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"John Khouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Khouri&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jean Guillou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Guillou"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-17"},{"link_name":"Cameron Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-17"},{"link_name":"Roberto Prosseda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Prosseda"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In recent years, performance of works for the pedal piano on that instrument, as opposed to on organ, has increased. Recent performers on the pedal piano include the American organist and pianist Dana Robinson,[15][16] Jean Dubé, Olivier Latry, the American organist Peter Sykes, the German organist Martin Schmeding, the Slovenian organist and harpsichordist Dalibor Miklavčič, the American pianist John Khouri, Jean Guillou,[17] Cameron Carpenter,[17] and Roberto Prosseda.Mark Whitty of Australia built his own electric piano with 15 bass pedals in 1980. In the 1990s, he converted it for MIDI, controlling a Roland piano module running into a Yamaha 200w p/ch stereo mixer amplifier, with the keyboard panned left and right and the pedals panned center.[citation needed]","title":"Performers"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PianoP%C3%A9dalier.JPG"},{"link_name":"Musée de la musique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_de_la_Musique#Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_Musique"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alkanspedalier.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charles-Valentin Alkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan"}],"text":"An 1853 Érard upright piano pedalier, in the Musée de la musique, ParisThe Érard grand piano pedalier of Charles-Valentin Alkan, now in the Musée de la musique(In addition to the following list of music that is specifically for pedal piano, music written for organ can often be played on the pedal piano by reading directly from the organ score.)","title":"Compositions for pedal piano"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexandre Pierre François Boëly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Pierre_Fran%C3%A7ois_Bo%C3%ABly"},{"link_name":"Ernst Richter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Richter"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Robert Schumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Schumann"},{"link_name":"Franz Liszt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Liszt"},{"link_name":"Fantasie und Fuge über den Choral \"Ad nos, ad salutarem undam\" from Meyerbeer's \"Prophet\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_and_Fugue_on_the_chorale_Ad_nos_ad_salutarem_undam"},{"link_name":"Charles Valentin Alkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Valentin_Alkan"},{"link_name":"Charles Gounod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gounod"},{"link_name":"Johann Georg Herzog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Georg_Herzog&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%B3,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Théodore Salomé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Salom%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Camille Saint-Saëns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns"},{"link_name":"2nd Piano Concerto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_(Saint-Sa%C3%ABns)"},{"link_name":"Théodore Dubois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Dubois"},{"link_name":"Filippo Capocci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Capocci"},{"link_name":"Samuel-Alexandre Rousseau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel-Alexandre_Rousseau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Rousseau"},{"link_name":"Léon Boëllmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Bo%C3%ABllmann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doppio_Borgato_bis.jpg"}],"sub_title":"19th century","text":"Alexandre Pierre François Boëly (1785–1858)\n12 Pieces, Op. 18\nErnst Richter (1808–1879)\n3 Preludes and Fugues, Op. 21[18]\nRobert Schumann (1810-1856)\nStudien, Op. 56\nSkizzen, Op. 58\n6 Fugues on B-A-C-H, Op. 60\nFranz Liszt (1811–1886)\nFantasie und Fuge über den Choral \"Ad nos, ad salutarem undam\" from Meyerbeer's \"Prophet\"\nCharles Valentin Alkan (1813-1888)\n12 Études pour les pieds seulement\nBenedictus in D minor, Op. 54\n13 Prières, Op. 64\n11 Grands Préludes et une transcription du \"Messiah\" de Händel, Op. 66\nImpromptu sur le choral de Luther \"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott\", Op. 69\nBombardo-Carillon for pedal-piano, four feet (or piano four hands)\nCharles Gounod (1818-1893)\nFantasie sur l'hymne national russe for pedal-piano and orchestra\nSuite Concertante for pedal-piano and orchestra\nDanse Roumaine for pedal-piano and orchestra\nConcerto in E flat major for pedal-piano and orchestra\nMarcia Solenne for pedal-piano\nLarghetto for violin, viola, cello and piano with pedalboard\nJohann Georg Herzog [ru] (1822–1909)\n6 Fugues, Op. 37[19]\nPassacaglia[20]\nThéodore Salomé (1834–1896)\n10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Volume 1\n10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Volume 2\n12 Pièces nouvelles pour orgue ou piano-pédalier, Op. 59\nCamille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921)\nConcerto for pedal piano and orchestra (First version of the 2nd Piano Concerto)\nThéodore Dubois (1837–1924)\n12 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier\n12 Pièces nouvelles pour orgue ou piano-pédalier\nFilippo Capocci (1840–1911)\n10 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier\nSamuel-Alexandre Rousseau [fr] (1853–1904)\n15 Pièces pour orgue ou piano-pédalier\nLéon Boëllmann (1862–1897)\n12 Pieces, Op. 16Doppio Borgato","title":"Compositions for pedal piano"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cameron Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"Franco Oppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Oppo"},{"link_name":"Jean Guillou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Guillou"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne_Palestine"},{"link_name":"Ennio Morricone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennio_Morricone"},{"link_name":"Andrea Morricone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Morricone"},{"link_name":"Cristian Carrara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristian_Carrara"},{"link_name":"Nimrod Borenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod_Borenstein"},{"link_name":"Michael Glenn Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Glenn_Williams"},{"link_name":"Francesco Trocchia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Trocchia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Michael Bakrnčev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael_Bakrn%C4%8Dev&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Roberto Prosseda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Prosseda"},{"link_name":"Johannes Skudlik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Skudlik"}],"sub_title":"21st century","text":"Cameron Carpenter\n\"Cameron Carpenter\"\nFranco Oppo (1935-2016)\n\"Freu dich sehr o meine Seele\" (2000)\nJean Guillou (1930-2019)\n\"Epitases\" (2002)\nCharlemagne Palestine\nCompositions for pedal piano (2005)\nEnnio Morricone\nStudio IV bis (2011)\nAndrea Morricone\nOmaggio a J.S.B. (2011)\nCristian Carrara\nMagnificat for pedal piano and orchestra (2011)\nNimrod Borenstein\nFireworks, for pedal piano (2011)\nMichael Glenn Williams\nTip-Tap (2011)\nFrancesco Trocchia\nTrio Op. 15 n. 1 for pedal piano, cello and French horn (2013)\nDiapositive di una metamorfosi for pedal piano, violin and cello (2014)\nMichael Bakrnčev\nFünf Charakterstücke für Pedalflügel (Five Character Pieces for Pedal Piano) (2016) Dedicated to Italian pianist Roberto Prosseda.\nJohannes Skudlik\n\"Johannes Skudlik transcriptions\"","title":"Compositions for pedal piano"}]
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[{"image_text":"An upright pedal piano","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Pedal_piano_1.JPG/220px-Pedal_piano_1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Another view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Pedal_Piano_3.JPG/220px-Pedal_Piano_3.JPG"},{"image_text":"Pinchi Pedalpiano System - detail","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pinchi-Pedalpiani-System_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Pinchi-Pedalpiani-System_%28detail%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pinchi Pedalpiano System with two Steinway D pianos","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Pinchi-Pedalpiano-System_with_two_Steinway_D_pianos.jpg/220px-Pinchi-Pedalpiano-System_with_two_Steinway_D_pianos.jpg"},{"image_text":"An 1853 Érard upright piano pedalier, in the Musée de la musique, Paris","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PianoP%C3%A9dalier.JPG/220px-PianoP%C3%A9dalier.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Érard grand piano pedalier of Charles-Valentin Alkan, now in the Musée de la musique","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alkanspedalier.jpg/220px-Alkanspedalier.jpg"},{"image_text":"Doppio Borgato","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Doppio_Borgato_bis.jpg/220px-Doppio_Borgato_bis.jpg"}]
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[{"title":"Category: Pedal piano players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Pedal_piano_players"},{"title":"Category: Composers for pedal piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Composers_for_pedal_piano"}]
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[{"reference":"Logue, Karl (1997). \"Images notes\". Logue Rhythm Productions. Retrieved 2008-01-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.loguerhythm.com/Images.htm","url_text":"\"Images notes\""}]},{"reference":"Belt, Philip (1997). The Piano. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 150. ISBN 0-393-30518-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0X3FoI_Z6cQC","url_text":"The Piano"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City","url_text":"New York City"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-30518-X","url_text":"0-393-30518-X"}]},{"reference":"Eddie, William Alexander (2007), Charles Valentin Alkan: his life and his music, Ashgate, pp. 143–156, 202, ISBN 978-1-84014-260-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84014-260-0","url_text":"978-1-84014-260-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Pinzi Pedalpiano system\" (PDF). Rivista.consaq.it. Retrieved 19 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://rivista.consaq.it/online/31_13/MUSIC@_n31_gen-feb2013_31-32_Invenzioni.pdf","url_text":"\"Pinzi Pedalpiano system\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roberto Prosseda Rediscovering the Pedal Piano\". Pizzicato.lu. 7 January 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pizzicato.lu/roberto-prosseda-rediscovering-the-pedalpiano/","url_text":"\"Roberto Prosseda Rediscovering the Pedal Piano\""}]},{"reference":"Schumann: Studies for the Pedal Piano, op. 56, retrieved 2022-07-03","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ESJ4VcqZtFU","url_text":"Schumann: Studies for the Pedal Piano, op. 56"}]},{"reference":"Schumann: Four Sketches for the Pedal Piano, op. 58, retrieved 2022-07-03","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3j35BwqArxQ","url_text":"Schumann: Four Sketches for the Pedal Piano, op. 58"}]},{"reference":"\"Cameron Carpenter - Stars & Stripes Forever (pedalpiano DOPPIO BORGATO)\". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 19 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOWhgI1MZro","url_text":"\"Cameron Carpenter - Stars & Stripes Forever (pedalpiano DOPPIO BORGATO)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/zOWhgI1MZro","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1855. p. 828.","urls":[{"url":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001855&teil=0203&seite=00000828&zoom=1","url_text":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"}]},{"reference":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1863. p. 82.","urls":[{"url":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001863&teil=0203&seite=00000082&zoom=1","url_text":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"}]},{"reference":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister. 1871. p. 225.","urls":[{"url":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001871&teil=0203&seite=00000225&zoom=1","url_text":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"}]}]
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[{"Link":"http://www.loguerhythm.com/Images.htm","external_links_name":"\"Images notes\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0X3FoI_Z6cQC","external_links_name":"The Piano"},{"Link":"http://www.borgato.it/main_uk.htm","external_links_name":"\"Brief history about keyboard instruments with pedalboard\""},{"Link":"http://www.classicfm.com/music-news/latest-news/roberto-prosseda-resurrects-pedal-piano/","external_links_name":"\"Robert Prosseda resurrects the pedal piano\""},{"Link":"http://www.pinchi.com/","external_links_name":"website of Fratelli Pinchi Ars Organi"},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304444604577341410677772638#articleTabs%3Darticle","external_links_name":"Wall Street Journal article on Roberto Prosseda and pedal-piano renaissance"},{"Link":"http://rivista.consaq.it/online/31_13/MUSIC@_n31_gen-feb2013_31-32_Invenzioni.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Pinzi Pedalpiano system\""},{"Link":"https://www.pizzicato.lu/roberto-prosseda-rediscovering-the-pedalpiano/","external_links_name":"\"Roberto Prosseda Rediscovering the Pedal Piano\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ESJ4VcqZtFU","external_links_name":"Schumann: Studies for the Pedal Piano, op. 56"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3j35BwqArxQ","external_links_name":"Schumann: Four Sketches for the Pedal Piano, op. 58"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOWhgI1MZro","external_links_name":"\"Cameron Carpenter - Stars & Stripes Forever (pedalpiano DOPPIO BORGATO)\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/zOWhgI1MZro","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001855&teil=0203&seite=00000828&zoom=1","external_links_name":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"},{"Link":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001863&teil=0203&seite=00000082&zoom=1","external_links_name":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"},{"Link":"http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=1000001&bd=0001871&teil=0203&seite=00000225&zoom=1","external_links_name":"Musikalisch-literarischer Monatsbericht"},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304444604577341410677772638#articleTabs%3Darticle","external_links_name":"Wall Street Journal article on Roberto Prosseda and pedal-piano renaissance"},{"Link":"http://www.classicfm.com/music-news/latest-news/roberto-prosseda-resurrects-pedal-piano/","external_links_name":"\"Classic FM article about the pedal-piano renaissance\""},{"Link":"http://www.borgato.it/doppioborgato.htm","external_links_name":"Borgato website - makers of pedal pianos"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060919035820/http://www.pianoworld.com/fun/pedal.htm","external_links_name":"Mendelssohn and Schumann's pedal pianos"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050901024846/http://www.nmsu.edu/~muzine/pnovarht.htm","external_links_name":"Pianos weird and wonderful"},{"Link":"http://www.hs.fi/videot/Huippupianisti+soittaa+kaksik%C3%A4tisesti+ja+kaksijalkaisesti/v1305638557356","external_links_name":"Video reportage about pedal piano of Finnish TV SUUTO, Jan 17, 2013"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4420704-9","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/instrument/1487a644-3720-4ea9-8e37-3de180b5be85","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz instrument"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Other_(2007_film)
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The Other (2007 film)
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["1 Plot","2 Cast","3 Production","4 Distribution","5 Reception","5.1 Critical response","5.2 Awards","6 References","7 External links"]
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For the telenovela, see El otro (telenovela). For the story by Jorge Luis Borges, see The Other (short story).
2007 Argentine filmThe OtherTheatrical release posterDirected byAriel RotterScreenplay byAriel RotterProduced byEnrique PiñeyroChristian BauteStarringJulio ChávezInés MolinaMaría UcedoArturo GoetzCinematographyMarcelo LavintmanEdited byEliane KatzProductioncompanyAqua FilmsDistributed byDistribution CompanyRelease dates
February 13, 2007 (2007-02-13) (Berlinale)
May 10, 2007 (2007-05-10) (Argentina)
October 8, 2008 (2008-10-08) (France)
Running time83 minutesCountriesArgentinaFranceGermanyLanguageSpanish
The Other (El otro) is a 2007 Argentine, French, and German drama film, written and directed by Ariel Rotter, his second feature. The picture won the Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize, and actor Julio Chávez was awarded the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 2007 Berlin International Film Festival.
Plot
The film tells of Juan Desouza, a lawyer in his late 40s, who's happily married and his wife is expecting a child.
On a one-day business trip to the country-side, Desouza embarks on an unintended journey. When he reaches his destination Desouza discovers that the man traveling next to him is not sleeping but dead.
Secretly, he assumes the dead man's identity and invents a profession for himself. He finds a place to stay in the village where the man used to live and contemplates not returning.
Juan Desouza undertakes an adventure into nature, into the rediscovery of his tastes and his basic instincts. He tries to grasp the idea that the life dealt out for him, and which he chose to live, is not the only one possible.
He eventually goes back home, stronger from the spiritual experience.
Cast
Julio Chávez as Juan Desouza
María Onetto
María Ucedo
Inés Molina
Arturo Goetz
Osvaldo Bonet
Raminta Kavaliūnaitė
Production
The film was executive produced by Aqua Films' Verónica Cura, and produced by Enrique Piñeyro and Christian Baute.
El otro was funded by the Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales (Argentina), the Vision Sudest Fund (Switzerland), the World Cinema Fund (Berlin International Film Festival), and the Hubert Bals Fund (Netherlands).
Distribution
The film was first presented at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 13, 2007.
Reception
Critical response
The film was well received at the Berlin International Film Festival winning a Jury Grand Prix Silver Bear.
Film critic Annika Pham, who writes for Cineuropa, liked the film, and wrote, "The film subtly explores the apprehension of death as well as the palpable yet invisible world that lurks underneath the surface. Few words are needed. We feel with Juan and easily relate to him. The scenes where he cares for his father, becoming his father’s father, are particularly moving."
Awards
Wins
Berlin International Film Festival: Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize; Silver Bear for Best Actor, Julio Chávez; 2007
References
^ El otro at IMDb
^ Berlinale Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine film festival web site, 2007.
^ Pham, Annika. Cineuropa, film review, February 13, 2007.
External links
The Other at IMDb
The Other at AllMovie
El otro at cinenacional.com (in Spanish)
El otro trailer on YouTube
vteSilver Bear Grand Jury Prize1965–2000
Le Bonheur / Repulsion (1965)
The Chasers / No Shooting Time for Foxes (1966)
La Collectionneuse / Next Year, Same Time (1967)
Innocence Unprotected / Signs of Life / Something Like Love (1968)
The Decameron (1971)
The Hospital (1972)
There's No Smoke Without Fire (1973)
The Clockmaker (1974)
The Common Man / Overlord (1975)
Canoa: A Shameful Memory (1976)
The Devil Probably (1977)
A Queda (1978)
Alexandria... Why? (1979)
Seeking Asylum (1980)
Akaler Shandhaney (1981)
Shivers (1982)
A Season in Hakkari (1983)
Funny Dirty Little War (1984)
Flowers of Reverie (1985)
The Mass Is Ended (1986)
The Sea and Poison (1987)
Commissar (1988)
Evening Bell (1989)
The Asthenic Syndrome (1990)
The Conviction / Satan (1991)
Sweet Emma, Dear Böbe (1992)
Arizona Dream (1993)
Strawberry and Chocolate (1994)
Smoke (1995)
All Things Fair (1996)
The River (1997)
Wag the Dog (1998)
Mifune (1999)
The Road Home (2000)
2001–present
Beijing Bicycle (2001)
Grill Point (2002)
Adaptation (2003)
Lost Embrace (2004)
Peacock (2005)
Offside / A Soap (2006)
The Other (2007)
Standard Operating Procedure (2008)
Everyone Else / Gigante (2009)
If I Want to Whistle, I Whistle (2010)
The Turin Horse (2011)
Just the Wind (2012)
An Episode in the Life of an Iron Picker (2013)
The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014)
The Club (2015)
Death in Sarajevo (2016)
Félicité (2017)
Mug (2018)
By the Grace of God (2019)
Never Rarely Sometimes Always (2020)
Wheel of Fortune and Fantasy (2021)
The Novelist's Film (2022)
Afire (2023)
A Traveler's Needs (2024)
|
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"El otro (telenovela)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_otro_(telenovela)"},{"link_name":"The Other (short story)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Other_(short_story)"},{"link_name":"drama film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama_film"},{"link_name":"Ariel Rotter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Rotter"},{"link_name":"Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Bear_Grand_Jury_Prize"},{"link_name":"Julio Chávez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Ch%C3%A1vez"},{"link_name":"Silver Bear for Best Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Bear_for_Best_Actor"},{"link_name":"Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_International_Film_Festival"}],"text":"For the telenovela, see El otro (telenovela). For the story by Jorge Luis Borges, see The Other (short story).2007 Argentine filmThe Other (El otro) is a 2007 Argentine, French, and German drama film, written and directed by Ariel Rotter, his second feature. The picture won the Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize, and actor Julio Chávez was awarded the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 2007 Berlin International Film Festival.","title":"The Other (2007 film)"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The film tells of Juan Desouza, a lawyer in his late 40s, who's happily married and his wife is expecting a child.On a one-day business trip to the country-side, Desouza embarks on an unintended journey. When he reaches his destination Desouza discovers that the man traveling next to him is not sleeping but dead.Secretly, he assumes the dead man's identity and invents a profession for himself. He finds a place to stay in the village where the man used to live and contemplates not returning.Juan Desouza undertakes an adventure into nature, into the rediscovery of his tastes and his basic instincts. He tries to grasp the idea that the life dealt out for him, and which he chose to live, is not the only one possible.He eventually goes back home, stronger from the spiritual experience.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julio Chávez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Ch%C3%A1vez"},{"link_name":"María Onetto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Onetto"},{"link_name":"Inés Molina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%C3%A9s_Molina"},{"link_name":"Arturo Goetz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo_Goetz"}],"text":"Julio Chávez as Juan Desouza\nMaría Onetto\nMaría Ucedo\nInés Molina\nArturo Goetz\nOsvaldo Bonet\nRaminta Kavaliūnaitė","title":"Cast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aqua Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aqua_Films&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Verónica Cura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ver%C3%B3nica_Cura"},{"link_name":"Enrique Piñeyro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_Pi%C3%B1eyro_(actor)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Cine_y_Artes_Audiovisuales"},{"link_name":"World Cinema Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Cinema_Fund"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The film was executive produced by Aqua Films' Verónica Cura, and produced by Enrique Piñeyro and Christian Baute.[1]El otro was funded by the Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales (Argentina), the Vision Sudest Fund (Switzerland), the World Cinema Fund (Berlin International Film Festival), and the Hubert Bals Fund (Netherlands).[2]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_International_Film_Festival"}],"text":"The film was first presented at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 13, 2007.","title":"Distribution"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Cineuropa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cineuropa"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Critical response","text":"The film was well received at the Berlin International Film Festival winning a Jury Grand Prix Silver Bear.Film critic Annika Pham, who writes for Cineuropa, liked the film, and wrote, \"The film subtly explores the apprehension of death as well as the palpable yet invisible world that lurks underneath the surface. Few words are needed. We feel with Juan and easily relate to him. The scenes where he cares for his father, becoming his father’s father, are particularly moving.\"[3]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berlin International Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_International_Film_Festival"},{"link_name":"Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Bear_Grand_Jury_Prize"},{"link_name":"Silver Bear for Best Actor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Bear_for_Best_Actor"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"WinsBerlin International Film Festival: Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize; Silver Bear for Best Actor, Julio Chávez; 2007","title":"Reception"}]
|
[]
| null |
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann
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Horace Mann
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["1 Early years, family and education","2 Early career","2.1 Legal career","2.2 Massachusetts legislature","3 Personal life","4 Education reform","4.1 Secular nature","4.2 Reading instruction","4.3 Emulation of the Prussian system","5 A Whig in Congress","6 Abolitionism","7 Leadership of Antioch College and last years","8 Legacy","8.1 Commemoration","8.2 Schools","8.3 College and university buildings","9 Works","10 See also","11 References","12 Works cited","13 Further reading","14 External links"]
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American educational reformer and politician
For the school also called "Horace Mann", see Horace Mann School. For other people, see Horace Mann (disambiguation).
Horace MannHorace Mann circa 1851Member of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Massachusetts's 8th districtIn officeApril 3, 1848 – March 3, 1853Preceded byJohn Quincy AdamsSucceeded byTappan Wentworth1st Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of EducationIn office1837–1848Preceded byOffice establishedSucceeded byBarnas Sears
Personal detailsBorn(1796-05-04)May 4, 1796Franklin, Massachusetts, U.S.DiedAugust 2, 1859(1859-08-02) (aged 63)Yellow Springs, Ohio, U.S.Resting placeNorth Burial Ground,Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.Political partyWhigSpousesCharlotte Messer Mann (d. 1832)Mary Peabody MannChildren3Alma materBrown UniversityLitchfield Law SchoolOccupationLawyerEducatorCollege presidentSignature
Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 – August 2, 1859) was an American educational reformer, slavery abolitionist and Whig politician known for his commitment to promoting public education, he is thus also known as The Father of American Education. In 1848, after public service as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, Mann was elected to the United States House of Representatives (1848–1853). From September 1852 to his death in 1859, he served as President of Antioch College.
Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn unruly American children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers, especially in the Whig Party, for building public schools. Most U.S. states adopted a version of the system Mann established in Massachusetts, especially the program for normal schools to train professional teachers. Educational historians credit Horace Mann, along with Henry Barnard and Catharine Beecher, as one of the major advocates of the Common School Movement.
Early years, family and education
Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts. His father was a farmer without much money. Mann was the great-grandson of Samuel Man.
From age ten to age twenty, he had no more than six weeks' schooling during any year, but he made use of the Franklin Public Library, the first public library in America. He enrolled at Brown University when he was twenty years old and graduated in three years as valedictorian (1819). The theme of his oration was "The Progressive Character of the Human Race." He learned Greek and Latin from Samuel Barrett, who later became a famous Unitarian minister.
Early career
Legal career
Mann studied law for a short time in Wrentham, Massachusetts and was a tutor of Latin and Greek (1820–1822) and a librarian (1821–1823) at Brown. During 1822, he also studied at Litchfield Law School and, in 1823, was admitted to the bar in Dedham, Massachusetts.
Mann defended James Allen in a robbery trial by placing a reasonable doubt in the minds of the jury by pointing out that the victim had previously identified someone else as the man who robbed him. The strategy worked, and there was a hung jury.
Massachusetts legislature
Mann was elected to the Massachusetts legislature in 1827, and in that role was active in the interests of education, public charities, and laws for the suppression of alcoholic drinks and lotteries. He established an asylum in Worcester, and in 1833 was chairman of its board of trustees. Mann continued to be returned to the legislature as a representative from Dedham until his removal to Boston in 1833. While in the legislature, he was a member and part of the time chairman of the committee for the revision of the state statutes, and a large number of salutary provisions were incorporated into the code at his suggestion. After their enactment, he was appointed one of the editors of the work and prepared its marginal notes and its references to judicial decisions. He was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate from Boston in 1835 and was its president in 1836–1837. As a member of the Senate, he spent time as the majority leader, and aimed his focus at infrastructure, funding the construction of railroads and canals.
Personal life
In 1830, Mann married Charlotte Messer, the daughter of former Brown University president Asa Messer. She died two years later on August 1, 1832; he never fully recovered from the intense grief and shock that accompanied her death.
In 1843, he married Mary Tyler Peabody. Afterward, the couple accompanied Samuel Gridley Howe and Julia Ward Howe on a dual honeymoon to Europe. They subsequently purchased a home in West Newton, Massachusetts, at the corner of Chestnut and Highland Streets. Horace and Mary had three sons: Horace Mann Jr., George Combe Mann, and Benjamin Pickman Mann.
Education reform
It was not until he was appointed Secretary in 1837 of the newly created Massachusetts Board of Education that he began the work which was to make him one of America's most influential educational reformers. Upon starting his duties, he withdrew from all other professional or business engagements as well as politics.
As Secretary of Education, Mann held teachers' conventions, delivered numerous lectures and addresses, carried on an extensive correspondence, and introduced numerous reforms. Mann persuaded his fellow modernizers, especially those in the Whig Party, to legislate tax-supported elementary public education in their states and to feminize the teaching force. To justify the new taxes Mann assured businessmen that more education in the work force made for a richer and more profitable economy.
Most northern states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers.
Mann traveled to every School in the state so he could physically examine each school ground. He planned and inaugurated the Massachusetts normal school system in Lexington (which shortly thereafter moved to Framingham), Barre (which shortly thereafter moved to Westfield) and Bridgewater, and began preparing a series of annual reports, which had a wide circulation and were considered as being "among the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of the practical benefits of a common school education both to the individual and to the state". By his advocacy of the disuse of corporal punishment in school discipline, he was involved in a controversy with some of the Boston teachers that resulted in the adoption of his views.
In 1838, he founded and edited The Common School Journal. In this journal, Mann targeted the public school and its problems. His six main principles were:
the public should no longer remain ignorant;
that such education should be paid for, controlled, and sustained by an interested public;
that this education will be best provided in schools that embrace children from a variety of backgrounds;
that this education must be non-sectarian;
that this education must be taught using the tenets of a free society; and
that education should be provided by well-trained, professional teachers.
Under the auspices of the board, but at his own expense, he went to Europe in 1843 to visit schools, especially in Prussia, and his seventh annual report, published after his return, embodied the results of his tour. Many editions of this report were printed, not only in Massachusetts but in other states, in some cases by private individuals and in others by legislatures; several editions were issued in England.
Mann hoped that by bringing all children of all classes together, they could have a common learning experience. This would also allow the less fortunate to advance in the social scale and education would "equalize the conditions of men." Moreover, it was viewed also as a road to social advancement by the early labor movement and as a goal of having common schools. Mann also suggested that having schools would help those students who did not have appropriate discipline in the home. Building a person's character was just as important as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instilling values such as obedience to authority, promptness in attendance, and organizing the time according to bell ringing helped students prepare for future employment.
Mann faced some resistance from parents who did not want to give up the moral education to teachers and bureaucrats. The normal schools trained mostly women, giving them new career opportunities as teachers. Mann believed that women were better suited for teaching, regardless of their status as a mother, and used his position to push for a feminization of the profession.
The practical result of Mann's work was a revolution in the approach used in the common school system of Massachusetts, which in turn influenced the direction of other states. In carrying out his work, Mann met with bitter opposition by some Boston schoolmasters who strongly disapproved of his innovative pedagogical ideas, and by various religious sectarians, who contended against the exclusion of all sectarian instruction from the schools.
Secular nature
As the Old Deluder Satan Act and other 17th-century Massachusetts School Laws attest, early education in Massachusetts had a clear religious intent. However, by the time of Mann's leadership in education, various developments (including a vibrant populist Protestant faith and increased religious diversity) fostered a secular school system with a religiously passive stance.
While Mann affirmed that "our Public Schools are not Theological Seminaries" and that they were "debarred by law from inculcating the peculiar and distinctive doctrines of any one religious denomination amongst us ... or all that is essential to religion or salvation," he assured those who objected to this secular nature that "our system earnestly inculcates all Christian morals; it founds its morals based on religion; it welcomes the religion of the Bible; and, in receiving the Bible, it allows it to do what it is allowed to do in no other system—to speak for itself. But here it stops, not because it claims to have compassed all truth; but because it disclaims to act as an umpire between hostile religious opinions."
Mann stated that this position resulted in a near-universal use of the Bible in the schools of Massachusetts and that this served as an argument against the assertion by some that Christianity was excluded from his schools, or that they were anti-Christian. A devotee of the pseudoscience of phrenology, Mann believed education could eliminate or reduce human failings and compensate for any biological flaws.
Mann also once stated that "it may not be easy theoretically, to draw the line between those views of religious truth and of Christian faith which is common to all, and may, therefore, with propriety be inculcated in schools, and those which, being peculiar to individual sects, are therefore by law excluded; still it is believed that no practical difficulty occurs in the conduct of our schools in this regard."
Rather than sanctioning a particular church as was often the norm in many states, the Legislature proscribed books "calculated to favor the tenets of any particular set of Christians."
Reading instruction
Like many nineteenth century reformers, Horace Mann believed that "children would find it far more interesting and pleasurable to memorize words and read short sentences and stories without having to bother to learn the names of the letters". According to Diane Ravitch, he condemned the alphabet method, claiming that it was "repulsive and soul-deadening to children". He described the letters of the alphabet as "skeleton-shaped, bloodless, ghostly apparitions". To him, teaching the alphabet was entirely illogical: "When we wish to give a child the idea of a new animal, we do not present successively the different parts of it,—an eye, an ear, the nose, the mouth, the body, or a leg: but we present a whole animal, as one object".
Mann believed that "children's earliest books should teach whole words, skipping the alphabet and the sounds of the letters", though he may have been confused between "the alphabet method of learning letters through words and a word method, now called the look-and-say method, or learning to read through saying the word as a whole".
Mann's endorsement of "word method" for reading instruction made a lasting impression on other reformers of the period, and "by 1890 the alphabet method had virtually died out". Francis Parker and John Dewey used the "word method" as one of the features of the "Progressive" system of education. As Nancy Millichap notes, "Despite the enthusiasm of educators for their new methods of teaching, the illiteracy rate remained high. Among American soldiers enlisted in World War I, 24.9 percent proved unable to read or write, and during World War II approximately the same percentage of British servicemen were found to be similarly handicapped. In 1940, one-third of high school students were incapable of mastering reading and writing well enough to profit from textbook instruction, and one half of the adult population in the United States was functionally illiterate".
The backlash against "word method" culminated in a 1955 book Why Johnny Can't Read by Rudolf Flesch, in which he condemned this method for "treating children as if they were dogs" and recommended returning to teaching phonics. Nevertheless, the "ill-informed, ineffective reading instruction" remains the norm in American colleges of education and, accordingly, in American elementary schools.
Emulation of the Prussian system
Main article: Prussian education system § United States
Upon becoming the secretary of education of Massachusetts in 1837, Mann worked to create a statewide system of professional teachers, based on the Prussian model of "common schools." Prussia was attempting to develop a system of education by which all students were entitled to the same content in their public classes. Mann initially focused on elementary education and on training teachers. The common-school movement quickly gained strength across the North. Connecticut adopted a similar system in 1849, and Massachusetts passed a compulsory attendance law in 1852. Mann's crusading style attracted wide middle-class support. Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts:
No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends.
An important technique which Mann had learned in Prussia and introduced in Massachusetts in 1848 was to place students in grades by age. They were assigned by age to different grades and progressed through them, regardless of differences of aptitude. In addition, he used the lecture method common in European universities, which required students to receive professional instruction rather than teach one another. Previously, schools had often had groups of students who ranged in age from 6 to 14 years. With the introduction of age grading, multi-aged classrooms all but disappeared. Some students progressed with their grade and completed all courses the secondary school had to offer. These were "graduated," and were awarded a certificate of completion. This was increasingly done at a ceremony imitating college graduation rituals.
Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval for building public schools from modernizers, especially among fellow Whigs. Most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train professional teachers. This quickly developed into a widespread form of school which later became known as the factory model school.
A Whig in Congress
In the spring of 1848 he was elected to the United States Congress as a Whig to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy Adams. His first speech in that role was in advocacy of its right and duty to exclude slavery from the territories, and in a letter, in December of that year, he said: "I think the country is to experience serious times. Interference with slavery will excite civil commotion in the South. But it is best to interfere. Now is the time to see whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel." Again he said: "I really think if we insist upon passing the Wilmot proviso for the territories that the south—a part of them—will rebel; but I would pass it, rebellion or not. I consider no evil so great as the extension of slavery."
During the first session, he volunteered as counsel for Drayton and Sayres, who were indicted for stealing 76 slaves in the District of Columbia, and at the trial was engaged for 21 successive days in their defense. In 1850, he was engaged in a controversy with Daniel Webster concerning the extension of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law, calling Webster's support for the Compromise of 1850 a "vile catastrophe", and comparing him to "Lucifer descending from Heaven". Mann was defeated by a single vote at the ensuing nominating convention by Webster's supporters; but, on appealing to the people as an independent anti-slavery candidate, he was re-elected, serving from April 1848 until March 1853.
Abolitionism
Mann was a staunch opponent of slavery as a member of Congress; in a written address to an 1852 "Convention of the Colored Freemen of Ohio" he stated: hat slavery is to continue always, it would be the grossest atheism to affirm. A belief in the existence of a just Governor of the Universe, includes a belief in the final and utter abolition of slavery." In the same address he opposed plans to forcibly deport freedmen from the United States to other nations:
"The idea of forcibly expelling the American born negro from the place of his birth and residence, and driving him out of the country against his will, is as abhorrent to my notions of justice and equality, as it can be to those of anyone. The next most cruel thing to kidnapping a race of men, forcing them from their home and dooming them to slavery in a foreign land, would be the seizure of the descendants of that race, and driving them from the new home they had acquired. So great a crime as this second expatriation would be, could hardly be conceived unless by a mind that had prepared itself for it by participating in the commission of the first." Mann considered there to be three legitimate methods by which the Africans in captivity in the US could emancipate themselves, including, as a last resort, that "such as our revolutionary fathers adopted against Great Britain not only with the justification but with the approval of the civilized world. For this there are two conditions: a sufficient degree of oppression to authorize an appeal to force, and a chance, on the part of the oppressed, of bettering their condition. The measure of the first condition is already full - heaped up - running over. The second condition will be fulfilled, either when the slaves believe they can obtain their freedom by force, or when they are so elevated and enlarged in their moral conceptions as to appreciate that glorious supplication of Patrick Henry, 'Give me liberty or give me death!'" Mann's preferred method for the self-emancipation of the slaves was that free blacks should voluntarily form all-black communities of their own - either in Jamaica or in another Caribbean nation - or perhaps in the American West - in which men like Frederick Douglass, Henry Bibb and Henry Box Brown "instead of making speeches might be making laws. Instead of commanding the types of a newspaper press might be commanding armies and navies" and could more effectively organize the liberation of their enslaved brethren in the U.S. from these strongholds.
Leadership of Antioch College and last years
Original daguerreotype of Rep. Mann (Mass.) from Mathew Brady's a studio, c. 1849
In September 1852, he was nominated for governor of Massachusetts by the Free Soil Party, and the same day was chosen president of the newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio. Failing in the election for governor, he accepted the presidency of the college, which he continued until his death. There he taught economics, philosophy, and theology; he was popular with students and with lay audiences across the Midwest who attended his lectures promoting public schools. Mann also employed the first female faculty member to be paid on an equal basis with her male colleagues, Rebecca Pennell, his niece. His commencement message to the class of 1859 was to "Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity".
Antioch College was founded by the Christian Connexion, which later withdrew its financial support causing the college to struggle for many years with meager financial resources due to sectarian infighting. Mann himself was charged with nonadherence to sectarianism because, previously a Congregationalist by upbringing, he joined the Unitarian Church.
Mann was also drawn to Antioch because it was a coeducational institution, among the first in the country to teach men and women in the same classes, Mann and his wife had conflicts with female students, however, who came to Yellow Springs in search of greater equality. The young women chafed at restrictions on their behavior, and wanted to meet with men in literary societies, which Mann and his wife opposed.
He collapsed shortly after the 1859 commencement and died that summer of typhoid fever. Antioch historian Robert Straker wrote that Mann had been "crucified by crusading sectarians." Ralph Waldo Emerson lamented "what seems the fatal waste of labor and life at Antioch." Mann's wife, who wrote in anguish that "the blood of martyrdom waters the spot," later disinterred his body from Yellow Springs. He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island, next to his first wife.
Legacy
Historians treat Mann as one of the most important leaders of education reform in the antebellum period.
Commemoration
Mann on a 1940 stamp from the Famous Americans series
Many places around the world are named after Mann. Among them are more than 50 public schools in the United States.
Statue of Horace Mann (1863) by Emma Stebbins
Horace Mann's statue stands in front of the Massachusetts State House along with that of Daniel Webster.
At Antioch College, a monument carries his quote, which has been recently adopted as the college motto: "Be Ashamed to Die Until You Have Won Some Victory for Humanity."
The University of Northern Colorado named the gates to their campus in his dedication, a gift of the Class of 1910.
The Springfield, Illinois-based Illinois Education Association Mutual Insurance Company, was renamed in honor of Mann in 1950 as the Horace Mann Educators Corporation.
Pittsburg State University in Pittsburg, Kansas, has a building named Horace Mann School. It currently houses the Student Welcoming Center.
In Massachusetts, public charter schools that are authorized by local school districts are known as Horace Mann charters.
Horace Mann School, the Bronx, New York City
Brown University Graduate School awards an annual Horace Mann Medal to one of its alumni.
Schools
Horace Mann Academy, Chicago, Illinois
Horace Mann Elementary School, Anaheim, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Bakersfield, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Bayonne, New Jersey
Horace Mann Elementary School, Beverly Hills, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Binghamton, New York
Horace Mann Elementary School (closed), Canton, Ohio
Horace Mann Elementary School, Cherry Hill, New Jersey
Horace Mann Elementary School, Dayton, Ohio
Horace Mann Elementary School, Duncan, Oklahoma
Horace Mann Elementary School, Fargo, North Dakota
Horace Mann Elementary School, Glendale, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Hominy, Oklahoma
Horace Mann Elementary School, Huntington, Indiana
Horace Mann Elementary School, Indiana, Pennsylvania
Horace Mann Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa
Horace Mann Elementary School, Lakewood, Ohio
Horace Mann Elementary School, Melrose, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Elementary School, Newton, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Elementary School, North Bergen, New Jersey
Horace Mann Elementary School, Oakland, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Oak Park, Illinois
Horace Mann Elementary School, Ogden, Utah
Horace Mann Elementary School, Ottumwa, Iowa
Horace Mann Elementary School (closed), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Horace Mann Elementary School, Rapid City, South Dakota
Horace Mann Elementary School, Redmond, Washington
Horace Mann Elementary (now Lincoln K-8) School, Rochester, Minnesota
Horace Mann Elementary School, Saint Paul, Minnesota
Horace Mann Elementary School, San Jose, California
Horace Mann Elementary School, Sedalia, Missouri
Horace Mann Elementary School, Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Horace Mann Elementary School, Springfield, Ohio
Horace Mann Elementary School, St Joseph, Missouri
Horace Mann Elementary School, Washington, D.C.
Horace Mann Elementary School, West Allis, Wisconsin
Horace Mann Elementary School, Woodward, Oklahoma
Horace Mann Lab School, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, Missouri
Horace Mann Middle School, Abilene, Texas
Horace Mann Middle School, Amarillo, Texas
Horace Mann Junior School, Baytown, Texas
Horace Mann Middle School, Brandon, Florida
Horace Mann Middle School, Charleston, West Virginia
Horace Mann Middle School, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Horace Mann Middle School, El Portal, Florida
Horace Mann Middle School, Franklin, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Middle School, Neenah, Wisconsin
Horace Mann Middle School, North Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin
Horace Mann Middle School, San Diego, California Horace Mann Hall, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas
Horace Mann Middle School, Sheboygan, Wisconsin
Horace Mann Middle School, Wausau, Wisconsin
Horace Mann High School, North Fond du Lac, Wisconsin
Horace Mann School, Bronx, New York
Horace Mann School, Amesbury, Massachusetts
Horace Mann School, Seattle, Washington
Horace Mann School, Salem, Massachusetts
Horace Mann School for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, Allston, Massachusetts
Mann Arts and Science Magnet Middle School, Little Rock, Arkansas
Mann Elementary School, Long Beach, California
Mann Elementary School, St. Louis, Missouri
Mann Elementary School, Tacoma, Washington
P.S. 90 - Horace Mann, Queens, New York
Trevista at Horace Mann Elementary School, Denver, CO
Buena Vista Horace Mann K-8, San Francisco, California
Horace Mann House at Brown University, Mann's alma mater
College and university buildings
Horace Mann Auditorium, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Building, East Central University in Ada, Oklahoma
Horace Mann Building, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas
Horace Mann Center, Westfield State University in Westfield, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Hall, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City
Horace Mann Hall, Framingham State University, Framingham, Massachusetts
Horace Mann Hall, Rhode Island College, Providence, Rhode Island
Horace Mann House, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
Works
A Few Thoughts for a Young Man (Boston, 1850)
Slavery: Letters and Speeches (1851)
Powers and Duties of Woman (1853)
Sermons (1861)
Life and Complete Works of Horace Mann (2 vols., Cambridge, 1869)
Thoughts Selected from the Writings of Horace Mann (1869)
The Case for Public Schools
Mann, Horace. The Life and Works of Horace Mann, with an introduction by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann.
See also
History of education in Massachusetts
References
^ Carleton, David (2009). "Horace Mann".
^ a b c Groen, Mark (Spring–Summer 2008). "The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 1837–1854". American Educational History Journal. 35 (1/2): 251–260.
^ Good, Thomas L. (2008). 21st century education: a reference handbook. p. 267.
^ a b "Horace Mann | American educator". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
^ Yale University (1921). Obiturary Record of Graduates. Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company. p. 579. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved April 25, 2021.
^ a b Tarbell, Isa Arlington (1900). "Mann, Horace" . In Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J. (eds.). Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
^ McFarland, Philip (2004). Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7.
^ "Horace Mann | Biography & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on June 25, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
^ "Samuel Barrett". uudb.org. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mann, Horace". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 587.
^ Catalogue of the Litchfield Law School. Hartford, Connecticut: Press of Case, Tiffany and Company. 1849.
^ a b Parr 2009, p. 39.
^ Hanson 1976, p. 225.
^ Mondale, Sarah (2001). School: The Story of American Public Education. New York: Beacon.
^ McFarland, Philip (2004). Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press. p. 73. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7.
^ "Allen Family Papers 1846-1915". Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
^ "Horace Mann Papers". Massachusetts Historical Society. Archived from the original on June 8, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
^ Maris A. Vinovskis, "Horace Mann on the Economic Productivity of Education." New England Quarterly (1970) 43#4 pp. 550–571. online
^ Hinsdale (1898).
^ Mintz, S.; McNeil, S. (2016). "The Struggle for Public Schools". Digital History. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 11, 2015.
^ Eisenmann, Linda (1988). Historical dictionary of women's education in the United States. p. 259.
^ S., Sugg, Redding (1978). Motherteacher : the feminization of American education. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0813907578. OCLC 3708082.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Glenn, Myra (1984). Campaigns Against Corporal Punishment. SUNY Press. pp. 104–6. ISBN 0-87395-813-6.
^ Monsma, Stephen V.; Soper, J. Christopher (September 5, 2008). "2. The United States". The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 18–22. ISBN 9780742557406.
^ Mann, Horace (1849). Twelfth Annual Report for 1848 of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts. pp. 116, 177, 121, 122. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved November 12, 2020.
^ Dana., Goldstein (2015). The teacher wars: a history of America's most embattled profession (First Anchor books ed.). New York. ISBN 9780345803627. OCLC 895117195.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Massachusetts Board of Education (1838) . Annual Report of the Board of Education. pp. 14, 15. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved November 12, 2020.
^ a b c d e Ravitch, Diane (2000). "Chapter 9: The great meltdown". Left back: a century of failed school reforms. Simon & Schuster. pp. 356–357. ISBN 0-684-84417-6.
^ Mathews, Mitford (1966). "From a lecture delivered by Mann in 1841". Teaching to Read, Historically Considered. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 76–81. ASIN B000Z58E5S.
^ a b Millichap, Nancy (1986). "Dyslexia, theories of causation and methods of management: an historical perspective". Loyola University Chicago.
^ Emily Hanford (September 10, 2018). "Hard Words: Why aren't kids being taught to read?". APM. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2020.
^ Peterson, Paul E. (2010). Saving Schools: From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning. pp. 21–36.
^ Messerli, Jonathan (1972). Horace Mann: A Biography.
^ Cubberley, Ellwood P. (1919). Public Education in the United States. p. 167.
^ See in Hunt, Thomas C., ed. (2010). "Age Grading". Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent. Vol. 2. p. 33. ISBN 9781412956642.
^ Groen, Mark (2008). "The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 1837–1854". American Educational History Journal. 35 (1/2): 251–260.
^ Mann, Horace (1848). Speech of Horace Mann, on the right of Congress to legislate for the territories of the United States, and its duty to exclude slavery therefrom. Boston: William B. Fowle.
^ James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Mckinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896 (1892) vol 1, Page 132. online
^ "U.S. Senate: Speech Costs Senator His Seat". Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
^ Kennedy (2004). Profiles in Courage. pp. 69–70.
^ Mann, Horace (December 31, 1851). "Letter, Horace Mann to 1852 Convention of the Colored Freemen of Ohio". Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries: W.E.B. Du Bois Papers. David Graham Du Bois Trust. pp. 19–23. Archived from the original on January 30, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2022. However disastrous may be the result of the first, or the tenth, or the hundredth struggle on the part of the slave; however many of the colored Hancocks and Adams' of that revolution may be singled out for vengeance and placed beyond the reach of pardon each death will be transfigured into a multitude of more glorious lives, and for every drop of heroic blood which the earth shall drink, it will send back an armed man.
^ "Antioch College - Winning Victories Grant". alumni.antiochcollege.edu. Archived from the original on December 17, 2019. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
^ Rury, John; Harper, Glenn (Winter 1986). "Mann and Women at Antioch". History of Education Quarterly. 26 (4): 481. doi:10.2307/369009. JSTOR 369009. S2CID 144827867.
^ Clark, Burton R. (1970). The Distinctive College. Adline Publishing Co. p. 16.
^ Horace Mann
^ Finkelstein, Barbara (Winter 1990). "Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States". Biography. 13 (1): 6–20. doi:10.1353/bio.2010.0400. S2CID 144976387.
^ Hunt, Thomas C. (2005). Moral Education in America's Schools. pp. 31–48.
^ Downs, R. B. (1974). Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools.
^ "Search for Public Schools - Search Results". nces.ed.gov. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2021.
^ "University History: A Photographic History of UNC". University of Northern Colorado. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
^ "Horace Mann Medal | Graduate School". www.brown.edu. Archived from the original on May 31, 2022. Retrieved June 6, 2022.
^ "Horace Mann Elementary". Hominy Public Schools. Archived from the original on April 15, 2017. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
^ "What Happens When A Neighborhood Loses Its School?". 90.5 WESA. October 24, 2018. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2021.
^ "Pages - default". public.rcas.org. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
^ "Horace Mann Junior High School Home Page". Goose Creek Independent School District. Archived from the original on December 31, 2021. Retrieved December 31, 2021.
^ "Middle Schools - Wausau School District". www.wausauschools.org. Archived from the original on September 2, 2014.
Works cited
Hanson, Robert Brand (1976). Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890. Dedham Historical Society.
Parr, James L. (2009). Dedham: Historic and Heroic Tales From Shiretown. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-750-0.
Further reading
Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The National Experience (1982).
Curti, Merle. The Social Ideas of American Educators (1935) pp. 101–38 online
Downs, Robert B. Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools (1974) online
Finkelstein, Barbara. "Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States," Biography, Winter 1990, Vol. 13#1 pp. 6–20
Hinsdale, Burke A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States (New York, 1898), in the Great Educators series online
Kalvin, Louis. "The Educational Philosophy of Horace Mann" (PhD dissertation, New York University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1936 7303222).
Kendall, Kathleen Edgerton. "Education as 'The Balance Wheel of Social Machinery': Horace Mann's Arguments and Proofs," Quarterly Journal of Speech (1968) 54#1 pp. 13–21.
Messerli, Jonathan. Horace Mann; a biography (1972) online, a standard scholarly biography
Messerli, Jonathan. "The Early Education of Horace Mann: Home, Meeting House, and Village" Historian (1967) 29#3.
Murphy, Garry Paul. "Professional development of Massachusetts school teachers: An examination of the Horace Mann Teacher Program" (PhD dissertation, Boston College; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1990. 9101677).
Peterson, Paul E. Saving schools: From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning (Harvard University Press, 2010)
Stornello, Joe Allen. "Horace Mann and twentieth-century educational historians: Problems of ideology and knowledge in historical texts" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri - Kansas City; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9900319).
Taylor, Bob Pepperman. Horace Mann's Troubling Legacy: The Education of Democratic Citizens (University Press of Kansas, 2010).
Vinovskis, Maris A. "Horace Mann on the Economic Productivity of Education," New England Quarterly (1970) 43#4 pp. 550–571. online
Whiting, George C. "Horace Mann: A comparison of a traditional and a revisionist biography" (PhD dissertation, The College of William and Mary; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1989. 8923063).
Woodworth, Jed. "Horace Mann and the Revolution in American Childhood" (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin - Madison; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2016. 10190139).
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Horace Mann.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Horace Mann.
United States Congress. "Horace Mann (id: M000102)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Mission & History. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.antiochcollege.edu/about/mission_and_history.html
The Horace Mann Center Archived August 21, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at Westfield State College
Horace Mann on Education and National Welfare at the Wayback Machine (archived December 17, 2016)
Mann's contribution's to education at the Wayback Machine (archived December 6, 2013)
Works by Horace Mann at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Party political offices
Preceded byJohn G. Palfrey
Free Soil nominee for Governor of Massachusetts 1852
Succeeded byHenry Wilson
U.S. House of Representatives
Preceded byJohn Quincy Adams
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 8th congressional district April 3, 1848 – March 3, 1853
Succeeded byTappan Wentworth
vtePresidents of the Massachusetts Senate
Cushing
Powell
Adams
S. Phillips
Adams
Cobb
Otis
J. Bacon
S. Dana
Otis
S. Dana
J. Phillips
Silsbee
Mills
S. Leland
Lathrop
Fowler
Saltonstall
Thorndike
Pickman
Bliss
Mann
M. Lawrence
King
Quincy
P. Leland
Robinson
Quincy
Lincoln
Calhoun
Scudder
Bell
Wilder
Wilson
Warren
Cook
Benchley
Baker
Upham
Phelps
Claflin
Clifford
Field
Pond
Brastow
Pitman
Brastow
H. Coolidge
Loring
Cogswell
Bishop
Crocker
Bruce
Pillsbury
Boardman
Hartwell
Sprague
Pinkerton
Butler
G. Lawrence
Smith
Soule
Jones
W. Dana
Chapple
Treadway
Greenwood
C. Coolidge
H. Wells
McKnight
Allen
W. Wells
G. Bacon
Fish
Moran
Wragg
Cotton
Goodwin
Hunt
A. Coolidge
Nicholson
Richardson
Dolan
Richardson
Furbush
Holmes
Powers
Donahue
Harrington
Bulger
Birmingham
Travaglini
Murray
Rosenberg
Chandler
Spilka
vteMembers of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts1st district
F. Ames
Dexter
Goodhue
Holten
Sedgwick
Skinner
Sedgwick
J. Bacon
Eustis
Quincy
Ward Jr.
Mason
Gorham
Webster
Gorham
N. Appleton
Gorham
A. Lawrence
Fletcher
A. Lawrence
Winthrop
N. Appleton
Winthrop
S. Eliot
W. Appleton
Scudder
T. D. Eliot
Hall
T. D. Eliot
Buffington
Crapo
R. Davis
Randall
Wright
G. Lawrence
Treadway
Heselton
Conte
Olver
Neal
2nd district
Goodhue
Foster
W. Lyman
Sedgwick
Ward Sr.
W. Lyman
Shepard
J. Crowninshield
Story
Pickman
W. Reed
Pickering
Silsbee
Barstow
B. Crowninshield
Choate
Phillips
Saltonstall
D. King
Rantoul
Fay
Crocker
Buffington
O. Ames
Harris
Long
E. Morse
Gillett
Churchill
Bowles
Kaynor
Granfield
Clason
Furcolo
Boland
Neal
McGovern
3rd district
Gerry
Bourne
Coffin
S. Lyman
Mattoon
Cutler
Nelson
Livermore
White
Pickering
Nelson
Varnum
Nelson
Osgood
Cushing
A. Abbott
Duncan
Edmands
Damrell
C. Adams
Thomas
A. Rice
Twichell
Whiting I
Pierce
Field
B. Dean
Field
Ranney
L. Morse
J. Andrew
Walker
J. R. Thayer
R. Hoar
C. Washburn
J. A. Thayer
Wilder
Paige
F. Foss
Casey
Philbin
Drinan
Donohue
Early
Blute
McGovern
N. Tsongas
Trahan
4th district
Sedgwick
Dearborn
G. Thatcher
Wadsworth
Foster
L. Lincoln Sr.
Hastings
Varnum
W. Richardson
Dana
Stearns
Fuller
E. Everett
Sa. Hoar
Parmenter
Thompson
Palfrey
Thompson
Sabine
Walley
Comins
A. Rice
Hooper
Frost
J. Abbott
L. Morse
Collins
O'Neil
Apsley
Weymouth
Tirrell
Mitchell
Wilder
Winslow
Stobbs
P. Holmes
Donohue
Drinan
Frank
Kennedy III
Auchincloss
5th district
Partridge
Bourne
Freeman
L. Williams
T. Dwight
Ely
Mills
Lathrop
Sibley
J. Davis
L. Lincoln Jr.
Hudson
C. Allen
W. Appleton
Burlingame
W. Appleton
Hooper
Alley
Butler
Gooch
Banks
Bowman
L. Morse
Hayden
Banks
Sh. Hoar
Stevens
Knox
B. Ames
J. Rogers
E. Rogers
B. Morse
Cronin
P. Tsongas
Shannon
Atkins
Meehan
N. Tsongas
Markey
Clark
6th district
G. Thatcher
Leonard
J. Reed Sr.
J. Smith
Taggart
S. Allen
Locke
Kendall
Grennell
Alvord
Baker
Ashmun
G. Davis
Upham
T. Davis
Alley
Gooch
Banks
Butler
Thompson
Loring
Stone
Lovering
Lodge
Cogswell
Moody
Gardner
Lufkin
A.P. Andrew
G. Bates
W. Bates
Harrington
Mavroules
Torkildsen
Tierney
Moulton
7th district
Leonard
Ward Sr.
Leonard
Bullock
Bishop
Mitchell
Barker
Baylies
Turner
Baylies
Hulbert
Shaw
H. Dwight
S. Allen
Grennell
Briggs
J. Rockwell
Goodrich
Banks
Gooch
Boutwell
Brooks
Esty
E. Hoar
Tarbox
Butler
W. Russell
Stone
Cogswell
W. Everett
Barrett
Roberts
Phelan
Maloney
W. Connery
L. Connery
Lane
Macdonald
Markey
Capuano
Pressley
8th district
Grout
G. Thatcher
F. Ames
Otis
Eustis
L. Williams
Green
Gardner
Green
J. Reed Jr.
Baylies
Sampson
Hobart
Lathrop
Bates
Calhoun
J. Adams
Mann
Wentworth
Knapp
Train
Baldwin
G. Hoar
J. M. S. Williams
Warren
Claflin
Candler
W Russell
C. H. Allen
Greenhalge
Stevens
McCall
Deitrick
Dallinger
H. Thayer
Dallinger
Healey
Goodwin
Macdonald
O'Neill
Kennedy II
Capuano
Lynch
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Varnum
Bishop
J. Dean
Wheaton
J. Reed Jr.
Folger
J. Reed Jr.
H. Dwight
Briggs
Jackson
Hastings
H. Williams
Hale
Fowler
Little
De Witt
E. Thayer
Bailey
A. Walker
W. Washburn
Crocker
G. Hoar
W. Rice
T. Lyman
Ely
Burnett
Candler
G. Williams
O'Neil
Fitzgerald
Conry
Keliher
Murray
Roberts
Fuller
Underhill
Luce
R. Russell
Luce
T. H. Eliot
Gifford
Nicholson
Keith
McCormack
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Moakley
Lynch
Keating
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Goodhue
Sewall
Read
Hastings
Upham
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Brigham
Wheaton
Morton
F Baylies
Bailey
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Borden
H. Williams
Borden
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Scudder
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J. Walker
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Tague
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Herter
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Martin
Heckler
Studds
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Keating
11th district
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A. Bigelow
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J. Russell
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J. Richardson
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Trafton
Dawes
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Robinson
Whiting II
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Coolidge
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Sullivan
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Curley
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O'Neill
Burke
Donnelly
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Bacon
Dewey
Hulbert
Strong
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Wilson
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J. Parker
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Horace Mann School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_School"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"abolitionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionist"},{"link_name":"Whig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"public education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_education"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts State Board of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Board_of_Education"},{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Antioch College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch_College"},{"link_name":"republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Whig Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"U.S. states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"normal schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_school"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mark_Groen_1854,_pp_251%E2%80%93260-2"},{"link_name":"Henry Barnard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Barnard"},{"link_name":"Catharine Beecher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharine_Beecher"},{"link_name":"Common School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_School"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For the school also called \"Horace Mann\", see Horace Mann School. For other people, see Horace Mann (disambiguation).Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 – August 2, 1859) was an American educational reformer, slavery abolitionist and Whig politician known for his commitment to promoting public education, he is thus also known as The Father of American Education.[1] In 1848, after public service as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, Mann was elected to the United States House of Representatives (1848–1853). From September 1852 to his death in 1859, he served as President of Antioch College.Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn unruly American children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers, especially in the Whig Party, for building public schools. Most U.S. states adopted a version of the system Mann established in Massachusetts, especially the program for normal schools to train professional teachers.[2] Educational historians credit Horace Mann, along with Henry Barnard and Catharine Beecher, as one of the major advocates of the Common School Movement.[3]","title":"Horace Mann"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Franklin, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"Samuel Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Man"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-University1921-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Appleton-6"},{"link_name":"Franklin Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Public_Library_(Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Appleton-6"},{"link_name":"Samuel Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Barrett_(minister)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Unitarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Unitarian_Association"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Horace Mann was born in Franklin, Massachusetts.[4] His father was a farmer without much money. Mann was the great-grandson of Samuel Man.[5]From age ten to age twenty, he had no more than six weeks' schooling during any year,[6] but he made use of the Franklin Public Library, the first public library in America. He enrolled at Brown University when he was twenty years old and graduated in three years[7] as valedictorian (1819). The theme of his oration was \"The Progressive Character of the Human Race.\"[6] He learned Greek and Latin from Samuel Barrett,[8] who later became a famous Unitarian minister.[9]","title":"Early years, family and education"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Early career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wrentham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrentham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Litchfield Law School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litchfield_Law_School"},{"link_name":"Dedham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"James Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Allen_(highwayman)"},{"link_name":"reasonable doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParr200939-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanson1976225-13"},{"link_name":"hung jury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_jury"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParr200939-12"}],"sub_title":"Legal career","text":"Mann studied law for a short time in Wrentham, Massachusetts and was a tutor of Latin and Greek (1820–1822) and a librarian (1821–1823) at Brown. During 1822, he also studied at Litchfield Law School and, in 1823, was admitted to the bar in Dedham, Massachusetts.[10][11]Mann defended James Allen in a robbery trial by placing a reasonable doubt in the minds of the jury by pointing out that the victim had previously identified someone else as the man who robbed him.[12][13] The strategy worked, and there was a hung jury.[12]","title":"Early career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"laws for the suppression of alcoholic drinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States#Origins"},{"link_name":"Worcester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts State Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_State_Senate"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Massachusetts legislature","text":"Mann was elected to the Massachusetts legislature in 1827, and in that role was active in the interests of education, public charities, and laws for the suppression of alcoholic drinks and lotteries. He established an asylum in Worcester, and in 1833 was chairman of its board of trustees. Mann continued to be returned to the legislature as a representative from Dedham until his removal to Boston in 1833. While in the legislature, he was a member and part of the time chairman of the committee for the revision of the state statutes, and a large number of salutary provisions were incorporated into the code at his suggestion. After their enactment, he was appointed one of the editors of the work and prepared its marginal notes and its references to judicial decisions. He was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate from Boston in 1835 and was its president in 1836–1837. As a member of the Senate, he spent time as the majority leader, and aimed his focus at infrastructure, funding the construction of railroads and canals.[4][14]","title":"Early career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Asa Messer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa_Messer"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Mary Tyler Peabody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Tyler_Peabody_Mann"},{"link_name":"Samuel Gridley Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Gridley_Howe"},{"link_name":"Julia Ward Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Ward_Howe"},{"link_name":"West Newton, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Newton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_Jr."},{"link_name":"Benjamin Pickman Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Pickman_Mann"}],"text":"In 1830, Mann married Charlotte Messer, the daughter of former Brown University president Asa Messer. She died two years later on August 1, 1832; he never fully recovered from the intense grief and shock that accompanied her death.[15]In 1843, he married Mary Tyler Peabody. Afterward, the couple accompanied Samuel Gridley Howe and Julia Ward Howe on a dual honeymoon to Europe. They subsequently purchased a home in West Newton, Massachusetts, at the corner of Chestnut and Highland Streets.[16][17] Horace and Mary had three sons: Horace Mann Jr., George Combe Mann, and Benjamin Pickman Mann.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Massachusetts Board of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Education"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-10"},{"link_name":"Whig Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"normal schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_schools"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mark_Groen_1854,_pp_251%E2%80%93260-2"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"normal school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_school"},{"link_name":"Lexington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framingham_State_College"},{"link_name":"Barre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield_State_College"},{"link_name":"Bridgewater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_State_College"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hinsdale-19"},{"link_name":"corporal punishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal_punishment"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"non-sectarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-sectarian"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"feminization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminisation_of_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-10"}],"text":"It was not until he was appointed Secretary in 1837 of the newly created Massachusetts Board of Education that he began the work which was to make him one of America's most influential educational reformers.[10] Upon starting his duties, he withdrew from all other professional or business engagements as well as politics.As Secretary of Education, Mann held teachers' conventions, delivered numerous lectures and addresses, carried on an extensive correspondence, and introduced numerous reforms. Mann persuaded his fellow modernizers, especially those in the Whig Party, to legislate tax-supported elementary public education in their states and to feminize the teaching force. To justify the new taxes Mann assured businessmen that more education in the work force made for a richer and more profitable economy.[18]Most northern states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for \"normal schools\" to train professional teachers.[2]Mann traveled to every School in the state so he could physically examine each school ground.[citation needed] He planned and inaugurated the Massachusetts normal school system in Lexington (which shortly thereafter moved to Framingham), Barre (which shortly thereafter moved to Westfield) and Bridgewater, and began preparing a series of annual reports, which had a wide circulation and were considered as being \"among the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of the practical benefits of a common school education both to the individual and to the state\".[19] By his advocacy of the disuse of corporal punishment in school discipline, he was involved in a controversy with some of the Boston teachers that resulted in the adoption of his views.[20]In 1838, he founded and edited The Common School Journal. In this journal, Mann targeted the public school and its problems. His six main principles were:the public should no longer remain ignorant;\nthat such education should be paid for, controlled, and sustained by an interested public;\nthat this education will be best provided in schools that embrace children from a variety of backgrounds;\nthat this education must be non-sectarian;\nthat this education must be taught using the tenets of a free society; and\nthat education should be provided by well-trained, professional teachers.Under the auspices of the board, but at his own expense, he went to Europe in 1843 to visit schools, especially in Prussia, and his seventh annual report, published after his return, embodied the results of his tour. Many editions of this report were printed, not only in Massachusetts but in other states, in some cases by private individuals and in others by legislatures; several editions were issued in England.Mann hoped that by bringing all children of all classes together, they could have a common learning experience. This would also allow the less fortunate to advance in the social scale and education would \"equalize the conditions of men.\" Moreover, it was viewed also as a road to social advancement by the early labor movement and as a goal of having common schools. Mann also suggested that having schools would help those students who did not have appropriate discipline in the home. Building a person's character was just as important as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instilling values such as obedience to authority, promptness in attendance, and organizing the time according to bell ringing helped students prepare for future employment.Mann faced some resistance from parents who did not want to give up the moral education to teachers and bureaucrats. The normal schools trained mostly women, giving them new career opportunities as teachers.[21] Mann believed that women were better suited for teaching, regardless of their status as a mother, and used his position to push for a feminization of the profession.[22]The practical result of Mann's work was a revolution in the approach used in the common school system of Massachusetts, which in turn influenced the direction of other states. In carrying out his work, Mann met with bitter opposition by some Boston schoolmasters who strongly disapproved of his innovative pedagogical ideas,[23] and by various religious sectarians, who contended against the exclusion of all sectarian instruction from the schools.[10]","title":"Education reform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Massachusetts School Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_School_Laws"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"phrenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Secular nature","text":"As the Old Deluder Satan Act and other 17th-century Massachusetts School Laws attest, early education in Massachusetts had a clear religious intent. However, by the time of Mann's leadership in education, various developments (including a vibrant populist Protestant faith and increased religious diversity) fostered a secular school system with a religiously passive stance.[24]While Mann affirmed that \"our Public Schools are not Theological Seminaries\" and that they were \"debarred by law from inculcating the peculiar and distinctive doctrines of any one religious denomination amongst us ... or all that is essential to religion or salvation,\" he assured those who objected to this secular nature that \"our system earnestly inculcates all Christian morals; it founds its morals based on religion; it welcomes the religion of the Bible; and, in receiving the Bible, it allows it to do what it is allowed to do in no other system—to speak for itself. But here it stops, not because it claims to have compassed all truth; but because it disclaims to act as an umpire between hostile religious opinions.\"Mann stated that this position resulted in a near-universal use of the Bible in the schools of Massachusetts and that this served as an argument against the assertion by some that Christianity was excluded from his schools, or that they were anti-Christian.[25] A devotee of the pseudoscience of phrenology, Mann believed education could eliminate or reduce human failings and compensate for any biological flaws.[26]Mann also once stated that \"it may not be easy theoretically, to draw the line between those views of religious truth and of Christian faith which is common to all, and may, therefore, with propriety be inculcated in schools, and those which, being peculiar to individual sects, are therefore by law excluded; still it is believed that no practical difficulty occurs in the conduct of our schools in this regard.\"Rather than sanctioning a particular church as was often the norm in many states, the Legislature proscribed books \"calculated to favor the tenets of any particular set of Christians.\"[27]","title":"Education reform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ravitch-left-back-28"},{"link_name":"Diane Ravitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane_Ravitch"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ravitch-left-back-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ravitch-left-back-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ravitch-left-back-28"},{"link_name":"look-and-say","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_language"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-millichap-dyslexia-30"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ravitch-left-back-28"},{"link_name":"Francis Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Wayland_Parker"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"\"Progressive\" system of education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_education"},{"link_name":"mastering reading and writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy"},{"link_name":"functionally illiterate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_illiteracy"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-millichap-dyslexia-30"},{"link_name":"word method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_language"},{"link_name":"Why Johnny Can't Read","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Johnny_Can%27t_Read"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Flesch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Flesch"},{"link_name":"phonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonics"},{"link_name":"colleges of education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_education"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Reading instruction","text":"Like many nineteenth century reformers, Horace Mann believed that \"children would find it far more interesting and pleasurable to memorize words and read short sentences and stories without having to bother to learn the names of the letters\".[28] According to Diane Ravitch, he condemned the alphabet method, claiming that it was \"repulsive and soul-deadening to children\".[28] He described the letters of the alphabet as \"skeleton-shaped, bloodless, ghostly apparitions\".[28] To him, teaching the alphabet was entirely illogical: \"When we wish to give a child the idea of a new animal, we do not present successively the different parts of it,—an eye, an ear, the nose, the mouth, the body, or a leg: but we present a whole animal, as one object\".[29]Mann believed that \"children's earliest books should teach whole words, skipping the alphabet and the sounds of the letters\",[28] though he may have been confused between \"the alphabet method of learning letters through words and a word method, now called the look-and-say method, or learning to read through saying the word as a whole\".[30]Mann's endorsement of \"word method\" for reading instruction made a lasting impression on other reformers of the period, and \"by 1890 the alphabet method had virtually died out\".[28] Francis Parker and John Dewey used the \"word method\" as one of the features of the \"Progressive\" system of education. As Nancy Millichap notes, \"Despite the enthusiasm of educators for their new methods of teaching, the illiteracy rate remained high. Among American soldiers enlisted in World War I, 24.9 percent proved unable to read or write, and during World War II approximately the same percentage of British servicemen [who were taught using the same method] were found to be similarly handicapped. In 1940, one-third of high school students were incapable of mastering reading and writing well enough to profit from textbook instruction, and one half of the adult population in the United States was functionally illiterate\".[30]The backlash against \"word method\" culminated in a 1955 book Why Johnny Can't Read by Rudolf Flesch, in which he condemned this method for \"treating children as if they were dogs\" and recommended returning to teaching phonics. Nevertheless, the \"ill-informed, ineffective reading instruction\" remains the norm in American colleges of education and, accordingly, in American elementary schools.[31]","title":"Education reform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prussian model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_education_system"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Ellwood P. Cubberley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellwood_Patterson_Cubberley"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Whigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"factory model school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_model_school"}],"sub_title":"Emulation of the Prussian system","text":"Upon becoming the secretary of education of Massachusetts in 1837, Mann worked to create a statewide system of professional teachers, based on the Prussian model of \"common schools.\" Prussia was attempting to develop a system of education by which all students were entitled to the same content in their public classes. Mann initially focused on elementary education and on training teachers. The common-school movement quickly gained strength across the North. Connecticut adopted a similar system in 1849, and Massachusetts passed a compulsory attendance law in 1852.[32][33] Mann's crusading style attracted wide middle-class support. Historian Ellwood P. Cubberley asserts:No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends.[34]An important technique which Mann had learned in Prussia and introduced in Massachusetts in 1848 was to place students in grades by age. They were assigned by age to different grades and progressed through them, regardless of differences of aptitude. In addition, he used the lecture method common in European universities, which required students to receive professional instruction rather than teach one another. Previously, schools had often had groups of students who ranged in age from 6 to 14 years. With the introduction of age grading, multi-aged classrooms all but disappeared.[35] Some students progressed with their grade and completed all courses the secondary school had to offer. These were \"graduated,\" and were awarded a certificate of completion. This was increasingly done at a ceremony imitating college graduation rituals.Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Mann won widespread approval for building public schools from modernizers, especially among fellow Whigs. Most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for \"normal schools\" to train professional teachers.[36] This quickly developed into a widespread form of school which later became known as the factory model school.","title":"Education reform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Whig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"John Quincy Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams"},{"link_name":"slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Wilmot proviso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilmot_Proviso"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Drayton and Sayres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_incident"},{"link_name":"District of Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Daniel Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Webster"},{"link_name":"Fugitive Slave Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Law"},{"link_name":"Compromise of 1850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compromise_of_1850"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"In the spring of 1848 he was elected to the United States Congress as a Whig to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy Adams. His first speech in that role was in advocacy of its right and duty to exclude slavery from the territories, and in a letter, in December of that year, he said: \"I think the country is to experience serious times. Interference with slavery will excite civil commotion in the South. But it is best to interfere. Now is the time to see whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel.\"[37] Again he said: \"I really think if we insist upon passing the Wilmot proviso for the territories that the south—a part of them—will rebel; but I would pass it, rebellion or not. I consider no evil so great as the extension of slavery.\"[38]During the first session, he volunteered as counsel for Drayton and Sayres, who were indicted for stealing 76 slaves in the District of Columbia, and at the trial was engaged for 21 successive days in their defense. In 1850, he was engaged in a controversy with Daniel Webster concerning the extension of slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law, calling Webster's support for the Compromise of 1850 a \"vile catastrophe\", and comparing him to \"Lucifer descending from Heaven\".[39][40] Mann was defeated by a single vote at the ensuing nominating convention by Webster's supporters; but, on appealing to the people as an independent anti-slavery candidate, he was re-elected, serving from April 1848 until March 1853.","title":"A Whig in Congress"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Patrick Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Henry"},{"link_name":"Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica"},{"link_name":"Frederick Douglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Douglass"},{"link_name":"Henry Bibb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Bibb"},{"link_name":"Henry Box Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Box_Brown"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"Mann was a staunch opponent of slavery as a member of Congress; in a written address to an 1852 \"Convention of the Colored Freemen of Ohio\" he stated:[t]hat slavery is to continue always, it would be the grossest atheism to affirm. A belief in the existence of a just Governor of the Universe, includes a belief in the final and utter abolition of slavery.\"In the same address he opposed plans to forcibly deport freedmen from the United States to other nations:\"The idea of forcibly expelling the American born negro from the place of his birth and residence, and driving him out of the country against his will, is as abhorrent to my notions of justice and equality, as it can be to those of anyone. The next most cruel thing to kidnapping a race of men, forcing them from their home and dooming them to slavery in a foreign land, would be the seizure of the descendants of that race, and driving them from the new home they had acquired. So great a crime as this second expatriation would be, could hardly be conceived unless by a mind that had prepared itself for it by participating in the commission of the first.\"Mann considered there to be three legitimate methods by which the Africans in captivity in the US could emancipate themselves, including, as a last resort, that\"such as our revolutionary fathers adopted against Great Britain [...] not only with the justification but with the approval of the civilized world. For this there are two conditions: a sufficient degree of oppression to authorize an appeal to force, and a chance, on the part of the oppressed, of bettering their condition. The measure of the first condition is already full - heaped up - running over. The second condition will be fulfilled, either when the slaves believe they can obtain their freedom by force, or when they are so elevated and enlarged in their moral conceptions as to appreciate that glorious supplication of Patrick Henry, 'Give me liberty or give me death!'\"Mann's preferred method for the self-emancipation of the slaves was that free blacks should voluntarily form all-black communities of their own - either in Jamaica or in another Caribbean nation - or perhaps in the American West - in which men like Frederick Douglass, Henry Bibb and Henry Box Brown \"instead of making speeches might be making laws. Instead of commanding the types of a newspaper press [...] might be commanding armies and navies\" and could more effectively organize the liberation of their enslaved brethren in the U.S. from these strongholds.[41]","title":"Abolitionism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HMann.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mathew Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathew_Brady"},{"link_name":"governor of Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Free Soil Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Soil_Party"},{"link_name":"Antioch College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch_College"},{"link_name":"Yellow Springs, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_Springs,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Rebecca Pennell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Pennell"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Christian Connexion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Connexion"},{"link_name":"Congregationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church"},{"link_name":"Unitarian Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Unitarian_Association"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"typhoid fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever"},{"link_name":"Ralph Waldo Emerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"North Burial Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Burial_Ground"},{"link_name":"Providence, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"Original daguerreotype of Rep. Mann (Mass.) from Mathew Brady's a studio, c. 1849In September 1852, he was nominated for governor of Massachusetts by the Free Soil Party, and the same day was chosen president of the newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio. Failing in the election for governor, he accepted the presidency of the college, which he continued until his death. There he taught economics, philosophy, and theology; he was popular with students and with lay audiences across the Midwest who attended his lectures promoting public schools. Mann also employed the first female faculty member to be paid on an equal basis with her male colleagues, Rebecca Pennell, his niece. His commencement message to the class of 1859 was to \"Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity\".[42]Antioch College was founded by the Christian Connexion, which later withdrew its financial support causing the college to struggle for many years with meager financial resources due to sectarian infighting. Mann himself was charged with nonadherence to sectarianism because, previously a Congregationalist by upbringing, he joined the Unitarian Church.Mann was also drawn to Antioch because it was a coeducational institution, among the first in the country to teach men and women in the same classes, Mann and his wife had conflicts with female students, however, who came to Yellow Springs in search of greater equality. The young women chafed at restrictions on their behavior, and wanted to meet with men in literary societies, which Mann and his wife opposed.[43]He collapsed shortly after the 1859 commencement and died that summer of typhoid fever. Antioch historian Robert Straker wrote that Mann had been \"crucified by crusading sectarians.\" Ralph Waldo Emerson lamented \"what seems the fatal waste of labor and life at Antioch.\" Mann's wife, who wrote in anguish that \"the blood of martyrdom waters the spot,\" later disinterred his body from Yellow Springs.[44] He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island,[45] next to his first wife.","title":"Leadership of Antioch College and last years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mark_Groen_1854,_pp_251%E2%80%93260-2"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"Historians treat Mann as one of the most important leaders of education reform in the antebellum period.[2][46][47][48]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Mann2_1940_Issue-1c.jpg"},{"link_name":"Famous Americans series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States#Famous_Americans_Series_of_1940"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Mann_by_Emma_Stebbins_-_Boston,_MA_-_DSC05471.JPG"},{"link_name":"Statue of Horace Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Horace_Mann"},{"link_name":"Emma Stebbins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Stebbins"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann's statue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Horace_Mann"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts State House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_State_House"},{"link_name":"Daniel Webster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Webster"},{"link_name":"University of Northern Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Northern_Colorado"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Springfield, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann Educators Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_Educators_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg_State_University"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg, Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Mann_School_Main_Entrance_February_2012.jpg"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_School"},{"link_name":"Brown University Graduate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University_Graduate_School"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Commemoration","text":"Mann on a 1940 stamp from the Famous Americans seriesMany places around the world are named after Mann. Among them are more than 50 public schools in the United States.[49]Statue of Horace Mann (1863) by Emma StebbinsHorace Mann's statue stands in front of the Massachusetts State House along with that of Daniel Webster.At Antioch College, a monument carries his quote, which has been recently adopted as the college motto: \"Be Ashamed to Die Until You Have Won Some Victory for Humanity.\"The University of Northern Colorado named the gates to their campus in his dedication, a gift of the Class of 1910.[50]The Springfield, Illinois-based Illinois Education Association Mutual Insurance Company, was renamed in honor of Mann in 1950 as the Horace Mann Educators Corporation.Pittsburg State University in Pittsburg, Kansas, has a building named Horace Mann School. It currently houses the Student Welcoming Center.In Massachusetts, public charter schools that are authorized by local school districts are known as Horace Mann charters.Horace Mann School, the Bronx, New York CityBrown University Graduate School awards an annual Horace Mann Medal to one of its alumni.[51]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chicago, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Anaheim, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim,_California"},{"link_name":"Bakersfield, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakersfield,_California"},{"link_name":"Bayonne, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonne,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Beverly Hills, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverly_Hills,_California"},{"link_name":"Binghamton, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binghamton,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Canton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Cherry Hill, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_Hill,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Dayton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Duncan, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"Fargo, North Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fargo,_North_Dakota"},{"link_name":"Glendale, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale,_California"},{"link_name":"Hominy, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominy,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Huntington, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"Indiana, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Iowa City, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_City,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Lakewood, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakewood,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Melrose, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melrose,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Newton, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"North Bergen, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bergen,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Oakland, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California"},{"link_name":"Oak Park, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Park,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"Ogden, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogden,_Utah"},{"link_name":"Ottumwa, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottumwa,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Rapid City, South Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_City,_South_Dakota"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Redmond, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redmond,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Rochester, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Saint Paul, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"San Jose, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"Sedalia, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedalia,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Sioux Falls, South Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioux_Falls,_South_Dakota"},{"link_name":"Springfield, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"St Joseph, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Joseph,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"West Allis, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Allis,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Woodward, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodward,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"Northwest Missouri State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_University"},{"link_name":"Maryville, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryville,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Abilene, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abilene,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Amarillo, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarillo,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Baytown, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baytown,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Brandon, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Charleston, West Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston,_West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Colorado Springs, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"El Portal, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Portal,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Franklin, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Neenah, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neenah,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"North Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Fond_du_Lac,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"San Diego, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego,_California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Mann_Hall,_Pittsburg_State_University,_Pittsburg,_Kansas.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sheboygan, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheboygan,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Wausau, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wausau,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"North Fond du Lac, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Fond_du_Lac,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_School"},{"link_name":"Bronx, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronx,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Amesbury, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amesbury,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Seattle, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Salem, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann School for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Mann_School_for_the_Deaf_and_Hard_of_Hearing"},{"link_name":"Allston, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Mann Arts and Science Magnet Middle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann_Arts_and_Science_Magnet_Middle_School"},{"link_name":"Little Rock, Arkansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas"},{"link_name":"Long Beach, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Beach,_California"},{"link_name":"St. Louis, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Tacoma, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacoma,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Queens, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Denver, CO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"},{"link_name":"San Francisco, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Mann_House,_Brown_University.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"}],"sub_title":"Schools","text":"Horace Mann Academy, Chicago, Illinois\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Anaheim, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Bakersfield, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Bayonne, New Jersey\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Beverly Hills, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Binghamton, New York\nHorace Mann Elementary School (closed), Canton, Ohio\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Cherry Hill, New Jersey\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Dayton, Ohio\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Duncan, Oklahoma\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Fargo, North Dakota\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Glendale, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Hominy, Oklahoma[52]\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Huntington, Indiana\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Indiana, Pennsylvania\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Iowa City, Iowa\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Lakewood, Ohio\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Melrose, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Newton, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Elementary School, North Bergen, New Jersey\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Oakland, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Oak Park, Illinois\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Ogden, Utah\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Ottumwa, Iowa\nHorace Mann Elementary School (closed), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania[53]\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Rapid City, South Dakota[54]\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Redmond, Washington\nHorace Mann Elementary (now Lincoln K-8) School, Rochester, Minnesota\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Saint Paul, Minnesota\nHorace Mann Elementary School, San Jose, California\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Sedalia, Missouri\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Sioux Falls, South Dakota\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Springfield, Ohio\nHorace Mann Elementary School, St Joseph, Missouri\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Washington, D.C.\nHorace Mann Elementary School, West Allis, Wisconsin\nHorace Mann Elementary School, Woodward, Oklahoma\nHorace Mann Lab School, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, Missouri\nHorace Mann Middle School, Abilene, Texas\nHorace Mann Middle School, Amarillo, Texas\nHorace Mann Junior School, Baytown, Texas[55]\nHorace Mann Middle School, Brandon, Florida\nHorace Mann Middle School, Charleston, West Virginia\nHorace Mann Middle School, Colorado Springs, Colorado\nHorace Mann Middle School, El Portal, Florida\nHorace Mann Middle School, Franklin, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Middle School, Neenah, Wisconsin\nHorace Mann Middle School, North Fond Du Lac, Wisconsin\nHorace Mann Middle School, San Diego, California Horace Mann Hall, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas\nHorace Mann Middle School, Sheboygan, Wisconsin\nHorace Mann Middle School, Wausau, Wisconsin[56]\nHorace Mann High School, North Fond du Lac, Wisconsin\nHorace Mann School, Bronx, New York\nHorace Mann School, Amesbury, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann School, Seattle, Washington\nHorace Mann School, Salem, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann School for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing, Allston, Massachusetts\nMann Arts and Science Magnet Middle School, Little Rock, Arkansas\nMann Elementary School, Long Beach, California\nMann Elementary School, St. Louis, Missouri\nMann Elementary School, Tacoma, Washington\nP.S. 90 - Horace Mann, Queens, New York\nTrevista at Horace Mann Elementary School, Denver, CO\nBuena Vista Horace Mann K-8, San Francisco, CaliforniaHorace Mann House at Brown University, Mann's alma mater","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bridgewater State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater_State_University"},{"link_name":"Bridgewater, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgewater,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"East Central University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Central_University"},{"link_name":"Ada, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg_State_University"},{"link_name":"Pittsburg, Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburg,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"Westfield State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield_State_University"},{"link_name":"Westfield, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Teachers College, Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachers_College,_Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Framingham State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framingham_State_University"},{"link_name":"Framingham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framingham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Rhode Island College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhode_Island_College"},{"link_name":"Providence, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island"},{"link_name":"Horace Mann House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brown_University_buildings"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"},{"link_name":"Providence, Rhode Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island"}],"sub_title":"College and university buildings","text":"Horace Mann Auditorium, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Building, East Central University in Ada, Oklahoma\nHorace Mann Building, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas\nHorace Mann Center, Westfield State University in Westfield, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Hall, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City\nHorace Mann Hall, Framingham State University, Framingham, Massachusetts\nHorace Mann Hall, Rhode Island College, Providence, Rhode Island\nHorace Mann House, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Few Thoughts for a Young Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/afewthoughtsfor02manngoog"},{"link_name":"Thoughts Selected from the Writings of Horace Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/thoughtsselected00mann"},{"link_name":"The Life and Works of Horace Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4AqdAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"Mary Peabody Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Peabody_Mann"}],"text":"A Few Thoughts for a Young Man (Boston, 1850)\nSlavery: Letters and Speeches (1851)\nPowers and Duties of Woman (1853)\nSermons (1861)\nLife and Complete Works of Horace Mann (2 vols., Cambridge, 1869)\nThoughts Selected from the Writings of Horace Mann (1869)\nThe Case for Public Schools\nMann, Horace. The Life and Works of Horace Mann, with an introduction by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4oslAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59629-750-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-750-0"}],"text":"Hanson, Robert Brand (1976). Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890. Dedham Historical Society.\nParr, James L. (2009). Dedham: Historic and Heroic Tales From Shiretown. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-750-0.","title":"Works cited"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/socialideasofame0000curt"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/horacemannchampi0001down/page/n5/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=KE8zI-NGCo4C&pg=PA281"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/horacemann00jona/page/n11/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/363132"}],"text":"Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The National Experience (1982).\nCurti, Merle. The Social Ideas of American Educators (1935) pp. 101–38 online\nDowns, Robert B. Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools (1974) online\nFinkelstein, Barbara. \"Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States,\" Biography, Winter 1990, Vol. 13#1 pp. 6–20\nHinsdale, Burke A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States (New York, 1898), in the Great Educators series online\nKalvin, Louis. \"The Educational Philosophy of Horace Mann\" (PhD dissertation, New York University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1936 7303222).\nKendall, Kathleen Edgerton. \"Education as 'The Balance Wheel of Social Machinery': Horace Mann's Arguments and Proofs,\" Quarterly Journal of Speech (1968) 54#1 pp. 13–21.\nMesserli, Jonathan. Horace Mann; a biography (1972) online, a standard scholarly biography\nMesserli, Jonathan. \"The Early Education of Horace Mann: Home, Meeting House, and Village\" Historian (1967) 29#3.\nMurphy, Garry Paul. \"Professional development of Massachusetts school teachers: An examination of the Horace Mann Teacher Program\" (PhD dissertation, Boston College; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1990. 9101677).\nPeterson, Paul E. Saving schools: From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning (Harvard University Press, 2010)\nStornello, Joe Allen. \"Horace Mann and twentieth-century educational historians: Problems of ideology and knowledge in historical texts\" (PhD dissertation, University of Missouri - Kansas City; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9900319).\nTaylor, Bob Pepperman. Horace Mann's Troubling Legacy: The Education of Democratic Citizens (University Press of Kansas, 2010).\nVinovskis, Maris A. \"Horace Mann on the Economic Productivity of Education,\" New England Quarterly (1970) 43#4 pp. 550–571. online\nWhiting, George C. \"Horace Mann: A comparison of a traditional and a revisionist biography\" (PhD dissertation, The College of William and Mary; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1989. 8923063).\nWoodworth, Jed. \"Horace Mann and the Revolution in American Childhood\" (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin - Madison; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2016. 10190139).","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"Original daguerreotype of Rep. Mann (Mass.) from Mathew Brady's a studio, c. 1849","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/HMann.jpg/220px-HMann.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mann on a 1940 stamp from the Famous Americans series","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Horace_Mann2_1940_Issue-1c.jpg/180px-Horace_Mann2_1940_Issue-1c.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Horace Mann (1863) by Emma Stebbins","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Horace_Mann_by_Emma_Stebbins_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC05471.JPG/180px-Horace_Mann_by_Emma_Stebbins_-_Boston%2C_MA_-_DSC05471.JPG"},{"image_text":"Horace Mann School, the Bronx, New York City","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Horace_Mann_School_Main_Entrance_February_2012.jpg/180px-Horace_Mann_School_Main_Entrance_February_2012.jpg"},{"image_text":"Horace Mann Hall, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Horace_Mann_Hall%2C_Pittsburg_State_University%2C_Pittsburg%2C_Kansas.jpg/160px-Horace_Mann_Hall%2C_Pittsburg_State_University%2C_Pittsburg%2C_Kansas.jpg"},{"image_text":"Horace Mann House at Brown University, Mann's alma mater","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Horace_Mann_House%2C_Brown_University.jpg/180px-Horace_Mann_House%2C_Brown_University.jpg"}]
|
[{"title":"History of education in Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_Massachusetts"}]
|
[{"reference":"Carleton, David (2009). \"Horace Mann\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1283/horace-mann#:~:text=via%20Wikimedia%20Commons)-,Known%20as%20the%20%E2%80%9Cfather%20of%20American%20education%2C%E2%80%9D%20Horace%20Mann,curriculum%20that%20excluded%20sectarian%20instruction.","url_text":"\"Horace Mann\""}]},{"reference":"Groen, Mark (Spring–Summer 2008). \"The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 1837–1854\". American Educational History Journal. 35 (1/2): 251–260.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Good, Thomas L. (2008). 21st century education: a reference handbook. p. 267.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann | American educator\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. Retrieved May 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann","url_text":"\"Horace Mann | American educator\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170131211713/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Yale University (1921). Obiturary Record of Graduates. Tuttle, Morehouse & Taylor Company. p. 579. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved April 25, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=A55GAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA579","url_text":"Obiturary Record of Graduates"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230216192942/https://books.google.com/books?id=A55GAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA579","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Tarbell, Isa Arlington (1900). \"Mann, Horace\" . In Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J. (eds.). Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography/Mann,_Horace","url_text":"\"Mann, Horace\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Grant_Wilson","url_text":"Wilson, J. G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fiske_(philosopher)","url_text":"Fiske, J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appletons%27_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_of_American_Biography","url_text":"Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography"}]},{"reference":"McFarland, Philip (2004). Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/hawthorneinconco00mcfa/page/72","url_text":"Hawthorne in Concord"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/hawthorneinconco00mcfa/page/72","url_text":"72"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-1776-7","url_text":"0-8021-1776-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann | Biography & Facts\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on June 25, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann","url_text":"\"Horace Mann | Biography & Facts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopedia Britannica"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200625140803/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Samuel Barrett\". uudb.org. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://uudb.org/articles/samuelbarrett.html","url_text":"\"Samuel Barrett\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200925125356/https://uudb.org/articles/samuelbarrett.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Mann, Horace\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 587.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mann,_Horace","url_text":"Mann, Horace"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Catalogue of the Litchfield Law School. Hartford, Connecticut: Press of Case, Tiffany and Company. 1849.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mondale, Sarah (2001). School: The Story of American Public Education. New York: Beacon.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/school00sara","url_text":"School: The Story of American Public Education"}]},{"reference":"McFarland, Philip (2004). Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press. p. 73. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/hawthorneinconco00mcfa/page/73","url_text":"Hawthorne in Concord"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/hawthorneinconco00mcfa/page/73","url_text":"73"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-1776-7","url_text":"0-8021-1776-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Allen Family Papers 1846-1915\". Archived from the original on June 15, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newtonma.gov/gov/historic/research/collections/papers/allen.asp","url_text":"\"Allen Family Papers 1846-1915\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180615032433/http://www.newtonma.gov/gov/historic/research/collections/papers/allen.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann Papers\". Massachusetts Historical Society. Archived from the original on June 8, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0234","url_text":"\"Horace Mann Papers\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180608145029/http://www.masshist.org/collection-guides/view/fa0234","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Mintz, S.; McNeil, S. (2016). \"The Struggle for Public Schools\". Digital History. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 11, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3535","url_text":"\"The Struggle for Public Schools\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150402134704/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3535","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Eisenmann, Linda (1988). Historical dictionary of women's education in the United States. p. 259.","urls":[]},{"reference":"S., Sugg, Redding (1978). Motherteacher : the feminization of American education. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0813907578. OCLC 3708082.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813907578","url_text":"0813907578"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3708082","url_text":"3708082"}]},{"reference":"Glenn, Myra (1984). Campaigns Against Corporal Punishment. SUNY Press. pp. 104–6. ISBN 0-87395-813-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-813-6","url_text":"0-87395-813-6"}]},{"reference":"Monsma, Stephen V.; Soper, J. Christopher (September 5, 2008). \"2. The United States\". The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 18–22. ISBN 9780742557406.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LqtOyWU3D54C","url_text":"The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742557406","url_text":"9780742557406"}]},{"reference":"Mann, Horace (1849). Twelfth Annual Report for 1848 of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts. pp. 116, 177, 121, 122. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved November 12, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eURNAAAAcAAJ&q=inculcates+all+Christian+morals;+it+founds+its+morals+on+the+basis+of+religion&pg=PA117","url_text":"Twelfth Annual Report for 1848 of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230216192906/https://books.google.com/books?id=eURNAAAAcAAJ&q=inculcates+all+Christian+morals;+it+founds+its+morals+on+the+basis+of+religion&pg=PA117","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dana., Goldstein (2015). The teacher wars: a history of America's most embattled profession (First Anchor books ed.). New York. ISBN 9780345803627. OCLC 895117195.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780345803627","url_text":"9780345803627"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/895117195","url_text":"895117195"}]},{"reference":"Massachusetts Board of Education (1838) [Covering the year 1837]. Annual Report of the Board of Education. pp. 14, 15. Archived from the original on February 16, 2023. Retrieved November 12, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9S4XAAAAYAAJ&q=may+not+be+easy+theoretically,+to+draw+the+line+between+those+views+of+religious+truth+and+of+Christian+faith+which+is+common+to+all,+and+may,+therefore,+with+propriety+be+inculcated+in+schools,+and+those+which,+being+peculiar+to+individual+sects,+are+therefore+by+law+excluded;+still+it+is+believed+that+no+practical+difficulty+occurs+in+the+conduct+of+our+schools+in+this+regard&pg=RA1-PA14","url_text":"Annual Report of the Board of Education"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230216192944/https://books.google.com/books?id=9S4XAAAAYAAJ&q=may+not+be+easy+theoretically,+to+draw+the+line+between+those+views+of+religious+truth+and+of+Christian+faith+which+is+common+to+all,+and+may,+therefore,+with+propriety+be+inculcated+in+schools,+and+those+which,+being+peculiar+to+individual+sects,+are+therefore+by+law+excluded;+still+it+is+believed+that+no+practical+difficulty+occurs+in+the+conduct+of+our+schools+in+this+regard&pg=RA1-PA14","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ravitch, Diane (2000). \"Chapter 9: The great meltdown\". Left back: a century of failed school reforms. Simon & Schuster. pp. 356–357. ISBN 0-684-84417-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-84417-6","url_text":"0-684-84417-6"}]},{"reference":"Mathews, Mitford (1966). \"From a lecture delivered by Mann in 1841\". Teaching to Read, Historically Considered. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 76–81. ASIN B000Z58E5S.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000Z58E5S","url_text":"B000Z58E5S"}]},{"reference":"Millichap, Nancy (1986). \"Dyslexia, theories of causation and methods of management: an historical perspective\". Loyola University Chicago.","urls":[{"url":"https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4425","url_text":"\"Dyslexia, theories of causation and methods of management: an historical perspective\""}]},{"reference":"Emily Hanford (September 10, 2018). \"Hard Words: Why aren't kids being taught to read?\". APM. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020. Retrieved June 18, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.apmreports.org/story/2018/09/10/hard-words-why-american-kids-arent-being-taught-to-read","url_text":"\"Hard Words: Why aren't kids being taught to read?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200602093151/https://www.apmreports.org/story/2018/09/10/hard-words-why-american-kids-arent-being-taught-to-read","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Peterson, Paul E. (2010). Saving Schools: From Horace Mann to Virtual Learning. pp. 21–36.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Messerli, Jonathan (1972). Horace Mann: A Biography.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cubberley, Ellwood P. (1919). Public Education in the United States. p. 167.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hunt, Thomas C., ed. (2010). \"Age Grading\". Encyclopedia of Educational Reform and Dissent. Vol. 2. p. 33. ISBN 9781412956642.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=b1UGM0CHOGAC&pg=PA33","url_text":"\"Age Grading\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412956642","url_text":"9781412956642"}]},{"reference":"Groen, Mark (2008). \"The Whig Party and the Rise of Common Schools, 1837–1854\". American Educational History Journal. 35 (1/2): 251–260.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mann, Horace (1848). Speech of Horace Mann, on the right of Congress to legislate for the territories of the United States, and its duty to exclude slavery therefrom. Boston: William B. Fowle.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"U.S. Senate: Speech Costs Senator His Seat\". Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved March 20, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Speech_Costs_Senator_His_Seat.htm","url_text":"\"U.S. Senate: Speech Costs Senator His Seat\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171210015521/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Speech_Costs_Senator_His_Seat.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kennedy (2004). Profiles in Courage. pp. 69–70.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mann, Horace (December 31, 1851). \"Letter, Horace Mann to 1852 Convention of the Colored Freemen of Ohio\". Special Collections and University Archives, University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries: W.E.B. Du Bois Papers. David Graham Du Bois Trust. pp. 19–23. Archived from the original on January 30, 2022. Retrieved January 30, 2022. However disastrous may be the result of the first, or the tenth, or the hundredth struggle on the part of the slave; however many of the colored Hancocks and Adams' of that revolution may be singled out for vengeance and placed beyond the reach of pardon [...] each death will be transfigured into a multitude of more glorious lives, and for every drop of heroic blood which the earth shall drink, it will send back an armed man.","urls":[{"url":"https://credo.library.umass.edu/cgi-bin/pdf.cgi?id=scua:mums312-b239-i036","url_text":"\"Letter, Horace Mann to 1852 Convention of the Colored Freemen of Ohio\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220130171219/https://credo.library.umass.edu/cgi-bin/pdf.cgi?id=scua:mums312-b239-i036","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock","url_text":"Hancocks"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams","url_text":"Adams'"}]},{"reference":"\"Antioch College - Winning Victories Grant\". alumni.antiochcollege.edu. Archived from the original on December 17, 2019. Retrieved April 26, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://alumni.antiochcollege.edu/page/victories-grant","url_text":"\"Antioch College - Winning Victories Grant\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191217150052/https://alumni.antiochcollege.edu/page/victories-grant","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rury, John; Harper, Glenn (Winter 1986). \"Mann and Women at Antioch\". History of Education Quarterly. 26 (4): 481. doi:10.2307/369009. JSTOR 369009. S2CID 144827867.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F369009","url_text":"10.2307/369009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/369009","url_text":"369009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144827867","url_text":"144827867"}]},{"reference":"Clark, Burton R. (1970). The Distinctive College. Adline Publishing Co. p. 16.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Barbara (Winter 1990). \"Perfecting Childhood: Horace Mann and the Origins of Public Education in the United States\". Biography. 13 (1): 6–20. doi:10.1353/bio.2010.0400. S2CID 144976387.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fbio.2010.0400","url_text":"10.1353/bio.2010.0400"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144976387","url_text":"144976387"}]},{"reference":"Hunt, Thomas C. (2005). Moral Education in America's Schools. pp. 31–48.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Downs, R. B. (1974). Horace Mann: Champion of the Public Schools.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Search for Public Schools - Search Results\". nces.ed.gov. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/school_list.asp?Search=1&InstName=Horace+Mann&SchoolID=&Address=&City=&State=&Zip=&Miles=&County=&PhoneAreaCode=&Phone=&DistrictName=&DistrictID=&SchoolType=1&SchoolType=2&SchoolType=3&SchoolType=4&SpecificSchlTypes=all&IncGrade=-1&LoGrade=-1&HiGrade=-1","url_text":"\"Search for Public Schools - Search Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210624200633/https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/school_list.asp?Search=1&InstName=Horace+Mann&SchoolID=&Address=&City=&State=&Zip=&Miles=&County=&PhoneAreaCode=&Phone=&DistrictName=&DistrictID=&SchoolType=1&SchoolType=2&SchoolType=3&SchoolType=4&SpecificSchlTypes=all&IncGrade=-1&LoGrade=-1&HiGrade=-1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"University History: A Photographic History of UNC\". University of Northern Colorado. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041207/http://www.unco.edu/library/archives/arc_photohist_BldgsandGrounds_Central_Campus.htm","url_text":"\"University History: A Photographic History of UNC\""},{"url":"http://www.unco.edu/library/archives/arc_photohist_BldgsandGrounds_Central_Campus.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann Medal | Graduate School\". www.brown.edu. Archived from the original on May 31, 2022. Retrieved June 6, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brown.edu/academics/gradschool/about/awards/horace-mann-medal","url_text":"\"Horace Mann Medal | Graduate School\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220531172850/https://www.brown.edu/academics/gradschool/about/awards/horace-mann-medal","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann Elementary\". Hominy Public Schools. Archived from the original on April 15, 2017. Retrieved April 14, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170415014044/http://www.hominy.k12.ok.us/vnews/display.v/SEC/Schools%7CElementary%20School","url_text":"\"Horace Mann Elementary\""},{"url":"http://www.hominy.k12.ok.us/vnews/display.v/SEC/Schools%7CElementary%20School","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"What Happens When A Neighborhood Loses Its School?\". 90.5 WESA. October 24, 2018. Archived from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wesa.fm/education/2018-10-24/what-happens-when-a-neighborhood-loses-its-school","url_text":"\"What Happens When A Neighborhood Loses Its School?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210624201448/https://www.wesa.fm/education/2018-10-24/what-happens-when-a-neighborhood-loses-its-school","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Pages - default\". public.rcas.org. Archived from the original on April 13, 2019. Retrieved April 13, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://public.rcas.org/el/hm/Pages/Default.aspx","url_text":"\"Pages - default\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190413162359/https://public.rcas.org/el/hm/Pages/Default.aspx","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Horace Mann Junior High School Home Page\". Goose Creek Independent School District. Archived from the original on December 31, 2021. Retrieved December 31, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://schools.gccisd.net/page/hmjs.home","url_text":"\"Horace Mann Junior High School Home Page\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211231193606/https://schools.gccisd.net/page/hmjs.home","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Middle Schools - Wausau School District\". www.wausauschools.org. Archived from the original on September 2, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140902104841/http://wausauschools.org/schools_facilities/middle_schools","url_text":"\"Middle Schools - Wausau School District\""},{"url":"http://www.wausauschools.org/schools_facilities/middle_schools","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hanson, Robert Brand (1976). Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890. Dedham Historical Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4oslAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Dedham, Massachusetts, 1635-1890"}]},{"reference":"Parr, James L. (2009). Dedham: Historic and Heroic Tales From Shiretown. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-59629-750-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59629-750-0","url_text":"978-1-59629-750-0"}]},{"reference":"United States Congress. \"Horace Mann (id: M000102)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.","urls":[{"url":"http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000102","url_text":"\"Horace Mann (id: M000102)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress","url_text":"Biographical Directory of the United States Congress"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foetus
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Fetus
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["1 Etymology","2 Development in humans","2.1 Weeks 9 to 16 (2 to 3.6 months)","2.2 Weeks 17 to 25 (3.6 to 6.6 months)","2.3 Weeks 26 to 38 (6.6 to 8.6 months)","2.4 Variation in growth","3 Viability","4 Circulatory system","4.1 Before birth","4.2 Postnatal development","5 Immune system","6 Developmental problems","7 Fetal pain","8 Legal and social issues","9 Other animals","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]
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Prenatal organism between the embryonic state and birth
This article is about the stage of prenatal development. For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation).
"Foetus" redirects here. For the band, see Foetus (band). For the film, see Foetus (film).
Part of a series onHuman growthand development
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A fetus or foetus (/ˈfiːtəs/; pl.: fetuses, feti, foetuses, or foeti) is the unborn offspring that develops from a mammal embryo. Following embryonic development, the fetal stage of development takes place. In human prenatal development, fetal development begins from the ninth week after fertilization (or eleventh week gestational age) and continues until the birth of a newborn. Prenatal development is a continuum, with no clear defining feature distinguishing an embryo from a fetus. However, a fetus is characterized by the presence of all the major body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional and some not yet situated in their final anatomical location.
Etymology
The word fetus (plural fetuses or feti) is related to the Latin fētus ("offspring", "bringing forth", "hatching of young") and the Greek "φυτώ" to plant. The word "fetus" was used by Ovid in Metamorphoses, book 1, line 104.
The predominant British, Irish, and Commonwealth spelling is foetus, which has been in use since at least 1594. The spelling with -oe- arose in Late Latin, in which the distinction between the vowel sounds -oe- and -e- had been lost. This spelling is the most common in most Commonwealth nations, except in the medical literature, where fetus is used. The more classical spelling fetus is used in Canada and the United States. In addition, fetus is now the standard English spelling throughout the world in medical journals. The spelling faetus was also used historically.
Development in humans
Further information: Prenatal development
Weeks 9 to 16 (2 to 3.6 months)
A human fetus, attached to placenta, at three months gestational age
In humans, the fetal stage starts nine weeks after fertilization. At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about 30 millimetres (1+1⁄4 in) in length from crown-rump, and weighs about 8 grams. The head makes up nearly half of the size of the fetus. Breathing-like movements of the fetus are necessary for the stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen. The heart, hands, feet, brain, and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation.
At this point in development, uncontrolled movements and twitches occur as muscles, the brain, and pathways begin to develop.
Weeks 17 to 25 (3.6 to 6.6 months)
A woman pregnant for the first time (nulliparous) typically feels fetal movements at about 21 weeks, whereas a woman who has given birth before will typically feel movements by 20 weeks. By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 20 cm (8 in) long.
Weeks 26 to 38 (6.6 to 8.6 months)
The amount of body fat rapidly increases. Lungs are not fully mature. Neural connections between the sensory cortex and thalamus develop as early as 24 weeks of gestational age, but the first evidence of their function does not occur until around 30 weeks. Bones are fully developed but are still soft and pliable. Iron, calcium, and phosphorus become more abundant. Fingernails reach the end of the fingertips. The lanugo, or fine hair, begins to disappear until it is gone except on the upper arms and shoulders. Small breast buds are present in both sexes. Head hair becomes coarse and thicker. Birth is imminent and occurs around the 38th week after fertilization. The fetus is considered full-term between weeks 37 and 40 when it is sufficiently developed for life outside the uterus. It may be 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) in length when born. Control of movement is limited at birth, and purposeful voluntary movements continue to develop until puberty.
Variation in growth
Further information: Birth weight and Environmental toxicants and fetal development
There is much variation in the growth of the human fetus. When the fetal size is less than expected, the condition is known as intrauterine growth restriction also called fetal growth restriction; factors affecting fetal growth can be maternal, placental, or fetal.
Maternal factors include maternal weight, body mass index, nutritional state, emotional stress, toxin exposure (including tobacco, alcohol, heroin, and other drugs which can also harm the fetus in other ways), and uterine blood flow.
Placental factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), umbilical blood flow, transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization, and nutrient production.
Fetal factors include the fetal genome, nutrient production, and hormone output. Also, female fetuses tend to weigh less than males, at full term.
Fetal growth is often classified as follows: small for gestational age (SGA), appropriate for gestational age (AGA), and large for gestational age (LGA). SGA can result in low birth weight, although premature birth can also result in low birth weight. Low birth weight increases the risk for perinatal mortality (death shortly after birth), asphyxia, hypothermia, polycythemia, hypocalcemia, immune dysfunction, neurologic abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. SGA may be associated with growth delay, or it may instead be associated with absolute stunting of growth.
Viability
Main article: Fetal viability
Stages in prenatal development, showing viability and point of 50% chance of survival at bottom. Weeks and months numbered by gestation.
Fetal viability refers to a point in fetal development at which the fetus may survive outside the womb. The lower limit of viability is approximately 5+3⁄4 months gestational age and is usually later.
There is no sharp limit of development, age, or weight at which a fetus automatically becomes viable. According to data from 2003 to 2005, survival rates are 20–35% for babies born at 23 weeks of gestation (5+3⁄4 months); 50–70% at 24–25 weeks (6 – 6+1⁄4 months); and >90% at 26–27 weeks (6+1⁄2 – 6+3⁄4 months) and over. It is rare for a baby weighing less than 500 g (1 lb 2 oz) to survive.
When such premature babies are born, the main causes of mortality are that the respiratory system and the central nervous system are not completely differentiated. If given expert postnatal care, some preterm babies weighing less than 500 g (1 lb 2 oz) may survive, and are referred to as extremely low birth weight or immature infants.
Preterm birth is the most common cause of infant mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. At an occurrence rate of 5% to 18% of all deliveries, it is also more common than postmature birth, which occurs in 3% to 12% of pregnancies.
Circulatory system
Main article: Fetal circulation
Before birth
Diagram of the human fetal circulatory system
The heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system form relatively early during embryonic development, but continue to grow and develop in complexity in the growing fetus. A functional circulatory system is a biological necessity since mammalian tissues can not grow more than a few cell layers thick without an active blood supply. The prenatal circulation of blood is different from postnatal circulation, mainly because the lungs are not in use. The fetus obtains oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.
Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. About half of this enters the fetal ductus venosus and is carried to the inferior vena cava, while the other half enters the liver proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the mother's circulation.
Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary artery. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ductus arteriosus, which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which are not being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).
3D ultrasound of 80-millimetre (3 in) fetus (about 3+1⁄2 months gestational age)
Fetus at 4+1⁄4 months
Fetus at 5 months
Postnatal development
Main article: Adaptation to extrauterine life
With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. Pulmonary resistance is reduced dramatically, prompting more blood to move into the pulmonary arteries from the right atrium and ventricle of the heart and less to flow through the foramen ovale into the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, producing an increase in pressure that pushes the septum primum against the septum secundum, closing the foramen ovale and completing the separation of the newborn's circulatory system into the standard left and right sides. Thereafter, the foramen ovale is known as the fossa ovalis.
The ductus arteriosus normally closes within one or two days of birth, leaving the ligamentum arteriosum, while the umbilical vein and ductus venosus usually closes within two to five days after birth, leaving, respectively, the liver's ligamentum teres and ligamentum venosus.
Immune system
The placenta functions as a maternal-fetal barrier against the transmission of microbes. When this is insufficient, mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases can occur.
Maternal IgG antibodies cross the placenta, giving the fetus passive immunity against those diseases for which the mother has antibodies. This transfer of antibodies in humans begins as early as the fifth month (gestational age) and certainly by the sixth month.
Developmental problems
Further information: Environmental toxicants and fetal development and Birth defect
A developing fetus is highly susceptible to anomalies in its growth and metabolism, increasing the risk of birth defects. One area of concern is the lifestyle choices made during pregnancy. Diet is especially important in the early stages of development. Studies show that supplementation of the person's diet with folic acid reduces the risk of spina bifida and other neural tube defects. Another dietary concern is whether breakfast is eaten. Skipping breakfast could lead to extended periods of lower than normal nutrients in the maternal blood, leading to a higher risk of prematurity, or birth defects.
Alcohol consumption may increase the risk of the development of fetal alcohol syndrome, a condition leading to intellectual disability in some infants. Smoking during pregnancy may also lead to miscarriages and low birth weight (2,500 grams (5 pounds 8 ounces). Low birth weight is a concern for medical providers due to the tendency of these infants, described as "premature by weight", to have a higher risk of secondary medical problems.
X-rays are known to have possible adverse effects on the development of the fetus, and the risks need to be weighed against the benefits.
Congenital disorders are acquired before birth. Infants with certain congenital heart defects can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of prostaglandins to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies. Conversely, in cases of patent ductus arteriosus, where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided.
Other heart birth defects include ventricular septal defect, pulmonary atresia, and tetralogy of Fallot.
An abdominal pregnancy can result in the death of the fetus and where this is rarely not resolved it can lead to its formation into a lithopedion.
Fetal pain
Main article: Prenatal perception
The existence and implications of fetal pain are debated politically and academically. According to the conclusions of a review published in 2005, "Evidence regarding the capacity for fetal pain is limited but indicates that fetal perception of pain is unlikely before the third trimester." However, developmental neurobiologists argue that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 6+1⁄2 months) is an essential event with regard to fetal perception of pain. Nevertheless, the perception of pain involves sensory, emotional and cognitive factors and it is "impossible to know" when pain is experienced, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established. Some authors argue that fetal pain is possible from the second half of pregnancy. Evidence suggests that the perception of pain in the fetus occurs well before late gestation.
Whether a fetus has the ability to feel pain and suffering is part of the abortion debate. In the United States, for example, anti-abortion advocates have proposed legislation that would require providers of abortions to inform pregnant women that their fetuses may feel pain during the procedure and that would require each person to accept or decline anesthesia for the fetus.
Legal and social issues
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2022)
Abortion of a human pregnancy is legal and/or tolerated in most countries, although with gestational time limits that normally prohibit late-term abortions.
Other animals
Further information: Evolution of mammals
Fourteen phases of elephant development before birth
A fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms. This stage lies between embryogenesis and birth. Many vertebrates have fetal stages, ranging from most mammals to many fish. In addition, some invertebrates bear live young, including some species of onychophora and many arthropods.
The fetuses of most mammals are situated similarly to the human fetus within their mothers. However, the anatomy of the area surrounding a fetus is different in litter-bearing animals compared to humans: each fetus of a litter-bearing animal is surrounded by placental tissue and is lodged along one of two long uteri instead of the single uterus found in a human female.
Development at birth varies considerably among animals, and even among mammals. Altricial species are relatively helpless at birth and require considerable parental care and protection. In contrast, precocial animals are born with open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. Primates are precocial at birth, with the exception of humans.
The duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23 months in elephants. Generally speaking, fetuses of larger land mammals require longer gestation periods.
Fetal stage of a porpoise
The benefits of a fetal stage means that young are more developed when they are born. Therefore, they may need less parental care and may be better able to fend for themselves. However, carrying fetuses exerts costs on the mother, who must take on extra food to fuel the growth of her offspring, and whose mobility and comfort may be affected (especially toward the end of the fetal stage).
In some instances, the presence of a fetal stage may allow organisms to time the birth of their offspring to a favorable season.
See also
Fetal position
Fetal rights
Fetoscopy
Neural development
Potential person
Pregnancy (mammals)
Superfetation
Women's rights
References
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^ American Dictionary of the English Language, Noah Webster, 1828.
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^ "Fetal development: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". www.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-10-27.
^ Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention Archived 2011-06-07 at the Wayback Machine (2006), page 317. Retrieved 2008-03-12
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^ Prechtl, Heinz. "Prenatal and Early Postnatal Development of Human Motor Behavior" in Handbook of brain and behaviour in human development, Kalverboer and Gramsbergen eds., pp. 415-418 (2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers): "The first movements to occur are sideward bendings of the head. ... At 9-10 weeks postmestrual age complex and generalized movements occur. These are the so-called general movements (Prechtl et al., 1979) and the startles. Both include the whole body, but the general movements are slower and have a complex sequence of involved body parts, while the startle is a quick, phasic movement of all limbs and trunk and neck."
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^ Becher, Julie-Claire. "Insights into Early Fetal Development". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01., Behind the Medical Headlines (Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow October 2004)
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^ De Santis, M; Cesari, E; Nobili, E; Straface, G; Cavaliere, AF; Caruso, A (September 2007). "Radiation effects on development". Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews. 81 (3): 177–82. doi:10.1002/bdrc.20099. PMID 17963274.
^ Lee, Susan; Ralston, HJ; Drey, EA; Partridge, JC; Rosen, MA (August 24–31, 2005). "Fetal Pain A Systematic Multidisciplinary Review of the Evidence". Journal of the American Medical Association. 294 (8): 947–54. doi:10.1001/jama.294.8.947. PMID 16118385. Two authors of the study published in JAMA did not report their abortion-related activities, which pro-life groups called a conflict of interest; the editor of JAMA responded that JAMA probably would have mentioned those activities if they had been disclosed, but still would have published the study. See Denise Grady, "Study Authors Didn't Report Abortion Ties" Archived 2009-04-25 at the Wayback Machine, New York Times (2005-08-26).
^ "Study: Fetus feels no pain until third trimester" Archived 2019-10-28 at the Wayback Machine NBC News
^ a b Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. Essential reproduction (Blackwell 2000): "The multidimensionality of pain perception, involving sensory, emotional, and cognitive factors may in itself be the basis of conscious, painful experience, but it will remain difficult to attribute this to a fetus at any particular developmental age." Retrieved 2007-02-21.
^ "Fetal pain?". International Association for the Study of Pain. June 2006. Archived from the original on 2013-07-01.
^ "Unborn babies can feel pain". Minnesota Citizens Concerned for Life. Archived from the original on 2016-07-19. The neural pathways are present for pain to be experienced quite early by unborn babies," explains Steven Calvin, M.D., perinatologist, chair of the Program in Human Rights Medicine, University of Minnesota, where he teaches obstetrics.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fetus.
Prenatal Image Gallery Index at the Endowment for Human Development website, featuring numerous motion pictures of human fetal movement.
In the Womb (National Geographic video).
Fetal development: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
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Stages of human development Fetus
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Presentation
breech
cephalic
shoulder
Rupture of membranes
Caesarean
Childbirth positions
Home birth
Labor induction
Multiple birth
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Unassisted childbirth
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Placental expulsion
PrenatalAnatomy
Amniotic fluid
Amniotic sac
Endometrium
Placenta
Development
Embryo
Fetus
Fundal height
Gestational age
Maternal physiological changes
Postpartum physiological changes
Care
Brain health and pollution
Nutrition
environmental toxicants
in pregnancy
prenatal
Prenatal depression
Immunization
Concomitant conditions
Anemia
Hypertension
Hypercoagulability
Substance use
Smoking
Alcohol
Cannabis
Opioids
Endocrine diseases
Diabetes
Thyroid disease
Liver diseases
Acute fatty liver
Intrahepatic cholestasis
Infections
HIV
COVID-19
Hepatitis C
Malaria
Skin diseases
Lupus
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Dermatoses
Others
Drugs
Vaginal flora
Bleeding
Motor vehicle emissions
Pre-existing disease
Sleep
Procedures
Amniocentesis
Cardiotocography
Chorionic villus sampling
Nonstress test
Abortion
PostpartumMaternal
Lochia
Postpartum care
Postpartum depression
Postpartum confinement
Sex after pregnancy
Psychiatric disorders of childbirth
Postpartum physiological changes
Roles
Doula
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Apgar score
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İslâm Ansiklopedisi
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fetus (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetus_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Foetus (band)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foetus_(band)"},{"link_name":"Foetus (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foetus_(film)"},{"link_name":"/ˈfiːtəs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"embryo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"embryonic development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_development"},{"link_name":"prenatal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development"},{"link_name":"fertilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_fertilization"},{"link_name":"gestational age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)"},{"link_name":"birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth"},{"link_name":"newborn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newborn"},{"link_name":"anatomical location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy"}],"text":"This article is about the stage of prenatal development. For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation).\"Foetus\" redirects here. For the band, see Foetus (band). For the film, see Foetus (film).A fetus or foetus (/ˈfiːtəs/; pl.: fetuses, feti, foetuses, or foeti) is the unborn offspring that develops from a mammal embryo.[1] Following embryonic development, the fetal stage of development takes place. In human prenatal development, fetal development begins from the ninth week after fertilization (or eleventh week gestational age) and continues until the birth of a newborn. Prenatal development is a continuum, with no clear defining feature distinguishing an embryo from a fetus. However, a fetus is characterized by the presence of all the major body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional and some not yet situated in their final anatomical location.","title":"Fetus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fetus#English"},{"link_name":"fetuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fetuses#English"},{"link_name":"feti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/feti#English"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"fētus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:fetus#Latin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"foetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foetus#English"},{"link_name":"Late Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Latin"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"faetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/faetus#English"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The word fetus (plural fetuses or feti) is related to the Latin fētus (\"offspring\", \"bringing forth\", \"hatching of young\")[2][3][4] and the Greek \"φυτώ\" to plant. The word \"fetus\" was used by Ovid in Metamorphoses, book 1, line 104.[5]The predominant British, Irish, and Commonwealth spelling is foetus, which has been in use since at least 1594. The spelling with -oe- arose in Late Latin, in which the distinction between the vowel sounds -oe- and -e- had been lost. This spelling is the most common in most Commonwealth nations, except in the medical literature, where fetus is used. The more classical spelling fetus is used in Canada and the United States. In addition, fetus is now the standard English spelling throughout the world in medical journals.[6] The spelling faetus was also used historically.[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prenatal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development"}],"text":"Further information: Prenatal development","title":"Development in humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fetus_3_months.jpg"},{"link_name":"placenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nursing-8"},{"link_name":"crown-rump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown-rump_length"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nursing-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-itrfps-9"},{"link_name":"lung development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung#Development"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Columbia-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prechtl-13"}],"sub_title":"Weeks 9 to 16 (2 to 3.6 months)","text":"A human fetus, attached to placenta, at three months gestational ageIn humans, the fetal stage starts nine weeks after fertilization.[8] At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about 30 millimetres (1+1⁄4 in) in length from crown-rump, and weighs about 8 grams.[8] The head makes up nearly half of the size of the fetus.[9] Breathing-like movements of the fetus are necessary for the stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen.[10] The heart, hands, feet, brain, and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation.[11][12]At this point in development, uncontrolled movements and twitches occur as muscles, the brain, and pathways begin to develop.[13]","title":"Development in humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nulliparous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity"},{"link_name":"fetal movements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_movement"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Weeks 17 to 25 (3.6 to 6.6 months)","text":"A woman pregnant for the first time (nulliparous) typically feels fetal movements at about 21 weeks, whereas a woman who has given birth before will typically feel movements by 20 weeks.[14] By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 20 cm (8 in) long.","title":"Development in humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sensory cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_cortex"},{"link_name":"thalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"},{"link_name":"lanugo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanugo"},{"link_name":"life outside the uterus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_to_extrauterine_life"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"puberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puberty"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becher-18"}],"sub_title":"Weeks 26 to 38 (6.6 to 8.6 months)","text":"The amount of body fat rapidly increases. Lungs are not fully mature. Neural connections between the sensory cortex and thalamus develop as early as 24 weeks of gestational age, but the first evidence of their function does not occur until around 30 weeks.[citation needed] Bones are fully developed but are still soft and pliable. Iron, calcium, and phosphorus become more abundant. Fingernails reach the end of the fingertips. The lanugo, or fine hair, begins to disappear until it is gone except on the upper arms and shoulders. Small breast buds are present in both sexes. Head hair becomes coarse and thicker. Birth is imminent and occurs around the 38th week after fertilization. The fetus is considered full-term between weeks 37 and 40 when it is sufficiently developed for life outside the uterus.[15][16] It may be 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) in length when born. Control of movement is limited at birth, and purposeful voluntary movements continue to develop until puberty.[17][18]","title":"Development in humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Birth weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_weight"},{"link_name":"Environmental toxicants and fetal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development"},{"link_name":"intrauterine growth restriction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrauterine_growth_restriction"},{"link_name":"placental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holden-19"},{"link_name":"weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight"},{"link_name":"body mass index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index"},{"link_name":"emotional stress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_maternal_stress"},{"link_name":"toxin exposure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development"},{"link_name":"tobacco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco"},{"link_name":"alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)"},{"link_name":"heroin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin"},{"link_name":"uterine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterus"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"umbilical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_cord"},{"link_name":"hormone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Holden-19"},{"link_name":"small for gestational age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_for_gestational_age"},{"link_name":"appropriate for gestational age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriate_for_gestational_age"},{"link_name":"large for gestational age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_for_gestational_age"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"low birth weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_birth_weight"},{"link_name":"death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death"},{"link_name":"asphyxia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia"},{"link_name":"hypothermia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia"},{"link_name":"polycythemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycythemia"},{"link_name":"hypocalcemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocalcemia"},{"link_name":"immune dysfunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysfunction"},{"link_name":"neurologic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologic"}],"sub_title":"Variation in growth","text":"Further information: Birth weight and Environmental toxicants and fetal developmentThere is much variation in the growth of the human fetus. When the fetal size is less than expected, the condition is known as intrauterine growth restriction also called fetal growth restriction; factors affecting fetal growth can be maternal, placental, or fetal.[19]Maternal factors include maternal weight, body mass index, nutritional state, emotional stress, toxin exposure (including tobacco, alcohol, heroin, and other drugs which can also harm the fetus in other ways), and uterine blood flow.Placental factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), umbilical blood flow, transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization, and nutrient production.Fetal factors include the fetal genome, nutrient production, and hormone output. Also, female fetuses tend to weigh less than males, at full term.[19]Fetal growth is often classified as follows: small for gestational age (SGA), appropriate for gestational age (AGA), and large for gestational age (LGA).[20] SGA can result in low birth weight, although premature birth can also result in low birth weight. Low birth weight increases the risk for perinatal mortality (death shortly after birth), asphyxia, hypothermia, polycythemia, hypocalcemia, immune dysfunction, neurologic abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. SGA may be associated with growth delay, or it may instead be associated with absolute stunting of growth.","title":"Development in humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prenatal_development_table.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prenatal_development_table.svg"},{"link_name":"prenatal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development"},{"link_name":"by gestation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)"},{"link_name":"Fetal viability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_viability"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-developinghuman-22"},{"link_name":"weeks of gestation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marchofdimes-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-developinghuman-22"},{"link_name":"premature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterm_birth"},{"link_name":"mortality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_mortality"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-developinghuman-22"},{"link_name":"Preterm birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterm_birth"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marchofdimes-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHO2014-24"},{"link_name":"postmature birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postterm_pregnancy"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Stages in prenatal development, showing viability and point of 50% chance of survival at bottom. Weeks and months numbered by gestation.Fetal viability refers to a point in fetal development at which the fetus may survive outside the womb. The lower limit of viability is approximately 5+3⁄4 months gestational age and is usually later.[21]There is no sharp limit of development, age, or weight at which a fetus automatically becomes viable.[22] According to data from 2003 to 2005, survival rates are 20–35% for babies born at 23 weeks of gestation (5+3⁄4 months); 50–70% at 24–25 weeks (6 – 6+1⁄4 months); and >90% at 26–27 weeks (6+1⁄2 – 6+3⁄4 months) and over.[23] It is rare for a baby weighing less than 500 g (1 lb 2 oz) to survive.[22]When such premature babies are born, the main causes of mortality are that the respiratory system and the central nervous system are not completely differentiated. If given expert postnatal care, some preterm babies weighing less than 500 g (1 lb 2 oz) may survive, and are referred to as extremely low birth weight or immature infants.[22]Preterm birth is the most common cause of infant mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths.[23] At an occurrence rate of 5% to 18% of all deliveries,[24] it is also more common than postmature birth, which occurs in 3% to 12% of pregnancies.[25]","title":"Viability"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Circulatory system"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fetal_circulation.png"},{"link_name":"fetal circulatory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_circulatory_system"},{"link_name":"heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel"},{"link_name":"circulatory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system"},{"link_name":"embryonic development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_embryogenesis"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"placenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"umbilical cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_cord"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitaker-26"},{"link_name":"umbilical vein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_vein"},{"link_name":"ductus venosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_venosus"},{"link_name":"inferior vena cava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_vena_cava"},{"link_name":"liver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver"},{"link_name":"portal vein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal_vein"},{"link_name":"heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart"},{"link_name":"foramen ovale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foramen_ovale_(heart)"},{"link_name":"pulmonary circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation"},{"link_name":"aorta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aorta"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitaker-26"},{"link_name":"pulmonary artery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_artery"},{"link_name":"ductus arteriosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_arteriosus"},{"link_name":"amniotic fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniotic_fluid"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitaker-26"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg"},{"link_name":"3D ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_ultrasound"},{"link_name":"gestational age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_age_(obstetrics)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sucking_his_thumb_and_waving.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3dultrasound_20_weeks.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Before birth","text":"Diagram of the human fetal circulatory systemThe heart and blood vessels of the circulatory system form relatively early during embryonic development, but continue to grow and develop in complexity in the growing fetus. A functional circulatory system is a biological necessity since mammalian tissues can not grow more than a few cell layers thick without an active blood supply. The prenatal circulation of blood is different from postnatal circulation, mainly because the lungs are not in use. The fetus obtains oxygen and nutrients from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.[26]Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the umbilical vein. About half of this enters the fetal ductus venosus and is carried to the inferior vena cava, while the other half enters the liver proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the mother's circulation.[26]Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary artery. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ductus arteriosus, which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which are not being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).[26]3D ultrasound of 80-millimetre (3 in) fetus (about 3+1⁄2 months gestational age)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFetus at 4+1⁄4 months\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFetus at 5 months","title":"Circulatory system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pulmonary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung"},{"link_name":"pulmonary arteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_artery"},{"link_name":"right atrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_atrium"},{"link_name":"ventricle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ventricle"},{"link_name":"foramen ovale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foramen_ovale_(heart)"},{"link_name":"left atrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_atrium"},{"link_name":"pulmonary veins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_vein"},{"link_name":"septum primum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum_primum"},{"link_name":"septum secundum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum_secundum"},{"link_name":"circulatory system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system"},{"link_name":"ductus arteriosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_arteriosus"},{"link_name":"ligamentum arteriosum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamentum_arteriosum"},{"link_name":"umbilical vein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_vein"},{"link_name":"ductus venosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductus_venosus"},{"link_name":"ligamentum teres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_ligament_of_the_uterus"},{"link_name":"ligamentum venosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamentum_venosus"}],"sub_title":"Postnatal development","text":"With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. Pulmonary resistance is reduced dramatically, prompting more blood to move into the pulmonary arteries from the right atrium and ventricle of the heart and less to flow through the foramen ovale into the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, producing an increase in pressure that pushes the septum primum against the septum secundum, closing the foramen ovale and completing the separation of the newborn's circulatory system into the standard left and right sides. Thereafter, the foramen ovale is known as the fossa ovalis.The ductus arteriosus normally closes within one or two days of birth, leaving the ligamentum arteriosum, while the umbilical vein and ductus venosus usually closes within two to five days after birth, leaving, respectively, the liver's ligamentum teres and ligamentum venosus.","title":"Circulatory system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"placenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta"},{"link_name":"maternal-fetal barrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta#Immunity"},{"link_name":"microbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbe"},{"link_name":"mother-to-child transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission"},{"link_name":"IgG antibodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G"},{"link_name":"passive immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_immunity"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"The placenta functions as a maternal-fetal barrier against the transmission of microbes. When this is insufficient, mother-to-child transmission of infectious diseases can occur.Maternal IgG antibodies cross the placenta, giving the fetus passive immunity against those diseases for which the mother has antibodies. This transfer of antibodies in humans begins as early as the fifth month (gestational age) and certainly by the sixth month.[27]","title":"Immune system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Environmental toxicants and fetal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_toxicants_and_fetal_development"},{"link_name":"Birth defect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defect"},{"link_name":"birth defects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defect"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"folic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid"},{"link_name":"spina bifida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spina_bifida"},{"link_name":"neural tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_tube"},{"link_name":"prematurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterm_birth"},{"link_name":"fetal alcohol syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_syndrome"},{"link_name":"intellectual disability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_disability"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Smoking during pregnancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy"},{"link_name":"miscarriages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscarriage"},{"link_name":"low birth weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_birth_weight"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-De_Santis-31"},{"link_name":"congenital heart defects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_heart_defect"},{"link_name":"prostaglandins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin"},{"link_name":"patent ductus arteriosus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_ductus_arteriosus"},{"link_name":"ventricular septal defect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_septal_defect"},{"link_name":"pulmonary atresia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_atresia"},{"link_name":"tetralogy of Fallot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetralogy_of_Fallot"},{"link_name":"abdominal pregnancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_pregnancy"},{"link_name":"lithopedion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithopedion"}],"text":"Further information: Environmental toxicants and fetal development and Birth defectA developing fetus is highly susceptible to anomalies in its growth and metabolism, increasing the risk of birth defects. One area of concern is the lifestyle choices made during pregnancy.[28] Diet is especially important in the early stages of development. Studies show that supplementation of the person's diet with folic acid reduces the risk of spina bifida and other neural tube defects. Another dietary concern is whether breakfast is eaten. Skipping breakfast could lead to extended periods of lower than normal nutrients in the maternal blood, leading to a higher risk of prematurity, or birth defects.Alcohol consumption may increase the risk of the development of fetal alcohol syndrome, a condition leading to intellectual disability in some infants.[29] Smoking during pregnancy may also lead to miscarriages and low birth weight (2,500 grams (5 pounds 8 ounces). Low birth weight is a concern for medical providers due to the tendency of these infants, described as \"premature by weight\", to have a higher risk of secondary medical problems.X-rays are known to have possible adverse effects on the development of the fetus, and the risks need to be weighed against the benefits.[30][31]Congenital disorders are acquired before birth. Infants with certain congenital heart defects can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of prostaglandins to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies. Conversely, in cases of patent ductus arteriosus, where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided.Other heart birth defects include ventricular septal defect, pulmonary atresia, and tetralogy of Fallot.An abdominal pregnancy can result in the death of the fetus and where this is rarely not resolved it can lead to its formation into a lithopedion.","title":"Developmental problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fetal pain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_pain"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAMA-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sskqke-33"},{"link_name":"neurobiologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiology"},{"link_name":"thalamocortical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_thalamus"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-34"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson-34"},{"link_name":"pregnancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anand-35"},{"link_name":"suffering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffering"},{"link_name":"abortion debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion_debate"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"anti-abortion advocates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements"},{"link_name":"anesthesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The existence and implications of fetal pain are debated politically and academically. According to the conclusions of a review published in 2005, \"Evidence regarding the capacity for fetal pain is limited but indicates that fetal perception of pain is unlikely before the third trimester.\"[32][33] However, developmental neurobiologists argue that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 6+1⁄2 months) is an essential event with regard to fetal perception of pain.[34][page needed] Nevertheless, the perception of pain involves sensory, emotional and cognitive factors and it is \"impossible to know\" when pain is experienced, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established.[34] Some authors argue that fetal pain is possible from the second half of pregnancy. Evidence suggests that the perception of pain in the fetus occurs well before late gestation.[35]Whether a fetus has the ability to feel pain and suffering is part of the abortion debate.[36][37][38] In the United States, for example, anti-abortion advocates have proposed legislation that would require providers of abortions to inform pregnant women that their fetuses may feel pain during the procedure and that would require each person to accept or decline anesthesia for the fetus.[39]","title":"Fetal pain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abortion of a human pregnancy is legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion_law"},{"link_name":"late-term abortions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late-term_abortion#Legal_restrictions_on_later_abortion"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"Abortion of a human pregnancy is legal and/or tolerated in most countries, although with gestational time limits that normally prohibit late-term abortions.[40]","title":"Legal and social issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Evolution of mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elefetusus.jpg"},{"link_name":"prenatal development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prenatal_development_(biology)"},{"link_name":"viviparous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviparous"},{"link_name":"embryogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryogenesis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"onychophora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onychophora"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ony-41"},{"link_name":"arthropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropod"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"litter-bearing animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litter_(animal)"},{"link_name":"tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissue"},{"link_name":"Altricial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altricial"},{"link_name":"precocial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precocial"},{"link_name":"predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation"},{"link_name":"Primates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"placental mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placentalia"},{"link_name":"jumping mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumping_mice"},{"link_name":"elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sumich-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sumich-44"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Walembryo_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"porpoise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porpoise"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ony-41"}],"text":"Further information: Evolution of mammalsFourteen phases of elephant development before birthA fetus is a stage in the prenatal development of viviparous organisms. This stage lies between embryogenesis and birth.[1] Many vertebrates have fetal stages, ranging from most mammals to many fish. In addition, some invertebrates bear live young, including some species of onychophora[41] and many arthropods.The fetuses of most mammals are situated similarly to the human fetus within their mothers.[42] However, the anatomy of the area surrounding a fetus is different in litter-bearing animals compared to humans: each fetus of a litter-bearing animal is surrounded by placental tissue and is lodged along one of two long uteri instead of the single uterus found in a human female.Development at birth varies considerably among animals, and even among mammals. Altricial species are relatively helpless at birth and require considerable parental care and protection. In contrast, precocial animals are born with open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. Primates are precocial at birth, with the exception of humans.[43]The duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23 months in elephants.[44] Generally speaking, fetuses of larger land mammals require longer gestation periods.[44]Fetal stage of a porpoiseThe benefits of a fetal stage means that young are more developed when they are born. Therefore, they may need less parental care and may be better able to fend for themselves. However, carrying fetuses exerts costs on the mother, who must take on extra food to fuel the growth of her offspring, and whose mobility and comfort may be affected (especially toward the end of the fetal stage).In some instances, the presence of a fetal stage may allow organisms to time the birth of their offspring to a favorable season.[41]","title":"Other animals"}]
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[{"image_text":"A human fetus, attached to placenta, at three months gestational age","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Fetus_3_months.jpg/220px-Fetus_3_months.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagram of the human fetal circulatory system","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Fetal_circulation.png/220px-Fetal_circulation.png"},{"image_text":"Fourteen phases of elephant development before birth","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Elefetusus.jpg/300px-Elefetusus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fetal stage of a porpoise","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Walembryo_2.jpg/220px-Walembryo_2.jpg"}]
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[]
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[{"reference":"Ghosh, Shampa; Raghunath, Manchala; Sinha, Jitendra Kumar (2017), \"Fetus\", Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–5, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_62-1, ISBN 9783319478296","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_62-1","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_62-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319478296","url_text":"9783319478296"}]},{"reference":"\"Charlton T. Lewis, An Elementary Latin Dictionary, fētus\". Archived from the original on 2017-01-04. Retrieved 2015-09-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0060%3Aentry%3Dfetus2","url_text":"\"Charlton T. Lewis, An Elementary Latin Dictionary, fētus\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170104185503/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0060%3Aentry%3Dfetus2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Frank Justus (1951) [1916]. Ovid Metamorphoses. Vol. 1. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd. p. 8. ark:/13960/t9n30qx2z.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Fetal development: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia\". www.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-10-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm","url_text":"\"Fetal development: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111027150119/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"You and your baby at 37 weeks pregnant\". NHS.UK. 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 2022-11-02. Retrieved 2022-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/week-by-week/28-to-40-plus/37-weeks/#:~:text=At%2037%20weeks%2C%20your%20pregnancy,in%20the%20next%20few%20weeks.","url_text":"\"You and your baby at 37 weeks pregnant\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221102014312/https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/week-by-week/28-to-40-plus/37-weeks/#:~:text=At%2037%20weeks%2C%20your%20pregnancy,in%20the%20next%20few%20weeks.","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Giving Birth Before Your Due Date: Do All 40 Weeks Matter?\". Parents. Archived from the original on 2022-11-02. Retrieved 2022-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parents.com/pregnancy/giving-birth/why-it-pays-to-wait-for-a-full-term-baby-birth/","url_text":"\"Giving Birth Before Your Due Date: Do All 40 Weeks Matter?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221102014312/https://www.parents.com/pregnancy/giving-birth/why-it-pays-to-wait-for-a-full-term-baby-birth/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Insights into Early Fetal Development\". Archived from the original on 2013-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130601182944/http://pregnancyarchive.com/articles/insights-into-early-fetal-development/","url_text":"\"Insights into Early Fetal Development\""},{"url":"http://pregnancyarchive.com/articles/insights-into-early-fetal-development","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"World Health Organization (November 2014). \"Preterm birth Fact sheet N°363\". who.int. Archived from the original on 7 March 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/","url_text":"\"Preterm birth Fact sheet N°363\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150307050438/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs363/en/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Buck, Germaine M.; Platt, Robert W. (2011). Reproductive and perinatal epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 9780199857746. Archived from the original on 2016-08-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=by1lwSpfruQC&pg=PA163","url_text":"Reproductive and perinatal epidemiology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199857746","url_text":"9780199857746"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160815200142/https://books.google.ca/books?id=by1lwSpfruQC&pg=PA163","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Pillitteri, Adele (2009). Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-1-58255-999-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58255-999-5","url_text":"978-1-58255-999-5"}]},{"reference":"Dalby, JT (1978). \"Environmental effects on prenatal development\". Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 3 (3): 105–109. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/3.3.105.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjpepsy%2F3.3.105","url_text":"10.1093/jpepsy/3.3.105"}]},{"reference":"Streissguth, Ann Pytkowicz (1997). Fetal alcohol syndrome: a guide for families and communities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes Pub. ISBN 978-1-55766-283-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fetalalcoholsynd00stre","url_text":"Fetal alcohol syndrome: a guide for families and communities"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55766-283-5","url_text":"978-1-55766-283-5"}]},{"reference":"De Santis, M; Cesari, E; Nobili, E; Straface, G; Cavaliere, AF; Caruso, A (September 2007). \"Radiation effects on development\". Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews. 81 (3): 177–82. doi:10.1002/bdrc.20099. PMID 17963274.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbdrc.20099","url_text":"10.1002/bdrc.20099"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17963274","url_text":"17963274"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Susan; Ralston, HJ; Drey, EA; Partridge, JC; Rosen, MA (August 24–31, 2005). \"Fetal Pain A Systematic Multidisciplinary Review of the Evidence\". Journal of the American Medical Association. 294 (8): 947–54. doi:10.1001/jama.294.8.947. PMID 16118385.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.294.8.947","url_text":"10.1001/jama.294.8.947"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16118385","url_text":"16118385"}]},{"reference":"\"Fetal pain?\". International Association for the Study of Pain. June 2006. Archived from the original on 2013-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130701122731/http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/AMTemplate.cfm?Section=HOME&TEMPLATE=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=15390&SECTION=HOME","url_text":"\"Fetal pain?\""},{"url":"http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/AMTemplate.cfm?Section=HOME&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=15390&SECTION=HOME","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Unborn babies can feel pain\". Minnesota Citizens Concerned for Life. Archived from the original on 2016-07-19. The neural pathways are present for pain to be experienced quite early by unborn babies,\" explains Steven Calvin, M.D., perinatologist, chair of the Program in Human Rights Medicine, University of Minnesota, where he teaches obstetrics.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160719130222/http://www.mccl.org/unborn-babies-can-feel-pain.html","url_text":"\"Unborn babies can feel pain\""},{"url":"http://www.mccl.org/unborn-babies-can-feel-pain.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"White, R. Frank (October 2001). \"Are We Overlooking Fetal Pain and Suffering During Abortion?\". American Society of Anesthesiologists Newsletter. 65. Archived from the original on Jan 25, 2008. Retrieved 2007-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080125063355/http://www.asahq.org/Newsletters/2001/10_01/white.htm","url_text":"\"Are We Overlooking Fetal Pain and Suffering During Abortion?\""},{"url":"http://www.asahq.org/Newsletters/2001/10_01/white.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Campiglia, Sylvia S.; Walker, Muriel H. (1995). \"Developing embryo and cyclic changes in the uterus of Peripatus (Macroperipatus) acacioi (Onychophora, Peripatidae)\". Journal of Morphology. 224 (2): 179–198. doi:10.1002/jmor.1052240207. PMID 29865325. S2CID 46928727.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.1052240207","url_text":"10.1002/jmor.1052240207"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29865325","url_text":"29865325"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46928727","url_text":"46928727"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(band)
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Genesis (band)
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["1 History","1.1 1967–1969: Formation, early demos and From Genesis to Revelation","1.2 1969–1970: First gigs, signing with Charisma, Trespass and Phillips' departure","1.3 1970–1972: Collins and Hackett join and Nursery Cryme","1.4 1972–1974: Foxtrot and Selling England by the Pound","1.5 1974–1975: The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway and Gabriel's departure","1.6 1975–1977: Collins becomes frontman, A Trick of the Tail, Wind & Wuthering and Hackett's departure","1.7 1977–1980: ...And Then There Were Three... and Duke","1.8 1980–1985: Abacab and Genesis","1.9 1985–1996: Invisible Touch, We Can't Dance and Collins' departure","1.10 1996–2006: Wilson as frontman, Calling All Stations and hiatus","1.11 2006–2020: Turn It On Again Tour, BBC documentary and reunion speculation","1.12 2020–2022: The Last Domino? Tour","2 Musical style","3 Legacy","3.1 Influence","4 Band members","5 Discography","6 References","6.1 Citations","6.2 General sources","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
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English rock band (1967–2022)
For other bands with similar names, see Genesis (disambiguation) § Music.
GenesisGenesis performing in 2022(L–R): Daniel Pearce, Daryl Stuermer, Mike Rutherford, Phil Collins, Tony Banks, Nic Collins and Patrick SmythBackground informationOriginGodalming, Surrey, EnglandGenresProgressive rockart rockpop rockprogressive popsoft rockDiscographyGenesis discographyYears active1967–200020022006–20072020–2022LabelsCharismaVirginEMIDeccaVirgin EMIUMGLondonAtlanticAtcoVertigoConcordABCSpinoffsBrand XMike and the MechanicsGTRBankstatementStrictly Inc.The Phil Collins Big BandSpinoff ofGarden WallAnonPast members
Tony Banks
Mike Rutherford
Peter Gabriel
Anthony Phillips
Chris Stewart
John Silver
John Mayhew
Phil Collins
Mick Barnard
Steve Hackett
Ray Wilson
Websitegenesis-music.com
Genesis were an English rock band formed at Charterhouse School, Godalming, Surrey, in 1967. The band's longest-existing and most commercially successful line-up consisted of keyboardist Tony Banks, bassist/guitarist Mike Rutherford and drummer/singer Phil Collins. In the 1970s, during which the band also included singer Peter Gabriel and guitarist Steve Hackett, Genesis were among the pioneers of progressive rock.
The group were formed by five Charterhouse pupils, including Banks, Rutherford, Gabriel and guitarist Anthony Phillips, and named by former Charterhouse pupil and pop impresario Jonathan King, who arranged for them to record several singles and their debut album From Genesis to Revelation in 1969. After splitting from King, the band began touring, signed with Charisma Records and became a progressive rock band on Trespass (1970). Phillips departed after the album's recording, with Banks, Rutherford and Gabriel recruiting Collins and Hackett before recording Nursery Cryme (1971). Their live shows began to feature Gabriel's theatrical costumes and performances. Foxtrot (1972) was their first charting album in the UK and Selling England by the Pound (1973) reached number three, featuring their first UK hit "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)". The concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974) was promoted with a transatlantic tour and an elaborate stage show, before Gabriel left the group.
Collins took over as lead singer, and as a four-piece the group released A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering (both 1976) with continued success. Hackett left Genesis in 1977, reducing the band to a three-piece of Banks, Rutherford and Collins. Their ninth studio album, ...And Then There Were Three... (1978), contained the band's first major hit "Follow You Follow Me". Their next five studio albums – Duke (1980), Abacab (1981), Genesis (1983), Invisible Touch (1986) and We Can't Dance (1991) – were also successful. Collins left Genesis in 1996, and Banks and Rutherford replaced him with singer Ray Wilson, who appeared on their final studio album Calling All Stations (1997). The disappointing commercial and critical reaction to the album led the group to disband. Banks, Rutherford and Collins reunited for the Turn It On Again Tour in 2007 and again in 2021 for The Last Domino? Tour.
With between 100 million and 150 million albums sold worldwide, Genesis are one of the world's best-selling music artists. Their discography includes 15 studio and 6 live albums. They have won numerous awards (including a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video with "Land of Confusion") and have inspired a number of tribute bands recreating Genesis shows from various stages of the band's career. In 2010, Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
History
1967–1969: Formation, early demos and From Genesis to Revelation
The group formed at Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey.
The founding members of Genesis, Peter Gabriel, Tony Banks, Anthony “Ant” Phillips, Mike Rutherford and drummer Chris Stewart, met at Charterhouse School, a public school in Godalming, Surrey. Banks and Gabriel arrived at the school in September 1963, Rutherford in September 1964 and Phillips in April 1965. The five were members in either one of the school's two bands; Phillips and Rutherford were in Anon with singer Richard Macphail, bassist Rivers Jobe and drummer Rob Tyrrell, while Gabriel, Banks and Stewart made up Garden Wall.
In January 1967, after both groups had split, Phillips and Rutherford continued to write together and proceeded to make a demo tape at a friend's home-made studio, inviting Banks, Gabriel and Stewart to record with them in the process. The group recorded six songs: "Don't Want You Back", "Try a Little Sadness", "She's Beautiful", "That's Me", "Listen on Five" and "Patricia", an instrumental. When they wished to have them professionally recorded they sought Charterhouse alumnus Jonathan King, who seemed a natural choice as their publisher and producer following the success of his 1965 UK top five single, "Everyone's Gone to the Moon". A friend of the group gave the tape to King, who was immediately enthusiastic. Under King's direction, the group, aged between 15 and 17, signed a one-year recording contract with Decca Records.
From August to December 1967, the five recorded a selection of potential singles at Regent Sound Studios in Denmark Street, London, where they attempted longer and more complex pieces, but King advised them to stick to more straightforward pop. In response Banks and Gabriel wrote "The Silent Sun", a pastiche of the Bee Gees, one of King's favourite bands, which was recorded with orchestral arrangements added by Arthur Greenslade. The group exchanged various names for the band, including King's suggestion of "Gabriel's Angels", before taking King's suggestion of "Genesis", indicating the start of his production career. King chose "The Silent Sun" as their first single, with "That's Me" on the B-side, released in February 1968. It achieved some airplay on BBC Radio One and Radio Caroline, but failed to sell. A second single, "A Winter's Tale" / "One-Eyed Hound", followed in May 1968, which also sold little. Three months later, Stewart left the group to continue with his studies. He was replaced by fellow Charterhouse pupil John Silver.
King believed that the group would achieve greater success with an album. The result, From Genesis to Revelation, was produced at Regent Sound in ten days during their school's summer break in August 1968. King assembled the tracks as a concept album, which he produced. Greenslade added further orchestral arrangements to the songs, but the band were not informed of this fact until the album was released. Phillips was upset about Greenslade's additions. When Decca found an American band already named Genesis, King refused to change his group's name. He reached a compromise by removing their name from the album cover, resulting in a minimalist design with the album title printed on a plain black background. When the album was released in March 1969, it became a commercial failure because many record shops filed it in the religious music section upon seeing the title. Banks recalled that "after a year or so", the album had "sold 649 copies". A third single, "Where the Sour Turns to Sweet" / "In Hiding", was released in June 1969. None of the releases was commercially successful. The lack of commercial success led to the band's split with King and Decca. King continued to hold the rights to the album, which has seen numerous reissues. In 1974, it peaked on the US chart at No. 170.
After the album was recorded, the band went their separate ways for a year; Gabriel and Phillips stayed at Charterhouse to finish exams, Banks enrolled at Sussex University and Rutherford studied at Farnborough College of Technology. They regrouped in mid-1969 to discuss their future, for their offers in further education might result in the group splitting up. Phillips and Rutherford decided to make music their full-time career, for they were starting to write more complex music than their earlier songs with King. After Banks and Gabriel decided to follow suit, the four returned to Regent Sound in August 1969 and recorded four more demos with Silver: "Family" (later known as "Dusk"), "White Mountain", "Going Out to Get You" and "Pacidy". The tape was rejected by each record label that heard it. Silver then left the group to study leisure management in the United States. His replacement, drummer and carpenter John Mayhew, was found when Mayhew looked for work and left his phone number "with people all over London".
1969–1970: First gigs, signing with Charisma, Trespass and Phillips' departure
In late 1969, Genesis retreated to a cottage owned by Macphail's parents, in Wotton, Surrey, to write, rehearse and develop their stage performance. They took their work seriously, playing together for as much as eleven hours a day. Their first live gig as Genesis followed in September 1969 at a teenager's birthday. It was the start of a series of live shows in small venues across the UK, which included a radio performance broadcast on the BBC's Night Ride show, on 22 February 1970, and a spot at the Atomic Sunrise Festival held at the Roundhouse in Chalk Farm a month later. During this time the band met with various record labels regarding contract offers. Initial discussions with Chris Blackwell of Island and Chris Wright of Chrysalis were unsuccessful. In March 1970, during the band's six-week Tuesday night residency at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in Soho, members of Rare Bird, whom Genesis had previously supported live, recommended the band to producer and A&R man John Anthony of Charisma Records. Anthony attended one of their shows and enjoyed them enough to convince his boss, label owner Tony Stratton Smith, to watch their next appearance. Smith recalled, "Their potential was immediately apparent ... the material was good and their performance was good ... It was a long shot, because they needed time to find their strength ... but I was prepared to make that commitment". He agreed to a record and management deal within two weeks, paying Genesis an initial sum of £10 a week (equivalent to £200 in 2024).
Genesis stayed at Wotton until April 1970, by which time they had enough new material for a second album. Recording for Trespass began in June at Trident Studios in London, with Anthony as producer and David Hentschel hired as assistant engineer. The album included longer and more complex songs than their first, blending folk and progressive rock elements with various time signature changes, as in the nine-minute song "The Knife". Trespass is the first in a series of three Genesis album cover designs by Paul Whitehead. He had completed the design before the band decided to include "The Knife" on the album. Feeling the cover no longer reflected the album's overall mood, the band persuaded Whitehead to slash a knife across the canvas and have the result photographed. Released in October 1970, Trespass reached No. 1 in Belgium in 1971 and No. 98 in the UK in 1984. "The Knife" was released as a single in May 1971. Rolling Stone briefly mentioned the album unfavourably following its 1974 reissue: "It's spotty, poorly defined, at times innately boring". "Genesis seemed to be dying a death around our second album", Gabriel told Mark Blake. "We couldn't get arrested. So I got a place at the London School of Film Technique."
That was the closest we came to busting up. For some reason we felt so close that if one left, we thought we couldn't carry on. Of all the changes we've been through, surviving Ant leaving was the hardest.
—Mike Rutherford.
After Trespass was recorded, ill-health and developing stage fright caused Phillips to leave Genesis. His last show with the band took place in Haywards Heath on 18 July 1970. He felt the increased number of gigs affected the group's creativity and several songs he wrote were not recorded or performed live. He had contracted bronchial pneumonia and became isolated from the rest of the band, feeling that it had too many songwriters in it. Banks, Gabriel and Rutherford saw Phillips as an important member, being the most instrumental in encouraging them to turn professional. They regarded his exit as the greatest threat to the band and the most difficult to overcome. Gabriel and Rutherford decided the group should continue; Banks agreed on the condition that they find a new drummer that was of equal stature to the rest of the group. Mayhew was therefore fired, though Phillips later thought Mayhew's working-class background clashed with the rest of the band, which affected his confidence.
1970–1972: Collins and Hackett join and Nursery Cryme
The search for a new guitarist and drummer began with advertisements placed in copies of Melody Maker. The invitation was spotted by drummer Phil Collins, formerly of Flaming Youth, who already knew Stratton Smith. He recalled, "My only knowledge of Genesis was through seeing the ads for their gigs. It seemed like they were constantly working. ... I thought 'At least I'm going to be working if I get the gig'." Roger Taylor, subsequently of Queen, turned down an invitation to audition. Collins went to the audition at Gabriel's parents' house in Chobham, Surrey with his Flaming Youth bandmate, guitarist Ronnie Caryl. As they arrived early, Collins took a swim in the pool and heard what the other drummers were playing. "They put on Trespass and my initial impression of a very soft and round music, not edgy, with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking Crosby, Stills and Nash". Gabriel and Rutherford noticed the confident way Collins approached and sat at his drum kit and knew he would be the right replacement. Banks said, "It was a combination of things. He could make it swing a little bit ... he could also tell good jokes and make us laugh ... And he could sing, which was an advantage because Mike and I were not very good at back-up vocals". In August 1970, Collins became the new drummer for Genesis. Caryl's audition was unsuccessful; Rutherford thought he was not the player the group were looking for.
After a short holiday, Genesis began to write and rehearse as a four-piece band in Farnham, Surrey. The now empty guitar sections in their songs allowed Banks and Rutherford to expand their sound and play what Gabriel described as "interesting chords". As they had not found a new guitarist, Genesis resumed as a live act with Rutherford adding bass pedals and Banks playing lead guitar lines on a Pianet through a distorted fuzz box amplifier in addition to his keyboard parts, something that he credits in helping him develop his technique. In November 1970, after a second audition with Caryl fell through, Dave Stopps, owner of Friars club in Aylesbury, suggested they use Mick Barnard of The Farm, who joined the band for their gigs; which included Genesis's television debut on BBC's Disco 2. After two months of performances, the band found Barnard lacked in expertise and wished to try someone else. In December, Gabriel spotted a Melody Maker advert from Steve Hackett, formerly of Quiet World, who wanted to join a band of "receptive musicians, determined to drive beyond existing stagnant music forms". Gabriel advised Hackett to become familiar with Trespass and attend their upcoming gig at the Lyceum Theatre in London. Hackett auditioned with the group in a flat in Earl's Court and formed an instant rapport with Rutherford through a common interest in inverted chords. After Hackett joined in January 1971, Stratton Smith organised a UK tour with Genesis opening for fellow Charisma acts Lindisfarne and Van der Graaf Generator. Their first overseas dates took place in March with gigs in Belgium followed by their first of three consecutive appearances at the annual Reading Festival on 26 June.
Rehearsals for the band's third album, Nursery Cryme, took place at Luxford House near Crowborough, East Sussex, which Stratton Smith had owned. Recording began at Trident Studios in August 1971 with Anthony and Hentschel reprising their respective roles as producer and assistant engineer. The band's sound evolved, with Hackett's more aggressive electric guitar work and Banks adding a Mellotron previously owned by King Crimson to his set of keyboards. The opening track, "The Musical Box", originated when Phillips and Mayhew were in the group. The band developed the piece further including the addition of new guitar parts from Hackett. "The Musical Box" and "The Return of the Giant Hogweed" are the first recordings in which Hackett uses the tapping technique. Hackett and Collins wrote "For Absent Friends", which was the first Genesis track with Collins on lead vocals. On the album's cover, Whitehead depicted a Victorian manor house based on Gabriel's parents' home, and scenes and characters from the lyrics to "The Musical Box".
Nursery Cryme was released in November 1971 and reached No. 39 in the UK in 1974. Though the group still had a minor cult following at home, they started to achieve commercial and critical success in mainland Europe, with the album reaching No. 4 in the Italian charts. From November 1971 to August 1972, Genesis toured to support the album, including further visits to Belgium and, for the first time, Italy, where they played to enthusiastic crowds. In January and March 1972 they recorded radio sessions for BBC's Sounds of the Seventies programme and later in the year performed at the Reading Festival to some critical acclaim. During the tour, Genesis recorded "Happy the Man", a non-album single, with "Seven Stones" from Nursery Cryme on its B-side.
1972–1974: Foxtrot and Selling England by the Pound
Gabriel in 1974 performing "Watcher of the Skies", dressed in a cape with bat wings and fluorescent makeup
Following rehearsals in a dance school in Shepherd's Bush, Genesis recorded Foxtrot at Island Studios in August and September 1972. During the early sessions, disagreements between Charisma and Anthony contributed to the end of his association with Genesis. After two replacement engineers were tried out, the band settled on John Burns and a new producer, Dave Hitchcock.
The album features the 23-minute track "Supper's Ready", a suite of various musical segments. The track included an opening acoustic piece, a Gabriel-penned song called "Willow Farm" and a piece derived from a jam by Banks, Rutherford and Collins called "Apocalypse in 9/8". Other songs were the science-fiction-themed "Watcher of the Skies" and the property-development-themed "Get 'Em Out by Friday". Foxtrot was released in on 15 September 1972 and reached No. 12 in the UK. It fared even better in Italy, where it went to No. 1. Foxtrot was well received by critics. Chris Welch of Melody Maker thought Foxtrot was "a milestone in the group's career", "an important point of development in British group music" and that Genesis had reached "a creative peak". Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought Foxtrot marked the first time "Genesis attacked like a rock band, playing with a visceral power".
The Foxtrot tour covered Europe and North America from September 1972 to August 1973. Gabriel surprised the other members of the band at the National Stadium in Dublin on 28 September 1972 by wearing a costume on stage, following a suggestion by Charisma booking agent Paul Conroy. He went off stage during an instrumental section in "The Musical Box" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head. The incident resulted in front cover reports in the music press, allowing the band to double their performance fee. In December 1972 Stratton Smith organised the band's first gigs in the US, with a show at Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts and one at Philharmonic Hall in New York City with openers String Driven Thing, in aid of the United Cerebral Palsy Fund. They were well received despite the band complaining of technical issues. Gabriel's costumes expanded in the following months to include fluorescent face paint and a cape fitted with bat wings for "Watcher of the Skies", several guises throughout "Supper's Ready" and a mask of an old man for "The Musical Box". An album of recordings from the following UK leg, initially recorded for the American radio programme King Biscuit Flower Hour, was released as Genesis Live in July 1973. It reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 105 in the US.
In the summer of 1973, Genesis re-signed their contracts with Charisma. Stratton Smith said they got "a much improved deal" despite them being able to get a better one with a bigger label, but the group were loyal and trusted the label with their careers. With a new contract and thus a green-light for a new album, Genesis recorded Selling England by the Pound at Island Studios in August 1973, the second Genesis album that Burns co-produced. Much of it was written at Una Billings School of Dance and Chessington. Gabriel contributed lyrics based on the idea of commercialism and the decline of English culture and the rise in American influences. Its title refers to a UK Labour Party slogan to make it clear to music critics who may have thought Genesis were beginning to "sell out" to the US. "Firth of Fifth" features an extended electric guitar solo from Hackett. The album's cover is a modified version of a painting named The Dream by Betty Swanwick who added a lawn mower to tie the image to the lyrics of "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)".
Selling England by the Pound was released on 5 October 1973 and received favourably by critics, though slightly less enthusiastically than Foxtrot. The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 70 in the US. By this time, Genesis had made little effort to organise their finances and were £150,000 in debt (equivalent to £2,291,300 in 2024).. They hired promoter Tony Smith as their new manager to improve their fortunes and published the band's subsequent music through his company, Hit & Run Music Publishing. The Selling England by the Pound tour visited Europe and North America between September 1973 and May 1974. Their six shows in three days at The Roxy in Los Angeles were well received by audiences and critics. The success of the tour earned the group the "Top Stage Band" title by readers of NME. At its conclusion, Macphail resigned as their tour manager as he wished to pursue other interests. "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)" was released as a UK single with "Twilight Alehouse", a non-album track recorded in 1972; it reached No. 21 following its release in February 1974. Its success led to an offer for Genesis to appear on BBC's national show Top of the Pops. The group thought this would not suit their image and they declined the offer.
1974–1975: The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway and Gabriel's departure
In June 1974, Genesis started work on their double concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway. This marked a point at which Gabriel's relationship with the rest of the group became increasingly strained, which contributed to his departure. The album was written at Headley Grange in East Hampshire, where upon their arrival the building had been left in a very poor state by the previous band, with rat infestations and excrement on the floor. Gabriel objected to Rutherford's idea of an album based on The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, thinking the idea was "too twee". He proposed to the band a less fantastical and more complicated story involving Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City who embarks on a spiritual quest to establish his freedom and identity while meeting several bizarre characters on the way. Gabriel wrote the story with influences from West Side Story, "a kind of punk" twist to Pilgrim's Progress, author Carl Jung and the film El Topo by Alejandro Jodorowsky. Most of the album's lyrics were written by Gabriel, leaving much of its music to the rest of the group. His absence from a considerable amount of writing sessions due to difficulties with his wife's first birth was something about which Rutherford and Banks "were horribly unsupportive". Gabriel also left the group when director William Friedkin asked him to write a screenplay, but returned after the project was shelved. In August 1974, production moved to Glaspant Manor in Carmarthenshire, Wales with Burns as co-producer, operating Island Studios' mobile equipment. Further work and mixing took place at Island, where Brian Eno contributed synthesizers and effects that the album's sleeve credits as "Enossification". When Gabriel asked Eno how the band could repay him, Eno said he needed a drummer for his track "Mother Whale Eyeless". Collins said, "I got sent upstairs as payment". Gabriel was pleased with Eno's work but Banks was less enthusiastic.
Rutherford, Gabriel and Collins in 1974 during The Lamb... tour
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway was released in November 1974 and reached No. 10 in the UK and No. 41 in the US. "Counting Out Time" and "The Carpet Crawlers" were released as singles in 1974 and 1975, respectively. Its sleeve is the first of four Genesis albums designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. From November 1974 to May 1975, Genesis completed 102 dates across North America and Europe as part of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour. Their set included The Lamb... performed in its entirety with an encore, a decision that was not supported by the entire band considering most of the audience were not yet familiar with the large amount of new material. The stage show involved new, more elaborate costumes worn by Gabriel, three backdrop screens that displayed 1,450 slides from eight projectors, and a laser lighting display. Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.
During their stay in Cleveland during the tour, Gabriel told the band he would leave at its conclusion. He wrote a statement regarding his departure to the English press that was published in August 1975 titled "Out, Angels Out", explaining he had become disillusioned with the music industry and wanted to spend extended time with his family. Banks later stated, "Pete was also getting too big for the group. He was being portrayed as if he was 'the man' and it really wasn't like that. It was a very difficult thing to accommodate. So it was actually a bit of a relief."
1975–1977: Collins becomes frontman, A Trick of the Tail, Wind & Wuthering and Hackett's departure
Following the Lamb tour, Hackett recorded his first solo album Voyage of the Acolyte as he felt unsure that Genesis would survive following Gabriel's departure. He reconvened with the remaining group members in London in July 1975. During this time, Collins began drumming with instrumental jazz rock band Brand X, with whom he would be a semi-regular member whenever Genesis were on down time for the next five years. Collins' idea of Genesis continuing as an instrumental group was quickly rejected by the others as they thought it would become boring. Rehearsals for A Trick of the Tail took place in Acton where material was quickly written and with little effort; most of "Dance on a Volcano" and "Squonk" was put together in the first three days. Recording began in October 1975 at Trident Studios with Hentschel as producer. As a replacement singer had not been found, the band decided to record the album without vocals and audition singers as they went. They placed an anonymous advertisement in Melody Maker for "a singer for a Genesis-type group", which received around 400 replies. Collins proceeded to teach selected applicants the songs; Witches Brew frontman and flautist Mick Strickland was invited into the studio to sing, but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him. Having failed to find a suitable vocalist, Collins went into the studio and attempted to sing "Squonk". His performance was well received by the band and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist. Collins then sang on the remaining tracks.
My real worry was actually what to say to the audience, because Peter had always had this offbeat charisma that gave the band a strange aura. I was much more friendly and approachable ... I spent more time ... worrying about what to say between songs than I did about what I was going to do once the songs started.
—Phil Collins.
A Trick of the Tail was released in February 1976 and was a commercial and critical success for the band. The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 31 in the US. The title track was released as a single, though it did not chart. In June, the album was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Institute for selling over 100,000 copies which helped the band clear the £400,000 of debt (equivalent to £3,636,500 in 2024) they owed when Gabriel left. For the first time in their career Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs, including "A Trick of the Tail" and "Robbery, Assault and Battery". Before the upcoming tour, Collins sought a drummer he felt comfortable with while singing; he chose Bill Bruford who offered to do the job. From March to July 1976, Genesis performed across North America and Europe with the A Trick of the Tail tour, to enthusiastic crowds. Collins adopted a more humorous rapport with the audience, unlike Gabriel's theatrical approach, which was successful. The shows in Glasgow and Stafford were filmed for their concert film Genesis: In Concert, released in cinemas in February 1977 as a double bill with White Rock.
In September 1976, Genesis relocated to Relight Studios at Hilvarenbeek in the Netherlands with Hentschel to record Wind & Wuthering. It was put together in a short amount of time and a considerable amount of material was written beforehand, of which the most suitable songs were picked for development. Rutherford spoke of the band's conscious effort to distance themselves from songs inspired by fantasy, something that their past albums "were full of". The band spent roughly six weeks writing the album with a basic form of each track put down in twelve days. Additional recording and production work was done at Trident Studios that October. Hackett, having already released a solo album, enjoyed the greater amount of control over the recording process that working within a group could not provide. He felt his songs, including "Please Don't Touch" (which he later released on his second album Please Don't Touch!) were rejected from the final track order in favour of material that Banks, in particular, had put forward. Collins spoke of the situation, "We just wanted to use what we agreed was the strongest material, irrespective of who wrote it". Wind & Wuthering was released in December 1976 and reached No. 6 in the UK and No. 26 in the US. Rutherford's track, "Your Own Special Way", became its sole single and went to No. 43 in the UK. Its B-side is "It's Yourself", originally intended for A Trick of the Tail.
Hackett in January 1977 on the Wind & Wuthering tour, the last before his departure
Prior to the 1977 tour, Bruford declined an offer to return as second drummer, leaving Collins searching for a replacement. He heard American drummer Chester Thompson, of Frank Zappa's band and Weather Report, play a drum passage on "More Trouble Every Day" from Zappa's live album Roxy & Elsewhere. Collins said, "It floored me completely ... I had never met him. I rang him up and said, 'Hi Chester, I've heard your stuff, would you like to play with Genesis?' ... He didn't even audition!" Genesis toured Wind & Wuthering from January to July 1977 across Europe, North America and, for the first time, Brazil. The stage show cost £400,000 (equivalent to £3,139,000 in 2024). which featured a new PA system, lasers and smoke, and lighting supplied from two rows of Boeing 747 aircraft landing lights. Touring began on 1 January with three sold-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre in London, where 80,000 applications were made for the 8,000 available tickets. They returned to London for three nights at Earls Court, then the largest arena in Britain, supported by Richie Havens. The band's growing popularity in North America led to television appearances and concerts organised in larger venues than previous tours, including Madison Square Garden in New York City. Their Brazilian dates were attended by over 150,000 people and a proposed 100,000-person gig was cancelled over rioting fears. An armed bodyguard accompanied each member throughout their stay.
In May 1977 Genesis released Spot the Pigeon, an extended play of three tracks left off Wind & Wuthering. It peaked at No. 14 on the UK singles chart. It was the final Genesis release before Hackett left the group. He had been writing more material on his own and found it increasingly difficult to contribute more of his ideas within a group context. He wished to embark on a solo career and "take the risk in order to find out just how good I was on my own". News of Hackett's departure coincided with the band's double live album Seconds Out, recorded in Paris on the A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering tours and released in October 1977. It reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 47 in the US.
1977–1980: ...And Then There Were Three... and Duke
By the time Seconds Out was released, Banks, Rutherford and Collins had already recorded ...And Then There Were Three..., the first Genesis album recorded as a trio, in September 1977 at Relight Studios with Hentschel as producer. It was then mixed at Trident Studios in London. In order to put across a greater number of musical ideas, the album is a collection of shorter songs. Most of its eleven songs were written individually; Banks contributed four, Rutherford three and Collins one while the remaining three were written collectively. Their new material signalled a change in the band's sound with songs becoming more pop-oriented, including the group-written track "Follow You Follow Me". Collins recalled it was the only song on the album written from scratch during rehearsals. Rutherford felt comfortable taking on lead guitar duties in addition to his usual rhythm and bass roles, although the band had considered auditioning replacement guitarists or using a session guitarist on the album. Collins later saw the album as "a very vocal, solid album" that lacked more rhythmic tracks like "Los Endos" or songs from Wind & Wuthering, as coming up with ideas on the drums while living in his flat in Ealing with his family was difficult.
...And Then There Were Three... was released in March 1978. It received some mixed reviews from critics at the time owing to the album only containing short songs, which excited new fans but disillusioned those who had been used to the band's previous work. Chris Welch wrote a positive review in Melody Maker, citing a "remarkably powerful" album. It was a commercial success and peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US. "Follow You Follow Me" was released as its lead single and reached No. 7 in the UK and No. 23 in the US, their highest-charting single in both countries since their formation. Its success introduced the band to a new audience, including a larger female interest, helped by its music video airing on Top of the Pops. Its success caused some fans to accuse the group of selling out to more commercial music. A follow-up single, "Many Too Many", was less successful, for it had already appeared on the album.
In the search for a new touring guitarist, Rutherford tried out Pat Thrall and Elliot Randall, followed by Alphonso Johnson of Weather Report, but he was primarily a bassist and could not play Hackett's lead guitar parts comfortably. Johnson then suggested American guitarist Daryl Stuermer of Jean-Luc Ponty's jazz fusion group, who was more comfortable with various guitar styles. During Stuermer's rehearsal in New York City, Rutherford was satisfied with his performance after they played through "Down and Out" and "Squonk". When Stuermer was chosen, he familiarised himself with a list of 26 songs he was asked to learn by going through five per day. The ...And Then There Were Three... tour ran from March to December 1978 and visited North America, Europe and, for the first time, Japan. It cost an estimated £2 million to stage (equivalent to £14,492,800 in 2024). which included the sound system, light and laser displays and additional effects from six computer-controlled mirrors, all of which took eight hours to set up and five to dismantle. One of their shows featured a guest appearance from Gabriel, who sang "I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)". In June, Genesis headlined the year's Knebworth Festival, their only UK show that year.
In December 1978, Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children. Following a meeting with Banks, Rutherford and Smith, Collins went to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, to try and rebuild the family. He explained: "I was never going to leave the band. It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we'd have had to organise ourselves differently." Banks and Rutherford decided to put Genesis on an extended break and make their respective debut solo albums, A Curious Feeling and Smallcreep's Day, at Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. In April 1979, Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage failed. With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album, Collins rejoined Brand X for the album Product, played the drums on former bandmate Peter Gabriel's third album and started writing his own first solo album, Face Value, at his home in Shalford, Surrey.
In 1979, Banks and Rutherford moved into Collins's home in Shalford to write and rehearse material for Duke. The three found the writing process easier and less complicated than And Then There Were Three. Rutherford reasoned that this was the case because they were "getting back to the basic stage of ideas being worked on jointly". Banks put it down to their break in activity, resulting in "good ideas ... which hasn't happened for some time". Duke continued the band's transition into writing shorter songs. Each member contributed two songs for the group to develop: Banks put forward "Heathaze" and "Cul-de-Sac", Rutherford used "Man of Our Times" and "Alone Tonight" and Collins had "Misunderstanding" and "Please Don't Ask". All three wrote the remaining five tracks, including "Duchess", the first Genesis song to feature a drum machine, specifically a Roland CR-78 imported from Japan. In its original form, the album was to contain a 30-minute track based on a fictional character named Albert, but the idea was cancelled to avoid comparisons to "Supper's Ready" from Foxtrot. In November, the band recorded Duke at Polar Studios with Hentschel reprising his role as producer. It's cover was by French illustrator Lionel Koechlin and featured the character Albert.
Released in March 1980, Duke was the band's biggest commercial success at the time of release, spending two weeks at No. 1 in the UK and peaking at No. 11 in the US. The album spawned three singles; "Turn It On Again" went to No. 8 in the UK, "Misunderstanding" reached No. 14 in the US, and "Duchess" peaked at No. 46 in the UK. Duke was supported with a UK and North American tour from April to June 1980, which began with a 40-date tour of the UK for which all 106,000 tickets were sold within hours of going on sale.
1980–1985: Abacab and Genesis
The band's remodelled studio in Chiddingfold, Surrey, known as the Farm. Abacab was the first album recorded there.
In November 1980, Genesis bought Fisher Lane Farm, a farmhouse with an adjoining cowshed near Chiddingfold, Surrey, as their new rehearsal and recording facility. The building was remodelled into a studio in four months before recording for Abacab began in March 1981. The new environment had a productive effect on the writing process as the band wrote enough for a double album, but they discarded one hour's worth of songs that sounded too similar to their past albums. Banks said the band made an effort to keep melodies as simple as possible, which signalled further changes in their direction. The shift was underlined in its production when Hentschel, their producer and engineer since 1975, was replaced by Hugh Padgham after Collins liked his production on Face Value and Gabriel's third solo album. Production duties were solely credited to the band for the first time with Padgham as their engineer. The album is formed of group written material with an individual song from each member. "No Reply at All" features the Phenix Horns, the horn section of American band Earth, Wind & Fire.
Abacab was released in September 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 7 in the US. Three singles from the album entered the top forty in both countries; "Abacab" reached No. 9 in the UK and No. 26 in the US, "No Reply at All" reached No. 29 in the US, and "Keep It Dark", a European-only single, went to No. 33 in the UK. Abacab was supported with a tour of Europe and North America from September to December 1981, ending with shows at Wembley Arena and the NEC Birmingham. The tour marked the band's first use of the Vari-Lite, a computer-controlled intelligent lighting system. Following a demonstration at The Farm, the band and Smith showed an immediate interest in the technology and became shareholders of the company. In May 1982, three tracks recorded during the Abacab sessions – "Paperlate", "You Might Recall" and "Me and Virgil" – were released as an EP in Europe, 3×3, which peaked at No. 10 in the UK. Its cover is a homage to the Twist and Shout EP by the Beatles, with sleeve notes written by that group's former publicist Tony Barrow.
Basically, we reached the point ... where we either became a caricature of ourselves, and settled into a rut, or we changed. There was no doubt in our minds that change was the answer.
—Mike Rutherford on the band's change in direction
In June 1982, Genesis released the double live album Three Sides Live in two different versions. The North American edition contains three sides of live recordings with the fourth comprising the 3×3 tracks and two from the Duke sessions. The European release contains a fourth side of extra live tracks. The album coincided with the home video release of the Three Sides Live concert film recorded in 1981. A tour of North America and Europe followed that ran from August to September 1982, featuring guest appearances from Bill Bruford and the Phenix Horns. On 2 October, Genesis headlined a one-off concert with Gabriel at the Milton Keynes Bowl under the name Six of the Best. The concert was organised to raise money for Gabriel's World of Music, Arts and Dance project that was, by that point, in considerable debt. Hackett, who flew in from abroad, arrived in time to perform the last two songs.
Work on the twelfth Genesis album, Genesis, began in March 1983 with Padgham returning as engineer. It was the first album written, recorded and mixed at the remodelled studio at the Farm. Banks remembered the band were scarce for new musical ideas that "felt at times as though we were stretching the material as far as we could". "Mama" concerns a man's obsession with a prostitute at a Cuban brothel. It originated from a beat Rutherford came up with on a LinnDrum machine that was fed through his guitar amplifier and an echo gate. Collins' laugh on the track originated from "The Message" by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. Released in October 1983, Genesis went to No. 1 in the UK and peaked at No. 9 in the US, where it reached Platinum by December that year and went on to sell over four million copies. Three tracks were released as singles; "Mama" reached No. 4 in the UK, their highest-charting UK single to date, and "That's All" reached No. 6 in the US. The Mama Tour ran from late 1983 through to 1984, covering North America and five UK shows in Birmingham. The latter shows were filmed and released as Genesis Live – The Mama Tour.
In February 1984, Genesis took a break in activity to allow each member to continue with their solo careers. Rutherford formed his group Mike + The Mechanics, Banks worked on his solo album Soundtracks and Collins released No Jacket Required, which achieved worldwide success and increased his popularity as a result. The music press took note that Collins' success as a solo artist made him more popular than Genesis. Before the release of No Jacket Required, Collins insisted that he would not leave the band. "The next one to leave the band will finish it", Collins told Rolling Stone magazine in May 1985. "I feel happier with what we're doing now, because I feel it's closer to me. I won't be the one." He added, "Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes. I still won't leave the group, but I imagine it will end by mutual consent." In June, Collins spoke of the band's intention to start work on a new album that year, ending rumours to a false announcement that aired on BBC Radio 1 suggesting Genesis had split.
1985–1996: Invisible Touch, We Can't Dance and Collins' departure
Genesis reconvened at The Farm in October 1985 to start work on Invisible Touch, which lasted for six months. They continued their method of songwriting used on Genesis by developing material from group improvisations. Banks remembered the time as a strong period creatively for the band, with ideas "flowing out of us". "Invisible Touch" was developed in such a way, when the group were working on "The Last Domino", the second part of "Domino". During the session, Rutherford began to play an improvised guitar riff to which Collins replied with an off-the-cuff lyric – "She seems to have an invisible touch" – which became the song's chorus hook.
Following its release in June 1986, the album spent three weeks at No. 1 in the UK and reached No. 3 in the US, and became the best-selling Genesis album with seven million copies sold. The album's five singles – "Invisible Touch", "Throwing It All Away", "Land of Confusion", "In Too Deep" and "Tonight, Tonight, Tonight" – entered the top five on the US singles chart between 1986 and 1987 with "Invisible Touch" topping the chart for one week. Genesis became the first group and foreign act to achieve this feat, equalling the five singles record set by Michael Jackson, Janet Jackson and Madonna. Genesis commissioned the creators of the satirical British television show Spitting Image, Peter Fluck and Roger Law, to make puppets of them in the style of the show for the video of "Land of Confusion".
Nearly 300,000 people at Wembley ... I thought at the time, and I still think now, that moment was the peak of our career.
—Tony Banks
The Invisible Touch Tour was the band's largest world tour in its history, which included 112 dates from September 1986 to July 1987. Genesis received some criticism in their decision to have Michelob beer as a sponsor. The tour concluded with four consecutive sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium in London. The shows were released in 1988 as The Invisible Touch Tour. When the tour ended, Genesis took a five-year break while each member committed to their solo projects. They performed twice during this time; on 14 May 1988, they performed a 20-minute set at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert at Madison Square Garden. This was followed by a set at a charity gig at the 1990 Knebworth Festival on 30 June, headlined by Pink Floyd.
In 1991 Genesis recorded their fourteenth album, We Can't Dance, from March to September with their new engineer and co-producer, Nick Davis. The band took advantage of the increased capacity the CD offered and released over 71 minutes of new music across 12 tracks. Collins wrote the lyrics to "Since I Lost You" for his friend Eric Clapton following the death of Clapton's four-year-old son Conor. Following the release of We Can't Dance in November 1991, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for one week and No. 4 in the US, where it went on to sell over 4 million copies.
The album spawned several hit singles; "No Son of Mine" went to No. 6 in the UK and "I Can't Dance" reached No. 7 in the UK and the US. In 1993, We Can't Dance was nominated for a Brit Award for Best British Album.
Genesis performing at the Knebworth Festival in August 1992.
The We Can't Dance tour visited North America and Europe from May to November 1992 with each concert attended by an average of 56,000 people. The tour spawned two live albums; The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts reached No. 3 in the UK and The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs went to No. 1 in the UK. A live home video, also titled The Way We Walk, documented one of the band's six consecutive shows at Earl's Court during November 1992. Following the tour, the band took a break in recording and performing activity. Banks, Rutherford and Collins performed at Cowdray Castle, Midhurst in September 1993 for a money-raising event with Pink Floyd touring guitarist Tim Renwick and drummer Gary Wallis and Queen drummer Roger Taylor. Rutherford also played bass on Pink Floyd's set at the same concert.
In March 1996, Collins announced his departure from Genesis. In a statement, he said, "Having been in Genesis for 25 years, I felt it time to change direction in my musical life. For me now, it will be music for movies, some jazz projects and of course my solo career. I wish the guys in Genesis all the very best in their future. We remain the best of friends."
1996–2006: Wilson as frontman, Calling All Stations and hiatus
Shortly after Banks and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis in 1996, they went to The Farm to start writing Calling All Stations. Rutherford initially found the sessions difficult as he saw Collins as "the guy in the middle" who made Banks and himself work better. Their best ideas developed in this period were put forward while they auditioned new singers, including Francis Dunnery and Nick Van Eede. The two main contenders, David Longdon (later of Big Big Train) and Scottish singer Ray Wilson of Stiltskin, auditioned throughout 1996, which involved singing along to Genesis tracks with the lead vocals removed. Wilson was announced as the new Genesis singer in June 1997. Though much of the album was already written by the time he joined, Banks was pleased with his contributions to the album, which included writing the lyrics to "Small Talk" and riffs on "Not About Us" and "There Must Be Some Other Way". Banks and Rutherford opted for two drummers on Calling All Stations – Israeli session musician Nir Zidkyahu and Nick D'Virgilio of Spock's Beard.
Calling All Stations was released in September 1997. It was a commercial and critical success in Europe, where it reached No. 2 in the UK, but the album only reached No. 54 in the US, their lowest charting album there since Selling England by the Pound. A single from the album, "Congo" reached the top 30 in the UK and Genesis completed a European tour from January to May 1998, adding Zidkyahu on drums and Irish guitarist Anthony Drennan. A North American concert tour was planned, but it was cancelled following a poor commercial response and lack of ticket sales, which led to Banks and Rutherford announcing in 2000 that the group would no longer be recording and touring.
In 1998, Banks, Collins, Gabriel, Hackett, Phillips, Rutherford and Silver gathered for a photo session and dinner to celebrate the release of the four-disc box set, Genesis Archive 1967–75. The set features "Supper's Ready" and "It" with new overdubs by Gabriel and Hackett. In 1999, Banks, Collins, Rutherford, Hackett and Gabriel released a new version of "The Carpet Crawlers" for the compilation album Turn It On Again: The Hits. On 21 September 2000, Collins, Banks, Rutherford reunited to perform a brief acoustic set at the Music Managers Forum, in honour of their manager Tony Smith. Gabriel attended the ceremony but chose not to perform with the band. Genesis briefly performed at Gabriel's wedding in 2002. In 2004, Genesis released Platinum Collection, a three-disc compilation album covering the band's career that reached No. 21 in the UK.
2006–2020: Turn It On Again Tour, BBC documentary and reunion speculation
In a press conference held in London in November 2006, Banks, Rutherford and Collins announced their reunion for the Turn It On Again Tour, their first with Collins in fourteen years. They revealed the initial plan of touring The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway with Gabriel and Hackett. The five met in Glasgow in November 2004 to discuss the idea further, but it never developed further as Gabriel was unable to commit due to other projects. Instead, Banks, Rutherford and Collins decided to proceed with Chester Thompson and Daryl Stuermer returning on drums and guitar, respectively. In March 2007, a press conference was held in New York City to announce the North American leg.
Genesis performing at Old Trafford, Manchester in 2007. From left to right, Daryl Stuermer on bass, Mike Rutherford on guitar, behind him Chester Thompson on drums, Phil Collins on vocals and Tony Banks on keyboards.
The Turn It On Again Tour featured a stage designed by architect Mark Fisher with a lighting display by Patrick Woodroffe, included a 55-metre long LED backdrop formed of 9 million LED lights. The European leg saw close to 400,000 tickets sold in 40 minutes for shows in Germany and the Netherlands. The European leg ended with a free concert on 14 July at the Circus Maximus in Rome in front of around half a million people. This was filmed and released on DVD the following year as When in Rome 2007. A live album formed of recordings from various European dates was released in 2007 as Live over Europe 2007. On 7 July, the band played at the Live Earth concert in London at Wembley Stadium.
The band's autobiography Genesis Chapter & Verse was published in 2007 as a full colour 359 page hardback book. The writing credits were Tony Banks, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Steve Hackett and Mike Rutherford, edited by Philip Dodd.
In 2007, the band's studio albums from Trespass to Calling All Stations were digitally remastered by Nick Davis across three box sets: Genesis 1970–1975, Genesis 1976–1982 and Genesis 1983–1998. Each album is presented as a two-disc set containing a CD/Super Audio CD of a new stereo mix and a DVD with a 5.1 surround sound mix and bonus features including previously unreleased live performances, interviews and concert programmes. Two more box sets followed in 2009, Genesis Live 1973–2007, which collected all of the band's live albums and Genesis Movie Box 1981–2007, which compiled all of the band's live home video releases.
After 2011, Genesis members expressed mixed opinions about the possibility of a reunion. Collins retired from the music industry as an active musician during that year in favour of family commitments, and has stated he can no longer play the drums due to medical issues. Hackett has said "I would say it's possible, but highly improbable. I've always been open to it. I'm not the guy who says no." Gabriel addressed the possibility of a reunion, stating "I never say never. It really didn't happen last time. I think there's a small chance, but I don't think it's very high." In 2014, Collins reiterated, "Have people thought it through? It's not as if you're going to get Peter as the singer, me as the drummer. I can't play any more, so it's never going to happen", adding it would not be likely for Gabriel to perform songs on which Collins originally sang lead vocals.
In 2014, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford, Collins and Hackett reunited for Genesis: Together and Apart, a BBC documentary about the band's history and the various solo albums the members have released over the course of their careers. Although he participated in the documentary and promoted it, Hackett was very critical following its broadcast, saying that it was biased and did not give him editorial involvement, adding that it ignored his solo work despite his speaking at length about it. The documentary also did not cover Ray Wilson's time in Genesis. In 2015, Hackett was doubtful about the idea of a Genesis reunion, saying: "Look at the documentary and you'll get an idea of the priorities that come across."
In 2015, Collins announced an end to his retirement and speculated that a reunion with Banks and Rutherford would be possible, a view that Banks endorsed. In 2017, Rutherford said he was also amenable to a reunion tour if Collins was interested. Hackett said he would like a reunion of Genesis's 1971–1975 line-up, but stressed it was very unlikely, adding "I won't say any more because I don't want to raise expectations." Collins published his autobiography in 2016 and stated in the introduction that he retired from Genesis in 2007.
2020–2022: The Last Domino? Tour
On 23 January 2020, Collins, Banks and Rutherford were spotted together at a basketball game in New York City's Madison Square Garden, sparking rumours about a possible Genesis reunion. On 4 March, the trio announced their reformation and The Last Domino? Tour on Zoe Ball's BBC Radio 2 show. The tour was originally planned for seventeen dates across the UK and Ireland between November and December of the same year, with longtime touring guitarist/bassist Daryl Stuermer and Collins's son Nic on drums. Their usual touring drummer, Chester Thompson, was not invited and said he had not spoken to Collins in ten years. The tour was rescheduled twice due to the subsequent COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown, firstly from April 2021 and then from September 2021. Collins asserted that the tour would be his last with Genesis due to his health issues, and said there were no plans for the band to record new music, but added: "Never say never". A North American leg was later added for November 2021, following the UK leg. The tour was supported with the release of a greatest hits set The Last Domino? – The Hits.
The tour began on 20 September 2021. On 8 October, with four dates remaining, the UK leg was postponed due to a positive test for COVID-19 in the band. With the exception of the second Glasgow date, the dates were rescheduled for March 2022, ending with three shows in London on 24–26 March. Genesis performed their final concert of The Last Domino? Tour on 26 March in London. Gabriel was in attendance for the show, but he did not join the band on stage.
In September 2022, Genesis announced that they had sold a portion of their music rights to Concord for an estimated £270 million. The deal includes publishing copyrights and streaming income from their post-1978 output and solo albums by Banks, Rutherford and Collins. Their earnings from the deal with Concord and The Last Domino? Tour made Genesis top a list of highest-paid entertainers of 2022 by Forbes' magazine, with $230 million.
On 3 March 2023, the 5 CD live box set BBC Broadcasts was released, featuring material originally broadcast between 1970 and 1998.
Musical style
For years, we've been telling people that we're primarily songwriters ... I see myself primarily as a writer, not a player.
—Mike Rutherford
Mike Rutherford playing his distinctive double neck guitar, combining 12-string and bass.
Genesis identify first and foremost as songwriters. Though styles changed dramatically over the group's career, they were always built on musical contrasts and the willingness to experiment.
Members of the original line-up were exposed to classical and church music as well as rock artists of the 1960s, particularly the Beatles. Gabriel's vocal style was influenced by Otis Redding and other Stax artists. Some of Genesis's music was inspired by blues according to Hackett, who says that the sonic innovation of the electric guitar in the early 1970s came straight from this. In their early years, Genesis' music combined elements of the pop, folk and psychedelic genres. Several songs developed during Phillips' time in the band originated on 12-string guitars, often with unconventional tunings. By the 1970s, the group began to include fantasy and surreal elements in their lyrics, such as "The Musical Box". Nursery Cryme marks the first time electric instruments were used more extensively. A Trick of the Tail marked a return to the band's roots with acoustic passages and songs inspired by fantasy.
Early lyrics drew from psychedelia, fantasy, mythological figures and fairytale themes. Gabriel emerged as one of the band's main lyricists who often incorporated puns and double entendres in his lines and track titles and addressed various themes including social commentary. Selling England by the Pound contains references to English culture of the time including "Aisle of Plenty", where four British supermarket chains are referenced to reflect the album's theme of commercialism. Literary sources are used as inspiration for many Genesis tracks; "The Cinema Show" is based on T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land, and Arthur C. Clarke's novel Childhood's End inspired the lyrics to "Watcher of the Skies".
By the time the group had slimmed down to the trio of Banks, Rutherford and Collins, they had decided to change lyrical styles, dealing more with everyday matters which connected with female fans. Collins' songs, in particular, were personal in nature. The group still featured humour in songs such as "Illegal Alien", and dealt with serious themes such as politics on "Land of Confusion" and commercialisation on "I Can't Dance".
Banks said that a common way of developing songs throughout the band's career was for Collins to play the rhythm, Rutherford to set up a groove and riffs and for him to add the harmonies and melodies on top. He cited the "Apocalypse in 9/8" section of "Supper's Ready", "The Cinema Show" and "Domino" as examples of this and says the restrictions it gave him allowed the group to produce straightforward pop songs such as "Invisible Touch" and "Land of Confusion" in later years.
Banks has used a number of keyboards during Genesis' career, continually trying out new models, though he has used the piano regularly throughout the group's lifetime. In the 1970s he frequently used the Hammond organ, Hohner Pianet, Mellotron, RMI Electronic Piano and ARP Pro Soloist. In the 1980s, he used the Sequential Circuits Prophet 5 and Prophet 10, the ARP Quadra and various Korg synthesizers. For the Turn It On Again tour in 2007, his main keyboard was a Korg OASYS. As both a guitarist and bassist, Rutherford regularly swapped between the two roles and his trademark instrument with Genesis, particularly throughout the 1970s, was a double-neck guitar. In the 1980s and beyond, he favoured the Eric Clapton Stratocaster.
Legacy
See also: List of awards and nominations received by Genesis
Genesis has had a hard time getting respect. In the early '70s ... it attracted an avid cult following but was largely ignored by the rock press and public at large ... Even in the early '80s ... the press was unimpressed, dismissing the group as easy-listening lightweights ... All of which, to be honest, has been grossly unfair to the group.
—Music critic J. D. Considine
Genesis have been estimated to have sold between 100 and 150 million albums worldwide. Their total certified album sales include 21.5 million in the US, 7.2 million in the UK, 5.6 million in Germany, and 3.4 million in France. Genesis have been awarded eleven Gold and four Multi-Platinum albums in the UK, while in the US they have seven Gold, two Platinum and four Multi-Platinum albums.
In March 2010, Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Phish guitarist Trey Anastasio. The band's awards include a Silver Clef Award for outstanding contributions to British music at its second annual ceremony in 1977. In 1988, the band received one of the only two Grammy Awards issued for the short-lived Best Concept Music Video category for "Land of Confusion". In September 2012, a Lifetime Achievement Award was given to the band at the inaugural Progressive Music Awards. In 2004, Q ranked Genesis as the seventeenth-biggest band in a list compiled based on album sales, time spent on the UK charts and largest audience for a headlining show. Genesis were honoured at the second VH1 Rock Honors in May 2007, which featured Banks, Rutherford and Collins. In 2008, the band received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Mojo Awards.
Genesis were targets for criticism throughout the 1970s from those who disliked progressive rock. Influential BBC DJ John Peel championed the band in their early years and they performed three sessions for him between 1970 and 1972, but he "grew disillusioned with their later excesses". Some regarded the group as overtly middle-class, paying particular attention to the founder members' private education, and believed rock music was being taken away from the working class, whom they regarded as its core audience. Likening his background to that of the punk artist Joe Strummer, who had become a "people's hero" musician, Gabriel stated in 2013, "To this day, we've never outgrown the snotty rich-kid thing ... we were always very straight about where we came from, and we were middle-class, not aristocratic." Gabriel's theatrics were unpalatable to some of the mainstream rock audience, resulting in a cult following rather than that of a mainstream rock band.
At their commercial peak in the 1980s, the music of Genesis faced the accusation of being "flabbergastingly insignificant" by leading American music critic Robert Hilburn, and it has been described as "barely distinguishable" from Collins's solo work. According to Rolling Stone's Erik Hedegaard, Collins in particular was blamed by those who accused the band of selling out. Retrospectively, The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic J. D. Considine documented how the band had been "largely ignored" by the music press and public in their earliest years, before being "derided as middlebrow throwbacks still in thrall to the pomposities of art rock" in the late 1970s and then dismissed as "easy-listening lightweights" in the 1980s. He argued this was unfair, as the band had made their "share of mediocre albums" but no bad ones. Critics disagree about which albums were mediocre; Considine cites Selling England by the Pound as one of the band's three worst (those meriting 2 stars out of 5), while the AllMusic Guide picks it as one of their three best.
Journalists have reported that fans preferring one era of the band strongly dislike others. Rock author Colin McGuire has described the arguments from fans of the Gabriel era as "they sold out and became too corporate when Collins stepped into the spotlight", while fans of the Collins era argue "the Gabriel years were boring and hard to stomach". He concluded both eras of the band should be judged on their own merits. The band themselves have been aware of these divides; press interviews for Abacab explicitly stated that fans of Foxtrot might not like the album, but should keep an open mind. Ultimate Classic Rock stated, "There are few groups in the classic-rock canon with a more divisive discography than Genesis ... there's no arguing that they helped create the template for prog-rock and made some of the genre's most essential albums", but continued "the Genesis sound gradually grew less and less progressive, until the band became a straight-up pop act. Good luck finding anybody out there who's equally enamored of both sides of the band's story." On their legacy, Q reviewer Andy Fyfe wrote in 2007 that "little of the band's output has aged well" and "transcends in the way real classics do", stating they would "remain perennial whipping boys for decades to come". The Daily Telegraph chief rock music critic Neil McCormick said that Genesis were "a daring and groundbreaking band (certainly in their early career)", described Collins as "an outstanding drummer" and stated that "after Gabriel left, he stepped up to prove himself a charismatic frontman with a very distinctive vocal character".
Influence
Genesis have been cited as a principal influence on the neo-prog subgenre that emerged in the 1980s, featuring bands including Marillion and Pallas. Steve Hackett's work in Genesis influenced guitarists such as Brian May of Queen, Alex Lifeson of Rush, and Eddie Van Halen of Van Halen. Iron Maiden founder Steve Harris cited Gabriel-era Genesis as one of his main influences, describing "Supper's Ready" (along with Jethro Tull's song "Thick as a Brick") as one of his two favourite pieces of music of all time in an interview with Prog. Genesis were also an influence on post-punk artists such as Simple Minds and Will Sergeant, guitarist of Echo & the Bunnymen, as well as the electronic new wave band the Human League. Trey Anastasio of Phish said, "It's impossible to overstate what impact this band and musical philosophy had on me as a young musician. I'm forever in their debt." Mostly Autumn "fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd with Celtic themes" in their sound. The alternative rock band Elbow acknowledged Genesis as an influence, such as on their breakthrough song "Newborn".
There are a number of Genesis tribute bands, including ReGenesis who focus on the group's 1970s music. The most successful act is the Canadian band the Musical Box, who have been officially endorsed by the band and had Hackett and Collins perform as guests with them. Gabriel took his children to see the Musical Box so "they could see what their father did back then", while Hackett said "They not only manage to sound, but look virtually identical".
Band members
Main article: List of Genesis band members
Final line-up
Tony Banks – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
Mike Rutherford – bass, guitar, bass pedals, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
Phil Collins – lead and backing vocals, drums, percussion (1970–1996, 2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
Former members
Peter Gabriel – lead vocals, flute, oboe, percussion (1967–1975)
Anthony Phillips – guitar, backing vocals (1967–1970)
Chris Stewart – drums, percussion (1967–1968)
John Silver – drums, percussion (1968–1969)
John Mayhew – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1969–1970; died 2009)
Mick Barnard – guitar (1970–1971)
Steve Hackett – guitar (1971–1977)
Ray Wilson – lead vocals (1996–2000)
Former touring musicians
Bill Bruford – drums, percussion (1976)
Chester Thompson – drums, percussion (1976–1992, 2006–2007)
Daryl Stuermer – guitar, bass, backing vocals (1978–1992, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)
Nir Zidkyahu – drums, percussion (1997–1998)
Anthony Drennan – guitar, bass, backing vocals (1997–1998)
Nic Collins – drums, percussion (2020–2022)
Daniel Pearce – backing vocals (2020–2022)
Patrick Smyth – backing vocals (2020–2022)
Discography
Main article: Genesis discography
Studio albums
From Genesis to Revelation (1969)
Trespass (1970)
Nursery Cryme (1971)
Foxtrot (1972)
Selling England by the Pound (1973)
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974)
A Trick of the Tail (1976)
Wind & Wuthering (1976)
...And Then There Were Three... (1978)
Duke (1980)
Abacab (1981)
Genesis (1983)
Invisible Touch (1986)
We Can't Dance (1991)
Calling All Stations (1997)
Live albums
Genesis Live (1973)
Seconds Out (1977)
Three Sides Live (1982)
The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts (1992)
The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs (1993)
Live Over Europe 2007 (2007)
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General sources
Banks, Tony; Collins, Phil; Gabriel, Peter; Hackett, Steve; Rutherford, Mike (2007). Dodd, Philipp (ed.). Genesis. Chapter and Verse. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84434-1.
Bowler, Dave; Dray, Bryan (1992). Genesis – A Biography. Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-06132-5.
Buckley, Peter (2003). The Rough Guide to Rock (3rd ed.). Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-843-53105-0.
Collins, Phil (2016). Not Dead Yet. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-784-75360-3.
Everett, Walter (2008). Expression in pop-rock music: critical and analytical essays. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-97959-7.
Frame, Pete (1983). The Complete Rock Family Trees. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-7119-0465-1.
Gallo, Armando (1978). Genesis: The Evolution of a Rock Band. Sidgwick and Jackson Limited. ISBN 0-283-98440-6.
Giammetti, Mario (2020). Genesis 1967 to 1975 - The Peter Gabriel Years. Kingmaker. ISBN 978-1-913218-62-1.
Giammetti, Mario (2021). Genesis 1975 to 2021 - The Phil Collins Years. Kingmaker. ISBN 978-1-8384918-0-2.
Hegarty, Paul; Halliwell, Martin (2011). Beyond and Before: Progressive Rock Since the 1960s. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-2332-0.
Hewitt, Alan (2001). Opening the Musical Box – A Genesis Chronicle. Firefly Publishing. ISBN 978-0-946-71930-3.
Macan, Edward (1997). Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-09887-7.
Martin, Bill (2002). Avant Rock: Experimental Music from the Beatles to Bjork. Chicago: Open Court.
Platts, Robin (2001). Genesis: Inside & Out (1967–2000). Collector's Guide Publishing. ISBN 978-1-896-52271-5.
Romano, Will (2010). Mountains Come Out of the Sky: The Complete Illustrated History of Prog Rock. Backbeat Books. ISBN 978-0-8793-0991-6.
Rutherford, Mike (2015). The Living Years: The First Genesis Memoir. Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-1-250-06068-6.
Thompson, Dave (2005). Turn It On Again: Peter Gabriel, Phil Collins and Genesis. Backbeat Books. ISBN 978-0-879-30810-0.
Welch, Chris (2011). Genesis: The Complete Guide to Their Music. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-857-12739-6.
Further reading
Carruthers, Bob (2011). Genesis: The Gabriel Era – Uncensored on the Record. Coda Books. ISBN 978-1-908-53873-4.
Banks, Tony; Collins, Phil; Gabriel, Peter; Hackett, Steve; and Rutherford, Mike; edited by Dodd, Philip (2007). Genesis Chapter & Verse, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978 0 297 844341.
External links
Genesis at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from CommonsData from Wikidata
Official website
Genesis discography at MusicBrainz
Genesis (band) at Curlie
Genesis at Discogs
Genesis at IMDb
vteGenesis
Tony Banks
Mike Rutherford
Peter Gabriel
Anthony Phillips
Chris Stewart
John Silver
John Mayhew
Phil Collins
Mick Barnard
Steve Hackett
Ray Wilson
Studio albums
From Genesis to Revelation
Trespass
Nursery Cryme
Foxtrot
Selling England by the Pound
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway
A Trick of the Tail
Wind & Wuthering
...And Then There Were Three...
Duke
Abacab
Genesis
Invisible Touch
We Can't Dance
Calling All Stations
Live albums
Genesis Live
Seconds Out
Three Sides Live
The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts
The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs
Live over Europe 2007
Compilations
Turn It On Again: The Hits
Platinum Collection
The Last Domino? – The Hits
Box sets
Genesis Archive 1967–75
Genesis Archive #2 1976–92
Genesis 1976–1982
Genesis 1983–1998
Genesis 1970–1975
Genesis Live 1973–2007
R-Kive
BBC Broadcasts
EPs
Spot the Pigeon
3×3
Singles
"The Silent Sun"
"The Knife"
"Watcher of the Skies"
"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)"
"The Carpet Crawlers"
"A Trick of the Tail"
"Follow You Follow Me"
"Many Too Many"
"Go West Young Man"
"Turn It On Again"
"Duchess"
"Misunderstanding"
"Abacab"
"No Reply at All"
"Keep It Dark"
"Man on the Corner"
"Paperlate"
"Mama"
"That's All"
"Home by the Sea"
"Illegal Alien"
"Taking It All Too Hard"
"Invisible Touch"
"Throwing It All Away"
"In Too Deep"
"Land of Confusion"
"Tonight, Tonight, Tonight"
"No Son of Mine"
"I Can't Dance"
"Hold on My Heart"
"Jesus He Knows Me"
"Never a Time"
"Tell Me Why"
"Congo"
"Shipwrecked"
"Not About Us"
"The Carpet Crawlers 1999"
"The Silent Sun 2006"
Other songs
"The Musical Box"
"Get 'Em Out by Friday"
"Can-Utility and the Coastliners"
"Supper's Ready"
"Dancing with the Moonlit Knight"
"Firth of Fifth"
"The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway"
"The Lady Lies"
"Behind the Lines"
"Domino"
"Anything She Does"
"Driving the Last Spike"
"Fading Lights"
Video albums
In Concert
Three Sides Live
The Mama Tour
Live at Wembley Stadium
The Way We Walk
The Video Show
Live in London
When in Rome 2007
Genesis Movie Box 1981–2007
Tours
Selling England by the Pound Tour
The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway Tour
A Trick of the Tail Tour
Wind & Wuthering Tour
Invisible Touch Tour
We Can't Dance Tour
Calling All Stations Tour
Turn It On Again: The Tour
The Last Domino? Tour
Related musicians
Bill Bruford
Chester Thompson
Daryl Stuermer
Nick D'Virgilio
Nir Zidkyahu
Anthony Drennan
Daniel Pearce
Related articles
List of Genesis medleys
Brand X
Flaming Youth
Mike and the Mechanics
GTR
Stiltskin
Simon Collins
Sound of Contact
Jonathan King
Tony Smith
The Musical Box
Six of the Best
Genesis: Together and Apart
The Farm
Genesis discography
List of Genesis band members
Genesis awards
Category
Awards for Genesis
vteAmerican Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group
The Carpenters (1974)
Gladys Knight & the Pips (1975)
Tony Orlando and Dawn (1976)
Chicago (1977)
Fleetwood Mac (1978)
Bee Gees (1979)
Bee Gees (1980)
Eagles (1981)
Air Supply (1982)
Hall & Oates (1983)
Hall & Oates (1984)
Hall & Oates (1985)
Chicago (1986)
Huey Lewis and the News (1987)
Bon Jovi (1988)
Gloria Estefan & Miami Sound Machine (1989)
New Kids on the Block (1990)
Aerosmith (1991)
C+C Music Factory (1992)
Genesis (1993)
Aerosmith (1994)
Ace of Base (1995)
Eagles (1996)
Hootie & the Blowfish (1997)
Spice Girls (1998)
Aerosmith (1999)
Backstreet Boys (2000)
Backstreet Boys (2001)
NSYNC (2002)
Creed (2003)
Fleetwood Mac (2003)
Outkast (2004)
Black Eyed Peas (2005)
Red Hot Chili Peppers (2006)
Nickelback (2007)
Daughtry (2008)
Black Eyed Peas (2009)
Black Eyed Peas (2010)
Maroon 5 (2011)
Maroon 5 (2012)
One Direction (2013)
One Direction (2014)
One Direction (2015)
Twenty One Pilots (2016)
Imagine Dragons (2017)
Migos (2018)
BTS (2019)
BTS (2020)
BTS (2021)
BTS (2022)
vteGrammy Award for Best Music VideoVideo of the Year (1981−1982)
Elephant Parts – Michael Nesmith (1981)
Olivia Physical – Olivia Newton-John (1982)
1983–1986
"Girls on Film" / "Hungry Like the Wolf" – Duran Duran (1983)
"Jazzin' for Blue Jean" – David Bowie (1984)
"We Are the World" – USA for Africa (1985)
"Brothers in Arms" – Dire Straits (1986)
Best ConceptMusic Video (1987−1988)
"Land of Confusion" – Genesis (1987)
"Fat" – "Weird Al" Yankovic (1988)
1989–2009
"Leave Me Alone" – Michael Jackson (1989)
"Opposites Attract" – Paula Abdul (1990)
"Losing My Religion" – R.E.M. (1991)
"Digging in the Dirt" – Peter Gabriel (1992)
"Steam" – Peter Gabriel (1993)
"Love Is Strong" – The Rolling Stones (1994)
"Scream" – Michael Jackson & Janet Jackson (1995)
"Free as a Bird" – The Beatles (1996)
"Got 'til It's Gone" – Janet Jackson (1997)
"Ray of Light" – Madonna (1998)
"Freak on a Leash" – Korn (1999)
"Learn to Fly" – Foo Fighters (2000)
"Weapon of Choice" – Fatboy Slim featuring Bootsy Collins (2001)
"Without Me" - Eminem (2002)
"Hurt" – Johnny Cash (2003)
"Vertigo" – U2 (2004)
"Lose Control" – Missy Elliott featuring Ciara & Fatman Scoop (2005)
"Here It Goes Again" – OK Go (2006)
"God's Gonna Cut You Down" – Johnny Cash (2007)
"Pork and Beans" – Weezer (2008)
"Boom Boom Pow" – The Black Eyed Peas (2009)
2010–present
"Bad Romance" – Lady Gaga (2010)
"Rolling in the Deep" – Adele (2011)
"We Found Love" – Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris (2012)
"Suit & Tie" – Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z (2013)
"Happy" – Pharrell Williams (2014)
"Bad Blood" – Taylor Swift featuring Kendrick Lamar (2015)
"Formation" – Beyoncé (2016)
"Humble" – Kendrick Lamar (2017)
"This Is America" – Childish Gambino (2018)
"Old Town Road" – Lil Nas X featuring Billy Ray Cyrus (2019)
"Brown Skin Girl" – Beyoncé, Blue Ivy & Wizkid (2020)
"Freedom" – Jon Batiste (2021)
All Too Well: The Short Film – Taylor Swift (2022)
"I'm Only Sleeping" – The Beatles (2023)
vteRock and Roll Hall of Fame – Class of 2010Performers
ABBA
Benny Andersson, Agnetha Fältskog, Anni-Frid Lyngstad, Björn Ulvaeus
Genesis
Tony Banks, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Steve Hackett, Mike Rutherford
Jimmy Cliff
The Hollies
Bernie Calvert, Allan Clarke, Bobby Elliott, Eric Haydock, Tony Hicks, Graham Nash, Terry Sylvester
The Stooges
Dave Alexander, Ron Asheton, Scott Asheton, Iggy Pop, James Williamson
Non-performers(Ahmet Ertegun Award)
Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich
Otis Blackwell
David Geffen
Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil
Mort Shuman
Jesse Stone
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IdRef
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genesis (disambiguation) § Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(disambiguation)#Music"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"Charterhouse School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charterhouse_School"},{"link_name":"Godalming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godalming"},{"link_name":"Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey"},{"link_name":"Tony Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Banks_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"Phil Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins"},{"link_name":"Peter Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel"},{"link_name":"Steve Hackett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Hackett"},{"link_name":"progressive rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_rock"},{"link_name":"Anthony Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Phillips"},{"link_name":"Jonathan King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_King"},{"link_name":"From Genesis to Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Genesis_to_Revelation"},{"link_name":"Charisma Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charisma_Records"},{"link_name":"Trespass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_(album)"},{"link_name":"Nursery Cryme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_Cryme"},{"link_name":"Foxtrot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtrot_(album)"},{"link_name":"Selling England by the Pound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selling_England_by_the_Pound"},{"link_name":"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Know_What_I_Like_(In_Your_Wardrobe)"},{"link_name":"concept album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_album"},{"link_name":"The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lamb_Lies_Down_on_Broadway"},{"link_name":"A Trick of the Tail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Trick_of_the_Tail"},{"link_name":"Wind & Wuthering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_%26_Wuthering"},{"link_name":"...And Then There Were Three...","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/...And_Then_There_Were_Three..."},{"link_name":"Follow You Follow Me","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follow_You_Follow_Me"},{"link_name":"Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_(album)"},{"link_name":"Abacab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacab"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(Genesis_album)"},{"link_name":"Invisible Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Touch"},{"link_name":"We Can't Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can%27t_Dance"},{"link_name":"Ray Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Wilson_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Calling All Stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_All_Stations"},{"link_name":"Turn It On Again Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_It_On_Again:_The_Tour"},{"link_name":"The Last Domino? Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Domino%3F_Tour"},{"link_name":"best-selling music artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_music_artists"},{"link_name":"discography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_discography"},{"link_name":"awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Concept Music Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Concept_Music_Video"},{"link_name":"Land of Confusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_Confusion"},{"link_name":"tribute bands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_band"},{"link_name":"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame"}],"text":"English rock band (1967–2022)For other bands with similar names, see Genesis (disambiguation) § Music.Genesis were an English rock band formed at Charterhouse School, Godalming, Surrey, in 1967. The band's longest-existing and most commercially successful line-up consisted of keyboardist Tony Banks, bassist/guitarist Mike Rutherford and drummer/singer Phil Collins. In the 1970s, during which the band also included singer Peter Gabriel and guitarist Steve Hackett, Genesis were among the pioneers of progressive rock.The group were formed by five Charterhouse pupils, including Banks, Rutherford, Gabriel and guitarist Anthony Phillips, and named by former Charterhouse pupil and pop impresario Jonathan King, who arranged for them to record several singles and their debut album From Genesis to Revelation in 1969. After splitting from King, the band began touring, signed with Charisma Records and became a progressive rock band on Trespass (1970). Phillips departed after the album's recording, with Banks, Rutherford and Gabriel recruiting Collins and Hackett before recording Nursery Cryme (1971). Their live shows began to feature Gabriel's theatrical costumes and performances. Foxtrot (1972) was their first charting album in the UK and Selling England by the Pound (1973) reached number three, featuring their first UK hit \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\". The concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974) was promoted with a transatlantic tour and an elaborate stage show, before Gabriel left the group.Collins took over as lead singer, and as a four-piece the group released A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering (both 1976) with continued success. Hackett left Genesis in 1977, reducing the band to a three-piece of Banks, Rutherford and Collins. Their ninth studio album, ...And Then There Were Three... (1978), contained the band's first major hit \"Follow You Follow Me\". Their next five studio albums – Duke (1980), Abacab (1981), Genesis (1983), Invisible Touch (1986) and We Can't Dance (1991) – were also successful. Collins left Genesis in 1996, and Banks and Rutherford replaced him with singer Ray Wilson, who appeared on their final studio album Calling All Stations (1997). The disappointing commercial and critical reaction to the album led the group to disband. Banks, Rutherford and Collins reunited for the Turn It On Again Tour in 2007 and again in 2021 for The Last Domino? Tour.With between 100 million and 150 million albums sold worldwide, Genesis are one of the world's best-selling music artists. Their discography includes 15 studio and 6 live albums. They have won numerous awards (including a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video with \"Land of Confusion\") and have inspired a number of tribute bands recreating Genesis shows from various stages of the band's career. In 2010, Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.","title":"Genesis (band)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chouse22.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charterhouse School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charterhouse_School"},{"link_name":"Godalming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godalming"},{"link_name":"Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey"},{"link_name":"Peter Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel"},{"link_name":"Tony Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Banks_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Anthony “Ant” Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Phillips"},{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"Chris Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Stewart_(author)"},{"link_name":"Charterhouse School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charterhouse_School"},{"link_name":"public school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_school_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Godalming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godalming"},{"link_name":"Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"Anon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anon_(band)"},{"link_name":"Richard Macphail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Macphail"},{"link_name":"Rivers Jobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivers_Jobe"},{"link_name":"Garden Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_Wall_(band)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199213-7"},{"link_name":"Jonathan King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_King"},{"link_name":"Everyone's Gone to the Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyone%27s_Gone_to_the_Moon"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199214-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199215-9"},{"link_name":"Decca Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch201111-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200111%E2%80%9312-11"},{"link_name":"Denmark Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark_Street"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199216-12"},{"link_name":"The Silent Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silent_Sun"},{"link_name":"Bee Gees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_Gees"},{"link_name":"Arthur Greenslade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Greenslade"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"B-side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-side"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199217-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007348-14"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_One"},{"link_name":"Radio Caroline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Caroline"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200125-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007348-14"},{"link_name":"John Silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Silver_(musician)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199219-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199219-16"},{"link_name":"From Genesis to Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Genesis_to_Revelation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199221%E2%80%9322-17"},{"link_name":"concept album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_album"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199220-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199221-19"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007348-14"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200752-20"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200125-15"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fromgenesisto-21"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007348-14"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Sussex University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sussex"},{"link_name":"Farnborough College of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnborough_College_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199222-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199223%E2%80%9324-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200119-25"},{"link_name":"John Mayhew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayhew_(musician)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007348-14"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199223,_27-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"1967–1969: Formation, early demos and From Genesis to Revelation","text":"The group formed at Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey.The founding members of Genesis, Peter Gabriel, Tony Banks, Anthony “Ant” Phillips, Mike Rutherford and drummer Chris Stewart, met at Charterhouse School, a public school in Godalming, Surrey. Banks and Gabriel arrived at the school in September 1963, Rutherford in September 1964 and Phillips in April 1965.[6] The five were members in either one of the school's two bands; Phillips and Rutherford were in Anon with singer Richard Macphail, bassist Rivers Jobe and drummer Rob Tyrrell, while Gabriel, Banks and Stewart made up Garden Wall.[6]In January 1967, after both groups had split, Phillips and Rutherford continued to write together and proceeded to make a demo tape at a friend's home-made studio, inviting Banks, Gabriel and Stewart to record with them in the process. The group recorded six songs: \"Don't Want You Back\", \"Try a Little Sadness\", \"She's Beautiful\", \"That's Me\", \"Listen on Five\" and \"Patricia\", an instrumental.[6][7] When they wished to have them professionally recorded they sought Charterhouse alumnus Jonathan King, who seemed a natural choice as their publisher and producer following the success of his 1965 UK top five single, \"Everyone's Gone to the Moon\".[8] A friend of the group gave the tape to King, who was immediately enthusiastic.[9] Under King's direction, the group, aged between 15 and 17, signed a one-year recording contract with Decca Records.[10]From August to December 1967,[11] the five recorded a selection of potential singles at Regent Sound Studios in Denmark Street, London, where they attempted longer and more complex pieces, but King advised them to stick to more straightforward pop.[12] In response Banks and Gabriel wrote \"The Silent Sun\", a pastiche of the Bee Gees, one of King's favourite bands, which was recorded with orchestral arrangements added by Arthur Greenslade.[6] The group exchanged various names for the band, including King's suggestion of \"Gabriel's Angels\", before taking King's suggestion of \"Genesis\", indicating the start of his production career. King chose \"The Silent Sun\" as their first single, with \"That's Me\" on the B-side, released in February 1968.[13][14] It achieved some airplay on BBC Radio One and Radio Caroline, but failed to sell. A second single, \"A Winter's Tale\" / \"One-Eyed Hound\", followed in May 1968, which also sold little.[15] Three months later, Stewart left the group to continue with his studies.[14] He was replaced by fellow Charterhouse pupil John Silver.[16]King believed that the group would achieve greater success with an album.[16] The result, From Genesis to Revelation, was produced at Regent Sound in ten days during their school's summer break in August 1968.[17] King assembled the tracks as a concept album, which he produced. Greenslade added further orchestral arrangements to the songs, but the band were not informed of this fact until the album was released. Phillips was upset about Greenslade's additions.[18] When Decca found an American band already named Genesis, King refused to change his group's name. He reached a compromise by removing their name from the album cover, resulting in a minimalist design with the album title printed on a plain black background.[19] When the album was released in March 1969, it became a commercial failure because many record shops filed it in the religious music section upon seeing the title.[14] Banks recalled that \"after a year or so\", the album had \"sold 649 copies\".[20] A third single, \"Where the Sour Turns to Sweet\" / \"In Hiding\", was released in June 1969.[15] None of the releases was commercially successful. The lack of commercial success led to the band's split with King and Decca.[21] King continued to hold the rights to the album, which has seen numerous reissues. In 1974, it peaked on the US chart at No. 170.[14][22]After the album was recorded, the band went their separate ways for a year; Gabriel and Phillips stayed at Charterhouse to finish exams, Banks enrolled at Sussex University and Rutherford studied at Farnborough College of Technology.[23] They regrouped in mid-1969 to discuss their future, for their offers in further education might result in the group splitting up. Phillips and Rutherford decided to make music their full-time career, for they were starting to write more complex music than their earlier songs with King.[24] After Banks and Gabriel decided to follow suit, the four returned to Regent Sound in August 1969 and recorded four more demos with Silver: \"Family\" (later known as \"Dusk\"), \"White Mountain\", \"Going Out to Get You\" and \"Pacidy\". The tape was rejected by each record label that heard it.[25] Silver then left the group to study leisure management in the United States. His replacement, drummer and carpenter John Mayhew, was found when Mayhew looked for work and left his phone number \"with people all over London\".[14][26][27]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wotton,_Surrey"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200749-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199228-29"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200120-30"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Night Ride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Ride_(BBC_Radio_2)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200127-31"},{"link_name":"Roundhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundhouse_(venue)"},{"link_name":"Chalk Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalk_Farm"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200774-32"},{"link_name":"Chris Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Blackwell"},{"link_name":"Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_Records"},{"link_name":"Chris Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Wright_(music_industry_executive)"},{"link_name":"Chrysalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysalis_Records"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Scott%27s_Jazz_Club"},{"link_name":"Soho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soho"},{"link_name":"Rare Bird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_Bird"},{"link_name":"John Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Anthony_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Charisma Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charisma_Records"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"Tony Stratton Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Stratton_Smith"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200771-33"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrame198323-6"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-UK-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200772-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199227-37"},{"link_name":"Trespass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_(album)"},{"link_name":"Trident Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trident_Studios"},{"link_name":"David Hentschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hentschel"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199231-38"},{"link_name":"folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music"},{"link_name":"progressive rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_rock"},{"link_name":"time signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_signature"},{"link_name":"The Knife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Knife_(song)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199232%E2%80%9333-39"},{"link_name":"Paul Whitehead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Whitehead"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERomano201072-40"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200150-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Mark Blake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Blake_(writer)"},{"link_name":"London School of Film Technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Film_School"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199235-45"},{"link_name":"stage fright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_fright"},{"link_name":"Haywards Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haywards_Heath"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200127-31"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199229,_31-46"},{"link_name":"bronchial pneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchial_pneumonia"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199234-47"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199235-45"}],"sub_title":"1969–1970: First gigs, signing with Charisma, Trespass and Phillips' departure","text":"In late 1969, Genesis retreated to a cottage owned by Macphail's parents, in Wotton, Surrey, to write, rehearse and develop their stage performance.[28] They took their work seriously, playing together for as much as eleven hours a day.[29] Their first live gig as Genesis followed in September 1969 at a teenager's birthday.[6][30] It was the start of a series of live shows in small venues across the UK, which included a radio performance broadcast on the BBC's Night Ride show, on 22 February 1970,[31] and a spot at the Atomic Sunrise Festival held at the Roundhouse in Chalk Farm a month later.[32] During this time the band met with various record labels regarding contract offers. Initial discussions with Chris Blackwell of Island and Chris Wright of Chrysalis were unsuccessful. In March 1970, during the band's six-week Tuesday night residency at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club in Soho, members of Rare Bird, whom Genesis had previously supported live, recommended the band to producer and A&R man John Anthony of Charisma Records.[6] Anthony attended one of their shows and enjoyed them enough to convince his boss, label owner Tony Stratton Smith, to watch their next appearance.[33] Smith recalled, \"Their potential was immediately apparent ... the material was good and their performance was good ... It was a long shot, because they needed time to find their strength ... but I was prepared to make that commitment\".[6] He agreed to a record and management deal within two weeks, paying Genesis an initial sum of £10 a week (equivalent to £200 in 2024).[34][35]Genesis stayed at Wotton until April 1970,[36] by which time they had enough new material for a second album.[37] Recording for Trespass began in June at Trident Studios in London, with Anthony as producer and David Hentschel hired as assistant engineer.[38] The album included longer and more complex songs than their first, blending folk and progressive rock elements with various time signature changes, as in the nine-minute song \"The Knife\".[39] Trespass is the first in a series of three Genesis album cover designs by Paul Whitehead. He had completed the design before the band decided to include \"The Knife\" on the album. Feeling the cover no longer reflected the album's overall mood, the band persuaded Whitehead to slash a knife across the canvas and have the result photographed.[40] Released in October 1970, Trespass reached No. 1 in Belgium in 1971[41] and No. 98 in the UK in 1984.[42] \"The Knife\" was released as a single in May 1971.[36] Rolling Stone briefly mentioned the album unfavourably following its 1974 reissue: \"It's spotty, poorly defined, at times innately boring\".[43] \"Genesis seemed to be dying a death around our second album\", Gabriel told Mark Blake. \"We couldn't get arrested. So I got a place at the London School of Film Technique.\"[44]That was the closest we came to busting up. For some reason we felt so close that if one left, we thought we couldn't carry on. Of all the changes we've been through, surviving Ant leaving was the hardest.\n\n\n—Mike Rutherford.[45]After Trespass was recorded, ill-health and developing stage fright caused Phillips to leave Genesis. His last show with the band took place in Haywards Heath on 18 July 1970.[31] He felt the increased number of gigs affected the group's creativity and several songs he wrote were not recorded or performed live.[46] He had contracted bronchial pneumonia and became isolated from the rest of the band, feeling that it had too many songwriters in it.[47] Banks, Gabriel and Rutherford saw Phillips as an important member, being the most instrumental in encouraging them to turn professional. They regarded his exit as the greatest threat to the band and the most difficult to overcome. Gabriel and Rutherford decided the group should continue; Banks agreed on the condition that they find a new drummer that was of equal stature to the rest of the group. Mayhew was therefore fired, though Phillips later thought Mayhew's working-class background clashed with the rest of the band, which affected his confidence.[45]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Melody Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody_Maker"},{"link_name":"Phil Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins"},{"link_name":"Flaming Youth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaming_Youth_(band)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200792%E2%80%9393-48"},{"link_name":"Roger Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Taylor_(Queen_drummer)"},{"link_name":"Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Chobham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chobham"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Caryl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Caryl"},{"link_name":"Crosby, Stills and Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosby,_Stills,_Nash_%26_Young"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200794-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200795-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200794-50"},{"link_name":"Farnham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnham"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200795-51"},{"link_name":"bass pedals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_pedals"},{"link_name":"Pianet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pianet"},{"link_name":"fuzz box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_(music)"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis200796-52"},{"link_name":"Friars club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friars_Aylesbury"},{"link_name":"Aylesbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aylesbury"},{"link_name":"Mick Barnard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Barnard"},{"link_name":"Disco 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco_2_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford201594-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199241-54"},{"link_name":"Steve Hackett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Hackett"},{"link_name":"Quiet World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiet_World"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199243-55"},{"link_name":"Lyceum Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyceum_Theatre,_London"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199243-55"},{"link_name":"Earl's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"inverted chords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_chord"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007101-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199244-57"},{"link_name":"Lindisfarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindisfarne_(band)"},{"link_name":"Van der Graaf Generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Graaf_Generator"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007103-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200132-59"},{"link_name":"Reading Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_Festival"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200142-60"},{"link_name":"Nursery Cryme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_Cryme"},{"link_name":"Luxford House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxford_House"},{"link_name":"Crowborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowborough"},{"link_name":"East Sussex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sussex"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007105%E2%80%93106-61"},{"link_name":"Mellotron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellotron"},{"link_name":"King Crimson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Crimson"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200143-62"},{"link_name":"The Musical Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Musical_Box_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199253-63"},{"link_name":"tapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapping"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"manor house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manor_house"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacan199760%E2%80%9361-65"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199259-66"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200133-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200144-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Seven Stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Stones_(song)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199261,_249-70"}],"sub_title":"1970–1972: Collins and Hackett join and Nursery Cryme","text":"The search for a new guitarist and drummer began with advertisements placed in copies of Melody Maker. The invitation was spotted by drummer Phil Collins, formerly of Flaming Youth, who already knew Stratton Smith. He recalled, \"My only knowledge of Genesis was through seeing the ads for their gigs. It seemed like they were constantly working. ... I thought 'At least I'm going to be working if I get the gig'.\"[48] Roger Taylor, subsequently of Queen, turned down an invitation to audition.[49] Collins went to the audition at Gabriel's parents' house in Chobham, Surrey with his Flaming Youth bandmate, guitarist Ronnie Caryl. As they arrived early, Collins took a swim in the pool and heard what the other drummers were playing. \"They put on Trespass and my initial impression of a very soft and round music, not edgy, with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking Crosby, Stills and Nash\".[50] Gabriel and Rutherford noticed the confident way Collins approached and sat at his drum kit and knew he would be the right replacement. Banks said, \"It was a combination of things. He could make it swing a little bit ... he could also tell good jokes and make us laugh ... And he could sing, which was an advantage because Mike and I were not very good at back-up vocals\".[51] In August 1970, Collins became the new drummer for Genesis. Caryl's audition was unsuccessful; Rutherford thought he was not the player the group were looking for.[50]After a short holiday, Genesis began to write and rehearse as a four-piece band in Farnham, Surrey. The now empty guitar sections in their songs allowed Banks and Rutherford to expand their sound and play what Gabriel described as \"interesting chords\".[51] As they had not found a new guitarist, Genesis resumed as a live act with Rutherford adding bass pedals and Banks playing lead guitar lines on a Pianet through a distorted fuzz box amplifier in addition to his keyboard parts, something that he credits in helping him develop his technique.[52] In November 1970, after a second audition with Caryl fell through, Dave Stopps, owner of Friars club in Aylesbury, suggested they use Mick Barnard of The Farm, who joined the band for their gigs; which included Genesis's television debut on BBC's Disco 2.[53] After two months of performances, the band found Barnard lacked in expertise and wished to try someone else.[54] In December, Gabriel spotted a Melody Maker advert from Steve Hackett, formerly of Quiet World, who wanted to join a band of \"receptive musicians, determined to drive beyond existing stagnant music forms\".[55] Gabriel advised Hackett to become familiar with Trespass and attend their upcoming gig at the Lyceum Theatre in London.[55] Hackett auditioned with the group in a flat in Earl's Court and formed an instant rapport with Rutherford through a common interest in inverted chords.[56] After Hackett joined in January 1971,[57] Stratton Smith organised a UK tour with Genesis opening for fellow Charisma acts Lindisfarne and Van der Graaf Generator.[58] Their first overseas dates took place in March with gigs in Belgium[59] followed by their first of three consecutive appearances at the annual Reading Festival on 26 June.[60]Rehearsals for the band's third album, Nursery Cryme, took place at Luxford House near Crowborough, East Sussex, which Stratton Smith had owned.[61] Recording began at Trident Studios in August 1971 with Anthony and Hentschel reprising their respective roles as producer and assistant engineer. The band's sound evolved, with Hackett's more aggressive electric guitar work and Banks adding a Mellotron previously owned by King Crimson to his set of keyboards.[62] The opening track, \"The Musical Box\", originated when Phillips and Mayhew were in the group. The band developed the piece further including the addition of new guitar parts from Hackett.[63] \"The Musical Box\" and \"The Return of the Giant Hogweed\" are the first recordings in which Hackett uses the tapping technique.[64] Hackett and Collins wrote \"For Absent Friends\", which was the first Genesis track with Collins on lead vocals. On the album's cover, Whitehead depicted a Victorian manor house based on Gabriel's parents' home, and scenes and characters from the lyrics to \"The Musical Box\".[65]Nursery Cryme was released in November 1971 and reached No. 39 in the UK in 1974.[36] Though the group still had a minor cult following at home, they started to achieve commercial and critical success in mainland Europe, with the album reaching No. 4 in the Italian charts.[66] From November 1971 to August 1972, Genesis toured to support the album, including further visits to Belgium and, for the first time, Italy, where they played to enthusiastic crowds.[36] In January[67] and March[68] 1972 they recorded radio sessions for BBC's Sounds of the Seventies programme and later in the year performed at the Reading Festival to some critical acclaim.[69] During the tour, Genesis recorded \"Happy the Man\", a non-album single, with \"Seven Stones\" from Nursery Cryme on its B-side.[70]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_Gabriel_The_Watcher_of_the_Skies_(cropped).png"},{"link_name":"Shepherd's Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepherd%27s_Bush"},{"link_name":"Foxtrot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtrot_(album)"},{"link_name":"Island Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_Studios"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199262-71"},{"link_name":"John Burns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Burns_(audio_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Dave Hitchcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Hitchcock"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200154-72"},{"link_name":"Supper's 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Erlewine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_Erlewine"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"National Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Stadium_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin"},{"link_name":"Paul Conroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Conroy_(Music_Executive)"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007113-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200159-80"},{"link_name":"Brandeis University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandeis_University"},{"link_name":"Waltham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Philharmonic Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Geffen_Hall"},{"link_name":"String Driven Thing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_Driven_Thing"},{"link_name":"United Cerebral Palsy Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Cerebral_Palsy"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007133-82"},{"link_name":"fluorescent face paint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_paint"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199274%E2%80%9375-83"},{"link_name":"King Biscuit Flower Hour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Biscuit_Flower_Hour"},{"link_name":"Genesis Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Live"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007148-84"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallo197893-85"},{"link_name":"Selling England by the Pound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selling_England_by_the_Pound"},{"link_name":"Chessington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chessington"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007141-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007143-87"},{"link_name":"UK Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199280-88"},{"link_name":"Firth of Fifth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firth_of_Fifth"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199281-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199282-91"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-UK-34"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007164-92"},{"link_name":"Tony Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Smith_(manager)"},{"link_name":"Hit & Run Music Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_%26_Run_Music_Publishing"},{"link_name":"The Roxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxy_Theatre_(West_Hollywood)"},{"link_name":"NME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NME"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007111-93"},{"link_name":"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Know_What_I_Like_(In_Your_Wardrobe)"},{"link_name":"Top of the Pops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_of_the_Pops"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007145-94"}],"sub_title":"1972–1974: Foxtrot and Selling England by the Pound","text":"Gabriel in 1974 performing \"Watcher of the Skies\", dressed in a cape with bat wings and fluorescent makeupFollowing rehearsals in a dance school in Shepherd's Bush, Genesis recorded Foxtrot at Island Studios in August and September 1972.[71] During the early sessions, disagreements between Charisma and Anthony contributed to the end of his association with Genesis. After two replacement engineers were tried out, the band settled on John Burns and a new producer, Dave Hitchcock.[72]The album features the 23-minute track \"Supper's Ready\", a suite of various musical segments. The track included an opening acoustic piece, a Gabriel-penned song called \"Willow Farm\" and a piece derived from a jam by Banks, Rutherford and Collins called \"Apocalypse in 9/8\".[73] Other songs were the science-fiction-themed \"Watcher of the Skies\" and the property-development-themed \"Get 'Em Out by Friday\".[74] Foxtrot was released in on 15 September 1972[75] and reached No. 12 in the UK. It fared even better in Italy, where it went to No. 1.[76] Foxtrot was well received by critics. Chris Welch of Melody Maker thought Foxtrot was \"a milestone in the group's career\", \"an important point of development in British group music\" and that Genesis had reached \"a creative peak\".[77] Stephen Thomas Erlewine thought Foxtrot marked the first time \"Genesis attacked like a rock band, playing with a visceral power\".[78]The Foxtrot tour covered Europe and North America from September 1972 to August 1973. Gabriel surprised the other members of the band at the National Stadium in Dublin on 28 September 1972 by wearing a costume on stage, following a suggestion by Charisma booking agent Paul Conroy. He went off stage during an instrumental section in \"The Musical Box\" and reappeared in his wife's red dress and a fox's head.[79] The incident resulted in front cover reports in the music press, allowing the band to double their performance fee.[80] In December 1972 Stratton Smith organised the band's first gigs in the US, with a show at Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts and one at Philharmonic Hall in New York City with openers String Driven Thing, in aid of the United Cerebral Palsy Fund.[81] They were well received despite the band complaining of technical issues.[82] Gabriel's costumes expanded in the following months to include fluorescent face paint and a cape fitted with bat wings for \"Watcher of the Skies\", several guises throughout \"Supper's Ready\" and a mask of an old man for \"The Musical Box\".[83] An album of recordings from the following UK leg, initially recorded for the American radio programme King Biscuit Flower Hour, was released as Genesis Live in July 1973.[84] It reached No. 9 in the UK[36] and No. 105 in the US.[36]In the summer of 1973, Genesis re-signed their contracts with Charisma. Stratton Smith said they got \"a much improved deal\" despite them being able to get a better one with a bigger label, but the group were loyal and trusted the label with their careers.[85] With a new contract and thus a green-light for a new album, Genesis recorded Selling England by the Pound at Island Studios in August 1973, the second Genesis album that Burns co-produced. Much of it was written at Una Billings School of Dance and Chessington.[86] Gabriel contributed lyrics based on the idea of commercialism and the decline of English culture and the rise in American influences.[87] Its title refers to a UK Labour Party slogan to make it clear to music critics who may have thought Genesis were beginning to \"sell out\" to the US.[88] \"Firth of Fifth\" features an extended electric guitar solo from Hackett. The album's cover is a modified version of a painting named The Dream by Betty Swanwick who added a lawn mower to tie the image to the lyrics of \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\".[89]Selling England by the Pound was released on 5 October 1973[90] and received favourably by critics, though slightly less enthusiastically than Foxtrot.[91] The album reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 70 in the US.[36] By this time, Genesis had made little effort to organise their finances and were £150,000 in debt (equivalent to £2,291,300 in 2024).[34].[92] They hired promoter Tony Smith as their new manager to improve their fortunes and published the band's subsequent music through his company, Hit & Run Music Publishing. The Selling England by the Pound tour visited Europe and North America between September 1973 and May 1974. Their six shows in three days at The Roxy in Los Angeles were well received by audiences and critics. The success of the tour earned the group the \"Top Stage Band\" title by readers of NME.[36] At its conclusion, Macphail resigned as their tour manager as he wished to pursue other interests.[93] \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\" was released as a UK single with \"Twilight Alehouse\", a non-album track recorded in 1972; it reached No. 21 following its release in February 1974. Its success led to an offer for Genesis to appear on BBC's national show Top of the Pops. The group thought this would not suit their image and they declined the offer.[94]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_album"},{"link_name":"concept album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_album"},{"link_name":"The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lamb_Lies_Down_on_Broadway"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford2015120-95"},{"link_name":"Headley Grange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headley_Grange"},{"link_name":"East Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007151-96"},{"link_name":"The Little Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Little_Prince"},{"link_name":"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_de_Saint-Exup%C3%A9ry"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200174-97"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"West Side Story","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Side_Story"},{"link_name":"Pilgrim's Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_Progress"},{"link_name":"Carl Jung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung"},{"link_name":"El Topo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Topo"},{"link_name":"Alejandro Jodorowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro_Jodorowsky"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007157-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford2015122-100"},{"link_name":"William Friedkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Friedkin"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200175-101"},{"link_name":"Carmarthenshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmarthenshire"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Brian Eno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Eno"},{"link_name":"Mother Whale Eyeless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taking_Tiger_Mountain_(By_Strategy)"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2005117-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genesis_live_1974-11-20.jpg"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992246-105"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"The Carpet Crawlers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carpet_Crawlers"},{"link_name":"Storm Thorgerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm_Thorgerson"},{"link_name":"Aubrey Powell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey_Powell_(designer)"},{"link_name":"Hipgnosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipgnosis"},{"link_name":"The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lamb_Lies_Down_on_Broadway_Tour"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007349-36"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mike_on_Mike-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992100-107"},{"link_name":"laser lighting display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_lighting_display"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts200195-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199293-109"},{"link_name":"Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007158-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992107-111"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007158-110"}],"sub_title":"1974–1975: The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway and Gabriel's departure","text":"In June 1974, Genesis started work on their double concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway.[95] This marked a point at which Gabriel's relationship with the rest of the group became increasingly strained, which contributed to his departure. The album was written at Headley Grange in East Hampshire, where upon their arrival the building had been left in a very poor state by the previous band, with rat infestations and excrement on the floor.[96] Gabriel objected to Rutherford's idea of an album based on The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, thinking the idea was \"too twee\".[97] He proposed to the band a less fantastical and more complicated story involving Rael, a Puerto Rican youth living in New York City who embarks on a spiritual quest to establish his freedom and identity while meeting several bizarre characters on the way.[98] Gabriel wrote the story with influences from West Side Story, \"a kind of punk\" twist to Pilgrim's Progress, author Carl Jung and the film El Topo by Alejandro Jodorowsky.[99] Most of the album's lyrics were written by Gabriel, leaving much of its music to the rest of the group. His absence from a considerable amount of writing sessions due to difficulties with his wife's first birth was something about which Rutherford and Banks \"were horribly unsupportive\".[100] Gabriel also left the group when director William Friedkin asked him to write a screenplay, but returned after the project was shelved.[101] In August 1974, production moved to Glaspant Manor in Carmarthenshire, Wales[102] with Burns as co-producer, operating Island Studios' mobile equipment. Further work and mixing took place at Island, where Brian Eno contributed synthesizers and effects that the album's sleeve credits as \"Enossification\". When Gabriel asked Eno how the band could repay him, Eno said he needed a drummer for his track \"Mother Whale Eyeless\". Collins said, \"I got sent upstairs as payment\".[103] Gabriel was pleased with Eno's work but Banks was less enthusiastic.[104]Rutherford, Gabriel and Collins in 1974 during The Lamb... tourThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway was released in November 1974 and reached No. 10 in the UK[105] and No. 41 in the US.[22] \"Counting Out Time\" and \"The Carpet Crawlers\" were released as singles in 1974 and 1975, respectively. Its sleeve is the first of four Genesis albums designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. From November 1974 to May 1975, Genesis completed 102 dates across North America and Europe as part of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour.[36] Their set included The Lamb... performed in its entirety with an encore, a decision that was not supported by the entire band considering most of the audience were not yet familiar with the large amount of new material.[106] The stage show involved new, more elaborate costumes worn by Gabriel, three backdrop screens that displayed 1,450 slides from eight projectors,[107] and a laser lighting display.[108] Music critics often focused their reviews on Gabriel's theatrics and took the band's musical performance as secondary, which irritated the rest of the band.[109]During their stay in Cleveland during the tour, Gabriel told the band he would leave at its conclusion.[110] He wrote a statement regarding his departure to the English press that was published in August 1975 titled \"Out, Angels Out\", explaining he had become disillusioned with the music industry and wanted to spend extended time with his family.[111] Banks later stated, \"Pete was also getting too big for the group. He was being portrayed as if he was 'the man' and it really wasn't like that. It was a very difficult thing to accommodate. So it was actually a bit of a relief.\"[110]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Voyage of the Acolyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyage_of_the_Acolyte"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992108-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992111-113"},{"link_name":"Brand X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_X"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MM1977-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutherford2015139-115"},{"link_name":"A Trick of the 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Phonographic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Phonographic_Institute"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BPI-123"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-UK-34"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"Bill Bruford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Bruford"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992122-126"},{"link_name":"A Trick of the Tail tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Trick_of_the_Tail_Tour"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"Stafford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford"},{"link_name":"Genesis: In Concert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis:_In_Concert"},{"link_name":"double bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bill"},{"link_name":"White Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Rock_(film)"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992134-127"},{"link_name":"Hilvarenbeek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilvarenbeek"},{"link_name":"the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Wind & Wuthering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_%26_Wuthering"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992128-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circus1977-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-melody1976-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-presskit1977-131"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992128%E2%80%93129-132"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-presskit1977-131"},{"link_name":"Please Don't Touch!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Please_Don%27t_Touch"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992128%E2%80%93129-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007350-133"},{"link_name":"Your Own Special Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Own_Special_Way"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200175-134"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steve_Hackett_1977.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chester Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Frank Zappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Zappa"},{"link_name":"Weather Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_Report"},{"link_name":"More Trouble Every Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble_Every_Day_(song)"},{"link_name":"Roxy & Elsewhere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxy_%26_Elsewhere"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992133-135"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-UK-34"},{"link_name":"PA system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_address_system"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beat1977-137"},{"link_name":"Rainbow Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992132-138"},{"link_name":"Earls Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earls_Court_Exhibition_Centre"},{"link_name":"Richie Havens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richie_Havens"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beat1977-137"},{"link_name":"Madison Square Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-circus1977-129"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"Spot the Pigeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spot_the_Pigeon"},{"link_name":"extended play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_play"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"Seconds Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconds_Out"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007350-133"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007350-133"}],"sub_title":"1975–1977: Collins becomes frontman, A Trick of the Tail, Wind & Wuthering and Hackett's departure","text":"Following the Lamb tour, Hackett recorded his first solo album Voyage of the Acolyte as he felt unsure that Genesis would survive following Gabriel's departure.[112] He reconvened with the remaining group members in London in July 1975.[113] During this time, Collins began drumming with instrumental jazz rock band Brand X, with whom he would be a semi-regular member whenever Genesis were on down time for the next five years.[114] Collins' idea of Genesis continuing as an instrumental group was quickly rejected by the others as they thought it would become boring.[115] Rehearsals for A Trick of the Tail took place in Acton where material was quickly written and with little effort;[116] most of \"Dance on a Volcano\" and \"Squonk\" was put together in the first three days.[117] Recording began in October 1975 at Trident Studios with Hentschel as producer. As a replacement singer had not been found, the band decided to record the album without vocals and audition singers as they went. They placed an anonymous advertisement in Melody Maker for \"a singer for a Genesis-type group\", which received around 400 replies. Collins proceeded to teach selected applicants the songs; Witches Brew frontman and flautist Mick Strickland[118] was invited into the studio to sing, but the backing tracks were in a key outside of his natural range and the band decided not to work with him.[115] Having failed to find a suitable vocalist, Collins went into the studio and attempted to sing \"Squonk\". His performance was well received by the band and they decided that he should be their new lead vocalist. Collins then sang on the remaining tracks.[119]My real worry was actually what to say to the audience, because Peter had always had this offbeat charisma that gave the band a strange aura. I was much more friendly and approachable ... I spent more time ... worrying about what to say between songs than I did about what I was going to do once the songs started.\n\n\n—Phil Collins.[120]A Trick of the Tail was released in February 1976 and was a commercial and critical success for the band. The album reached No. 3 in the UK[121] and No. 31 in the US.[22] The title track was released as a single, though it did not chart.[122] In June, the album was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Institute for selling over 100,000 copies[123] which helped the band clear the £400,000 of debt (equivalent to £3,636,500 in 2024)[34] they owed when Gabriel left.[124] For the first time in their career Genesis filmed promotional videos for their songs, including \"A Trick of the Tail\" and \"Robbery, Assault and Battery\".[125] Before the upcoming tour, Collins sought a drummer he felt comfortable with while singing; he chose Bill Bruford who offered to do the job.[126] From March to July 1976, Genesis performed across North America and Europe with the A Trick of the Tail tour, to enthusiastic crowds. Collins adopted a more humorous rapport with the audience, unlike Gabriel's theatrical approach, which was successful. The shows in Glasgow and Stafford were filmed for their concert film Genesis: In Concert, released in cinemas in February 1977 as a double bill with White Rock.[127]In September 1976, Genesis relocated to Relight Studios at Hilvarenbeek in the Netherlands with Hentschel to record Wind & Wuthering.[128] It was put together in a short amount of time and a considerable amount of material was written beforehand, of which the most suitable songs were picked for development. Rutherford spoke of the band's conscious effort to distance themselves from songs inspired by fantasy, something that their past albums \"were full of\".[129] The band spent roughly six weeks writing the album[130] with a basic form of each track put down in twelve days.[131] Additional recording and production work was done at Trident Studios that October.[132][131] Hackett, having already released a solo album, enjoyed the greater amount of control over the recording process that working within a group could not provide. He felt his songs, including \"Please Don't Touch\" (which he later released on his second album Please Don't Touch!) were rejected from the final track order in favour of material that Banks, in particular, had put forward. Collins spoke of the situation, \"We just wanted to use what we agreed was the strongest material, irrespective of who wrote it\".[132] Wind & Wuthering was released in December 1976 and reached No. 6 in the UK and No. 26 in the US.[133] Rutherford's track, \"Your Own Special Way\", became its sole single and went to No. 43 in the UK. Its B-side is \"It's Yourself\", originally intended for A Trick of the Tail.[134]Hackett in January 1977 on the Wind & Wuthering tour, the last before his departurePrior to the 1977 tour, Bruford declined an offer to return as second drummer, leaving Collins searching for a replacement. He heard American drummer Chester Thompson, of Frank Zappa's band and Weather Report, play a drum passage on \"More Trouble Every Day\" from Zappa's live album Roxy & Elsewhere. Collins said, \"It floored me completely ... I had never met him. I rang him up and said, 'Hi Chester, I've heard your stuff, would you like to play with Genesis?' ... He didn't even audition!\"[135] Genesis toured Wind & Wuthering from January to July 1977 across Europe, North America and, for the first time, Brazil. The stage show cost £400,000 (equivalent to £3,139,000 in 2024).[34] which featured a new PA system, lasers and smoke, and lighting supplied from two rows of Boeing 747 aircraft landing lights.[136][137] Touring began on 1 January with three sold-out shows at the Rainbow Theatre in London, where 80,000 applications were made for the 8,000 available tickets.[138] They returned to London for three nights at Earls Court, then the largest arena in Britain, supported by Richie Havens.[137] The band's growing popularity in North America led to television appearances and concerts organised in larger venues than previous tours, including Madison Square Garden in New York City.[129] Their Brazilian dates were attended by over 150,000 people and a proposed 100,000-person gig was cancelled over rioting fears. An armed bodyguard accompanied each member throughout their stay.[139]In May 1977 Genesis released Spot the Pigeon, an extended play of three tracks left off Wind & Wuthering. It peaked at No. 14 on the UK singles chart. It was the final Genesis release before Hackett left the group. He had been writing more material on his own and found it increasingly difficult to contribute more of his ideas within a group context. He wished to embark on a solo career and \"take the risk in order to find out just how good I was on my own\".[140] News of Hackett's departure coincided with the band's double live album Seconds Out, recorded in Paris on the A Trick of the Tail and Wind & Wuthering tours and released in October 1977.[133] It reached No. 4 in the UK and No. 47 in the US.[133]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"...And Then There Were Three...","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/...And_Then_There_Were_Three..."},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992144-141"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992147-142"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992143%E2%80%93144-143"},{"link_name":"Follow You Follow 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Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992154%E2%80%93155-157"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sounds1979-154"},{"link_name":"A Curious Feeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Curious_Feeling"},{"link_name":"Smallcreep's Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallcreep%27s_Day_(album)"},{"link_name":"Polar Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_Studios"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sounds1979-154"},{"link_name":"Product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(Brand_X_album)"},{"link_name":"Peter Gabriel's third album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel_III"},{"link_name":"Face Value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_Value_(album)"},{"link_name":"Shalford, Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shalford,_Surrey"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sounds1979-154"},{"link_name":"Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_(album)"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sounds1979-154"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sounds1979-154"},{"link_name":"Misunderstanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misunderstanding_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"Duchess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchess_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"drum machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine"},{"link_name":"Roland CR-78","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_CR-78"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992164-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007350-133"},{"link_name":"Turn It On Again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_It_On_Again"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007350-133"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Duchess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchess_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"}],"sub_title":"1977–1980: ...And Then There Were Three... and Duke","text":"By the time Seconds Out was released, Banks, Rutherford and Collins had already recorded ...And Then There Were Three..., the first Genesis album recorded as a trio, in September 1977 at Relight Studios with Hentschel as producer.[141] It was then mixed at Trident Studios in London. In order to put across a greater number of musical ideas, the album is a collection of shorter songs.[142] Most of its eleven songs were written individually; Banks contributed four, Rutherford three and Collins one while the remaining three were written collectively.[143] Their new material signalled a change in the band's sound with songs becoming more pop-oriented, including the group-written track \"Follow You Follow Me\". Collins recalled it was the only song on the album written from scratch during rehearsals.[144] Rutherford felt comfortable taking on lead guitar duties in addition to his usual rhythm and bass roles, although the band had considered auditioning replacement guitarists or using a session guitarist on the album.[141] Collins later saw the album as \"a very vocal, solid album\" that lacked more rhythmic tracks like \"Los Endos\" or songs from Wind & Wuthering, as coming up with ideas on the drums while living in his flat in Ealing with his family was difficult.[145]...And Then There Were Three... was released in March 1978. It received some mixed reviews from critics at the time owing to the album only containing short songs, which excited new fans but disillusioned those who had been used to the band's previous work.[146] Chris Welch wrote a positive review in Melody Maker, citing a \"remarkably powerful\" album.[147] It was a commercial success and peaked at No. 3 in the UK[42] and No. 14 in the US.[22] \"Follow You Follow Me\" was released as its lead single and reached No. 7 in the UK[148] and No. 23 in the US, their highest-charting single in both countries since their formation.[22] Its success introduced the band to a new audience, including a larger female interest, helped by its music video airing on Top of the Pops.[149] Its success caused some fans to accuse the group of selling out to more commercial music.[144] A follow-up single, \"Many Too Many\", was less successful, for it had already appeared on the album.[150]In the search for a new touring guitarist, Rutherford tried out Pat Thrall and Elliot Randall,[151] followed by Alphonso Johnson of Weather Report, but he was primarily a bassist and could not play Hackett's lead guitar parts comfortably.[152] Johnson then suggested American guitarist Daryl Stuermer of Jean-Luc Ponty's jazz fusion group, who was more comfortable with various guitar styles. During Stuermer's rehearsal in New York City, Rutherford was satisfied with his performance after they played through \"Down and Out\" and \"Squonk\".[152] When Stuermer was chosen, he familiarised himself with a list of 26 songs he was asked to learn by going through five per day.[153] The ...And Then There Were Three... tour ran from March to December 1978 and visited North America, Europe and, for the first time, Japan. It cost an estimated £2 million to stage (equivalent to £14,492,800 in 2024).[34] which included the sound system, light and laser displays and additional effects from six computer-controlled mirrors,[154][152] all of which took eight hours to set up and five to dismantle.[155] One of their shows featured a guest appearance from Gabriel, who sang \"I Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)\".[156] In June, Genesis headlined the year's Knebworth Festival, their only UK show that year.[150]In December 1978, Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children. Following a meeting with Banks, Rutherford and Smith, Collins went to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, to try and rebuild the family.[157] He explained: \"I was never going to leave the band. It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we'd have had to organise ourselves differently.\"[154] Banks and Rutherford decided to put Genesis on an extended break and make their respective debut solo albums, A Curious Feeling and Smallcreep's Day, at Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden.[154] In April 1979, Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage failed. With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album, Collins rejoined Brand X for the album Product, played the drums on former bandmate Peter Gabriel's third album and started writing his own first solo album, Face Value, at his home in Shalford, Surrey.[154]In 1979, Banks and Rutherford moved into Collins's home in Shalford to write and rehearse material for Duke. The three found the writing process easier and less complicated than And Then There Were Three. Rutherford reasoned that this was the case because they were \"getting back to the basic stage of ideas being worked on jointly\".[154] Banks put it down to their break in activity, resulting in \"good ideas ... which hasn't happened for some time\".[154] Duke continued the band's transition into writing shorter songs. Each member contributed two songs for the group to develop: Banks put forward \"Heathaze\" and \"Cul-de-Sac\", Rutherford used \"Man of Our Times\" and \"Alone Tonight\" and Collins had \"Misunderstanding\" and \"Please Don't Ask\". All three wrote the remaining five tracks, including \"Duchess\", the first Genesis song to feature a drum machine, specifically a Roland CR-78 imported from Japan.[158] In its original form, the album was to contain a 30-minute track based on a fictional character named Albert, but the idea was cancelled to avoid comparisons to \"Supper's Ready\" from Foxtrot.[159] In November, the band recorded Duke at Polar Studios with Hentschel reprising his role as producer. It's cover was by French illustrator Lionel Koechlin and featured the character Albert.[160]Released in March 1980, Duke was the band's biggest commercial success at the time of release, spending two weeks at No. 1 in the UK and peaking at No. 11 in the US.[133] The album spawned three singles; \"Turn It On Again\" went to No. 8 in the UK,[133] \"Misunderstanding\" reached No. 14 in the US,[22] and \"Duchess\" peaked at No. 46 in the UK.[42] Duke was supported with a UK and North American tour from April to June 1980, which began with a 40-date tour of the UK for which all 106,000 tickets were sold within hours of going on sale.[161]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Farm_recording_studio_2006.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chiddingfold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiddingfold"},{"link_name":"Fisher Lane Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Farm_(recording_studio)"},{"link_name":"Chiddingfold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiddingfold"},{"link_name":"Abacab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacab"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007238-162"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992170-163"},{"link_name":"Hugh Padgham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Padgham"},{"link_name":"third solo album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel_(1980_album)"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992171-165"},{"link_name":"No Reply at All","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Reply_at_All"},{"link_name":"Phenix Horns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenix_Horns"},{"link_name":"horn section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_section"},{"link_name":"Earth, Wind & Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth,_Wind_%26_Fire"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992175-166"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992248-167"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Abacab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacab_(song)"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992249-122"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Keep It Dark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keep_It_Dark"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992176-168"},{"link_name":"Vari-Lite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vari-Lite"},{"link_name":"intelligent lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_lighting"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"Paperlate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperlate"},{"link_name":"3×3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%C3%973"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992249-122"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"Twist and Shout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twist_and_Shout_(EP)"},{"link_name":"the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Tony Barrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Barrow"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992178-170"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"Three Sides Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sides_Live"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992179-172"},{"link_name":"Three Sides Live concert film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sides_Live_(film)"},{"link_name":"Bill Bruford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Bruford"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992179-172"},{"link_name":"Milton Keynes Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bowl"},{"link_name":"Six of the Best","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_of_the_Best"},{"link_name":"World of Music, Arts and Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Music,_Arts_and_Dance"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992182-174"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(Genesis_album)"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992186-175"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007263-176"},{"link_name":"Mama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mama_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"Cuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992187-177"},{"link_name":"LinnDrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinnDrum"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007263-176"},{"link_name":"The Message","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Message_(Grandmaster_Flash_and_the_Furious_Five_song)"},{"link_name":"Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmaster_Flash_and_the_Furious_Five"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992188-178"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992248-167"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RIAAsearch-179"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992249-122"},{"link_name":"That's All","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%27s_All_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Genesis Live – The Mama Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mama_Tour"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992191,_251-180"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992190-181"},{"link_name":"Mike + The Mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_%2B_The_Mechanics"},{"link_name":"Soundtracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundtracks_(Tony_Banks_album)"},{"link_name":"No Jacket Required","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Jacket_Required"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odds-182"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odds-182"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYDNM-183"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_1"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992198-184"}],"sub_title":"1980–1985: Abacab and Genesis","text":"The band's remodelled studio in Chiddingfold, Surrey, known as the Farm. Abacab was the first album recorded there.In November 1980, Genesis bought Fisher Lane Farm, a farmhouse with an adjoining cowshed near Chiddingfold, Surrey, as their new rehearsal and recording facility. The building was remodelled into a studio in four months before recording for Abacab began in March 1981.[162] The new environment had a productive effect on the writing process as the band wrote enough for a double album, but they discarded one hour's worth of songs that sounded too similar to their past albums. Banks said the band made an effort to keep melodies as simple as possible, which signalled further changes in their direction.[163] The shift was underlined in its production when Hentschel, their producer and engineer since 1975, was replaced by Hugh Padgham after Collins liked his production on Face Value and Gabriel's third solo album.[164] Production duties were solely credited to the band for the first time with Padgham as their engineer.[165] The album is formed of group written material with an individual song from each member. \"No Reply at All\" features the Phenix Horns, the horn section of American band Earth, Wind & Fire.[166]Abacab was released in September 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK[167] and No. 7 in the US.[22] Three singles from the album entered the top forty in both countries; \"Abacab\" reached No. 9 in the UK[122] and No. 26 in the US, \"No Reply at All\" reached No. 29 in the US,[22] and \"Keep It Dark\", a European-only single, went to No. 33 in the UK.[42] Abacab was supported with a tour of Europe and North America from September to December 1981, ending with shows at Wembley Arena and the NEC Birmingham.[168] The tour marked the band's first use of the Vari-Lite, a computer-controlled intelligent lighting system. Following a demonstration at The Farm, the band and Smith showed an immediate interest in the technology and became shareholders of the company.[169] In May 1982, three tracks recorded during the Abacab sessions – \"Paperlate\", \"You Might Recall\" and \"Me and Virgil\" – were released as an EP in Europe, 3×3,[122] which peaked at No. 10 in the UK.[42] Its cover is a homage to the Twist and Shout EP by the Beatles, with sleeve notes written by that group's former publicist Tony Barrow.[170]Basically, we reached the point ... where we either became a caricature of ourselves, and settled into a rut, or we changed. There was no doubt in our minds that change was the answer.\n\n\n—Mike Rutherford on the band's change in direction[171]In June 1982, Genesis released the double live album Three Sides Live in two different versions. The North American edition contains three sides of live recordings with the fourth comprising the 3×3 tracks and two from the Duke sessions. The European release contains a fourth side of extra live tracks.[172] The album coincided with the home video release of the Three Sides Live concert film recorded in 1981. A tour of North America and Europe followed that ran from August to September 1982, featuring guest appearances from Bill Bruford and the Phenix Horns.[172] On 2 October, Genesis headlined a one-off concert with Gabriel at the Milton Keynes Bowl under the name Six of the Best. The concert was organised to raise money for Gabriel's World of Music, Arts and Dance project that was, by that point, in considerable debt.[173] Hackett, who flew in from abroad, arrived in time to perform the last two songs.[174]Work on the twelfth Genesis album, Genesis, began in March 1983 with Padgham returning as engineer.[175] It was the first album written, recorded and mixed at the remodelled studio at the Farm. Banks remembered the band were scarce for new musical ideas that \"felt at times as though we were stretching the material as far as we could\".[176] \"Mama\" concerns a man's obsession with a prostitute at a Cuban brothel.[177] It originated from a beat Rutherford came up with on a LinnDrum machine that was fed through his guitar amplifier and an echo gate.[176] Collins' laugh on the track originated from \"The Message\" by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five.[178] Released in October 1983, Genesis went to No. 1 in the UK[167] and peaked at No. 9 in the US,[22][42] where it reached Platinum by December that year and went on to sell over four million copies.[179] Three tracks were released as singles; \"Mama\" reached No. 4 in the UK, their highest-charting UK single to date,[122] and \"That's All\" reached No. 6 in the US.[22] The Mama Tour ran from late 1983 through to 1984, covering North America and five UK shows in Birmingham. The latter shows were filmed and released as Genesis Live – The Mama Tour.[180]In February 1984, Genesis took a break in activity to allow each member to continue with their solo careers.[181] Rutherford formed his group Mike + The Mechanics, Banks worked on his solo album Soundtracks and Collins released No Jacket Required, which achieved worldwide success and increased his popularity as a result. The music press took note that Collins' success as a solo artist made him more popular than Genesis.[182] Before the release of No Jacket Required, Collins insisted that he would not leave the band. \"The next one to leave the band will finish it\", Collins told Rolling Stone magazine in May 1985. \"I feel happier with what we're doing now, because I feel it's closer to me. I won't be the one.\" He added, \"Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes. I still won't leave the group, but I imagine it will end by mutual consent.\"[182] In June, Collins spoke of the band's intention to start work on a new album that year,[183] ending rumours to a false announcement that aired on BBC Radio 1 suggesting Genesis had split.[184]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Invisible Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Touch"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts2001142-185"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007282-186"},{"link_name":"Invisible Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Touch_(song)"},{"link_name":"Domino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992202-187"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"Throwing It All Away","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throwing_It_All_Away"},{"link_name":"Land of Confusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_Confusion"},{"link_name":"In Too Deep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Too_Deep_(Genesis_song)"},{"link_name":"Tonight, Tonight, Tonight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonight,_Tonight,_Tonight"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Janet Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Madonna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"Spitting Image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitting_Image"},{"link_name":"Peter Fluck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Fluck"},{"link_name":"Roger Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Law"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time-191"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007287-192"},{"link_name":"Invisible Touch Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Touch_Tour"},{"link_name":"Michelob beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anheuser-Busch_brands"},{"link_name":"Wembley Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wembley_Stadium_(1923)"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts2001143-193"},{"link_name":"The Invisible Touch Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_at_Wembley_Stadium_(Genesis_DVD)"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992202-187"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Records_40th_Anniversary"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlatts2001143-193"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992214-194"},{"link_name":"We Can't Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can%27t_Dance"},{"link_name":"Nick Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Davis_(record_producer)"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Clapton"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992219%E2%80%93221-195"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RIAAsearch-179"},{"link_name":"No Son of Mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Son_of_Mine"},{"link_name":"I Can't Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Can%27t_Dance"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"Brit Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_Award"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genesis_Live-_Land_Of_Confusion.jpg"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewitt200163-197"},{"link_name":"The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Walk,_Volume_One:_The_Shorts"},{"link_name":"The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Walk,_Volume_Two:_The_Longs"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"The Way We Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Walk"},{"link_name":"Earl's Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%27s_Court"},{"link_name":"Cowdray Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowdray_Castle"},{"link_name":"Midhurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhurst"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"Tim Renwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Renwick"},{"link_name":"Gary Wallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Wallis"},{"link_name":"Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band)"},{"link_name":"Roger Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Taylor_(Queen_drummer)"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-philquits-199"}],"sub_title":"1985–1996: Invisible Touch, We Can't Dance and Collins' departure","text":"Genesis reconvened at The Farm in October 1985 to start work on Invisible Touch, which lasted for six months.[185] They continued their method of songwriting used on Genesis by developing material from group improvisations. Banks remembered the time as a strong period creatively for the band, with ideas \"flowing out of us\".[186] \"Invisible Touch\" was developed in such a way, when the group were working on \"The Last Domino\", the second part of \"Domino\". During the session, Rutherford began to play an improvised guitar riff to which Collins replied with an off-the-cuff lyric – \"She seems to have an invisible touch\" – which became the song's chorus hook.[187]Following its release in June 1986, the album spent three weeks at No. 1 in the UK and reached No. 3 in the US,[22][42] and became the best-selling Genesis album with seven million copies sold.[188] The album's five singles – \"Invisible Touch\", \"Throwing It All Away\", \"Land of Confusion\", \"In Too Deep\" and \"Tonight, Tonight, Tonight\" – entered the top five on the US singles chart between 1986 and 1987[22] with \"Invisible Touch\" topping the chart for one week.[189] Genesis became the first group and foreign act to achieve this feat, equalling the five singles record set by Michael Jackson, Janet Jackson and Madonna.[190] Genesis commissioned the creators of the satirical British television show Spitting Image, Peter Fluck and Roger Law, to make puppets of them in the style of the show for the video of \"Land of Confusion\".[191]Nearly 300,000 people at Wembley ... I thought at the time, and I still think now, that moment was the peak of our career.\n\n\n—Tony Banks[192]The Invisible Touch Tour was the band's largest world tour in its history, which included 112 dates from September 1986 to July 1987. Genesis received some criticism in their decision to have Michelob beer as a sponsor. The tour concluded with four consecutive sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium in London.[193] The shows were released in 1988 as The Invisible Touch Tour.[187] When the tour ended, Genesis took a five-year break while each member committed to their solo projects. They performed twice during this time; on 14 May 1988, they performed a 20-minute set at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert at Madison Square Garden.[193] This was followed by a set at a charity gig at the 1990 Knebworth Festival on 30 June, headlined by Pink Floyd.[194]In 1991 Genesis recorded their fourteenth album, We Can't Dance, from March to September with their new engineer and co-producer, Nick Davis. The band took advantage of the increased capacity the CD offered and released over 71 minutes of new music across 12 tracks. Collins wrote the lyrics to \"Since I Lost You\" for his friend Eric Clapton following the death of Clapton's four-year-old son Conor.[195] Following the release of We Can't Dance in November 1991, the album went to No. 1 in the UK for one week and No. 4 in the US,[22][42] where it went on to sell over 4 million copies.[179]\nThe album spawned several hit singles; \"No Son of Mine\" went to No. 6 in the UK and \"I Can't Dance\" reached No. 7 in the UK and the US.[22][42] In 1993, We Can't Dance was nominated for a Brit Award for Best British Album.[196]Genesis performing at the Knebworth Festival in August 1992.The We Can't Dance tour visited North America and Europe from May to November 1992 with each concert attended by an average of 56,000 people.[197] The tour spawned two live albums; The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts reached No. 3 in the UK and The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs went to No. 1 in the UK.[42] A live home video, also titled The Way We Walk, documented one of the band's six consecutive shows at Earl's Court during November 1992. Following the tour, the band took a break in recording and performing activity. Banks, Rutherford and Collins performed at Cowdray Castle, Midhurst in September 1993 for a money-raising event with Pink Floyd touring guitarist Tim Renwick and drummer Gary Wallis and Queen drummer Roger Taylor. Rutherford also played bass on Pink Floyd's set at the same concert.[198]In March 1996, Collins announced his departure from Genesis. In a statement, he said, \"Having been in Genesis for 25 years, I felt it time to change direction in my musical life. For me now, it will be music for movies, some jazz projects and of course my solo career. I wish the guys in Genesis all the very best in their future. We remain the best of friends.\"[199]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Calling All Stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_All_Stations"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007310-200"},{"link_name":"Francis Dunnery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Dunnery"},{"link_name":"Nick Van Eede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Van_Eede"},{"link_name":"David Longdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Longdon"},{"link_name":"Big Big Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Big_Train"},{"link_name":"Ray Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Wilson_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Stiltskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiltskin"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dusk-201"},{"link_name":"Not About Us","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_About_Us"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGenesis2007315-202"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dotmusic-203"},{"link_name":"Nir Zidkyahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nir_Zidkyahu"},{"link_name":"Nick D'Virgilio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_D%27Virgilio"},{"link_name":"Spock's Beard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spock%27s_Beard"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch2011125-204"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboardchart-22"},{"link_name":"Congo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_(song)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"Anthony Drennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Drennan"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch2011125-204"},{"link_name":"Genesis Archive 1967–75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Archive_1967%E2%80%9375"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverett2008339-205"},{"link_name":"The Carpet Crawlers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Carpet_Crawlers"},{"link_name":"Turn It On Again: The Hits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_It_On_Again:_The_Hits"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"},{"link_name":"Music Managers Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_Managers_Forum"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mmf-207"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-208"},{"link_name":"Platinum Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_Collection_(Genesis_album)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKchart-42"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"}],"sub_title":"1996–2006: Wilson as frontman, Calling All Stations and hiatus","text":"Shortly after Banks and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis in 1996, they went to The Farm to start writing Calling All Stations. Rutherford initially found the sessions difficult as he saw Collins as \"the guy in the middle\" who made Banks and himself work better.[200] Their best ideas developed in this period were put forward while they auditioned new singers, including Francis Dunnery and Nick Van Eede. The two main contenders, David Longdon (later of Big Big Train) and Scottish singer Ray Wilson of Stiltskin, auditioned throughout 1996, which involved singing along to Genesis tracks with the lead vocals removed. Wilson was announced as the new Genesis singer in June 1997.[201] Though much of the album was already written by the time he joined, Banks was pleased with his contributions to the album, which included writing the lyrics to \"Small Talk\" and riffs on \"Not About Us\" and \"There Must Be Some Other Way\".[202][203] Banks and Rutherford opted for two drummers on Calling All Stations – Israeli session musician Nir Zidkyahu and Nick D'Virgilio of Spock's Beard.[204]Calling All Stations was released in September 1997. It was a commercial and critical success in Europe, where it reached No. 2 in the UK,[42] but the album only reached No. 54 in the US, their lowest charting album there since Selling England by the Pound.[22] A single from the album, \"Congo\" reached the top 30 in the UK[42] and Genesis completed a European tour from January to May 1998, adding Zidkyahu on drums and Irish guitarist Anthony Drennan. A North American concert tour was planned, but it was cancelled following a poor commercial response and lack of ticket sales, which led to Banks and Rutherford announcing in 2000 that the group would no longer be recording and touring.[204]In 1998, Banks, Collins, Gabriel, Hackett, Phillips, Rutherford and Silver gathered for a photo session and dinner to celebrate the release of the four-disc box set, Genesis Archive 1967–75. The set features \"Supper's Ready\" and \"It\" with new overdubs by Gabriel and Hackett.[205] In 1999, Banks, Collins, Rutherford, Hackett and Gabriel released a new version of \"The Carpet Crawlers\" for the compilation album Turn It On Again: The Hits.[206] On 21 September 2000, Collins, Banks, Rutherford reunited to perform a brief acoustic set at the Music Managers Forum, in honour of their manager Tony Smith. Gabriel attended the ceremony but chose not to perform with the band.[207] Genesis briefly performed at Gabriel's wedding in 2002.[208] In 2004, Genesis released Platinum Collection, a three-disc compilation album covering the band's career that reached No. 21 in the UK.[42][209]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turn It On Again Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_It_On_Again:_The_Tour"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rollingstone2012-211"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hfr-212"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Genesis_Live_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Old Trafford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Trafford"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"Mark Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Fisher_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Patrick Woodroffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Woodroffe_(lighting_designer)"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"},{"link_name":"Circus Maximus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circus_Maximus"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"When in Rome 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_in_Rome_2007"},{"link_name":"Live over Europe 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_over_Europe_2007"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218"},{"link_name":"Live Earth concert in London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Earth_concert,_London"},{"link_name":"Wembley Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wembley_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"},{"link_name":"Nick Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Davis_(music_producer)"},{"link_name":"Genesis 1970–1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_1970%E2%80%931975"},{"link_name":"Genesis 1976–1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_1976%E2%80%931982"},{"link_name":"Genesis 1983–1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_1983%E2%80%931998"},{"link_name":"Super Audio CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Audio_CD"},{"link_name":"5.1 surround sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5.1_surround_sound"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hfr-212"},{"link_name":"Genesis Live 1973–2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Live_1973%E2%80%932007"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"Genesis Movie Box 1981–2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Movie_Box_1981%E2%80%932007"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rollingstone2012-211"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Genesis: Together and Apart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis:_Together_and_Apart"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Genesis_Guitarist_Steve_Hackett_Blasts_'Biased'_Documentary-227"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-228"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2016xiii-232"}],"sub_title":"2006–2020: Turn It On Again Tour, BBC documentary and reunion speculation","text":"In a press conference held in London in November 2006, Banks, Rutherford and Collins announced their reunion for the Turn It On Again Tour, their first with Collins in fourteen years.[210] They revealed the initial plan of touring The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway with Gabriel and Hackett. The five met in Glasgow in November 2004 to discuss the idea further, but it never developed further as Gabriel was unable to commit due to other projects.[211] Instead, Banks, Rutherford and Collins decided to proceed with Chester Thompson and Daryl Stuermer returning on drums and guitar, respectively.[212] In March 2007, a press conference was held in New York City to announce the North American leg.[213]Genesis performing at Old Trafford, Manchester in 2007. From left to right, Daryl Stuermer on bass, Mike Rutherford on guitar, behind him Chester Thompson on drums, Phil Collins on vocals and Tony Banks on keyboards.The Turn It On Again Tour featured a stage designed by architect Mark Fisher with a lighting display by Patrick Woodroffe, included a 55-metre long LED backdrop formed of 9 million LED lights.[214] The European leg saw close to 400,000 tickets sold in 40 minutes for shows in Germany and the Netherlands.[215] The European leg ended with a free concert on 14 July at the Circus Maximus in Rome in front of around half a million people.[216][217] This was filmed and released on DVD the following year as When in Rome 2007. A live album formed of recordings from various European dates was released in 2007 as Live over Europe 2007.[218] On 7 July, the band played at the Live Earth concert in London at Wembley Stadium.[219]The band's autobiography Genesis Chapter & Verse was published in 2007 as a full colour 359 page hardback book. The writing credits were Tony Banks, Phil Collins, Peter Gabriel, Steve Hackett and Mike Rutherford, edited by Philip Dodd.[220]In 2007, the band's studio albums from Trespass to Calling All Stations were digitally remastered by Nick Davis across three box sets: Genesis 1970–1975, Genesis 1976–1982 and Genesis 1983–1998. Each album is presented as a two-disc set containing a CD/Super Audio CD of a new stereo mix and a DVD with a 5.1 surround sound mix and bonus features including previously unreleased live performances, interviews and concert programmes.[212] Two more box sets followed in 2009, Genesis Live 1973–2007,[221] which collected all of the band's live albums and Genesis Movie Box 1981–2007, which compiled all of the band's live home video releases.[222]After 2011, Genesis members expressed mixed opinions about the possibility of a reunion. Collins retired from the music industry as an active musician during that year in favour of family commitments,[223] and has stated he can no longer play the drums due to medical issues.[224] Hackett has said \"I would say it's possible, but highly improbable. I've always been open to it. I'm not the guy who says no.\"[211] Gabriel addressed the possibility of a reunion, stating \"I never say never. It really didn't happen last time. I think there's a small chance, but I don't think it's very high.\"[225] In 2014, Collins reiterated, \"Have people thought it through? It's not as if you're going to get Peter as the singer, me as the drummer. I can't play any more, so it's never going to happen\", adding it would not be likely for Gabriel to perform songs on which Collins originally sang lead vocals.[226]In 2014, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford, Collins and Hackett reunited for Genesis: Together and Apart, a BBC documentary about the band's history and the various solo albums the members have released over the course of their careers. Although he participated in the documentary and promoted it, Hackett was very critical following its broadcast, saying that it was biased and did not give him editorial involvement, adding that it ignored his solo work despite his speaking at length about it.[227] The documentary also did not cover Ray Wilson's time in Genesis. In 2015, Hackett was doubtful about the idea of a Genesis reunion, saying: \"Look at the documentary and you'll get an idea of the priorities that come across.\"[228]In 2015, Collins announced an end to his retirement and speculated that a reunion with Banks and Rutherford would be possible,[229] a view that Banks endorsed.[230] In 2017, Rutherford said he was also amenable to a reunion tour if Collins was interested. Hackett said he would like a reunion of Genesis's 1971–1975 line-up, but stressed it was very unlikely, adding \"I won't say any more because I don't want to raise expectations.\"[231] Collins published his autobiography in 2016 and stated in the introduction that he retired from Genesis in 2007.[232]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Madison Square Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"The Last Domino? Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Domino%3F_Tour"},{"link_name":"Zoe Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Ball"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_2"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-235"},{"link_name":"Daryl Stuermer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daryl_Stuermer"},{"link_name":"Nic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic_Collins_(drummer)"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"},{"link_name":"Chester Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Thompson"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-238"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-239"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-240"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-241"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-242"},{"link_name":"The Last Domino? – The Hits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Domino%3F_%E2%80%93_The_Hits"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-243"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-244"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-245"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-246"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-247"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord_(entertainment_company)"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-248"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UCR23-249"},{"link_name":"BBC Broadcasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Broadcasts"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-250"}],"sub_title":"2020–2022: The Last Domino? Tour","text":"On 23 January 2020, Collins, Banks and Rutherford were spotted together at a basketball game in New York City's Madison Square Garden, sparking rumours about a possible Genesis reunion.[233] On 4 March, the trio announced their reformation and The Last Domino? Tour on Zoe Ball's BBC Radio 2 show. The tour was originally planned for seventeen dates across the UK and Ireland between November and December of the same year,[234][235] with longtime touring guitarist/bassist Daryl Stuermer and Collins's son Nic on drums.[236] Their usual touring drummer, Chester Thompson, was not invited and said he had not spoken to Collins in ten years.[237] The tour was rescheduled twice due to the subsequent COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown,[238] firstly from April 2021 and then from September 2021.[239] Collins asserted that the tour would be his last with Genesis due to his health issues,[240] and said there were no plans for the band to record new music, but added: \"Never say never\".[241] A North American leg was later added for November 2021, following the UK leg.[242] The tour was supported with the release of a greatest hits set The Last Domino? – The Hits.[243]The tour began on 20 September 2021.[244] On 8 October, with four dates remaining, the UK leg was postponed due to a positive test for COVID-19 in the band. With the exception of the second Glasgow date, the dates were rescheduled for March 2022, ending with three shows in London on 24–26 March.[245][246] Genesis performed their final concert of The Last Domino? Tour on 26 March in London. Gabriel was in attendance for the show, but he did not join the band on stage.[247]In September 2022, Genesis announced that they had sold a portion of their music rights to Concord for an estimated £270 million. The deal includes publishing copyrights and streaming income from their post-1978 output and solo albums by Banks, Rutherford and Collins.[248] Their earnings from the deal with Concord and The Last Domino? Tour made Genesis top a list of highest-paid entertainers of 2022 by Forbes' magazine, with $230 million.[249]On 3 March 2023, the 5 CD live box set BBC Broadcasts was released, featuring material originally broadcast between 1970 and 1998.[250]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992122-126"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mike_Rutherford.jpg"},{"link_name":"double neck guitar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-neck_guitar"},{"link_name":"12-string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar"},{"link_name":"bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_guitar"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992122-126"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992224-251"},{"link_name":"classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music"},{"link_name":"church music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_music"},{"link_name":"the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray19926%E2%80%937,_9-252"},{"link_name":"Otis Redding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otis_Redding"},{"link_name":"Stax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stax_Records"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray19929-253"},{"link_name":"blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254"},{"link_name":"folk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music"},{"link_name":"psychedelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_music"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AllMusic-255"},{"link_name":"12-string guitars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve-string_guitar"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegartyHalliwell201158%E2%80%9361-256"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray199254-257"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992120-258"},{"link_name":"mythological figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth"},{"link_name":"double entendres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_entendre"},{"link_name":"social commentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_commentary"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin200271-259"},{"link_name":"The Cinema Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cinema_Show"},{"link_name":"T. S. Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._S._Eliot"},{"link_name":"The Waste Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Waste_Land"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacan199770-260"},{"link_name":"Arthur C. Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke"},{"link_name":"Childhood's End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood%27s_End"},{"link_name":"Watcher of the Skies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watcher_of_the_Skies"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegartyHalliwell201196,126-261"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992149-149"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992161%E2%80%93162-262"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992189-263"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992203-264"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992221-265"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-266"},{"link_name":"Hammond organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammond_organ"},{"link_name":"Hohner Pianet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohner_Pianet"},{"link_name":"Mellotron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellotron"},{"link_name":"RMI Electronic Piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mount_Instruments"},{"link_name":"ARP Pro Soloist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_Pro_Soloist"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-regenesis-267"},{"link_name":"Sequential Circuits Prophet 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_Circuits_Prophet_5"},{"link_name":"ARP Quadra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_Quadra"},{"link_name":"Korg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korg"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-268"},{"link_name":"Korg OASYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korg_OASYS"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-269"},{"link_name":"Eric Clapton Stratocaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fender_Eric_Clapton_Stratocaster"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270"}],"text":"For years, we've been telling people that we're primarily songwriters ... I see myself primarily as a writer, not a player.\n\n\n—Mike Rutherford[126]Mike Rutherford playing his distinctive double neck guitar, combining 12-string and bass.Genesis identify first and foremost as songwriters.[126] Though styles changed dramatically over the group's career, they were always built on musical contrasts and the willingness to experiment.[251]Members of the original line-up were exposed to classical and church music as well as rock artists of the 1960s, particularly the Beatles.[252] Gabriel's vocal style was influenced by Otis Redding and other Stax artists.[253] Some of Genesis's music was inspired by blues according to Hackett, who says that the sonic innovation of the electric guitar in the early 1970s came straight from this.[254] In their early years, Genesis' music combined elements of the pop, folk and psychedelic genres.[255] Several songs developed during Phillips' time in the band originated on 12-string guitars, often with unconventional tunings. By the 1970s, the group began to include fantasy and surreal elements in their lyrics, such as \"The Musical Box\".[256] Nursery Cryme marks the first time electric instruments were used more extensively.[257] A Trick of the Tail marked a return to the band's roots with acoustic passages and songs inspired by fantasy.[258]Early lyrics drew from psychedelia, fantasy, mythological figures and fairytale themes. Gabriel emerged as one of the band's main lyricists who often incorporated puns and double entendres in his lines and track titles and addressed various themes including social commentary.[259] Selling England by the Pound contains references to English culture of the time including \"Aisle of Plenty\", where four British supermarket chains are referenced to reflect the album's theme of commercialism. Literary sources are used as inspiration for many Genesis tracks; \"The Cinema Show\" is based on T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land,[260] and Arthur C. Clarke's novel Childhood's End inspired the lyrics to \"Watcher of the Skies\".[261]By the time the group had slimmed down to the trio of Banks, Rutherford and Collins, they had decided to change lyrical styles, dealing more with everyday matters which connected with female fans.[149] Collins' songs, in particular, were personal in nature.[262] The group still featured humour in songs such as \"Illegal Alien\",[263] and dealt with serious themes such as politics on \"Land of Confusion\"[264] and commercialisation on \"I Can't Dance\".[265]Banks said that a common way of developing songs throughout the band's career was for Collins to play the rhythm, Rutherford to set up a groove and riffs and for him to add the harmonies and melodies on top. He cited the \"Apocalypse in 9/8\" section of \"Supper's Ready\", \"The Cinema Show\" and \"Domino\" as examples of this and says the restrictions it gave him allowed the group to produce straightforward pop songs such as \"Invisible Touch\" and \"Land of Confusion\" in later years.[266]Banks has used a number of keyboards during Genesis' career, continually trying out new models, though he has used the piano regularly throughout the group's lifetime. In the 1970s he frequently used the Hammond organ, Hohner Pianet, Mellotron, RMI Electronic Piano and ARP Pro Soloist.[267] In the 1980s, he used the Sequential Circuits Prophet 5 and Prophet 10, the ARP Quadra and various Korg synthesizers.[268] For the Turn It On Again tour in 2007, his main keyboard was a Korg OASYS.[269] As both a guitarist and bassist, Rutherford regularly swapped between the two roles and his trademark instrument with Genesis, particularly throughout the 1970s, was a double-neck guitar. In the 1980s and beyond, he favoured the Eric Clapton Stratocaster.[270]","title":"Musical style"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of awards and nominations received by Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Genesis"},{"link_name":"J. D. Considine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._D._Considine"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-considine-271"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-272"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-275"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-276"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RIAAtotal-277"},{"link_name":"[278]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BPI_certifications-278"},{"link_name":"[279]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-German_Certification_Database-279"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InfoDisc_Les_Certifications_depuis_1973_(albums)-280"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SNEP_certification_database-281"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BPI-123"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RIAAsearch-179"},{"link_name":"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Phish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phish"},{"link_name":"Trey Anastasio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trey_Anastasio"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-282"},{"link_name":"Silver Clef Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Clef_Award"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-283"},{"link_name":"Grammy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Awards"},{"link_name":"Best Concept Music Video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Concept_Music_Video"},{"link_name":"Land of Confusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_Confusion"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-284"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC2012-285"},{"link_name":"Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-286"},{"link_name":"VH1 Rock Honors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1_Rock_Honors"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-287"},{"link_name":"Mojo Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojo_Awards"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-288"},{"link_name":"John Peel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peel"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_-_Radio_1_-_Keeping_It_Peel-289"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray19921-290"},{"link_name":"punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock"},{"link_name":"Joe Strummer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Strummer"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-291"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelch201137-292"},{"link_name":"Robert Hilburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hilburn"},{"link_name":"[293]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-293"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-294"},{"link_name":"Rolling Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone"},{"link_name":"selling out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selling_out"},{"link_name":"[295]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-295"},{"link_name":"The New Rolling Stone Album Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rolling_Stone_Album_Guide"},{"link_name":"easy-listening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easy_listening"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-considine-271"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-considine-271"},{"link_name":"[296]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AllMusicDiscography-296"},{"link_name":"[297]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-297"},{"link_name":"[298]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowlerDray1992172-298"},{"link_name":"Ultimate Classic Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Classic_Rock"},{"link_name":"[299]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-299"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fyfeQ-300"},{"link_name":"The Daily Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"Neil McCormick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_McCormick"},{"link_name":"[301]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-301"}],"text":"See also: List of awards and nominations received by GenesisGenesis has had a hard time getting respect. In the early '70s ... it attracted an avid cult following but was largely ignored by the rock press and public at large ... Even in the early '80s ... the press was unimpressed, dismissing the group as easy-listening lightweights ... All of which, to be honest, has been grossly unfair to the group.\n\n\n—Music critic J. D. Considine[271]Genesis have been estimated to have sold between 100 and 150 million albums worldwide.[272][273][274][275][276] Their total certified album sales include 21.5 million in the US,[277] 7.2 million in the UK,[278] 5.6 million in Germany,[279] and 3.4 million in France.[280][281] Genesis have been awarded eleven Gold and four Multi-Platinum albums in the UK,[123] while in the US they have seven Gold, two Platinum and four Multi-Platinum albums.[179]In March 2010, Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Phish guitarist Trey Anastasio.[282] The band's awards include a Silver Clef Award for outstanding contributions to British music at its second annual ceremony in 1977.[283] In 1988, the band received one of the only two Grammy Awards issued for the short-lived Best Concept Music Video category for \"Land of Confusion\".[284] In September 2012, a Lifetime Achievement Award was given to the band at the inaugural Progressive Music Awards.[285] In 2004, Q ranked Genesis as the seventeenth-biggest band in a list compiled based on album sales, time spent on the UK charts and largest audience for a headlining show.[286] Genesis were honoured at the second VH1 Rock Honors in May 2007, which featured Banks, Rutherford and Collins.[287] In 2008, the band received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Mojo Awards.[288]Genesis were targets for criticism throughout the 1970s from those who disliked progressive rock. Influential BBC DJ John Peel championed the band in their early years and they performed three sessions for him between 1970 and 1972, but he \"grew disillusioned with their later excesses\".[289] Some regarded the group as overtly middle-class, paying particular attention to the founder members' private education, and believed rock music was being taken away from the working class, whom they regarded as its core audience.[290] Likening his background to that of the punk artist Joe Strummer, who had become a \"people's hero\" musician, Gabriel stated in 2013, \"To this day, we've never outgrown the snotty rich-kid thing ... we were always very straight about where we came from, and we were middle-class, not aristocratic.\"[291] Gabriel's theatrics were unpalatable to some of the mainstream rock audience, resulting in a cult following rather than that of a mainstream rock band.[292]At their commercial peak in the 1980s, the music of Genesis faced the accusation of being \"flabbergastingly insignificant\" by leading American music critic Robert Hilburn,[293] and it has been described as \"barely distinguishable\" from Collins's solo work.[294] According to Rolling Stone's Erik Hedegaard, Collins in particular was blamed by those who accused the band of selling out.[295] Retrospectively, The New Rolling Stone Album Guide critic J. D. Considine documented how the band had been \"largely ignored\" by the music press and public in their earliest years, before being \"derided as middlebrow throwbacks still in thrall to the pomposities of art rock\" in the late 1970s and then dismissed as \"easy-listening lightweights\" in the 1980s. He argued this was unfair, as the band had made their \"share of mediocre albums\" but no bad ones.[271] Critics disagree about which albums were mediocre; Considine cites Selling England by the Pound as one of the band's three worst (those meriting 2 stars out of 5[271]), while the AllMusic Guide picks it as one of their three best.[296]Journalists have reported that fans preferring one era of the band strongly dislike others. Rock author Colin McGuire has described the arguments from fans of the Gabriel era as \"they sold out and became too corporate when Collins stepped into the spotlight\", while fans of the Collins era argue \"the Gabriel years were boring and hard to stomach\". He concluded both eras of the band should be judged on their own merits.[297] The band themselves have been aware of these divides; press interviews for Abacab explicitly stated that fans of Foxtrot might not like the album, but should keep an open mind.[298] Ultimate Classic Rock stated, \"There are few groups in the classic-rock canon with a more divisive discography than Genesis ... there's no arguing that they helped create the template for prog-rock and made some of the genre's most essential albums\", but continued \"the Genesis sound gradually grew less and less progressive, until the band became a straight-up pop act. Good luck finding anybody out there who's equally enamored of both sides of the band's story.\"[299] On their legacy, Q reviewer Andy Fyfe wrote in 2007 that \"little of the band's output has aged well\" and \"transcends in the way real classics do\", stating they would \"remain perennial whipping boys for decades to come\".[300] The Daily Telegraph chief rock music critic Neil McCormick said that Genesis were \"a daring and groundbreaking band (certainly in their early career)\", described Collins as \"an outstanding drummer\" and stated that \"after Gabriel left, he stepped up to prove himself a charismatic frontman with a very distinctive vocal character\".[301]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neo-prog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-prog"},{"link_name":"[302]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-302"},{"link_name":"Marillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marillion"},{"link_name":"Pallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas_(band)"},{"link_name":"[303]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-303"},{"link_name":"[304]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-304"},{"link_name":"Brian May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_May"},{"link_name":"Queen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band)"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steve_Hackett_talks_Wolflight,_phrasing_and_the_nylon_knack-305"},{"link_name":"[306]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-306"},{"link_name":"Alex Lifeson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Lifeson"},{"link_name":"Rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rush_(band)"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steve_Hackett_talks_Wolflight,_phrasing_and_the_nylon_knack-305"},{"link_name":"Eddie Van Halen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Van_Halen"},{"link_name":"Van Halen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Halen"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steve_Hackett_talks_Wolflight,_phrasing_and_the_nylon_knack-305"},{"link_name":"Iron Maiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Maiden"},{"link_name":"Steve Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Harris_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Jethro Tull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(band)"},{"link_name":"Prog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prog_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[307]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-307"},{"link_name":"post-punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-punk"},{"link_name":"Simple Minds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Minds"},{"link_name":"Will Sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Sergeant"},{"link_name":"Echo & the Bunnymen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_%26_the_Bunnymen"},{"link_name":"[308]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-308"},{"link_name":"[309]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-309"},{"link_name":"electronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music"},{"link_name":"new wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_wave_music"},{"link_name":"the Human League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Human_League"},{"link_name":"[310]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-310"},{"link_name":"Trey Anastasio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trey_Anastasio"},{"link_name":"Phish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phish"},{"link_name":"[311]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-311"},{"link_name":"Mostly Autumn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mostly_Autumn"},{"link_name":"Pink Floyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_Floyd"},{"link_name":"[312]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-312"},{"link_name":"alternative rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_rock"},{"link_name":"Elbow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbow_(band)"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-313"},{"link_name":"Newborn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newborn_(Elbow_song)"},{"link_name":"[314]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-314"},{"link_name":"tribute bands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_band"},{"link_name":"[315]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-315"},{"link_name":"the Musical Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Musical_Box_(band)"},{"link_name":"[316]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-316"},{"link_name":"[317]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-317"}],"sub_title":"Influence","text":"Genesis have been cited as a principal influence on the neo-prog subgenre that emerged in the 1980s,[302] featuring bands including Marillion and Pallas.[303][304] Steve Hackett's work in Genesis influenced guitarists such as Brian May of Queen,[305][306] Alex Lifeson of Rush,[305] and Eddie Van Halen of Van Halen.[305] Iron Maiden founder Steve Harris cited Gabriel-era Genesis as one of his main influences, describing \"Supper's Ready\" (along with Jethro Tull's song \"Thick as a Brick\") as one of his two favourite pieces of music of all time in an interview with Prog.[307] Genesis were also an influence on post-punk artists such as Simple Minds and Will Sergeant, guitarist of Echo & the Bunnymen,[308][309] as well as the electronic new wave band the Human League.[310] Trey Anastasio of Phish said, \"It's impossible to overstate what impact this band and musical philosophy had on me as a young musician. I'm forever in their debt.\"[311] Mostly Autumn \"fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd with Celtic themes\" in their sound.[312] The alternative rock band Elbow acknowledged Genesis as an influence,[313] such as on their breakthrough song \"Newborn\".[314]There are a number of Genesis tribute bands, including ReGenesis who focus on the group's 1970s music.[315] The most successful act is the Canadian band the Musical Box, who have been officially endorsed by the band and had Hackett and Collins perform as guests with them. Gabriel took his children to see the Musical Box so \"they could see what their father did back then\",[316] while Hackett said \"They not only manage to sound, but look virtually identical\".[317]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tony Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Banks_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mike Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"Phil Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins"},{"link_name":"Peter Gabriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gabriel"},{"link_name":"Anthony Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Phillips"},{"link_name":"Chris Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Stewart_(author)"},{"link_name":"John Silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Silver_(musician)"},{"link_name":"John Mayhew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mayhew_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Mick Barnard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Barnard"},{"link_name":"Steve Hackett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Hackett"},{"link_name":"Ray Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Wilson_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Bill Bruford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Bruford"},{"link_name":"Chester Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Daryl Stuermer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daryl_Stuermer"},{"link_name":"Nir Zidkyahu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nir_Zidkyahu"},{"link_name":"Anthony Drennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Drennan"},{"link_name":"Nic Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic_Collins_(drummer)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Pearce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Pearce_(musician,_born_1978)"}],"text":"Final line-up\nTony Banks – keyboards, guitar, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)\nMike Rutherford – bass, guitar, bass pedals, backing vocals (1967–2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)\nPhil Collins – lead and backing vocals, drums, percussion (1970–1996, 2000, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)\nFormer members\nPeter Gabriel – lead vocals, flute, oboe, percussion (1967–1975)\nAnthony Phillips – guitar, backing vocals (1967–1970)\nChris Stewart – drums, percussion (1967–1968)\nJohn Silver – drums, percussion (1968–1969)\nJohn Mayhew – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1969–1970; died 2009)\nMick Barnard – guitar (1970–1971)\nSteve Hackett – guitar (1971–1977)\nRay Wilson – lead vocals (1996–2000)\nFormer touring musicians\nBill Bruford – drums, percussion (1976)\nChester Thompson – drums, percussion (1976–1992, 2006–2007)\nDaryl Stuermer – guitar, bass, backing vocals (1978–1992, 2006–2007, 2020–2022)\nNir Zidkyahu – drums, percussion (1997–1998)\nAnthony Drennan – guitar, bass, backing vocals (1997–1998)\nNic Collins – drums, percussion (2020–2022)\nDaniel Pearce – backing vocals (2020–2022)\nPatrick Smyth – backing vocals (2020–2022)","title":"Band members"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"From Genesis to Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_Genesis_to_Revelation"},{"link_name":"Trespass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_(album)"},{"link_name":"Nursery Cryme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_Cryme"},{"link_name":"Foxtrot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtrot_(album)"},{"link_name":"Selling England by the Pound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selling_England_by_the_Pound"},{"link_name":"The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lamb_Lies_Down_on_Broadway"},{"link_name":"A Trick of the Tail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Trick_of_the_Tail"},{"link_name":"Wind & Wuthering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_%26_Wuthering"},{"link_name":"...And Then There Were Three...","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/...And_Then_There_Were_Three..."},{"link_name":"Duke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_(album)"},{"link_name":"Abacab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacab"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_(Genesis_album)"},{"link_name":"Invisible Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_Touch"},{"link_name":"We Can't Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_Can%27t_Dance"},{"link_name":"Calling All Stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_All_Stations"},{"link_name":"Genesis Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Live"},{"link_name":"Seconds Out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seconds_Out"},{"link_name":"Three Sides Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sides_Live"},{"link_name":"The Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Walk,_Volume_One:_The_Shorts"},{"link_name":"The Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Way_We_Walk,_Volume_Two:_The_Longs"},{"link_name":"Live Over Europe 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_Over_Europe_2007"}],"text":"Studio albumsFrom Genesis to Revelation (1969)\nTrespass (1970)\nNursery Cryme (1971)\nFoxtrot (1972)\nSelling England by the Pound (1973)\nThe Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974)\nA Trick of the Tail (1976)\nWind & Wuthering (1976)\n...And Then There Were Three... (1978)\nDuke (1980)\nAbacab (1981)\nGenesis (1983)\nInvisible Touch (1986)\nWe Can't Dance (1991)\nCalling All Stations (1997)Live albumsGenesis Live (1973)\nSeconds Out (1977)\nThree Sides Live (1982)\nThe Way We Walk, Volume One: The Shorts (1992)\nThe Way We Walk, Volume Two: The Longs (1993)\nLive Over Europe 2007 (2007)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-908-53873-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908-53873-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978 0 297 844341","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B297%2B844341"}],"text":"Carruthers, Bob (2011). Genesis: The Gabriel Era – Uncensored on the Record. Coda Books. ISBN 978-1-908-53873-4.\nBanks, Tony; Collins, Phil; Gabriel, Peter; Hackett, Steve; and Rutherford, Mike; edited by Dodd, Philip (2007). Genesis Chapter & Verse, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978 0 297 844341.","title":"Further reading"}]
|
[{"image_text":"The group formed at Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Chouse22.jpg/235px-Chouse22.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gabriel in 1974 performing \"Watcher of the Skies\", dressed in a cape with bat wings and fluorescent makeup","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Peter_Gabriel_The_Watcher_of_the_Skies_%28cropped%29.png/200px-Peter_Gabriel_The_Watcher_of_the_Skies_%28cropped%29.png"},{"image_text":"Rutherford, Gabriel and Collins in 1974 during The Lamb... tour","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Genesis_live_1974-11-20.jpg/245px-Genesis_live_1974-11-20.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hackett in January 1977 on the Wind & Wuthering tour, the last before his departure","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Steve_Hackett_1977.jpg/180px-Steve_Hackett_1977.jpg"},{"image_text":"The band's remodelled studio in Chiddingfold, Surrey, known as the Farm. Abacab was the first album recorded there.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Farm_recording_studio_2006.jpg/240px-The_Farm_recording_studio_2006.jpg"},{"image_text":"Genesis performing at the Knebworth Festival in August 1992.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Genesis_Live-_Land_Of_Confusion.jpg/250px-Genesis_Live-_Land_Of_Confusion.jpg"},{"image_text":"Genesis performing at Old Trafford, Manchester in 2007. From left to right, Daryl Stuermer on bass, Mike Rutherford on guitar, behind him Chester Thompson on drums, Phil Collins on vocals and Tony Banks on keyboards.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Genesis_Live_01.jpg/280px-Genesis_Live_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mike Rutherford playing his distinctive double neck guitar, combining 12-string and bass.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Mike_Rutherford.jpg/220px-Mike_Rutherford.jpg"}]
| null |
[{"reference":"Reed, Ryan (10 October 2014). \"20 Insanely Great Genesis Songs Only Hardcore Fans Know\". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071001201734/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/thieverycorporation/albums/album/206415/review/5945855/the_mirror_conspiracy","url_text":"\"20 Insanely Great Genesis Songs Only Hardcore Fans Know\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone","url_text":"Rolling Stone"},{"url":"http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/thieverycorporation/albums/album/206415/review/5945855/the_mirror_conspiracy","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Breithaupt, Don; Breithaupt, Jeff (2000), Night Moves: Pop Music in the Late '70s, St. Martin's Press, pp. 68–69, ISBN 978-0-312-19821-3, archived from the original on 13 January 2023, retrieved 28 July 2016","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mw1jAwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Night Moves: Pop Music in the Late '70s"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-19821-3","url_text":"978-0-312-19821-3"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230113133402/https://books.google.com/books?id=mw1jAwAAQBAJ","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Former Genesis front man Peter Gabriel backs Catalunya protest movement\". thinkSPAIN. Archived from the original on 15 March 2020. Retrieved 11 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thinkspain.com/news-spain/31311/former-genesis-front-man-peter-gabriel-backs-catalunya-protest-movement","url_text":"\"Former Genesis front man Peter Gabriel backs Catalunya protest movement\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200315221454/https://www.thinkspain.com/news-spain/31311/former-genesis-front-man-peter-gabriel-backs-catalunya-protest-movement","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Genesis: Awards\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/genesis-mn0000199995/awards","url_text":"\"Genesis: Awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151007061857/http://www.allmusic.com/artist/genesis-mn0000199995/awards","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Perrone, Pierre (20 April 2009). \"John Mayhew: Drummer who played with the fledgling Genesis on 'Trespass'\". The Independent. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925111924/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/john-mayhew-drummer-who-played-with-the-fledgling-genesis-on-trespass-1671354.html","url_text":"\"John Mayhew: Drummer who played with the fledgling Genesis on 'Trespass'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent","url_text":"The Independent"},{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/john-mayhew-drummer-who-played-with-the-fledgling-genesis-on-trespass-1671354.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Clark, Gregory (2017). \"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://measuringworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/","url_text":"\"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeasuringWorth","url_text":"MeasuringWorth"}]},{"reference":"\"GENESIS\". Official Charts. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/14995/genesis/","url_text":"\"GENESIS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150715024417/http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/14995/genesis/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fletcher, Gordon (1 August 1974). \"Genesis: Trespass: Music Reviews\". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 2 May 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080502020946/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/genesis/albums/album/127085/review/5946324/trespass","url_text":"\"Genesis: Trespass: Music Reviews\""},{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/genesis/albums/album/127085/review/5946324/trespass","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Blake, Mark (December 2011). \"Cash for questions: Peter Gabriel\". Q. p. 46.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Blake_(writer)","url_text":"Blake, Mark"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_(magazine)","url_text":"Q"}]},{"reference":"\"Queen 40th anniversary: 10 things you never knew\". The Daily Telegraph. 24 September 2011. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 27 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/8784298/Queen-40th-anniversary-10-things-you-never-knew.html","url_text":"\"Queen 40th anniversary: 10 things you never knew\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/8784298/Queen-40th-anniversary-10-things-you-never-knew.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Report on the Reading Festival: Genesis\". Melody Maker. 26 August 1972.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody_Maker","url_text":"Melody Maker"}]},{"reference":"Mic Smith (May 2017). \"Get 'Em Out By Friday. Genesis: The Official Release Dates 1968–78\" (PDF). Retrieved 28 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.genesis-movement.org/Genesis%20Official%20Release%20Dates%20Online%20Version%20Rev%20E3%20(Oct%202022).pdf","url_text":"\"Get 'Em Out By Friday. Genesis: The Official Release Dates 1968–78\""}]},{"reference":"\"Advert – Genesis – Foxtrot album – Melody Maker – 14th Oct\". Melody Maker. 14 October 1972. p. 23. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/advert-genesis-foxtrot-album-melody-maker-14th-oct/","url_text":"\"Advert – Genesis – Foxtrot album – Melody Maker – 14th Oct\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103737/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/advert-genesis-foxtrot-album-melody-maker-14th-oct/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. \"Foxtrot – Genesis\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_Erlewine","url_text":"Erlewine, Stephen Thomas"},{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/album/foxtrot-mw0000196095","url_text":"\"Foxtrot – Genesis\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220803155421/https://www.allmusic.com/album/foxtrot-mw0000196095","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Welch, Chris (23 December 1972). \"Genesis: A fun time in NYC\". Melody Maker. pp. 8, 9. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Welch","url_text":"Welch, Chris"},{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/a-fun-time-in-nyc-melody-maker-23rd-december/","url_text":"\"Genesis: A fun time in NYC\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103712/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/a-fun-time-in-nyc-melody-maker-23rd-december/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schütz, Peter; Sturm, Alex. \"Release Date Mystery (IV). When was \"Selling England\" released? About the search for the right release date\". genesis-news.com. Retrieved 30 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.genesis-news.com/c-Genesis-Release-date-research-Selling-England-By-The-Pound-report-s885.html","url_text":"\"Release Date Mystery (IV). When was \"Selling England\" released? About the search for the right release date\""}]},{"reference":"\"Glaspant Retreats Gallery\". Archived from the original on 20 October 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161020135145/http://www.glaspant.co.uk/History.html","url_text":"\"Glaspant Retreats Gallery\""},{"url":"http://www.glaspant.co.uk/History.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Genesis's Tony Banks and Mike Rutherford Talk To Uncut!\". Uncut. 28 October 2008. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.uncut.co.uk/features/genesis-s-tony-banks-and-mike-rutherford-talk-to-uncut-37843/","url_text":"\"Genesis's Tony Banks and Mike Rutherford Talk To Uncut!\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncut_(magazine)","url_text":"Uncut"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150904053729/https://www.uncut.co.uk/features/genesis-s-tony-banks-and-mike-rutherford-talk-to-uncut-37843/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Welch, Chris (17 December 1977). \"Brand X: This is a stick-up!\". Melody Maker. pp. 8–9. Retrieved 28 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/melody-maker-17th-december-1977-chris-welch-follows-brand-x-on-tour/","url_text":"\"Brand X: This is a stick-up!\""}]},{"reference":"Easlea, Daryl (23 March 2018). Without Frontiers-The Life and Music of Peter Gabriel. Omnibus Press. ISBN 9781787590823. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IDdRDwAAQBAJ&q=mick+strickland+witches+brew&pg=PT214","url_text":"Without Frontiers-The Life and Music of Peter Gabriel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781787590823","url_text":"9781787590823"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230317181902/https://books.google.com/books?id=IDdRDwAAQBAJ&q=mick+strickland+witches+brew&pg=PT214","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Certified Awards\". BPI. Select keyword \"Genesis\", By award: Gold, By Format: Album, navigate to page 3. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150315204844/http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards.aspx","url_text":"\"Certified Awards\""},{"url":"http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Zammitt, David (16 November 2014). \"Beyond the Stool: Drummers in the Spotlight\". DIY. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://diymag.com/2014/11/16/beyond-the-stool-drummers-in-the-spotlight","url_text":"\"Beyond the Stool: Drummers in the Spotlight\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIY_(magazine)","url_text":"DIY"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141223213819/http://diymag.com/2014/11/16/beyond-the-stool-drummers-in-the-spotlight","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"See Mike Rutherford's Career From Genesis to the Mechanics in 13 Videos\". Rolling Stone. 5 February 2015. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 14 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150915133604/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/see-mike-rutherfords-career-from-genesis-to-the-mechanics-in-13-videos-20150205/genesis-a-trick-of-the-tail-1976-20150205","url_text":"\"See Mike Rutherford's Career From Genesis to the Mechanics in 13 Videos\""},{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/see-mike-rutherfords-career-from-genesis-to-the-mechanics-in-13-videos-20150205/genesis-a-trick-of-the-tail-1976-20150205","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Frischvers, Richard (31 March 1977). \"Wind and Wuthering\". Circus. pp. 58–60. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/circus-magazine-wind-and-wuthering-feature-31st-march/","url_text":"\"Wind and Wuthering\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circus_(magazine)","url_text":"Circus"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103744/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/circus-magazine-wind-and-wuthering-feature-31st-march/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Welch, Chris (25 December 1976). \"Wuthering heights\". Melody Maker. p. 14.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Genesis – Wind and Wuthering – press kit – Atlantic Records\". Atlantic Records. 1977. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150408203012/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/genesis-wind-and-wuthering-press-kit-atlantic-records/","url_text":"\"Genesis – Wind and Wuthering – press kit – Atlantic Records\""},{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/genesis-wind-and-wuthering-press-kit-atlantic-records/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Salewicz, Chris (2 July 1977). \"It Helps You Make It on the Night\". New Musical Express. p. 14. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://i0.wp.com/thegenesisarchive.co.uk/thearchive/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/It-helps-you-make-it-on-the-night-NME-Genesis-2nd-July-1977.jpg","url_text":"\"It Helps You Make It on the Night\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NME","url_text":"New Musical Express"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211027081248/http://i0.wp.com/thegenesisarchive.co.uk/thearchive/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/It-helps-you-make-it-on-the-night-NME-Genesis-2nd-July-1977.jpg","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Genesis: The Earl's Court Supergig and Mike Rutherford Interviewed\". Beat Instrumental. August 1977. pp. 4–6, 49. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/beat-instrumental-august-1977-mike-rutherford-feature/","url_text":"\"Genesis: The Earl's Court Supergig and Mike Rutherford Interviewed\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103731/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/beat-instrumental-august-1977-mike-rutherford-feature/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brazil goes nuts for Genesis\". Sounds. 28 May 1977.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounds_(magazine)","url_text":"Sounds"}]},{"reference":"Dallas, Karl (11 November 1978). \"Genesis: A Return to the Roots\". Melody Maker. p. 36. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/melody-maker-11th-november-karl-dallas-interviews-phil-collins/","url_text":"\"Genesis: A Return to the Roots\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103718/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/melody-maker-11th-november-karl-dallas-interviews-phil-collins/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Welch, Chris (1 April 1978). \"Genesis: Tricks and Treats\". Melody Maker. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/album-review-melody-maker-1st-april/","url_text":"\"Genesis: Tricks and Treats\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151011103726/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/album-review-melody-maker-1st-april/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Prasad, Anil (2007). \"Genesis – Turning it on again\". Innerviews. Archived from the original on 24 June 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.innerviews.org/inner/genesis.html","url_text":"\"Genesis – Turning it on again\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180624010558/https://www.innerviews.org/inner/genesis.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fielder, Hugh (27 October 1979). \"The return of... Getting it together in the Country\". Sounds. Archived from the original on 14 November 2013. Retrieved 11 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/sounds-27th-oct-getting-it-together-in-the-country/","url_text":"\"The return of... Getting it together in the Country\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131114194147/http://thegenesisarchive.co.uk/sounds-27th-oct-getting-it-together-in-the-country/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Fielder, Hugh (22 April 1978). \"The Shocking Truth About Genesis in America\". Sounds. Archived from the original on 11 October 2015. 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ISBN 978-1843531050.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/roughguidetorock0003unse/page/423","url_text":"The Rough Guide to Rock"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/roughguidetorock0003unse/page/423","url_text":"423"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1843531050","url_text":"978-1843531050"}]},{"reference":"Hedegaard, Erik (4 March 2011). \"Phil Collins' Last Stand: Why the Troubled Pop Star Wants to Call It Quits (page 1)\". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151008235613/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/phil-collins-last-stand-why-the-troubled-pop-star-wants-to-call-it-quits-20110304","url_text":"\"Phil Collins' Last Stand: Why the Troubled Pop Star Wants to Call It Quits (page 1)\""},{"url":"https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/phil-collins-last-stand-why-the-troubled-pop-star-wants-to-call-it-quits-20110304","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Genesis – Artist Discography\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/genesis-mn0000199995/discography","url_text":"\"Genesis – Artist Discography\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181124105929/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/genesis-mn0000199995/discography","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"McGuire, Colin (10 January 2014). \"In Defense of Both the Phil Collins and Peter Gabriel Eras of Genesis\". PopMatters. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 6 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.popmatters.com/column/177820-in-defense-of-both-the-phil-collins-and-peter-gabriel-eras-of-ge/","url_text":"\"In Defense of Both the Phil Collins and Peter Gabriel Eras of Genesis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PopMatters","url_text":"PopMatters"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151007004238/http://www.popmatters.com/column/177820-in-defense-of-both-the-phil-collins-and-peter-gabriel-eras-of-ge/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Allen, Jim (4 January 2017). \"Genesis Albums Ranked Worst to Best\". Ultimate Classic Rock. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://ultimateclassicrock.com/genesis-albums-ranked/","url_text":"\"Genesis Albums Ranked Worst to Best\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190526175718/https://ultimateclassicrock.com/genesis-albums-ranked/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"McCormick, Neil (3 March 2011). \"Phil Collins: should we take his retirement seriously?\". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110305002103/http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/culture/neilmccormick/100051928/phil-collins-should-we-take-his-retirement-seriously/","url_text":"\"Phil Collins: should we take his retirement seriously?\""},{"url":"http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/culture/neilmccormick/100051928/phil-collins-should-we-take-his-retirement-seriously/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pop/Rock » Art-Rock/Experimental » Neo-Prog\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/neo-prog-ma0000012218","url_text":"\"Pop/Rock » Art-Rock/Experimental » Neo-Prog\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150904053727/http://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/neo-prog-ma0000012218","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Interview: Steve Hogarth of Marillion\". Mstation.org. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://mstation.org/Marillion_interview.php","url_text":"\"Interview: Steve Hogarth of Marillion\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080512010958/http://mstation.org/Marillion_interview.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Frost, Matt (29 April 2015). \"Steve Hackett talks Wolflight, phrasing and the nylon knack\". MusicRadar. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/steve-hackett-talks-wolflight-phrasing-and-the-nylon-knack-620021","url_text":"\"Steve Hackett talks Wolflight, phrasing and the nylon knack\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MusicRadar","url_text":"MusicRadar"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190530062816/https://www.musicradar.com/news/guitars/steve-hackett-talks-wolflight-phrasing-and-the-nylon-knack-620021","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Steve Hackett\". Inside Out Music. 2015. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150905061934/http://www.insideoutmusic.com/artist.aspx?IdArtist=458","url_text":"\"Steve Hackett\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inside_Out_Music","url_text":"Inside Out Music"},{"url":"http://www.insideoutmusic.com/artist.aspx?IdArtist=458","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lawson, Dom (8 October 2015). \"Steve Harris: Genesis Was Never The Same After Peter Gabriel Left\". Louder. Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. Retrieved 31 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loudersound.com/features/the-prog-interview-steve-harris","url_text":"\"Steve Harris: Genesis Was Never The Same After Peter Gabriel Left\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180710010327/https://www.loudersound.com/features/the-prog-interview-steve-harris","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Simple Minds\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/simple-minds-mn0000049374/related","url_text":"\"Simple Minds\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllMusic","url_text":"AllMusic"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208104158/http://www.allmusic.com/artist/simple-minds-mn0000049374/related","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Will Sergeant\". AllMusic. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.allmusic.com/artist/will-sergeant-mn0000688821/related","url_text":"\"Will Sergeant\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208183011/http://www.allmusic.com/artist/will-sergeant-mn0000688821/related","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Easlea, Daryl (2013). Without Frontiers: The Life & Music of Peter Gabriel. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-1780383156. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Azn_AgAAQBAJ&q=human+league+genesis+martyn+ware&pg=PT160","url_text":"Without Frontiers: The Life & Music of Peter Gabriel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1780383156","url_text":"978-1780383156"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230317181915/https://books.google.com/books?id=Azn_AgAAQBAJ&q=human+league+genesis+martyn+ware&pg=PT160","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Abba receive Hall of Fame honour\". BBC News. 16 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8569584.stm","url_text":"\"Abba receive Hall of Fame honour\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201120004523/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8569584.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lambe, Stephen. \"New Prog Rock festival hits Gloucester\". BBC. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/gloucestershire/content/articles/2005/08/03/prog_feature.shtml","url_text":"\"New Prog Rock festival hits Gloucester\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170501132528/http://www.bbc.co.uk/gloucestershire/content/articles/2005/08/03/prog_feature.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rees, Jasper (3 December 2012). \"Elbow, O2 Arena\". The Arts Desk. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theartsdesk.com/new-music/elbow-o2-arena-0","url_text":"\"Elbow, O2 Arena\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arts_Desk","url_text":"The Arts Desk"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208101909/http://www.theartsdesk.com/new-music/elbow-o2-arena-0","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Thomson, Graeme (7 March 2014). \"Elbow – Album By Album\". Uncut. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uncut.co.uk/features/elbow-album-by-album-12932","url_text":"\"Elbow – Album By Album\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150915041922/http://www.uncut.co.uk/features/elbow-album-by-album-12932","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ReGenesis: Early Genesis for the modern keyboardist\". Sound on Sound. April 2009. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soundonsound.com/pm/apr09/articles/regenesiskeys.htm","url_text":"\"ReGenesis: Early Genesis for the modern keyboardist\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208050635/http://www.soundonsound.com/pm/apr09/articles/regenesiskeys.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Peter Gabriel-approved Genesis tribute band playing The Burt\". MyToba. 9 November 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208073746/http://mytoba.ca/arts/music-entertainment/peter-gabriel-approved-genesis-tribute-band-playing-the-burt/","url_text":"\"Peter Gabriel-approved Genesis tribute band playing The Burt\""},{"url":"http://mytoba.ca/arts/music-entertainment/peter-gabriel-approved-genesis-tribute-band-playing-the-burt/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Playhouse Notes: Musical Box brings Genesis tribute\". The Rigefield Press. 29 January 2015. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151208082839/http://www.theridgefieldpress.com/40730/playhouse-notes-musical-box-brings-genesis-tribute/","url_text":"\"Playhouse Notes: Musical Box brings Genesis tribute\""},{"url":"http://www.theridgefieldpress.com/40730/playhouse-notes-musical-box-brings-genesis-tribute/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Banks, Tony; Collins, Phil; Gabriel, Peter; Hackett, Steve; Rutherford, Mike (2007). Dodd, Philipp (ed.). Genesis. Chapter and Verse. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84434-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84434-1","url_text":"978-0-297-84434-1"}]},{"reference":"Bowler, Dave; Dray, Bryan (1992). Genesis – A Biography. Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 978-0-283-06132-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/genesisbiography0000bowl_h5d4","url_text":"Genesis – A Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-283-06132-5","url_text":"978-0-283-06132-5"}]},{"reference":"Buckley, Peter (2003). The Rough Guide to Rock (3rd ed.). Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-843-53105-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/roughguidetorock0003unse","url_text":"The Rough Guide to Rock"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-843-53105-0","url_text":"978-1-843-53105-0"}]},{"reference":"Collins, Phil (2016). Not Dead Yet. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-784-75360-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Collins","url_text":"Collins, Phil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-784-75360-3","url_text":"978-1-784-75360-3"}]},{"reference":"Everett, Walter (2008). Expression in pop-rock music: critical and analytical essays. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-97959-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97959-7","url_text":"978-0-415-97959-7"}]},{"reference":"Frame, Pete (1983). The Complete Rock Family Trees. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-7119-0465-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7119-0465-1","url_text":"978-0-7119-0465-1"}]},{"reference":"Gallo, Armando (1978). Genesis: The Evolution of a Rock Band. Sidgwick and Jackson Limited. ISBN 0-283-98440-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-283-98440-6","url_text":"0-283-98440-6"}]},{"reference":"Giammetti, Mario (2020). Genesis 1967 to 1975 - The Peter Gabriel Years. Kingmaker. ISBN 978-1-913218-62-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-913218-62-1","url_text":"978-1-913218-62-1"}]},{"reference":"Giammetti, Mario (2021). Genesis 1975 to 2021 - The Phil Collins Years. Kingmaker. ISBN 978-1-8384918-0-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8384918-0-2","url_text":"978-1-8384918-0-2"}]},{"reference":"Hegarty, Paul; Halliwell, Martin (2011). Beyond and Before: Progressive Rock Since the 1960s. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-2332-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-2332-0","url_text":"978-0-8264-2332-0"}]},{"reference":"Hewitt, Alan (2001). Opening the Musical Box – A Genesis Chronicle. Firefly Publishing. ISBN 978-0-946-71930-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/openingmusicalbo00hewi","url_text":"Opening the Musical Box – A Genesis Chronicle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-946-71930-3","url_text":"978-0-946-71930-3"}]},{"reference":"Macan, Edward (1997). Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-09887-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/rockingclassicse0000maca","url_text":"Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-09887-7","url_text":"978-0-195-09887-7"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Bill (2002). Avant Rock: Experimental Music from the Beatles to Bjork. Chicago: Open Court.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Platts, Robin (2001). Genesis: Inside & Out (1967–2000). Collector's Guide Publishing. ISBN 978-1-896-52271-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-896-52271-5","url_text":"978-1-896-52271-5"}]},{"reference":"Romano, Will (2010). Mountains Come Out of the Sky: The Complete Illustrated History of Prog Rock. Backbeat Books. ISBN 978-0-8793-0991-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8793-0991-6","url_text":"978-0-8793-0991-6"}]},{"reference":"Rutherford, Mike (2015). The Living Years: The First Genesis Memoir. Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-1-250-06068-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-06068-6","url_text":"978-1-250-06068-6"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Dave (2005). Turn It On Again: Peter Gabriel, Phil Collins and Genesis. Backbeat Books. ISBN 978-0-879-30810-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Thompson_(author)","url_text":"Thompson, Dave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-879-30810-0","url_text":"978-0-879-30810-0"}]},{"reference":"Welch, Chris (2011). Genesis: The Complete Guide to Their Music. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-857-12739-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-857-12739-6","url_text":"978-0-857-12739-6"}]},{"reference":"Carruthers, Bob (2011). Genesis: The Gabriel Era – Uncensored on the Record. Coda Books. ISBN 978-1-908-53873-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908-53873-4","url_text":"978-1-908-53873-4"}]}]
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science
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Philosophy of social science
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["1 Auguste Comte and positivism","2 Epistemology","3 Ontology","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography","6.1 Journals","6.2 Conferences","6.3 Books","7 External links"]
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Study of the logic, methods, and foundations of social sciences
"Philosophy of the Social Sciences" redirects here. For the academic journal, see Philosophy of the Social Sciences (journal).
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Philosophy in this sense means how social science integrates with other related scientific disciplines, which implies a rigorous, systematic endeavor to build and organize knowledge relevant to the interaction between individual people and their wider social involvement.
Scientific rationalism tried to dissociate logical transactions from the emotional motivation to so engage, which strategic and tactical objectives work together as heuristic strategies, some of which are explored below.
Auguste Comte and positivism
Main articles: Auguste Comte and Positivism
Comte first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism (published in English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His View of Positivism would therefore set-out to define, in more detail, the empirical goals of sociological method.
Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. The idea bears some similarity to Marx's view that human society would progress toward a communist peak. This is perhaps unsurprising as both were profoundly influenced by the early Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at one time Comte's teacher and mentor. Both Comte and Marx intended to develop, scientifically, a new secular ideology in the wake of European secularisation.
The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte. Writing after various developments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted (in vain) to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms (although Spencer was a proponent of Lamarckism rather than Darwinism).
The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In the same year he argued, in The Rules of Sociological Method (1895): "ur main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism." Durkheim's seminal monograph Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.
The positivist perspective, however, has been associated with 'scientism'; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation, be it philosophical, social scientific, or otherwise. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long since fallen out of favor. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences recognize the distorting effect of observer bias and structural limitations. This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as Thomas Kuhn, and new philosophical movements such as critical realism and neopragmatism. Positivism has also been espoused by 'technocrats' who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology. The philosopher-sociologist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself.
Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science. In psychology, a positivistic approach has historically been favoured in behaviourism.
Epistemology
In any discipline, there will always be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists. Some of these predispositions involve the nature of social knowledge itself, the nature of social reality, and the locus of human control in action. Intellectuals have disagreed about the extent to which the social sciences should mimic the methods used in the natural sciences. The founding positivists of the social sciences argued that social phenomena can and should be studied through conventional scientific methods. This position is closely allied with scientism, naturalism and physicalism; the doctrine that all phenomena are ultimately reducible to physical entities and physical laws. Opponents of naturalism, including advocates of the verstehen method, contended that there is a need for an interpretive approach to the study of human action, a technique radically different from natural science. The fundamental task for the philosophy of social science has thus been to question the extent to which positivism may be characterized as 'scientific' in relation to fundamental epistemological foundations. These debates also rage within contemporary social sciences with regard to subjectivity, objectivity, intersubjectivity and practicality in the conduct of theory and research. Philosophers of social science examine further epistemologies and methodologies, including realism, critical realism, instrumentalism, functionalism, structuralism, interpretivism, phenomenology, and post-structuralism.
Though essentially all major social scientists since the late 19th century have accepted that the discipline faces challenges that are different from those of the natural sciences, the ability to determine causal relationships invokes the same discussions held in science meta-theory. Positivism has sometimes met with caricature as a breed of naive empiricism, yet the word has a rich history of applications stretching from Comte to the work of the Vienna Circle and beyond. By the same token, if positivism is able to identify causality, then it is open to the same critical rationalist non-justificationism presented by Karl Popper, which may itself be disputed through Thomas Kuhn's conception of epistemic paradigm shift.
Early German hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Dilthey pioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'). This tradition greatly informed Max Weber and Georg Simmel's antipositivism, and continued with critical theory. Since the 1960s, a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science has grown side-by-side with critiques of "scientism", or 'science as ideology'. Jürgen Habermas argues, in his On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967), that "the positivist thesis of unified science, which assimilates all the sciences to a natural-scientific model, fails because of the intimate relationship between the social sciences and history, and the fact that they are based on a situation-specific understanding of meaning that can be explicated only hermeneutically … access to a symbolically prestructured reality cannot be gained by observation alone." Verstehende social theory has been the concern of phenomenological works, such as Alfred Schütz Phenomenology of the Social World (1932) and Hans-Georg Gadamer's Truth and Method (1960). Phenomenology would later prove influential in the subject-centred theory of the post-structuralists.
The mid-20th-century linguistic turn led to a rise in highly philosophical sociology, as well as so-called "postmodern" perspectives on the social acquisition of knowledge. One notable critique of social science is found in Peter Winch's Wittgensteinian text The Idea of Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (1958). Michel Foucault provides a potent critique in his archaeology of the human sciences, though Habermas and Richard Rorty have both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.
One underlying problem for the social psychologist is whether studies can or should ultimately be understood in terms of the meaning and consciousness behind social action, as with folk psychology, or whether more objective, natural, materialist, and behavioral facts are to be given exclusive study. This problem is especially important for those within the social sciences who study qualitative mental phenomena, such as consciousness, associative meanings, and mental representations, because a rejection of the study of meanings would lead to the reclassification of such research as non-scientific. Influential traditions like psychodynamic theory and symbolic interactionism may be the first victims of such a paradigm shift. The philosophical issues lying in wait behind these different positions have led to commitments to certain kinds of methodology which have sometimes bordered on the partisan. Still, many researchers have indicated a lack of patience for overly dogmatic proponents of one method or another.
Social research remains extremely common and effective in practise with respect to political institutions and businesses. Michael Burawoy has marked the difference between public sociology, which is focused firmly on practical applications, and academic or professional sociology, which involves dialogue amongst other social scientists and philosophers.
Ontology
Structure and agency forms an enduring debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas 'structure' refers to factors which limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the primacy of structure or agency relate to the very core of social ontology ("What is the social world made of?", "What is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?"). One attempt to reconcile postmodern critiques with the overarching project of social science has been the development, particularly in Britain, of critical realism. For critical realists such as Roy Bhaskar, traditional positivism commits an 'epistemic fallacy' by failing to address the ontological conditions which make science possible: that is, structure and agency itself.
See also
Philosophy portalSociety portal
Hard and soft science
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Social fact
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References
^ https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy-of-science/article/abs/scientific-rationality-and-human-reasoning/60CE3B35001928F7088A3588A14202C7 Cambridge University Press: 01 April 2022: Scientific Rationality and Human Reasoning]
^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/ Stanford Encyclopaedia: Auguste Comte
^ Wacquant, Loic. 1992. "Positivism." In Bottomore, Tom and William Outhwaite, ed., The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Social Thought
^ Gianfranco Poggi (2000). Durkheim. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Durkheim, Emile. 1895. The Rules of Sociological Method. Cited in Wacquant (1992).
^ Schunk, Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, 5th, 315
^ Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978-0-7456-4328-1 p.68
^ Cote, James E. and Levine, Charles G. (2002). Identity formation, Agency, and Culture, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
^ Robert Audi, ed. (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 704. ISBN 0-521-63722-8.
^ a b Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978-0-7456-4328-1 p.22
^ Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978-0-7456-4328-1 p.19
^ Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978-0-7456-4328-1 p.23
^ Giddens, A (2006). Sociology. Oxford, UK: Polity. pp. 714. ISBN 0-7456-3379-X.
^ Jürgen Habermas. Taking Aim at the Heart of the Present in Hoy, D (eds) 'Foucault: A critical reader' Basil Blackwell. Oxford, 1986.
^ Richard Rorty. Foucault and Epistemology in Hoy, D (eds) 'Foucault: A critical reader' Basil Blackwell. Oxford, 1986.
^ Slife, B.D. and Gantt, E.E. (1999) Methodological pluralism: a framework for psychotherapy research. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(12), pp1453–1465.
Bibliography
Braybrooke, David (1986). Philosophy of Social Science. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-663394-3.
Bunge, Mario. 1996. Finding Philosophy in Social Science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hollis, Martin (1994). The Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-44780-1.
Little, Daniel (1991). Varieties of Social Explanation : An Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Science. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-0566-7.
Rosenberg, Alexander (1995). Philosophy of Social Science. Westview Harper Collins.
Kaldis, Byron (ed.) (2013) Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences, Sage
Journals
Philosophy of the Social Sciences
Conferences
Philosophy of Social Science Roundtable
EUROPEAN NETWORK FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Books
Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences, Byron Kaldis, SAGE, 2013
Philosophy of Social Science by Alexander Rosenberg
The Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction by Martin Hollis
Contemporary Philosophy of Social Science: A Multicultural Approach by Brian Fay
Philosophy of social science: the methods, ideals, and politics of social inquiry by Michael Root
External links
"Philosophy of social science". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Philosophy of social sciences (From Robert Audi's Cambridge Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Philosophy of social sciences (Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online)
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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philosophy of the Social Sciences (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Social_Sciences_(journal)"},{"link_name":"heuristic strategies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"\"Philosophy of the Social Sciences\" redirects here. For the academic journal, see Philosophy of the Social Sciences (journal).Philosophy in this sense means how social science integrates with other related scientific disciplines, which implies a rigorous, systematic endeavor to build and organize knowledge relevant to the interaction between individual people and their wider social involvement.Scientific rationalism tried to dissociate logical transactions from the emotional motivation to so engage, which strategic and tactical objectives work together as heuristic strategies, some of which are explored below. [1]","title":"Philosophy of social science"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Course in Positive Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"A General View of Positivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism"},{"link_name":"geoscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoscience"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"philosopher of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher_of_science"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"account of social evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_evolutionism"},{"link_name":"Marx's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"},{"link_name":"communist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist"},{"link_name":"Utopian socialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopian_socialist"},{"link_name":"Henri de Saint-Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon"},{"link_name":"secularisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularisation"},{"link_name":"Herbert Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer"},{"link_name":"socially Darwinistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Darwinism"},{"link_name":"Lamarckism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckism"},{"link_name":"Émile Durkheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wacquant-3"},{"link_name":"University of Bordeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux"},{"link_name":"The Rules of Sociological Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rules_of_Sociological_Method"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2000-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DinW-5"},{"link_name":"Suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"scientism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism"},{"link_name":"applied to all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"observer bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_bias"},{"link_name":"Thomas Kuhn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn"},{"link_name":"critical realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)"},{"link_name":"neopragmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neopragmatism"},{"link_name":"technocrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocracy"},{"link_name":"social progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_progress"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Jürgen Habermas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas"},{"link_name":"instrumental rationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental_rationality"},{"link_name":"ideology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideology"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Durkheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durkheim"},{"link_name":"Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx"},{"link_name":"Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"behaviourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviourism"}],"text":"Comte first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism (published in English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[2] For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex \"Queen science\" of human society itself. His View of Positivism would therefore set-out to define, in more detail, the empirical goals of sociological method.Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. The idea bears some similarity to Marx's view that human society would progress toward a communist peak. This is perhaps unsurprising as both were profoundly influenced by the early Utopian socialist, Henri de Saint-Simon, who was at one time Comte's teacher and mentor. Both Comte and Marx intended to develop, scientifically, a new secular ideology in the wake of European secularisation.The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte. Writing after various developments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted (in vain) to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms (although Spencer was a proponent of Lamarckism rather than Darwinism).The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the detail of Comte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method, maintaining that the social sciences are a logical continuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisting that they may retain the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[3] Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In the same year he argued, in The Rules of Sociological Method (1895):[4] \"[o]ur main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... What has been called our positivism is but a consequence of this rationalism.\"[5] Durkheim's seminal monograph Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates amongst Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.The positivist perspective, however, has been associated with 'scientism'; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation, be it philosophical, social scientific, or otherwise. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long since fallen out of favor. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences recognize the distorting effect of observer bias and structural limitations. This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as Thomas Kuhn, and new philosophical movements such as critical realism and neopragmatism. Positivism has also been espoused by 'technocrats' who believe in the inevitability of social progress through science and technology.[6] The philosopher-sociologist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself.[7]Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are more typically cited as the fathers of contemporary social science. In psychology, a positivistic approach has historically been favoured in behaviourism.","title":"Auguste Comte and positivism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"positivists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism"},{"link_name":"scientific methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methods"},{"link_name":"scientism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism"},{"link_name":"naturalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"physicalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism"},{"link_name":"verstehen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstehen"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"positivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism"},{"link_name":"epistemological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological"},{"link_name":"subjectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity"},{"link_name":"objectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science)"},{"link_name":"intersubjectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjectivity"},{"link_name":"realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism"},{"link_name":"critical realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)"},{"link_name":"instrumentalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism"},{"link_name":"functionalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism"},{"link_name":"structuralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism"},{"link_name":"interpretivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism"},{"link_name":"phenomenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"post-structuralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralism"},{"link_name":"natural sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"},{"link_name":"causal relationships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality"},{"link_name":"meta-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-theory"},{"link_name":"Comte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte"},{"link_name":"Vienna Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle"},{"link_name":"critical rationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_rationalism"},{"link_name":"justificationism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justificationism"},{"link_name":"Karl Popper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper"},{"link_name":"Thomas Kuhn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn"},{"link_name":"paradigm shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_shift"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm Dilthey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey"},{"link_name":"Geisteswissenschaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft"},{"link_name":"Max Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"},{"link_name":"Georg Simmel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel"},{"link_name":"antipositivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism"},{"link_name":"critical theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Outhwaite,_William_2009_p.22-10"},{"link_name":"scientism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Jürgen Habermas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Outhwaite,_William_2009_p.22-10"},{"link_name":"Alfred Schütz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Sch%C3%BCtz"},{"link_name":"Hans-Georg Gadamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer"},{"link_name":"Truth and Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_and_Method"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"post-structuralists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-structuralists"},{"link_name":"linguistic turn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_turn"},{"link_name":"postmodern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Peter Winch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Winch"},{"link_name":"Michel Foucault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"},{"link_name":"archaeology of the human sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Things"},{"link_name":"Richard Rorty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"social psychologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology"},{"link_name":"folk psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_psychology"},{"link_name":"to be given exclusive study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliminative_materialism"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"mental representations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_representation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Michael Burawoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Burawoy"},{"link_name":"public sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sociology"}],"text":"In any discipline, there will always be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists. Some of these predispositions involve the nature of social knowledge itself, the nature of social reality, and the locus of human control in action.[8] Intellectuals have disagreed about the extent to which the social sciences should mimic the methods used in the natural sciences. The founding positivists of the social sciences argued that social phenomena can and should be studied through conventional scientific methods. This position is closely allied with scientism, naturalism and physicalism; the doctrine that all phenomena are ultimately reducible to physical entities and physical laws. Opponents of naturalism, including advocates of the verstehen method, contended that there is a need for an interpretive approach to the study of human action, a technique radically different from natural science.[9] The fundamental task for the philosophy of social science has thus been to question the extent to which positivism may be characterized as 'scientific' in relation to fundamental epistemological foundations. These debates also rage within contemporary social sciences with regard to subjectivity, objectivity, intersubjectivity and practicality in the conduct of theory and research. Philosophers of social science examine further epistemologies and methodologies, including realism, critical realism, instrumentalism, functionalism, structuralism, interpretivism, phenomenology, and post-structuralism.Though essentially all major social scientists since the late 19th century have accepted that the discipline faces challenges that are different from those of the natural sciences, the ability to determine causal relationships invokes the same discussions held in science meta-theory. Positivism has sometimes met with caricature as a breed of naive empiricism, yet the word has a rich history of applications stretching from Comte to the work of the Vienna Circle and beyond. By the same token, if positivism is able to identify causality, then it is open to the same critical rationalist non-justificationism presented by Karl Popper, which may itself be disputed through Thomas Kuhn's conception of epistemic paradigm shift.Early German hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Dilthey pioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'). This tradition greatly informed Max Weber and Georg Simmel's antipositivism, and continued with critical theory.[10] Since the 1960s, a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science has grown side-by-side with critiques of \"scientism\", or 'science as ideology'.[11] Jürgen Habermas argues, in his On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967), that \"the positivist thesis of unified science, which assimilates all the sciences to a natural-scientific model, fails because of the intimate relationship between the social sciences and history, and the fact that they are based on a situation-specific understanding of meaning that can be explicated only hermeneutically … access to a symbolically prestructured reality cannot be gained by observation alone.\"[10] Verstehende social theory has been the concern of phenomenological works, such as Alfred Schütz Phenomenology of the Social World (1932) and Hans-Georg Gadamer's Truth and Method (1960).[12] Phenomenology would later prove influential in the subject-centred theory of the post-structuralists.The mid-20th-century linguistic turn led to a rise in highly philosophical sociology, as well as so-called \"postmodern\" perspectives on the social acquisition of knowledge.[13] One notable critique of social science is found in Peter Winch's Wittgensteinian text The Idea of Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (1958). Michel Foucault provides a potent critique in his archaeology of the human sciences, though Habermas and Richard Rorty have both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.[14][15]One underlying problem for the social psychologist is whether studies can or should ultimately be understood in terms of the meaning and consciousness behind social action, as with folk psychology, or whether more objective, natural, materialist, and behavioral facts are to be given exclusive study. This problem is especially important for those within the social sciences who study qualitative mental phenomena, such as consciousness, associative meanings, and mental representations, because a rejection of the study of meanings would lead to the reclassification of such research as non-scientific. Influential traditions like psychodynamic theory and symbolic interactionism may be the first victims of such a paradigm shift. The philosophical issues lying in wait behind these different positions have led to commitments to certain kinds of methodology which have sometimes bordered on the partisan. Still, many researchers have indicated a lack of patience for overly dogmatic proponents of one method or another.[16]Social research remains extremely common and effective in practise with respect to political institutions and businesses. Michael Burawoy has marked the difference between public sociology, which is focused firmly on practical applications, and academic or professional sociology, which involves dialogue amongst other social scientists and philosophers.","title":"Epistemology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Structure and agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_and_agency"},{"link_name":"agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_(sociology)"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure"},{"link_name":"critical realism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)"},{"link_name":"Roy Bhaskar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Bhaskar"}],"text":"Structure and agency forms an enduring debate in social theory: \"Do social structures determine an individual's behaviour or does human agency?\" In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make free choices, whereas 'structure' refers to factors which limit or affect the choices and actions of individuals (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the primacy of structure or agency relate to the very core of social ontology (\"What is the social world made of?\", \"What is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?\"). One attempt to reconcile postmodern critiques with the overarching project of social science has been the development, particularly in Britain, of critical realism. For critical realists such as Roy Bhaskar, traditional positivism commits an 'epistemic fallacy' by failing to address the ontological conditions which make science possible: that is, structure and agency itself.","title":"Ontology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-663394-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-663394-3"},{"link_name":"Hollis, Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hollis_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-44780-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44780-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8133-0566-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-0566-7"}],"text":"Braybrooke, David (1986). Philosophy of Social Science. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-663394-3.\nBunge, Mario. 1996. Finding Philosophy in Social Science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.\nHollis, Martin (1994). The Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-44780-1.\nLittle, Daniel (1991). Varieties of Social Explanation : An Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Science. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-0566-7.\nRosenberg, Alexander (1995). Philosophy of Social Science. Westview Harper Collins.\nKaldis, Byron (ed.) (2013) Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences, Sage","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philosophy of the Social Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_the_Social_Sciences_(journal)"}],"sub_title":"Journals","text":"Philosophy of the Social Sciences","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philosophy of Social Science Roundtable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20081208052218/http://philosophy.ucsc.edu/Roundtable.html"},{"link_name":"EUROPEAN NETWORK FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//enposs.eu/"}],"sub_title":"Conferences","text":"Philosophy of Social Science Roundtable\nEUROPEAN NETWORK FOR THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences, Byron Kaldis, SAGE, 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//in.sagepub.com/en-in/sas/encyclopedia-of-philosophy-and-the-social-sciences/book234813"},{"link_name":"Philosophy of Social Science by Alexander Rosenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=HmBIVO7PZAgC&q=%22philosophy+of+social+science%22"},{"link_name":"The Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction by Martin Hollis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/dp/0521447801"},{"link_name":"Contemporary Philosophy of Social Science: A Multicultural Approach by Brian Fay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/dp/1557865388"},{"link_name":"Philosophy of social science: the methods, ideals, and politics of social inquiry by Michael Root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=w219QgAACAAJ"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Social Sciences, Byron Kaldis, SAGE, 2013\nPhilosophy of Social Science by Alexander Rosenberg\nThe Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction by Martin Hollis\nContemporary Philosophy of Social Science: A Multicultural Approach by Brian Fay\nPhilosophy of social science: the methods, ideals, and politics of social inquiry by Michael Root","title":"Bibliography"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majid_Majidi
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Majid Majidi
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["1 Biography","2 Filmography","2.1 Film","2.2 Shorts/documentaries","3 Awards","4 References","5 External links"]
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Iranian film director
Majid Majidiمجید مجیدیMajidi in 2020BornTalesh, IranOccupation(s)Director, producer, screenwriterYears active1981–presentNotable workChildren of HeavenThe Color of ParadiseMuhammad: The Messenger of GodChildren2Websitewww.cinemajidi.com
Majid Majidi (Persian: مجید مجیدی, romanized: Majīd Majīdī) is an Iranian filmmaker and producer. In his films, Majidi has touched on many themes and genres and has won numerous international awards.
Biography
Born in a Persian middle-class family, he grew up in Tehran and at the age of 14 he started acting in amateur theater groups. He then studied at the Institute of Dramatic Arts in Tehran.
After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, his interest in cinema brought him to act in various films, most notably Mohsen Makhmalbaf's Boycott in 1985.
In 1997, Majidi directed Children of Heaven, which was nominated to receive the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Though it lost to the Italian film Life Is Beautiful by Roberto Benigni, Children of Heaven is the first Iranian film to have been nominated by the academy.
Majidi has directed several other feature films since Children of Heaven: The Color of Paradise in 2000, Baran in 2001, and The Willow Tree in 2005 (alternative English title One Life More). He also recently directed a feature-length documentary titled Barefoot to Herat which chronicles life in refugee camps and the city of Herat during and after the anti-Taliban offensive of 2001.
In 2008, Majidi's acclaimed film The Song of Sparrows was the opening film of the Visakhapatnam International Film Festival in India.
Majidi was one of five international film directors invited by the Beijing government to create a documentary short film to introduce the city of Beijing, in preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics which was held in the Chinese capital; the project was titled "Vision Beijing".
Majidi pulled out of a Danish film festival in protest against the publication in Denmark of cartoons satirizing the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He stated that he was withdrawing "to protest against insulting any religious belief or icon".
Filmography
Director
Film
Year
Title
Notes
1992
Baduk
debut feature
1996
The Father (Pedar)
1997
Children of Heaven (Bacheha-ye Aseman)
1999
The Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda)
2001
Baran
Director and Producer
2005
The Willow Tree (Bid-e majnun)
Director, writer and Producer
2008
The Song of Sparrows (Avaz-e gonjeshk-ha)
2015
Muhammad: The Messenger of God
Director and writer
2017
Beyond the Clouds
2020
Sun Children
Director, writer and Producer
Shorts/documentaries
Explosion (Enfejar) (1981) - documentary short
Hoodaj (1984) - short
Examination Day (Rooz-e Emtehan) (1988) - short
A Day with POWs (Yek Rooz Ba Asiran) (1989) - documentary short
The Last Village (Akhareen Abadi) (1993) - short
God Will Come (Khoda Miayad) (1996) - short
Barefoot to Herat (Pa berahneh ta Herat) (2002) - documentary
Olympics in the Camp (Olympik Tu Urdugah) (2003) - documentary short
Peace, Love, and Friendship (2007) - documentary short
Vision of Beijing (2008) - short
Rezae Rezvan (2007) - documentary
Najva ashorai (2008) - documentary
Awards
This section of a biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately.Find sources: "Majid Majidi" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Grand Prix Des Amériques, 21st Montreal Film Festival, 1997
Ecumenical Jury award, 21st Montreal Film Festival, 1997
Nominated for Academy Awards for Best Foreign Film, 1998
Grand Prix Des Amériques, 23rd Montreal Film Festival, 1999
Grand Prix Des Amériques, 25th Montreal Film Festival, 2001
References
^ "Biography". Majid Majidi. Archived from the original on 31 October 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
^ "Art news in brief". Tehran Times. 23 October 2009.
^ Vision Beijing website Archived 24 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Film festival hit by cartoon row". BBC News. 24 March 2006.
^ "Shahid's brother Ishaan to work with Majid Majidi, AR Rahman for Beyond The Clouds". Hindustan Times. 23 January 2017.
^ "Majidi begins "Vision Beijing" shoot". 6 November 2006.
External links
Majid Majidi at IMDb
vteFilms directed by Majid Majidi
Baduk (1992)
The Father (1996)
Children of Heaven (1997)
The Color of Paradise (1999)
Baran (2001)
Barefoot to Herat (2002)
The Willow Tree (2005)
The Song of Sparrows (2008)
Muhammad: The Messenger of God (2015)
Beyond the Clouds (2017)
Sun Children (2020)
vteCrystal Simorgh for Best Director
Not Awarded (1983)
Khosrow Sinai (1984)
Yadollah Samadi (1985)
Kianoush Ayari (1986)
Abbas Kiarostami (1987)
Kianoush Ayari (1988)
Mohsen Makhmalbaf (1989)
Dariush Mehrjui (1990)
Varuzh Karim-Masihi (1991)
Rakhshan Bani-Etemad (1992)
Sirus Alvand (1993)
Mohammad Bozorgnia (1994)
Dariush Mehrjui (1995)
Kiumars Pourahmad (1996)
Majid Majidi (1997)
Ebrahim Hatamikia (1998)
Rasoul Mollagholipour (1999)
Bahman Farmanara (2000)
Majid Majidi (2001)
Rasul Sadr-Ameli (2002)
Reza Mirkarimi (2003)
Ahmad-Reza Darvish (2004)
Majid Majidi (2005)
Asghar Farhadi (2006)
Mohammad-Hossein Latifi/ Amir-Shahab Razavian (2007)
Majid Majidi (2008)
Asghar Farhadi (2009)
Ebrahim Hatamikia (2010)
Asghar Farhadi (2011)
Parviz Sheikhtadi (2012)
Parviz Shahbazi (2013)
Ahmad-Reza Darvish (2014)
Abolhassan Davoudi (2015)
Saeed Roustayi (2016)
Vahid Jalilvand (2017)
Ebrahim Hatamikia/ Bahram Tavakoli (2018)
Narges Abyar (2019)
Mohammad Hossein Mahdavian (2020)
Mehdi Jafari (2021)
Reza Mirkarimi (2022)
Mohammad Ali Bashe Ahangar (2023)
Behrouz Afkhami (2024)
vteCrystal Simorgh for Best Screenplay
Not Awarded (1983)
Alireza Davoodnejad and Ebrahim Makki (1984)
No winner (1985)
Majid Gharizadeh (1986)
Masoud Jafari Jozani (1987)
No winner (1988)
Mohsen Makhmalbaf (1989)
Dariush Mehrjui (1990)
Yadollah Samadi (1991)
Asghar Abdollahi and Hassan Gholizadeh (1992)
Dariush Mehrjui (1993)
Mohammad-Ali Talebi and Houshang Moradi Kermani (1994)
Rakhshan Bani-Etemad (1995)
Kamal Tabrizi and Reza Maghsoodi (1996)
Majid Majidi (1997)
Ebrahim Hatamikia (1998)
Tahmineh Milani (1999)
Khosrow Sinai and Hamid Farrokhnezhad (2000)
Bahram Beyzai (2001)
Kambuzia Partovi and Rasul Sadr-Ameli (2002)
Parviz Shahbazi (2003)
Peyman Ghasemkhani (2004)
Kambuzia Partovi (2005)
No winner (2006)
Rakhshan Bani-Etemad, Farid Mostafavi, Mohsen Abdolvahab and Naghmeh Samini (2007)
Shadmehr Rastin and Reza Mirkarimi (2008)
Abolhassan Davoodi and Farid Mostafavi (2009)
Homayoun Shahnavaz and Shahram Asadi (2010)
Asghar Farhadi (2011)
Mostafa Kiayee (2012)
Behnam Behzadi (2013)
Behrouz Afkhami (2014)
Roya Mohaghegh (2015)
Saeed Roustayi (2016)
Kambuzia Partovi (2017)
Kambuzia Partovi / Houman Seyyedi (2018)
Mohsen Gharaie and Mohammad Davoudi (2019)
Majid Majidi and Nima Javidi (2020)
Arsalan Amiri, Ida Panahandeh and Tahmineh Bahram (2021)
Kazem Daneshi (2022)
Babak Khajeh Pasha (2023)
No winner (2024)
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
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He stated that he was withdrawing \"to protest against insulting any religious belief or icon\".[4]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Director","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barefoot to Herat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barefoot_to_Herat_(film)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Shorts/documentaries","text":"Explosion (Enfejar) (1981) - documentary short\nHoodaj (1984) - short\nExamination Day (Rooz-e Emtehan) (1988) - short\nA Day with POWs (Yek Rooz Ba Asiran) (1989) - documentary short\nThe Last Village (Akhareen Abadi) (1993) - short\nGod Will Come (Khoda Miayad) (1996) - short\nBarefoot to Herat (Pa berahneh ta Herat) (2002) - documentary\nOlympics in the Camp (Olympik Tu Urdugah) (2003) - documentary short\nPeace, Love, and Friendship (2007) - documentary short\nVision of Beijing (2008) - short[6]\nRezae Rezvan (2007) - documentary\nNajva ashorai (2008) - documentary","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Academy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Awards"}],"text":"Grand Prix Des Amériques, 21st Montreal Film Festival, 1997\nEcumenical Jury award, 21st Montreal Film Festival, 1997\nNominated for Academy Awards for Best Foreign Film, 1998\nGrand Prix Des Amériques, 23rd Montreal Film Festival, 1999\nGrand Prix Des Amériques, 25th Montreal Film Festival, 2001","title":"Awards"}]
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